Department of Electrical Engineering

Electronic Systems
Sensing, Computing, Actuating
Sander Stuijk
([email protected])


2
THERMORESISTIVE SENSORS
AND ERROR SOURCES
(Chapter 2.1, 2.2, 4.14)


3
Engine coolant temperature sensor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q56k37FsRcA


4
Resistance
resistance of a material is defined as

resistance depends on temperature
number of free electrons (n)
mean time between collisions ()

resistive temperature detector (RTD)
temperature-resistance relation
is called the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)


TCR indicates relative change in
resistance per unit temperature
TCR is not equal to the sensitivity


i
V
R =
a
l
ne
m
a
l
R
t

2
= =
( )] 1 [
0 0
T T R R
T
+ = o
0 0
0
) ( R T T
R R
R
dT dR
T
T
T

= = o
PT100 RTD


5
Self-heating in RTDs
current must be passed through sensor to measure resistance
power will be dissipated in the RTD creating heat (self-heating)




effect of self-heating reduced by thermal dissipation to environment
heat dissipation factor (W/K) depends on
surrounding fluid
velocity of the fluid
temperature error given by

self-heating error can be limited by dimensioning the current I








R



I

P
D
= I
2
R

o o
R I P
T
D
2
= = A


6
Self-heating in RTDs
example PT100 sensor R(T)=R
0
[1+
0
(T-T
0
)]
R
0
= 100 ,
0
= 0.00389 (/)/K at 0C
sensor used in range [0C, +100C]
= 6 mW/K (in air), V
r
= 5 V, R
2
= 1 k
what is the maximal self-heating error (resolution) of this
sensor?
temperature PT100 above environment
current I depends on resistance R
1
and temperature T


maximal current when T = 0C, but minimal resistance
temperature error depends on power dissipation
maximal power dissipation when T = 100C
maximal self-heating error occurs when T = 100C

R
2
V
r
R
1
v
o
o o
1
2
R I P
T
D
= = A
( ) ( )
2 0 0 0 2 1
1 R T T R
V
R R
V
I
r r
+ +
=
+
=
o


7
Self-heating in RTDs
example PT100 sensor R(T)=R
0
[1+
0
(T-T
0
)]
R
0
= 100 ,
0
= 0.00389 (/)/K at 0C
sensor used in range [0C, +100C]
= 6 mW/K (in air), V
r
= 5 V, R
2
= 1 k
what is the maximal self-heating error (resolution) of this
sensor?
temperature PT100 above environment
maximal self-heating error occurs when T = 100C

R
2
V
r
R
1
v
o
o o
1 1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
R
R V
R
R
R R
V
T
r r
~
+ +
= A
( ) O =139 100 C R

C T

5 . 0 = A

o o
1
2
R I P
T
D
= = A

dominates when R
1
<< R
2


8
Lead-wire resistance
lead wires are not perfect conductors (lead-wire resistance)
resistance of the wires will affect measured voltage





temperature error due to lead-wire resistance when interface circuit
provides constant current i



example PT100
PT100 has resistance of 107.8 at 20C and = 0.389/K
assume R
L
= 1
T = +5.1C interface circuit measures temperature of 25C
measured temperature 25% above actual temperature


R
L
PT100
interface
circuit
sensor
i
R
L
V
out
V
PT100
100 2 PT R R
L
+ =
o
0
R
R
T
A
= A
L
R R 2 = A
o
0
2
R
R
T
L
= A

9
Lead-wire resistance
lead wires are not perfect conductors (lead-wire resistance)
resistance of the wires will affect measured voltage





lead wire resistance can be cancelled with 4-wire sensing method
interface circuit has high impedance






4-wire sensing method requires stable current source
6-wire sensing method can be used with stable voltage source


R
L
PT100
interface
circuit
sensor
i
R
L
V
out
V
PT100
R
L
PT100
interface
circuit
sensor
i=0
R
L
V
out
V
PT100
R
L
i
R
L
i=0
current
source
100 PT out
V V =
i R V V
L PT out
2
100
+ =


10
Summary - Resistive temperature detectors (RTDs)
temperature-resistance relation
is called the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR)


TCR indicates relative change in resistance per unit temperature
(between two reference temperatures)
TCR is not equal to the sensitivity

several error sources influencing accuracy
lead-wire resistance (R
L
)
self-heating (R
T
)
non-linearity (R
T
)
loading effect (R
m
)



( )] 1 [
0 0
T T R R
T
+ = o
0 0
0
) ( R T T
R R
R
dT dR
T
T
T

= = o
interface circuit
R
L
PT100
sensor
R
L
R
T Vr R
m


11
Interface circuits
interface circuits can be used to
increase sensor sensitivity
cancel lead-wire resistance
linearization of the sensor output
limit self-heating
compensate for error sources (e.g. strain or temperature)
set output voltage at reference point
amplify sensor output for use with AD-converter
...

V
out
+
-


12
Resistive sensors
resistance of resistive sensor
f(x) fractional change in resistance (with f(0) = 1)

resistance of linear resistive sensor
range of x depends on type of sensor
[-1, 0] linear potentiometer
[1, 10] RTDs
[0.00001

, 0.001] strain gauges
[1, 100] NTC thermistors
[1, 10000] switching PTC thermistors

requirements on signal conditioners for resistive sensors
electric voltage or current must be applied
supply and output voltage/current are limited by self-heating
) (
0
x f R R =
( ) x R R + = 1
0


13
resistive sensor connected to Norton equivalent circuit
sensor driven by current source

when does maximal self-heating error occur?
dissipation maximal when R is maximal

deflection measurement with current source
feedback loop enforces constant current


output of a linear sensor


choose R
0
= R
r
then
output consists of offset and (small) fluctuation around offset
Resistive sensors current excitation
r
r
r
R
V
I =
( ) x R
R
V
R I v
r
r
r o
+ = = 1
0
( )
r r r o
xV V x V v + = + = 1
R
o
R I
o
R
V
r
R
r
v
o
I
r
+
-


14
example circuit for temperature measurement [20C,100C]
measure temperature with 0.1C resolution (self-heating < 0.1C)
PT 100 sensor (R
0
=100 and =0.00389//K at 0C)
dissipation factor = 40mW/K in 0.4m/s water
reference voltage V
r
= 5V
what resistance should R
r
have to get a sensitivity of 1mV/C?
temperature resolution limited by self-heating


maximal dissipation at 100C, condition is thus




Resistive sensors current excitation
o
R I
r
2
T
R
R
V
r
r
A =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
o
2
C

1 . 0 <
) 1 . 0 (
100
C
R
V R
r r

>
o
( ) ( )
( )
O =
+ O =
+ =
9 . 138
100 00389 . 0 1 100
1
0 0 100
C
T T R R o
( ) O =

O
>

932
) 1 . 0 ( ) / 40 (
9 . 138
5
C K mW
V R
r

R
V
r
R
r
v
o
I
r
+
-


15
example circuit for temperature measurement [20C,100C]
measure temperature with 0.1C resolution (self-heating < 0.1C)
PT 100 sensor (R
0
=100 and =0.00389//K at 0C)
dissipation factor = 40mW/K in 0.4m/s water
reference voltage V
r
= 5V
what resistance should R
r
have to get a sensitivity of 1mV/C?
output voltage of the sensor


sensitivity is equal to



sensor output has also an offset (output not 0V at 20C)


Resistive sensors current excitation
( ) ( ) T R
R
V
x R
R
V
v
r
r
r
r
o
o + = + = 1 1
0 0
o
0
R
R
V
dT
dv
S
r
r o
= =
S
R V
R
r
r
o
0
= O =
O
= 1945
/ 1
) / 00389 . 0 )( 100 )( 5 (
K mV
K V
O = 8 . 107
20
R mV R
R
V
V
r
r
offset
277
20
~ =
R
V
r
R
r
v
o
I
r
+
-


16
Interface circuits
resistance of linear resistive sensor: R(x) = R
0
(1+x)
range of x depends on type of sensor

requirements on signal conditioners for resistive sensors
electric voltage or current must be applied
supply and output voltage/current are limited by self-heating

current excitation
maximal self-heating when R maximal
maximal sensitivity when R maximal

voltage excitation
when does maximal self-heating error occur?
when is sensitivity maximal?
when is non-linearity error minimized?
R
o
R I
o
V
o
R
o
R


17
Voltage divider self-heating error
sensor driven by voltage source
sensor: R
load resistance: R
r


when does maximal self-heating error occur?
power consumption by sensor


maximal power consumption occurs when


self-heating error is maximal when R
r
= R

power consumption is then equal to

R
r
V
r
R
v
o
R
R R
V
P
r
r
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
( )
2
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+

+
=
r
r
r
r
r
r
R R
V
R
R R
V
R R
V
dR
dP
r
r
r
r
R R
R R
R R
V
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
0 = R R
r
=
r
r
r
r r
r
R
V
R
R R
V
P
4
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=


18
Voltage divider self-heating error
example dimension voltage divider for temperature measurement
measure temperature from 0C to 100C
PT 100 sensor (R
0
=100 and =0.00389//K at 0C)
maximal power dissipation in sensor is 1mW
voltage source V
r
= 5V
what resistance R
r
must be used for this voltage divider?
power dissipation in sensor



maximal dissipation when R=R
r



sensor range is from 100 to 139
always R < R
r
, thus power dissipation always below limit
mW R
R R
V
r
r
1
2
<
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
mW R
R R
V
r
r r
r
1
2
<
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
W
V
R
r
r
001 . 0 2
2

>
( )
O =

= k
W
V
25 . 6
001 . 0 2
5
2
R
r
V
r
R
v
o


19
Voltage divider linearity
measure fractional change in resistance x
sensor: R = R
0
(1+x)
load resistance: R
r
= R
0
k

output voltage of the circuit


response becomes linear when R
r
>> R (i.e. k >> 1+x)



r
r
o
V
R R
R
v
+
=
r
V
x R k R
x R
) 1 (
) 1 (
0 0
0
+ +
+
=
r
V
x k
x
+ +
+
=
1
1
R
r
V
r
R
v
o


20
Voltage divider linearity
increasing k is good for linearity, but what about sensitivity?
|v
o
/V
r
|
x
k=0.1
k=1
k=10
k=100
R
r
V
r
R
v
o


21
Voltage divider sensitivity
measure fractional change in resistance x
sensor: R = R
0
(1+x)
load resistance: R
r
= R
0
k

sensitivity


maximal sensitivity




maximal sensitivity reached when R = R
r
same situation as when self-heating error is maximal
maximal transfer of power (at R = R
r
) leads to
maximal sensitivity and maximal self-heating
dx
dv
S
o
=
r r
V
x k
k
V
x k
x x k
2 2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 1 (
+ +
=
+ +
+ + +
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+
=
r
V
x k
x
dx
d
1
1
0 =
dk
dS
0
) 1 (
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

r
V
x k
k
dk
d
0
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 (
3 4
2
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+ + + +

x k
k x
x k
x k k x k
1 + = x k
R
r
V
r
R
v
o
( )
2
) (
) ( ' ) ( ) ( ) ( '
) (
) (
x h
x h x j x h x j
x h
x j
dx
d
=
use quotient rule


22
Voltage divider sensitivity and linearity
for many sensors x < 1
sensitivity largest for k = 1
sensitivity may be considered constant if maximal value of x << 1
R
r
V
r
R
v
o
S
x
k=0.1
k=1
k=10
k=100


23
Voltage divider output voltage
maximal sensitivity when k = 1
output voltage











offset voltage present in output


R
r
V
r
R
v
o
r r o
V
x
x
V
x k
x
v
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
2
1
1
1