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Contents
10.1 Complex Arithmetic

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2 12 20 29

Complex Numbers m
o p 10.2 Argand Diagrams and the Polar Form s g o 10.3 The Exponential Form of a Complex Number l b . e 10.4 De Moivres Theorem z a r c k o o b e . w w w
Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn what a complex number is and how to combine complex numbers together using the familiar operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. You will also learn how to describe a complex number graphically using the Argand diagram. The connection between the exponential function and the trigonometric functions is explained. You will understand how De Moivre's theorem is used to obtain fractional powers of complex numbers.

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Complex Arithmetic
Introduction

10.1
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Complex numbers are used in many areas of engineering and science. In this Section we dene what a complex number is and explore how two such numbers may be combined together by adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. We also show how to nd complex roots of polynomial equations. A complex number is a generalisation of an ordinary real number. In fact, as we shall see, a complex number is a pair of real numbers ordered in a particular way. Fundamental to the study of complex numbers is the symbol i with the strange looking property i2 = 1. Apart from this property complex numbers follow the usual rules of number algebra.

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be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide real numbers be able to combine algebraic fractions together understand what a polynomial is have a knowledge of trigonometric identities combine complex numbers together

Prerequisites
Before starting this Section you should . . .
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Learning Outcomes
On completion you should be able to . . .
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nd the modulus and conjugate of a complex number obtain complex solutions to polynomial equations
HELM (2005): Workbook 10: Complex Numbers

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1. What is a complex number?
We assume that you are familiar with the properties of ordinary numbers; examples are 3 1, 2, , 2.634, 3.111, , e, 2 10 We all know how to add, subtract, multiply and divide such numbers. We are aware that the numbers can be positive or negative or zero and also aware of their geometrical interpretation as being represented by points on a real axis known as a number line (Figure 1).

Figure 1

The real axis is a line with a direction (usually chosen to be from left to right) indicated by an arrow. We shall refer to this as the x-axis. On this axis we select a point, arbitrarily, and refer to this as the origin O. The origin (where zero is located) distinguishes positive numbers from negative numbers: to the right of the origin are the positive numbers to the left of the origin are the negative numbers Thus we can locate the numbers in our example. See Figure 2.
3.111 2 3 10

From now on we shall refer to these ordinary numbers as real numbers. We can formalise the algebra of real numbers into a set of rules which they obey. So if x1 , x2 and x3 are any three real numbers then we know that, in particular: 1. x1 + x2 = x2 + x1 2. 1 x1 = x1

3. x1 x2 = x2 x1

Also, in multiplication we are familiar with the elementary rules: (positive) (positive) = positive (negative) (positive) = negative x2 0 in words, the square of a real number is always non-negative. In this Workbook we will consider a kind of number (a generalisation of a real number) whose square is not necessarily positive (and not necessarily real either). Dont worry that i does not exist. Because of that it is called imaginary! We just dene it and get on and use it and it then turns out to be very useful and important in many practical applications. However, it is important to get to know how to handle complex numbers before using them in calculations. This will not be dicult as
HELM (2005): Section 10.1: Complex Arithmetic

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Figure 2

x1 + (x2 + x3 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + x3

0 x1 = 0 x1 (x2 + x3 ) = x1 x2 + x1 x3 (positive) (negative) = negative (negative) (negative) = positive

It follows that if x represents any real number then

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the new set of rules is, in fact, precisely the same set of rules obeyed by the real numbers. These new numbers are called complex numbers. A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers, usually denoted by z or w etc. So if a, b are real numbers then we designate a complex number through: z = a + ib where i is a symbol obeying the rule i2 = 1 For simplicity we shall assume we can write i = 1.

(Often, particularly in engineering applications, the symbol j is used instead of i). Also note that, conventially, examples of actual complex numbers such as 2 + 3i are written like this and not 2 + i3. Again we ask the reader to accept matters at this stage without worrying about the meaning of nding the square root of a negative number. Using this notation we can write 4 = (4)(1) = 4 1 = 2i etc.

The symbol i is such that

Using the normal rules of algebra it follows that

and so on.

Simple examples of complex numbers are z1 = 3 + 2i z2 = 3 + (2.461)i z3 = 17i z4 = 3 + 0i = 3

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Key Point 1

i4 = i2 i2 = (1) (1) = 1

Generally, if z = a + ib then a is called the real part of z , or Re(z ) for short, and b is called the imaginary part of z or Im(z ). The fourth example indicates that the real numbers can be considered a subset of the complex numbers.

Key Point 2
If z = a + ib then Re(z ) = a and Im(z ) = b Both the real and imaginary parts of a complex number are real.

HELM (2005): Workbook 10: Complex Numbers

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Key Point 3
Two complex numbers z = a + ib and w = c + id are said to be equal if and only if both their real parts are the same and both their imaginary parts are the same, that is a=c and b=d

Key Point 4

The modulus of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted by |z | and is dened by |z | = a2 + b2 so that the modulus is always a non-negative real number.

Example 1

Solution

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If z = 3 2i then nd Re(z ), Im(z ) and |z |.

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Here Re(z ) = 3, Im(z ) = 2 and |z | =

32 + (2)2 =

13.

Complex conjugate
If z = a + ib is any complex number then the complex conjugate of z is denoted by z and is dened by z = a ib. (Sometimes the notation z is used instead of z to denote the conjugate). For example if z = 2 3i then z = 2 + 3i. If z is entirely real then z = z whereas if z is entirely imaginary then z = z . E.g. if z = 17i then z = 17i. In fact the following relationships are easily obtained: Re(z ) = z + z 2 and Im(z ) = i(z z ) 2 5

HELM (2005): Section 10.1: Complex Arithmetic

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Task

If z = 2 + i nd expressions for Re(z ) and Im(i(z z )).

Hint: rst nd z , z z, and i(z z ): Your solution

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Answer Re(z ) = 2 and Im(i(z z )) = 0

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Complex numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied and divided in much the same way as these operations are carried out for real numbers.

z w = {2 (4)} + {(3) 2}i = 6 5i

Multiplying one complex number by another

In multiplication we proceed using an obvious approach: again consider any two complex numbers z = a + ib and w = c + id. Then zw = (a + ib)(c + id) = ac + aid + ibc + i2 bd obtained in the usual way by multiplying all the terms in one bracket by all the terms in the other bracket. Now we use the fundamental relation i2 = 1 so that zw = ac + aid + ibc bd = ac bd + i(ad + bc) where we have re-grouped terms with the i symbol and terms without the i symbol separately. These are the real and imaginary parts of the product zw respectively. A numerical example will 6
HELM (2005): Workbook 10: Complex Numbers

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conrm the approach. If z = 2 3i and w = 4 + 2i then zw = = = = = (2 3i)(4 + 2i) 2(4) + 2(2i) 3i(4) 3i(2i) 8 + 4i + 12i 6i2 8 + 16i + 6 2 + 16i

Task

If z = 2 + i and w = 3 + 2i nd expressions for (a) z + 2w, (b) |z w| and (c) zw Your solution (a) Answer z + 2w = 4 + 5i

Your solution (b) Hint: you should nd that z w = 5 i Answer |z w| =

(5)2 + (1)2 =

Your solution (c)

Answer zw = 6 + 3i 4i + 2i2 = 8 i In general the square of a complex number is not necessarily a positive real number; it may not even be real at all. For example if z = 2 + i then z 2 = (2 + i)2 = 4 4i + i2 = 4 4i 1 = 3 4i However, the product of a complex number with its conjugate is always a non-negative real number. If z = a + ib then zz = = = = (a + ib)(a ib) a2 a(ib) + (ib)a i2 b2 a2 i 2 b 2 a2 + b 2 since i2 = 1 7

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HELM (2005): Section 10.1: Complex Arithmetic

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For example, if z = 2 + i then zz = (2 + i)(2 i) = 4 + 1 = 5

Task

Show, for any complex number z = a + ib that zz = |z |2 .

Your solution

Answer By denition |z | = a2 + b2 , so that |z |2 = a2 + b2 . Now zz = a2 + b2 so that zz = |z |2 .

Dividing one complex number by another

Here we consider the operation of dividing one complex number z = a + ib by another, w = c + id:

We wish to simplify the right-hand side into the standard form of a complex number (this is called the Cartesian form): (Real part) + i (Imaginary part) or the equivalent:

To do this we multiply top and bottom by the complex conjugate of the bottom (the denominator), that is, by c id (this is called rationalising): z a + ib a + ib c id = = w c + id c + id c id and then carry out the multiplication, top and bottom: z (ac + bd) + i(bc ad) = w c2 + d2 ac + bd bc ad = + i c2 + d2 c2 + d2 which is now in the required form. The reason for rationalising is to get a real number in the denominator since a complex number divided by a real number is easy to evaluate. 8
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(Real part) + (Imaginary part) i

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Example 2
Find

z if z = 2 3i and w = 2 + i. w

Solution 2 3i (2 3i) (2 i) z = = rationalising w 2+i (2 + i) (2 i) 4 3 + i(6 2) = multiplying out 4+1 1 8 i dividing through = 5 5

Task

If z = 3 i and w = 1 + 3i nd

Your solution

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9 + 7i (9 + 7i)(3 + 11i) 2z + 3w = = 2z 3w 3 11i (3 11i)(3 + 11i) = 27 77 + (21 + 99)i 9 + 121 120 5 12 50 + i= + i 130 130 13 13

HELM (2005): Section 10.1: Complex Arithmetic

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Exercises
1. If z = 2 i, w = 3 + 4i nd expressions (in standard Cartesian form) for z z (c) (d) (a) z 3w, (b) zw w w 2. Verify the following statements for general complex numbers z = a + ib and w = c + id z + z |z | z (c) Re(z ) = = (b) (zw) = z w (a) w |w| 2 3. Find z such that zz + 3(z z ) = 13 + 12i 2 5 11 1. (a) 7 13i (b) 2 11i (c) + i (d) 25 25 5 2. Note that since z z is imaginary then i(z z ) is real! Answers i(z z ) (d) Im(z ) = . 2

and then taking square roots: x = 16 = 4 1 = 4i where we are replacing 1 by the symbol i. This approach can be extended to the general quadratic equation b b2 4ac 2 with roots x= ax + bx + c = 0 2a so that for example, if 3x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 then solving for x: x = 4 4(3)(2) 2(3) 2 20 2 i 20 = = 6 6 2

t o p s g 3. Solutions of polynomial equations lo b . e z a r c k o o b e . w w w

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With the introduction of complex numbers we can now obtain solutions to those polynomial equations which may have real solutions, complex solutions or a combination of real and complex solutions. For example, the simple quadratic equation:

20 5 5 5 2 5 1 1 so, (as = = ), the two roots are + i and i. 6 6 3 3 3 3 3 In this example we see that the two solutions (roots) are complex conjugates of each other. In fact this will always be the case if the polynomial equation has real coecients: that is, if any complex roots occur they will always occur in complex conjugate pairs. 10
HELM (2005): Workbook 10: Complex Numbers

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Key Point 5
Complex roots to polynomial equations having real coecients always occur in complex conjugate pairs

Example 3

Given that x = 3 2i is one root of the cubic equation x3 7x2 + 19x 13 = 0 nd the other two roots.

Solution

Since the coecients of the equation are real and 3 2i is a root then its complex conjugate 3 + 2i is also a root which implies that x (3 2i) and x (3 + 2i) are factors of the given cubic expression. Multiplying together these two factors: (x (3 2i))(x (3 + 2i)) = x2 x(3 2i) x(3 + 2i) + 13 = x2 6x + 13 So x2 6x + 13 is a quadratic factor of the cubic equation. The remaining factor must take the form (x + a) where a is real, since only one more linear factor of the cubic equation is required, and so we write: x3 7x2 + 19x 13 = (x2 6x + 13)(x + a) By inspection (consider for example the constant terms), it is clear that a = 1 so that the nal factor is (x 1), implying that the original cubic equation has a root at x = 1.

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Exercises

1. Find the roots of the equation x2 + 2x + 2 = 0. 2. If i is one root of the cubic equation x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 = 0 nd the two other roots. 3. Find the complex number z if 2z + z + 3i + 2 = 0. 4. If z = cos + i sin show that Answers 1. x = 1 i z = cos 2 + i sin 2. z 2 3. 3i 3

2. i, 2

HELM (2005): Section 10.1: Complex Arithmetic

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