Sociology of Health & Illness Vol. 33 No. 4 2011 ISSN 01419889, pp. 602617 doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9566.2010.01302.

The violence of disablism Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

Abstract

This article addresses the multi-faceted nature of violence in the lives of disabled people, with a specic focus on the accounts of disabled children and their families. Traditionally, when violence and disability have been considered together, this has emphasised the disabled subject whom inevitably exhibits violent challenging behaviour. Recently, however, more attention has been paid to violence experienced by disabled people, most notably in relation to hate crime. This article embraces theories that do not put the problems of disablism or violence back onto disabled people but magnify and expose processes of disablism that are produced in the relationships between people, which sometimes involve violence. This, we argue, means taking seriously the role of social relationships, institutions and culture in the constitution of violence. Disabled children, we argue, are enculturated by the violence of disablism. We follow iz Z eks advice to step back from the obvious signals of violence to perceive the contours of the background which generates such outbursts, and identify four elements of the violence of disablism which we dene as real, psychoemotional, systemic and cultural. We come to the conclusion that violence experienced by disabled children and their families says more about the dominant culture of disablism than it does of the acts of a few seemingly irrational, unreasonable, mean or violent individuals. We conclude that there is a need for extensive cultural deconstruction and reformation.

Keywords: violence, disablism, children, culture

Introduction This article explores the multi-faceted nature of violence in the lives of disabled people, with a specic focus on the accounts of disabled children and their families. We start this article with three stories from a project: Its nding the people [to look after him] that could actually physically cope with my son. Because if he doesnt co-operate you have to manhandle him, to get him out of the door and, you know, hell be punching you, kicking you (Roberta). My daughter has a good line in hand-biting and hitting people which really upsets the escort on the mini bus. I think at some point, if she actually manages to get the escort, I think hell say, Im not having that child on my bus ever again (Shelley).
2011 The Authors. Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA

The violence of disablism

603

I had to restrain my son and he wasnt very happy about that and so he started hitting me. I was seeing stars and and my daughter was bright enough to phone the cops again (Jane). These accounts appear to support the idea that, for some disabled children at least, violence and impairment are knotted together as a pathological whole. This version of the mad bad disabled body is not simply a well worn cultural trope to be found in popular cultural images (see Mitchell and Snyder 2006), but testimony to the dominance of a particular philosophy or epistemology of disability discourse. What is immediately apparent when one starts to research violence and disability is the dominance of functionalism. As Goodley (2010) notes early social and cultural theories of disability were heavily inuenced by the structuralfunctionalist sociologist Parsons (1951), who saw the coherence of the social system as analogous to a biological system a system of social structures interacting and co-existing as a consensual web of relationships (Thomas 2007: 1617). Functionalism views disability as a product of a damaged body or mind that, struggles to escape the pitfalls of essentialism and biological determinism (Donaldson 2002: 112). Functionalism is a position that emphasises the consensual nature of society; it starts and ends with decient individuals and the maintenance of these individuals and the social order. In this sense, then, we could argue that functionalism underpins ableism: the social, cultural and political conditions of contemporary life that emphasise ability and denigrate disability. Campbell argues that disabled people are pathologised through the production, operation and maintenance of ableist-normativity (Campbell 2008: 1). Functionalism serves to maintain the ableist consensus through the othering of disabled people. Following Donaldson (2002: 112), disabled people are discharged from the functionalist clinical episteme as pathological, problem-infused victims who must place themselves in the hands of authorities such as medicine in order to follow illness management regimes. Consequently, good patients disabled people are deferent, dependent, compliant and non-violent (Greenop 2009). This dual assessment of problem and compliance to treatment ensures that huge disability industries have grown in the service of functionalism. Medicalisation, psychological therapies and specialist educational interventions have spiraled in terms of their application in the lives of disabled people. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, Journal of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour all have published papers that seek to understand, rehabilitate and cure the awed and impaired individual. A recurring theme within all these publications is a common functionalist trope: the disabled subject that inevitably exhibits challenging behaviour often manifesting itself through violence. Indeed, one could view our accounts presented above as evidence for the hostile and handicapped disabled subject. Some more critical appraisals of challenging behaviour have depicted this phenomenon as a tragic and secondary handicap of living with an impairment (Sinason 1992). These accounts attempt to spin a sociological explanation about the violence of disabled people. They would understand hitting out and biting, exhibited by Shelleys daughter, as less the functionalist consequence of having an impairment and more a maladaptive response to living with impairment and the associated experiences of professional control, segregation and parental protection. Violence occurs at the intersections of impairment and environment and might be understood as frustration, learned helplessness or attempts to communicate. Moreover, the accounts presented above, might be understood as examples of justied anger that boil over in social environments which, more often than not, exclude disabled children. While we welcome these more critical reviews, this article seeks to do something different. We understand impairment as a biological, cognitive, sensory or psychological difference
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

604

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

that is framed often within a medical context and disability as the negative social reaction to those differences (Sherry 2007: 10). We understand disablism, following Thomas (2007: 73), as a form of social oppression involving the social imposition of restrictions of activity on people with impairments and the socially engendered undermining of their psycho-emotional well being. It is our contention that violence and disability can only be understood in the contemporary culture of disablism. Our aim, then, is not to individualise explanations for violence and place these within the disabled individual nor to consider violence as secondary handicaps but to choose action with respect to the real source of conict that is, towards social structures (Fanon 1993: 100). We aim to embrace theories that do not put the problems of disablism or violence back onto disabled people but magnify and expose processes of disablism that are produced in the relationships between people. This means taking seriously the role of institutions, culture and social relationships in the constitution of violence. Disabled children, we argue, are enculturated into the violence of disablism. This article is timely in light of growing media reports of violence against disabled adults and children (Sherry 2000, 2010). At its most extreme, violence against disabled people results in hate crime, a socio-political act that is nally being acknowledged. A number of high prole cases of disabled adults and young people1 led the disability studies scholar Tom Shakespeare to write: David Askews tragedy follows the deaths of Raymond Atherton, Rikki Judkins Fiona Pilkington, Christine Lakinski over the last few years. Each of these individuals was targeted because they were vulnerable and disabled, exploited, humiliated, and nally killed. Looking again at the evidence, and thinking more deeply about the problem, I realise how mistaken I was to trivialise hate crime. Its not just a matter of bullying. Its not something that people can just ignore or laugh off. It is a scourge on our society. We are members of a community where the most vulnerable people live in fear of their lives and where they are being terried on a daily basis by the bored or the loutish or the dispossessed. I think my mental block arose because I did not want to believe that human beings could be so vile. I was wrong (Shakespeare 2010, unpaginated). Shakespeares reexive account captures the multi-faceted nature of the violence of disablism. He asks, when does hate crime begin and bullying stop? How can we separate ignorance and hatred? Is violence against disabled people deeply ingrained in the psyches, social relationships and cultural practices of members of contemporary society? In this article we consider the ways in which violence against disabled people specically children and their families reects a trenchant dimension of culture; in this case disablist culture. Drawing, in iz part, on Z eks (2008) book Violence, we come to the conclusion that violence experienced by disabled children and their families says more about the dominant culture of disablism, and its effects upon the subjectivities of people, than it does of the acts of a few seemingly irrational, mad, bad or mean violent individuals. Those that enact violence against disabled children should be understood in ways that recognise that the being of people is a socio iz symbolic or culturally formed being (Z ek 2008: 62). Disabled people experience violence because of contemporary societys deeply held contradictory discourses about dis ability. While Shakespeare (2010), did not want to think that the protagonists of hate crime could be so vile, we did not want to think that acts against disabled children reected common circulating practices of a contemporary culture of disablism. Sadly, accounts from our research suggest that we were wrong.
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

605

Methodology To address the violence of disablism we explore the accounts of parents of disabled children. Their accounts have been collected as part of a project funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (RES 062-23-1138) (http://www.rihsc.mmu.ac.uk/postblairproject/): Does every child matter, Post-Blair: Interconnections of disabled childhoods. We aim to understand what it means to be a disabled child growing up in England. The study is based in the north of England and runs from September 2008April 2011. The participants include disabled children aged 416, their parents carers and professionals who work with disabled children, including teachers, third sector workers, health workers and social workers. The data for this article, however, were gathered primarily from interviews with twenty parents carers of disabled children and ethnographic research on the community lives of disabled children. The interviews were open-ended and covered a range of issues including families experiences of health, social care, education and leisure. Children had a range of impairment labels including autism, cerebral palsy, developmental disability, Downs syndrome, achondroplasia, profound and multiple learning disability and epilepsy. The ethnography involved one of the authors (Katherine), attending childrens birthday parties, bowling, shopping with families. She was also invited to impairment-specic leisure activities, including an autism specic social club, parent groups, and user consultation meetings set up by local authorities, services and professionals to access the views of families. A few of the families involved in the interviews were also involved in the ethnography, but the latter was extended to include different children and their families. Finally, our research also included focus group interviews with professionals ranging from teachers, social workers, speech pathologists, advocates, and leisure providers. In the course of the analysis we visited and revisited the data to search for themes (Snow et al. 2004), with two emphases in mind: (i) to search for accounts of violence; and (ii) to seek rich data: that speak of the lives of disabled children and their families. We feel it important to out ourselves at this point in the article. One of us (Katherine) is a mother of a disabled child. The other (Dan) is also a parent and has worked alongside disabled people with the label of learning difculties who are engaged in their own politicisation through their membership of a self-advocacy group. These experiences have, we feel, alerted us to some of the daily experiences of discrimination faced by disabled people. Before the project, we both shared the view that disablism is rife in our socio-cultural contexts. Our view has been clearly and tragically supported by our research. We want to acknowledge that we feel tensions in telling stories about violence. We worry that these accounts might feed into a voyeuristic interest in the tragic stories of disability. We are, also, anxious that in writing a research article we are in danger of domesticating or objectifying very real stories of oppression. However, our attempts to take seriously the violence of disablism reveals deeply held cultural discourses around disability that require not only our attention, but also our response.

Analysis In the article we explore four types of violence; real, psychoemotional, systemic and cultural. Each of these overlap with one another in ways that are correlated with three broad elements of disablism: the psyche, society and culture (Goodley 2010: 2). The psychological experience of violence acknowledges the complex ways in which the social and cultural world is produced through individuals. The psyche recognises the tight knot of the person and the
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

606

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

social word, the self and other people, the individual and society. Societal and cultural forms of violence are reproduced through processes of domination, ideology and oppression that shape the inner world of our psyches. Cultural, social and psychical forms of violence against disabled people reect often subtle, mundane and everyday encounters with disablism.

Real violence Shes had her moments, she got bullied by a girl on the school bus, they pinned her down and were putting tampons in her mouth but you know you dont always get the, but then I think well you cant ght against that can you? We stuck out on the bus a bit longer and then I thought no, so thats why we give her the lift (Lesley). Because the thing that weve had with his school now, they dont tell any staff hes actually been physically assaulted by a lunchtime supervisor and she [the supervisor] thought hed been bullying her granddaughter, she hit him in the dining hall and said shed bloody kill him next time (Gayle). The youth worker called me into her ofce. She looked dreadful, shocked. Eventually she told me that there had been an incident in the toilet. A group of girls had been teasing Isobel and they tried to get her to lick the toilet seat. There was a rumour that the whole thing had been videoed on a camera phone and posted on You Tube (Alex). [The teacher] made Andrew participate with this lady in this event and he was absolutely screaming and tugging and I felt as a parent I wanted to be in there saying dont do this to my child, but part of me was thinking thats going to be seen as very reactive, and whats everybody else going to think and it is only a two minute situation. But that to me gave me a greater take on possibly what had been going on in the months prior to that (Lucy). Lucy suspected that what she had seen in the assembly was the tip of the iceberg. She wondered what had gone on when she wasnt there and was worried because she knew her son, who has a communication impairment, would not have been able to tell her (Katherines ethnographic comments on Lucys interview). These accounts sadly conrm that the disabled body is, often, an easy target for what we might term real physical violence of non-disabled others. Alongside the numerous examples of hate crime documented by scholars such as Sherry (2010), we know too that between 1 3 and 1 10 of the disabled population have been sexually abused at some point in their lives (Brown and Craft 1989). Real violence is experienced physically and psychologically. We appropriate the term real here from psychoanalysis; specically Lacanian theory (Lacan 1977). The real of violence is an embodied encounter: of pain inicted by one body on another. What we read here are real physical encounters with violence; pain, humiliation and, we could suggest, torture. Perhaps we also have evidence for violence enacted by evil people; who are prepared to denigrate disabled children. However, for Lacan, while the real of esh and bones might feel like the pre-discursive the embodied, tangible, somatic individual outside of culture we come to touch or feel the real through culture. The body is a cultural body and the physical act of violence is felt and interpreted through our relationships with others. Behind these real violent encounters described above are the socio-cultural conditions of disablism and their psychoemotional concomitants. Our sense is that it is too easy to
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

607

relegate violence to the real acts of a few bad people. There are wider discourses and cultural conditions at play behind these real acts of violence. These conditions are of equal interest to us in our analysis of disablism. While, of course, we do not want to denigrate the feelings of the physical pain of violence which feels very real our commitment to an analysis of disablism means that we are interested in the wider socio-cultural and political factors that promote such real violence against disabled people. We recognise that there are practical, intellectual and ethical dangers in this analytical turn to the possible socio-cultural foundations of violence. Such a turn might be seen as negating the varying impact of violence upon victims while ignoring issues of intent and agency on the part of those enacting violence. However, if we accept that disablism exists, and that violence might be one of its manifestations, then we believe it is necessary to engage with social and cultural formations that permit forms of real violence against disabled people. iz We follow Z eks (2008: 1) advice to step back from the obvious signals of violence to perceive the contours of the background which generates such outbursts. To look only at iz real physical violence obliterates from view the more subtle forms of violence (Z ek 2008: 9), that characterise societys encounters with disabled children and their families. Violent acts against disabled people can only be understood by reecting on the wider circulating practices of a disablist culture.

Psycho-emotional violence Critical disability studies have engaged with the psychological and affective aspects of disablism. In Britain, the work of Thomas (1999, 2007) and Reeve (2002, 2008), has crucially intervened in materialist sociological accounts of disablism by drawing attention to the barriers in here experienced by disabled people (Reeve 2008: 1). Against a wide understanding of structural inequalities, psycho-emotional disablism interrogates the experiences between disabled people and disabling society. This interrogation has identied direct and indirect forms of discrimination: Direct forms can be found in discriminatory interactions, acts of invalidation, patronising responses of others and hate crimes such as the destruction of group symbols and hate literature (Sherry 2000, 2010). Recent crime statistics from Britain suggest that 25% of disabled people report being victimised (Roulstone and Balderston 2009). Indirect forms may be due to the side effects of structural disablism or unintended actions, words or deeds. The psycho-emotional refers to the impact of these ingredients of disablism on the ontological security or condence of disabled people (Thomas 1999). A key psychic reaction to such hostility is internalised oppression: the re-injuring of self through internalising discriminatory values (Marks 1999), lowering self-worth and lessening a sense of intrinsic value (Thomas 2007) (Goodley 2010: 90). iz Z ek (2008: 60) describes this as ontic violence: a violence against being or existence: there is a direct link between ontological violence and the texture of social violence (of sustaining iz relations and enforced domination) (Z ek 2008: 61). Interpersonal forms of violence iz threaten to determine the very being and social existence of the interpreted subject (Z ek 2008: 62). The following narratives represent, for us, potent examples of psycho-emotional or ontic violence:

2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

608

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

The administrators of the Facebook page for supporters of the Every Disabled Child Matters campaign (see http://www.edcm.org.uk for details of the campaign), have twice had to remove comments from the page full of hatred towards disabled children and their families. Although the comments have been removed swiftly and the people who made them reported and banned from Facebook, it is hard to understand why someone would feel the need to take the time to join as a fan of the campaign and write an offensive message on the wall of the site. (Katherines ethnographic notes) So they [autism outreach teachers] went in with, you know the suggestions of how to do this and one of the things was, Well it becomes apparent that we dont understand when Sams distressed or upset or anxious, maybe if we introduced a one to ve scale, thats a simple way that he can communicate to us that hes feeling stressed. How did it go? Sam told the learning mentor he was at four and was approaching ve, her response was, Well how do you think I feel? Im at a ten. Can you believe that? I honestly I nearly died when he told me. I was just speechless and he was like, Are you alright mum? and I said, Ill be ne, just give me a minute (Gayle). The learning mentors response foregrounds her own ontological needs, and positions Sam as a burden or stress trigger point. As enemies of the normate homelands of schools (Michalko 2002), disabled children are often made to exist as outliers and aliens that threaten that homeland. We can only speculate about the impacts of such a reaction on Sam and his mother. One possibility is that such a disablist response threatens to inict, following Marks (1999), ontological invalidation of Sam. His emotions are not only ignored but his very being is invalidated by the learning mentor who puts her own self rst (Well how do you think I feel? Sally told us). They [social workers] said I was doing my masters and I shouldnt do my masters and I should look after him [Sallys son]. And they said he was going to school and Id access some respite provision when he went to school. They said he was too young that he should be staying in a parents care (Sally). The underlying expectations held by social care professionals about this mother reect discourses of good enough mothering (whatever that might be), assumptions that a disabled child requires 24 hour full time care (preferably enacted by the mother only), and the valuing of feminised care over more selsh ambitions of educational status on the part of the iz mother. Following Z eks earlier observation, the mother is both interpreted and determined through professional discourse. This captures the asymmetrical character to intersubjectivity iz there is never a balanced reciprocity in my encountering the subject (Z ek 2008: 53). [As part of a social services assessment] I had to describe Henry as autistic I told them he has an IQ of 49. I had to explain that he couldnt do things that other children his age can do, that we cant leave him on his own, that he cant organise himself to get a meal, that he still needs help with his personal care, including washing his hair and wiping his bum, that we have to take him everywhere with us and that sometimes he doesnt want to go. She started to type he cant do things that normal fourteen year olds can do. I said, I didnt say that he isnt normal. She apologised and said she didnt mean that, she meant average (Imogen).

2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

609

In the formalised routine of professional assessment this mother is incited to articulate an abnormal version of her child. Parents have reported to us many times that often it is less effort and more convenient to explain their childrens health, demeanour, comportment or behaviour in terms of culturally acceptable disability discourses than to offer more enabling alternatives. While parents do resist as we can see in this account above it is often easy to explain away the ontological make-up of their children in terms of sticky labels such as oh, hes being autistic or forgive him, hes ADHD or its his impairment, because these are culturally acceptable and expected ways of describing the ontologies of disabled children. Indeed, as Reeve (2002, 2008) and Thomas (1997, 2007) have noted, these cultural discourses (out there in the social world) inform internalised conversations about disability (in there of the psychological worlds of disabled children and their families). These cultural expectations threaten to promote ontological attacks on disabled people: viciously othering and marking the beings of disabled children and their families. The responses of non-disabled others to disabled children and their families described in the accounts above are not responses of demonic, violent, bad nor evil others. They are responses perfectly compatible with a culture of disablism that pathologises difference, individualises impairment and maintains ableism. This culture appears to equate proper care for disabled children with that of full time mothering. This culture places educational, health and social care professionals who work with disabled children in often low paid, high pressured and exacting conditions of employment. This culture has clear sight of what makes for normal childhood and what constitutes abnormality. Our view, then, is that these accounts of psychoemotional violence iz take place in cultures and systems. We follow Z eks (2008: 53) point that attending only to subjective violence enacted by social agents or evil individuals ignores the more systemic roots of violence. We move our analysis up a notch to systemic violence.

Systemic violence Systemic violence is the often catastrophic consequences of the smooth functioning of our economic and political systems Were talking here of the violence inherent in a system: not only of direct physical violence, but also the more subtle forms of coercion that sustain iz relations of domination: including the threat of violence (Z ek 2008: 18). Unsurprisingly, many of the accounts of parents and encounters with children involved schools. Within these institutional systems disabled children are subjected to what many teachers like to refer to as the coal-face of education: the (grim) practical realities of mass schooling. Schools are highly stressful systems: subjected to league tables, children to endless tests, teachers to inspection. McLaren (2009) observes that the nationalisation of curricula across schools not only allows comparison between schools, teachers and pupils on their efforts in science, maths and literacy, but seeks to promote key skills in learners to be t for advanced capitalist societies. Educational systems have therefore become increasingly folded into a market ideology that, as Barton (2004: 64) observes, seeks to promote cost effectiveness, efciency, and value for money leading to more competition, selection and social divisions. School systems have become infected by New Right or neoliberal thinking which is tuned into individualistic understanding of human behaviour and achievement (Munford 1994: 273); cherishing self-interest, self-contentment, selshness and distrust (Ballard 2004): this dance of capital, which pursues its goal of protability in blessed indifference to how its iz movement will affect social reality (Z ek 2008: 11). When children are deemed decient,
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

610

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

difcult or objectionable then they threaten these cherished ideals of education and the performativity of the school. We have collected accounts of childrens experiences of mainstream and special schools. Clearly, those children included in mainstream settings were subjected to the rigours of marketisation. To some extents, the same could be said about special schools, which also increasingly face surveillance and performance management (Wedell 2008). Across the different kinds of provision were responses to disabled children which might be understood iz as examples of systemic violence. Z eks (2008) conceptualisation of this phenomenon directs us to the fall-out that is created by institutional systems that seek order in the name of those systems. And, when the aims and meaning of education are couched in terms of accountability, achievement, reasonableness and containment all key artifacts of the marketisation of education then disabled children face the violence of educational iz enforcement; inherent in the system (Z ek 2008: 5; emphasis added). My experience of school going to the Christmas concert I saw similarly what Id seen in nursery in that Andrew was dragged by the hand into the hall sat down and it was just like the naughty child really. I felt as a parent I wanted to be in there saying dont do that to my child. You expect that people in educational establishments and with that sort of training wouldnt be doing these kinds of things and again from a parents perspective you dont always feel comfortable with going in all the time, because you know you are classied as the parent who is always (Lucy). Lining up, sitting nicely and always putting your hand up before you speak, represent the regimented nature of schools. Andrew is an unruly child who threatens to disrupt the smoothing practices of schools which promote the idealised image of a conforming child. While we accept the need for schools to be safe and calm places, it is perhaps ironic that the actions of the unruly professional, who drags Andrew into the hall, escapes scrutiny while childrens unruly acts are all too often presented as evidence of their violent pathology. In this account we hear the constraining nature of the ordering of educational system on the child, parent and the professionals alongside the expectation that good professionals should behave iz better. This contradiction is at the heart of Z eks notion of systemic violence which views violence as part of the maintenance of the system. The manhandling of the child into the hall is a direct product of a school system that requires regulation, governance and control. One should expect to see educational professionals doing these kinds of things because educational professionals must act in such ways to t the rigidity of systemic rituals. For example: Kamil grabs another child with a hand covered in paint. The TA [teaching assistant], grabs him by the forearm and drags him to the corner of the room saying No! No! and tells him it is not funny and not to smile. Kamil wanders around the room not involved in the painting activity, eventually he decides to join in the activity and sits down to take a paint brush. The teaching assistant takes it out of his hand (there is a minor struggle) and says paint nished and gives him a coloured pencil instead. He loses interest and leaves the table again and begins to wander about the classroom (Katherines ethnographic notes). iz Following Z ek (2008: 11) violence against disabled children is real because it is felt, it hurts and it is wrong. But systems, such as schools, are more interested in the reality of the production of the system which may indeed lead to the threat of exclusion, movement and physical touch. Families experienced a plethora of educational systems ranging from family
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

611

and childrens centres, through to parenting classes and child development centres, each with their own systemic requirements: We were going to the [child development centre] for sessions every Thursday, they were just horrendous. Oh, I hated them. They did things like put you in a room on your own with your child and they have a two way mirror and I knew, I knew that they were doing that, but they thought they wouldnt tell me, but I knew someone who worked there, so they didnt tell me they were there (Lesley). At times these systems got under the skins of parents and their children: to their very emotions: The school made another parents life hell, I mean she cried all the time, she was constantly, and I wouldnt I was determined I was not going to cry. I was scared to cry. I think if Id started I wouldnt have been able to stop. So I just totally pushed all emotions, you know it was just ght, ght, ght all the time (Lesley). The systemic and the affective combine with one another for expression. Fighting the system is a phrase that we have heard time and time again in our research. The very workings of systems ensure that possible antecedents of real violence are never addressed: And the scary thing is that on occasion Sams been in trouble for kicking somebody or pummelling somebody: Well why did you do that Sam? Oh, because they [other pupils] told me to do it. And this is, you know, this is a whole area that absolutely terries the life out of me, because no matter how many times I go to school and say, Sam does not come from a violent family, he doesnt see violence, hes not exposed to violence, so if he actually does physically hurt somebody, when you say to him, Sam, did you do that? hes got Aspergers, he doesnt really lie, his brain doesnt work like that, he cant string together a whole story to throw us off the scent. He will say, Yes, I hit whoever it was. And please could you take another two seconds to say, Why did you do it? Because they never do (Gayle). iz We can read this story of Sam alongside Z eks controversial though illuminating analysis of paedophilia in the church. He argues that, rather than regarding child sexual abuse as the actions of a few evil clergymen, we should view child sexual abuse as institutionalised within the church: such an institutional unconscious designates the obscene underside that sustains iz the public institution (Z ek 2008: 142). Hence, the church as an institution should itself be investigated with regard to the ways it systematically creates conditions for such crimes iz (Z ek 2008: 143). When we see these crimes against children we see children being initiated into the culture of the church showing the obscene pleasures that sustain that culture iz iz (Z ek 2008: 143). Z eks point is simple: the consistent, historical and widespread evidence of child sexual abuse in the church reveals obscene pleasures that have become institutionalised and systemic. Following this, then, it is possible to view systemic violence against disabled children as revealing more about the underlying barbarism of civilisation iz (Z ek 2008: 150) of schools. Violence against disabled children reects a wider systemic intolerance for disabled, disruptive, unruly and different children. Their continued exclusion, discrimination and marginalisation is akin to being initiated into the exclusionary systems of schooling. Similar things could be said about the exclusionary nature of the institutionalised unconscious of schools. Indeed, we could argue that the exclusion of
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

612

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

disabled children their initiation in the culture of schools takes on a particular avour in light of the fact that many schools uphold themselves as inclusive. This could be read as the ultimate (and perhaps most barbaric) version of inclusion: an example of a superego of blackmail of gigantic proportions that claims to help the undeveloped with aids, credits, etc., iz while ignoring its complicity in the development of exclusionary practices (Z ek 2008: 19). Clearly these examples reect underlying cultural values and practices which legitimise systemic acts of violence, and it is the concept of cultural violence that underpins our nal node of analysis.

Cultural violence We have now come to the roots of the violence of disablism already described in this article. Underpinning the real, psychoemotional and systemic acts of violence against disabled children is the cultural violence of disablism. It is possible to draw on Burmans (2008: 157) critical analysis of child childhood to suggest that disabled children violate the model of the happy, playing, discovering child. In some cases this may mean that the disabled child ceases to exist as a child in terms of dominant cultural notions of childhood and instead functions in order to restore our sense of ourselves and the world we want (Burman 2008: 159). Disabled children are brought together as a specic cultural site: the dumping ground for the projection of non-disabled societys fears of illness, frailty, incapacity and mortality (Shakespeare 1997). Goodley points to the cultural fetishisation of disabled bodies: Broadly speaking a fetish is that which we (mis) believe will sate our desires. In capitalist societies, the process of fetishisation describes the values that we inhere in objects or commodities that they do not intrinsically have. Fetishistic culture imbues objects with value (from sculpted pecs, to expensive wine, the latest iPhone, to pathological children and uncivilised nations). The disabled body is also a fetishised object, onto which are conferred a whole host of (unconscious), values that sate a variety of values (Goodley 2010: 100). Disabled bodies are fetishised in a host of contradictory ways; as vulnerable, dependent, broken, tragic, exotic, uber-different, pathological, violent: The unfortunate person is assumed to have wonderful and exceptional courage (although underneath this overt canonisation there is usually a degree of irritation and hostility which comes to light at moments of stress) (Hunt 1966: 148). Hunts reections capture the cultural disavowal (Goodley forthcoming), of disablism: a fascination with and fear of disabled people; staring at and staring through; loving and hating; an appealing and appalling sight. Disabling cultures ambivalent relationship with disability ensures that disabled people are split between contradictory positions: iz desired rejected in equal measure. Z ek (2008: 71) proclaims that it is only psychoanalysis that can disclose the full contours of the shattering impact of modernity that is, capitalism combined with the hegemony of scientic discourse on the way our identity is grounded in symbolic identications. While we are not totally seduced by the power of psychoanalysis (and are more than aware of its pathological, conservative and reactionary tendencies, see iz Goodley 2010, forthcoming), we do share Z eks belief that psychoanalytic concepts can be used to make sense of the cultural violence experienced by disabled people which are based in
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

613

iz large part on a disavowal of the disabled person. Z ek argues that resentment and envy underpin even some of the most extreme forms of violence, such as fundamentalist religious acts of terror, revealing themselves to be resentment towards, but also envy of, their foes. iz Following Z ek, our attention should be less on these obvious forms of violence and more on the contradictions ingrained within the cultural psyche that continues to envy and resent disabled people in ways that leave them split as subjects and outcasts as cultural members. The following accounts reect examples of cultural disavowal, which are often rendered invisible or mundane through the frequency of such events and their subsequent familiarity. You nd an aisle [in the supermarket] big enough [for a wheelchair] and then theyve stuck a bargain bin in the middle of it. And on top of that youve got people looking, well I dont mind the looking it is the staring and youve got people staring and then theres children saying whats that big boy doing in a buggy, mummy? I dont know, darling. Instead of saying there might be something wrong with him and then walking off it is well lets not confront it, it is too awful. And I feel like saying, well thats my life, you know. But going to town with Laurie makes me this person Im actually not (Steph). Becoming the person Im actually not powerfully relays the personal impact of a mothers anguish in being hit with the disavowal of a disabling community. We also went on a train ride, at a kiddies animal park thing and I took my nephew, my sister-in-law and Hattie and myself and I handed over the 50ps and he [fairground attendant] gave me 50 p back and I said no, no its alright thats the right money and he said it is alright sweetheart, he said I never charge for retards (Lesley). Here is the disavowal of disablism: the pathological hate object that is also loved to access free leisure activities. We might suggest that here we have a case of the disabled child so iz disavowed by the fairground attendant that, as Z ek (2008: 48) puts it quoting Gilles Deleuze, if youre trapped in the dream of the other: youre fucked. One mother who has a child with the label of Downs syndrome told us that people had stopped her in the street when she was with her daughter pushing her in the push chair and asked, didnt you have the test? Natalie was also asked did you know they were going to be disabled before you had them? She thought that people were trying to gauge how sorry they felt for her if she knew, before her daughter was born that she would be disabled the implication was that she was less deserving of their pity. Because disavowal is a contradictory act then a culture of disablism acts in equally ambivalent ways. In some cases this means distancing ones self from the Other. The Other is just ne but only insofar as his presence is not intrusive, insofar iz as the Other is not really there (Z ek 2008: 35): Some people look at them [her children] going down the street and Ive walked into bushes before especially when Ive got the three of them. They look at me and go [open mouthed]. Their face, their mouths fall open which isnt hard sometimes and their head follows them and sometimes, my older children get very upset when I do this, I say do you want a photo of my beautiful children? Is that why you are looking? Is there something I can help you with? Is there a question youd like to ask me that you havent had answered? Or would you like a photo next time pet? And the children go, please mum dont do that, and I dont now so much but once or twice it has when they have been with me and they have said why are you staring at my brothers and sisters? What is the matter with them? (Rebecca).
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

614

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

What we can pick up on in this account in response to the cultural reactions to a disabled iz child is what Z ek (2008: 45) describes as fetishist disavowal: I know that disability is bad, but I dont want to know that I know, so I dont know. Hence, the disabled child is culturally iz disavowed: potentially ignored or condensed into a caricature (Z ek 2008: 50): a monstrous fascinating object to be gazed at and or ignored. In making sense of these acts of iz cultural violence we are encouraged by Z ek to turn our attention to the pathological conditions of society. For example, he argues that Nazi anti-semitism was pathological because it relied upon: the disavowed libidinal investment into the gure the Jew the cause of all social antagonisms was projected onto the Jew; the object of a perverted love-hatred: the iz spectral gure of mixed fascination and disgust (Z ek 2008: 85). Similarly, we could argue that the violence of disablism becomes a cultural norm because disabled people come to occupy a gure invested as a disavowed libidinal object of both love and hate; fascination and disgust. But, because the disabled object is so near then disavowal takes on different qualities: the proximity of the tortured subject which causes sympathy iz and makes torture unacceptable (Z ek 2008: 51) is responded to in less direct though equally torturous ways; at least in terms of social conventions: Shortly after that, the speech therapist at school whod recently qualied on a feeding course, decided that one day at school she would feed Laurie. Well, shed never fed him before and he choked, he coughed and she panicked and she made a decision that he would never be fed in school they didnt ring me or anything, they sent him home with a letter having not fed him that day, he hadnt had a drink or anything and just to say they wouldnt feed him in school. And the speech therapist had said it so social services had to act on what the speech therapist was saying, so that meant I had no choice if I wanted him to go to school, if I wanted to access respite care, we were in a position where we were being forced to have a gastro tube tted (Steph).

Conclusions Our analysis has tragically revealed a propensity for violence against disabled children ingrained in the relationships, institutions and cultural acts of our time. We worry that as contemporary economic conditions increase feelings of stress, disempowerment and poverty then these socio-economic conditions may well increase the violence of disablism. To tackle this violence means not simply targeting those few evil souls responsible for hate crimes against disabled people but deconstructing and reforming the very cultural norms that iz legitimise violence against disabled people in the rst place. Z ek (2008) offers us some hope for subverting this culture of violence. A key contribution lies in exposing the emptiness of a iz culture in which disabled children and their families continue to be disavowed. Z ek calls for a new ethics, following Levinas, of abandoning the claim to sameness that underlies iz universality, and replacing it with a respect for otherness (Z ek 2008: 47). Instead, we need: to celebrate collective solidarity, connection, responsibility for dependent others, duty to respect the customs of ones community instead of Western Capitalist cultures valuing iz of autonomy and liberal freedom (Z ek 2008: 123).
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

615

These ethics can feed directly into disability activism, forms of education, health and social welfare and professional practice, which collectively work together to reduce violence against disabled people. This vision resonates with an ideal proposed by Finkelstein (1999a, 1999b) in his notion of the profession allied to the community (PAC). In contrast to professions allied to medicine, PACs refer to services and professionals that respond to and are led by the aspirations of disabled people and their representative organisations. Developing a PAC could bring into a production a virgin eld of theory and practice through which professionals are re-engaged with the aspirations of disabled people (Finkelstein 1999b: 3). This virgin eld incorporates ideas from critical disability studies and demands professionals invest less time in pathological views of impairment (such as naturally associating challenging behaviour with intellectual disabilities), and more time in challenging the conditions of disablism (including violence). This eld would require professionals, for example, to address their own acts of psychoemotional disablism and disavowal which underpin the understandings they hold of the people they are paid to enable. The PAC turns the gaze back at the potential or pitfalls of relational, systemic and cultural responses to disability. The real problem of disablism is, like most forms of ideology, that the subjective positions iz of cultural actors remain untouched (Z ek 2008: 85). Attending to the cultural, systemic, psychoemotional and real elements of the violence of disablism ensures that we become more in tune with the everyday conditions of exclusion that lead, time and time again, to the ontological, cultural, community and physical exclusion of disabled children and their families. This might lead us to connect, respect and show solidarity with disabled children as we all ght for a non-violent life. Address for correspondence: Katherine Runswick-Cole or Dan Goodley, Research Institute of Health and Social Change, Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Gaskell Campus, Manchester M13 0JA. e-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]

Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the support of the Economic and Social Research Council for the funding of this research. We would also like to thank the Research Institute for Health and Social Change for supporting our project.

Note
1 David Askew was a 64 year old disabled man who suffered a heart attack when verbally abused by neighbours (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/david-askew-a-human-tragedy-and-nationalscandal-1920089.html). Raymond Atherton was beaten to death by a group of teenagers after years of abuse (http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2007/aug/15/guardiansocietysupplement.socialcare). Rikki Judkins died from a rock being dropped on his head by two young men (http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lancashire/6369319.stm). Fiona Pilkington was killed by her own mother after the family had suffered years of abuse from local residents (http: www.guardian.co.uk uk 2009 sep 28 ona-pilkington-suicide-mother-police). Christine Lakinski died after an incident occurred in which a man urinated on her as she lay in a street of her local town (http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/tees/7002627.stm).

2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

616

Dan Goodley and Katherine Runswick-Cole

References
Ballard, K. (2004) Ideology and the origins of exclusion: a case study. In Ware, L. (ed.) Ideology and the Politics of (In)exclusion. New York: Peter Lang. Barton, L. (2004) The politics of special educaton: a necessary or irrelevant approach? In Ware, L. (ed.) Ideology and the Politics of (In)exclusion. New York: Peter Lang. Brown, H. and Craft, A. (1989) Thinking the Unthinkable: Papers on Sexual Abuse and People with learning difculties. London: Family Planning Association education. Burman, E. (2008) Developments: Child, Image, Nation. London: Routledge. Campbell, F.K. (2008) Refusing able(ness): a preliminary conversation about ableism, M C Media and Culture, 11, 3; available online: http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/ mcjournal/article/viewArticle/46. Donaldson, E. (2002) The corpus of the madwoman: toward a feminist disability studies theory of embodiment and mental illness. NWSA, 14, 3, 95119. Fanon, F. (1993) Black Skins, White Masks, 3rd edition. London: Pluto Press. Finkelstein, V. (1999a) A profession allied to the community: the disabled peoples trade union. In Stone, E. (ed.) Disability & Development: Learning from Action and Research on Disability in the Majority World. Leeds: The Disability Press. Finkelstein, V. (1999b) Professions allied to the community (PACS II). Available at http:// www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archive, date last consulted 20 September 2005. Goodley, D. (2010) Disability Studies: An Interdisciplinary Introduction. London: Sage. Goodley, D (forthcoming) Jacques Lacan + Paul Hunt = psychoanalytic disability studies. In Goodley, D. Hughes, B. and Davis, L. (eds.) Disability and Social Theory: New Developments and Directions. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Greenop, D. (2009) Self-care: a narrative and dialogic study of adults with cystic brosis. Liverpool John Moores: Unpublished PhD thesis. Hunt, P. (1966) A Critical condition. In Hunt, P. (ed.) Stigma: The Experience of Disability. London: Geoffrey Chapman. Lacan, J. (1977) Ecrits. A Selection. New York: Norton. Marks, D. (1999) Disability: Controversial Debates and Psychosocial Perspectives. London: Routledge. Michalko, R. (2002) The Difference That Disability Makes. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. McLaren, P. (2009) Critical pedagogy: a look at major concepts. In Darder, A., Baltodano, M.P. and Torres, R.D. (eds.) The Critical Pedagogy Reader, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge. Mitchell, D. and Snyder, S. (2006) Narrative prosthesis and the materiality of metaphor. In Davis, L. (ed.) The Disability Studies Reader, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge. Munford, R. (1994) The politics of care-giving. In Rioux, M. and Bach, M. (eds.) Disability is Not Measles: New Directions in Disability. Ontario: LInstitut Roeher. Parsons, T. (1951) The Social System London: Routledge and Kagan Paul. Reeve, D. (2002) Negotiating psycho-emotional dimensions of disability and their inuence on identity constructions, Disability & Society, 17, 5, 493508. Reeve, D. (2008) Negotiating disability in everyday life: the experience of psycho-emotional disablism. Lancaster: Unpublished PhD thesis. Roulstone, A. and Balderston, S. (2009) Is violence, murder and harassment against disabled people really hate crime? Paper presented at the Ofce for Disability Issues Evidence Day, London, 19 November. Shakespeare, T. (1997) Cultural representation of disabled people: dustbins for disavowal? In Barton, L. and Oliver, M. (eds.) Disability Studies: Past Present and Future. Leeds: The Disability Press. Shakespeare, Y. (2010) The cruel toll of disability hate crime, The Guardian, 12 March. Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/mar/12/disability-hate-crime-david-askew. Last accessed 16 March 2010. Sherry, M. (2000) Hate crimes against disabled people. Social Alternatives, 19, 4, 2330.
2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The violence of disablism

617

Sherry, M. (2007) (Post) colonising disability. Wagadu, Journal of Transnational Womens and Gender Studies, 4, Summer, 1022. Sherry, M. (2010) Disability Hate Crimes: Does Anyone Really Hate Disabled People? London: Ashgate. Sinason, V. (1992) Mental Handicap and the Human Condition. London: Free Association Books. Snow, D.A., Morrill, C. and Anderson, L. (2004) Elaborating analytic ethnography: linking eldwork and theory, Ethnography, 4, 2, 1535. Thomas, C. (1999) Female Forms: Experiencing and Understanding Disability. Buckingham: The Open University Press. Thomas, C. (2007) Sociologies of Disability, Impairment, and Chronic Illness: Ideas in Disability Studies and Medical Sociology. London: Palgrave. Wedell, K. (2008) Confusion about inclusion: patching up or system change? British Journal of Special Education, 35, 3, 12735. iz Z ek, S. (2008) Violence. London: Prole books.

2011 The Authors Sociology of Health & Illness 2011 Foundation for the Sociology of Health & Illness/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

This document is a scanned copy of a printed document. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material.