Pak. St. Notes. 1857-1947

War of Independence:
Different aspects to be covered in this topic;
1. Why this war was started? (causes) 2. Why did Indians lose this war? (causes of failure) 3. In what aspects this war was a failure? (comments) 4. What did Indians gain from this war? (comments)
Till 1858 a Company based in England controlled India. This company had started to influence the politics of India, since the start of 18th century. They molded every aspect of the lives of Indian people for their own benefits. East India Company made huge profits from India without giving any thing back to its people.
1. Causes:
i. Economic Causes: British tried to gain maximum profits out of India. For this purpose they first pressurized the local rulers to grant them concessions in tax. The lust for profit increased and they eyed the sources and raw materia ls of India. India was the backbone of British economy for over two centur ies. While England prospered from the trade with India, the people of India were suffer ing. British were making more profits out of India than the local merchants. This discrepancy sewed the seed of hatred in the hearts of local people.
ii. Political Causes: For the first century of their stay in India British did not indulge themselves into local politics. Then from the start of 18th century we see British influence over local politics. The first major ruler to lose his land was Siraj- ud-Daula 1757. Then Nawab of Oudh also lost his hegemony over his land 1764. British accelerated the capture of power and land of India from the start of 19th century. The famous Doctrine of Lapse in 1852 of Dalhousie also deprived many rulers from their lands. According to this doctrine the British would confiscate any land of such rulers, who did not have a direct ma le heir, after his death. Through the imp lementation of this doctrine British were able to take 1
control many territories which resulted into further hatred in the hearts of locals for them. Most of them were unable to fight British alone however when the war started they came out in the support for the anti- British forces and tried to take revenge.
i i i . Social
causes:
India was home to very staunch and conservative people. British in early days of their occupation did not interfere in the social traditions and customs of Indian people. From the beginning of 19th century British started to introduce many new reforms, which were seen as attack by the local people on their culture. They opened schools where English was made compulsory. English replaced Persian in 1834 as officia l language. Lord McCauley introduced his famous education policy of 1835, which particularly attacked local teachings and culture. He even made an insulting statement about the local literature, a single shelf of a European Library is better than all the books ever written in Sub- continent.
iv.
Religious causes: British, after securing power in India started to spread Christianity in India. They
opened many monasteries, from where they propagated Christianity. They also interfered in local religions. They made a law according to which anyone who changes his religion will get his due share in his fathers property. According to Hindu Law anyone who changes his religion will lose the right to get his share from his fathers property. Then in 1829 British banned Suttee. The most famous immediate religious cause, which sparked the war of Independence 1857, was the Greased Cartridge inc ident. British introduced a new cartridge, which had to be opened by mouth. This cartridge was greased for the purpose of water proofing with the fat of cow and pig. Pig is forbidden in Islam and Cow is sacred for Hindus. So Hindus and Muslims refused to use those cartridges.
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Lecturer Dept. of General History University of Karachi 0322-2391591, [email protected]
2. Reasons for the failure of Indians in the War:
This was not the first time that Indians took up arms against East India Company. Siraj- ud-Daula, Shuja- ud-Daula, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan and Ranjeet Singh also took up 2
arms against East India Company but in 1857 this effort was collective rather than ind ividual. India was one of the largest countries at that time which had one of the largest populations in the world. Then how such a great number of people were defeated by handful British officers? There are some reasons behind this defeat, which are as under:
i. No central leadership: The war of independence was started by some soldiers who refused to use the disputed cartridge. Although these sepoyees got support from other Indians as well but there was a major weakness in the organization of the rebel army. There was no leader who could command the volunteer army and fight the war with proper strategy. The sepoyes got the official support of Bahadur Shah Zafar, but he was a very old man at that time and was physically unable to take active part in the war. On the other hand British had a proper high command and proper structured army. Due to this lack of central leadership the rebel army was unable to achieve its objective.
ii.
Lack of weapons: The war is fought with weapons. The British had their factories which were
supplying weapons continuously. On the other hand the local people were fighting with the weapons which they got from British. The other weapons which were locally made, (swords, lances, bow and arrow) were useless against the advanced weapons of Br itish like guns and cannons.
iii.Lack of support from all over India: This war is reme mbered as the war of Independence of India but in reality it was not supported by all the Indians. Main fighting tribes like Punjabis and Ghurkhas were supporting Br itish. The three presidencies Calcutta, Madras and Bombay remained loyal to the British. The war effort was concentrated only in the central India. The people of other parts of India did not support the war.
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iv. Lack of unity and coordination:
The people who were fighting against British were not united among the mselves as well. They were fighting for their own goals rather than the national goal. That is why 3
they did not have coordination with each other. Different rulers were fighting in different areas for example, Nana Sahib at Kanpur, Begum Hazrat Mahal at Oudh, Moulvi Liaquat Ali at Allahabad and most famous Rani Laxmi Bai at Jhansi. If all these people would have been fighting like a single machine and with coordination the results of the war would have been different.
Comments:
3 This war was a failure because it was unable to achieve the goals for which it was fought. The objectives of the war were; i. ii. iii. 4 To send British back to England To unite Indians against British To reinstall Mughal rule in India. The people who fought this war were unable to achieve any of these goals
through the war. Although the war was unable to achieve the goals for which it was fought but it achieved some in direct goals which were not considered as success at that time. This indirect success proved very helpful for Indians to gain Inde pendence 90 years later.
i.
The people of India were able to abolish the tyrannical rule of British East India Company and to replace it with comparatively better rule of British Crown. The company was only working to gain profit for its people. They totally ignored the rights of the Indian people. They were the main cause of the armed struggle against British in India.
ii.
The people of India convinced the British Government that they need recognition and now their voice cannot be pressed. That is why the Government of England took control of India directly into their hands and introduced acts which gave Indians a chance to participate in the Government.
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Phases of Indo-Pak history from 1857 till 1947:

The history of India after the War of Independence till Independence of Sub-Continent could be divided into four phases, which are as under:
First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British vs. Muslims)

This period is marked by good relations between Hindus and British. Muslims were being ignored by both of them and persecuted.
Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims vs. Hindus)

During this period British made some administrative and leg islative changes which favored Muslims. Hindus during this period were very active against both British and Muslims.
Third Phase 1913 till 1928 (Muslims + Hindus vs. British)

Since the change of objectives by Muslim League the Congress found some common grounds with the m. This period is marked by Hindu Muslim Unity shown in Lucknow Pact, Khilafat movement etc.
Fourth Phase 1928 till 1947 (British vs. Muslim vs. Hindus)
Since the Nehru Report the unity between Hindu and Muslims ended. Since then both parties worked for their own rights without the help of each other.
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First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British Vs Muslims)
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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: (1817-1898)

Introduction: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan is one of those personalities who shape the future of nations. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 1 7th October 1817 and he died on 27th March 1898. He belonged to an educated family and his father had served in the Mughal court. After completing education he looked for his future in judiciary during the rule of East India Company. He was a realistic person and a man of reason. He saved the life of an English collector Shakespeare and his fa mily from an angry mob. He was the first person who took a middle path and tried to solve the problems Muslims were facing at the time especially after the war. At the time of the war he was 40 years old and he dedicated rest of his life towards the restoration of the status of Muslim society in sub-continent.
Contributions and services of Sir Syed:

After the war Sir planned to raise the status of Muslim society by educa tion and bringing the m close to British. To accomplish this task he wrote books on various topics and opened schools and other institutions.
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Literary works.
i. The causes of Indian Revolt. 1858 (Political effort): In this pamphlet he blamed the war on British. He said that it is due to the tyrannical rule of British East India Company that Indians started to hate them and finally this hatred led to the war. He pointed out that British did not include Indians in the government. He argued that British should inc lude Indians in the government. This will help British to understand and solve the problems faced by Indians. This particular piece to writing had a great impact on politics of India, British for the first time inc luded Indians in the government after the Indian Councils act 1861. These Indian members were chosen by the Viceroy this means they were not elec ted or they had the approval of Indian people.
ii. Loyal Mohammedans of India. 1858 (Political effort): In this book Sir Syed mentioned all those Muslims who served under the British. The main purpose of this book was to tell British that Muslims are not their enemies and they have served them with loyalty.
iii. Tabyin-ul-Kalam (Explanation of Bible) (Social effort): In this book Sir Syed expla ined Bib le to bring out its relation with Quran and Isla m. It was a very important book to cultivate friendly relations between Muslims and British.
iv. Tahzeeb-ul-Akhlaq. (Magazine) (Social efort) It was a magazine started by Sir Syed to bring Muslims closer to their culture and moral values. It worked as a social reformer.
v. Ahleam-e-Taam-e-Ahle-e-Kitab (Social efort) (Table manners of the people of book) Both Muslims and Christians are the people of book. Muslims follow Quran and Christians follow Bible. In this writing Sir Syed tried to bring out the similarities between Muslims and Christian.
vi. Khutabt-e-Ahmadiah (A book on the life of Holy Prophet Mohammad P.B.U.H) In this book Sir Syed discussed different events and summons of Holy Prophet.
vii.
Tafseer-ul-Quran.
(Commentary
of
Holy
Quran) It was a detailed commentary on Holy Quran.

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Educational ins titute s :
i. ii. iii.
Laid the foundations of a school at Moradabad in 1859. Established a school in Ghazipur in 1864. Established a scientific society at Ghazipur in 1863. The main function of this society was to translate books written in European languages into local 8
languages so the people of India could understand them. iv. In 1869 he went to England to admit his son Moha mmad in Cambridge University. There he observed the education system and particularly universities. He observed that Universities like Oxford and Cambridge are working for more than three centuries due to which the society of England was modern and advanced. After coming back from England he started to work towards establishing a university in India. In 1875 he was able to establish a school at Aligarh, which was upgraded to MAO College in 1877. This same college was finally made a university in 1920 as Aligarh Muslim University. v. He also established Mohammedans Educational conference in 1886 to promote education amongst Muslims of Sub-continent.
Aligarh Movement: It was not a separate movement launched by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. All of his educational efforts which had their base in Aligarh came to be known as Aligarh Movement which included the Tehzeb- ul- Akhlaq, MAO. College etc.
Political efforts:
Sir Syed tried to transform Muslim society of sub-continent to be a modern society. For this purpose he made many different efforts. Along with his social, educational and religious efforts his political mentoring of Muslims is very important.
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i. Different books:
ii.Two nation theory:
Sir Syed was the first person who distinguished the two major communities of sub- continent on the political and religious basis. He had a very fine observation on the political events of his times. In 1867 Hindi Urdu controversy occurred. The course of this event got Sir Syeds attention and he started to think about the two nation theory at that time. British introduced Indian Councils Act 1892 in which the y introduced for the first 9
time in India the system of elections. It means that now the Indian people can chose their representatives on their own.
iii.
Political Advice to Muslims: When Indian National Congress was establis hed in 1885 Sir Syed advised
Muslims of sub-continent to stay away from the politics. The reason behind it was that he believed that Muslims are not properly aware of politics at that time and not properly educated to become got politicians. On the other hand Hindus were in better position than Muslims. That is why he asked Muslims to work towards education and when they are prepared then enter into politics.
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Indian Councils Act 1861:
In 1861 British introduced first major reforms. These reforms were the result of continuous critic ism from Indians on the administration and legislative structure of British in India. There was no representation of Indians in the legislative council of Viceroy and central administration. According to Indian critics the absence of Indians is a major cause of rejection of British and one of the major ele ments for the war of 1857. Leading from the front in criticis m was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. He wrote Causes of Indian Revolt in 1858. Since this book came out, British started to discuss inclusion of Indians in governmental setup. These reforms for the first time brought Indians into legislature. It said that one Indian would be allowed to sit in the council of Viceroy on the basis of selection by British. Although this inclusion was not on democratic basis but it opened a window of opportunity for Indians to take part in law making. The function of Indian me mber was just to tell British about the feelings of Indians when asked. He did not have any power to make any change or to stop any law.
Hindi-Urdu controversy 1867:

This event occurred when British decided to replace Urdu which is written in Persian script with Hindi written in Deo-Nagri script, in lower courts. Muslims all over India started to agitate against the step taken by the Government. On the other hand 10
Hindus were celebrating on the replacement of the Language. This event also sparked disturbance in many localities across India. Muslims were surprised by the reaction shown by the Hindus, because till then both Hindus and Muslims stood with each other against British. Hindus had started to lean towards British, while Muslims were facing hardships at the hands of British. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan took notice of the event and observed it. He then started to think about the two nation theory, that Muslims and Hindus are two different nations which have totally different history, culture, religion and language etc. Although they have lived together with each other for more than eight centuries but still they have not learnt to tolerate each other. After some interval of time in history both communities found themselves face to face against each other over some issue.
Formation of Congress 1885:

It was formed by a retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. The main purpose of this party was to provide Indians a platform to voice their grievances and demands to the Britis h Government. It welcomed people of all castes and color. British wanted to avoid any other confrontation like the War of Independ ence 1857 in future. The first meeting of the Congress was held in Bombay when Lord Dufferin was viceroy. It was attended by 72 delegates. Womesh Chandra Banerjee was elected as the first president of Congress. By 1907 the Congress party got split into two sections first under Bal Gangadhar Tilak (the extremist) and the second under Gopal Krishna Ghokle (the moderates). Sir Syed Ahmed Khan at this moment advised Muslims not to join Congress. He was not against politics but he believed that Muslims were not fully prepared to indulge themselves into politics. He believed that Muslims at that time had other important than politics challenges which need immediate attention. He said that Hindus are more advanced and educated than Muslims. They will easily overpower Muslims in politics. He also predicted that Congress will become a Hindu party neglecting Muslims. To provide Muslims a platform to work on education and divert their attention from politics he established Mohammedan Education Conference in 1886. Time proved the fears and predictions of Sir Syed when Hindus objected on the partition of Bengal in 1905 which was in the favor of Muslims. 11
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Indian Councils Act 1892:

Since its establishment Congress was asking for more re presentation in the legislature and on the basis of elections by Indians rather than selection by British. In 1892 British introduced new reforms in which for the first time they brought limited democratic representation system in India. This time the number of Indians in Viceroys council was increased and they were going to be elected. This was not a direct election amongst the people like in practice today across the world but these members would be nominated by different groups or bodies working in India for example, universities, chamber of commerce, trade groups etc. Although it was a positive move but Sir Syed criticized it. He said that the European democratic system cannot work in India as it is working in England because there are many different communities living in India. This way only the community in majority would be able to make laws and they would suppress the communities in minorities. On the other hand in England all the people are English and they do not have communal differences amongst them. They vote on the basis of policies of political parties or politicians. In India all people would vote on the basis of religion or community.
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Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims Vs Hindus)

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Partition of Bengal 1905:

Bengal was one of the biggest provinces of Sub-Continent at the time. It comprised of modern day Assam, Orissa, Bihar and Bengal. It was becoming very difficult for the British to administer it that is why they decided to divide it into two provinces. They divided Bengal into two provinces, East Bengal and West Bengal. Before the partition the most of the Muslims lived in the Eastern Bengal and Hindus dominated the Western Bengal. Partition took effect on 16 th October, 1905. After the partition Muslims got almost full majority in the new province East Bengal. This partition sparked a reaction from Hindus, who were not in the favor of sharing power with Muslims and agreeing to any favors for Muslims. Prior to the partition in all provinces Hindus had majority and Muslims were in minority, so when the Muslims got majority in one province it was not acceptable to Hindus. On the other hand Muslims felt relieve. This was the first time during the British Raj 1 that Muslims as a community received some benefit out of the government. They welcome the decis ion. The ma in advantage to Muslims was that now they did not have to compete with the Hindus of Calcutta who were head and shoulder above the Muslim merchants economically and had a control over markets.
1 2 3
Why the partition was done? Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it? How Hindus and Congress opposed it? or Why the partition was reversed?
Why the partition was done?

Bengal was the largest province of India which had the largest population and area.
Due to its size and population it was becoming difficult to administer it. So administer it properly the Viceroy decided to divide into two smaller provinces under two Governors. The population was about 70 million. Another political reason can be drawn out of the activities of Congress and behavior of British Government. Since the establishment of Congress in 1885 the demands of Indians were increasing day by day. Congress was dominated by Hindus and Muslims had a very small number in it. British wanted support for them amongst Indians and they
1
British Raj means the rule from 1858 till 1947. It does not include rule by East India Company.
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thought that by giving political, administrative and economic favor to Muslims they might be able to receive support from Muslims, which might be helpful against Congress. This is exactly what happened after the partition. Muslims were in favor of it and Hindus rejected it completely.
Why Hindus did not like it? And, Why Muslims welcomed it?
Before the partition the Hindus were in majority. Hindus had more than half of the
populat ion in Benga l, most which was located in the Western part of the province. The Muslims had the second largest population and most of the m were located in the Eastern part. After the partition East part of Bengal became under the majority of the Muslims and the Western part was still dominated by the Hindus. Congress and Hindus were unable to tolerate Muslim majority in any of the provinces of India. Secondly Hindus were claiming that by drawing lines on the holy land of Hindus British have committed a sin and dividing any piece of land on India is like cutting holy deity2 in two halves. For Muslims, it was a sigh of relief. Finally the mission of Sir Syed was accomplished to some extent. He always wanted to bring Muslims and British closer for the benefit of Muslims. It was the first time after the War of Independence 1857 that Muslim community got any benefit out of the British Government. Muslims were enjoying majority in one newly created province in India.
3 How Hindus and Congress opposed it? Or Why the partition was
reversed?
Congress and Hindus were against this decision since the beginning. They wanted to reverse it at any cost. The following events and action show how they were able to pressurize British to reverse the partition.
i Sawadeshi movement: Sawadeshi is a Hindi word which literally means of our own. In this movement Congress asked their fe llow countrymen to boycott British goods and buy only Indians goods. They thought this way British would suffer financia l losses and they would be
2
Hindus consider India a holy land and they compared partition of Bengal with slaughtering of Holy cow.
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forced to reverse the partition.
ii. Violence across country: Initially British were able to sustain pressure of agitation and Sawadeshi Movement. But after some time Hindus got more frustrated and violent in their demand. Some extremist Hindus started to conduct attacks on government offic ials. They even attempted to assassinate the Viceroy of India Lord Minto twice, but he survived both times.
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iii. Delhi Durbar: King George V became king of England on 6 th May 1910 after the death of his father. He chose India for his coronation ceremony because it was the most prized possession of the British monarchy. When Indians came to know about this Idea of the king they threaten to kill the king if he tries to come to India. Before this could happen the British Government took fir m action to avoid this situation by reversing the partition and shifting the capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Sir John Jenkins a me mber of Viceroys Council advised to reverse the partition of Bengal and to shift the capital of India to Delhi. Both of these suggestions were accepted by Viceroy and imp lemented. When King came to India the capital was Delhi and there he announced the reversal of the Partition of Bengal on 22 nd June 1911.
Simla deputation, 1906

After the partition of Bengal the Muslims of Sub-continent felt alone. The reaction of Hindus against the partition was very strong and anti- Muslim. At that time some prominent members of Muslim community thought that the time has arrived for Muslims to take some action towards safeguarding their rights. Therefore Sir Agha Khan III led a delegation of some prominent me mbers of Muslim society of India to meet Viceroy Lord Minto in Simla in October 1906. There they demanded separate electorates for Muslims and weightage for 16
Muslims in different councils. The meeting was a success and brought future hopes for Muslim politics in India. The Viceroy assured that he would convey the demands to House of Commons. Separate electorates were finally granted to Muslims in Minto
The Formation of Muslim League 1906:

The political system and culture was introduced in India by British in the last quarter of nineteenth century. In 1885 the formation of Congress started the process of politics in India. At that time Sir Syed Ahmad Khan advised Muslims not to take part in Congress. The reason was that Muslims were not aware of politics at that time. Muslims were ignored time and again by the British and Hindus in the India. The Indian Councils Act of India 1891 also proved that Hindus would dominate the politics and will leave Muslims behind. Since the start of 20th century Muslims had started to feel the need of a separate political party or a group. In 1901, in a meeting at Lucknow, Nawab Viqar- ul-Mulk stressed on the formation of a political party for Muslims of India. The Hindu attitude towards Muslims after the Partition of Benga l proved that Hindus cannot work for the rights of Muslims and Muslims need to make a political party of their own. The annual session of the, Mohammedan Educational Conference, was held at Dhaka in 1906. Many prominent members of Muslim society of India were present there. After the meeting the Nawab of Dhaka, Nawab Viqar- ul-Mulk arranged another meeting to discuss the prospects of a political party of Muslims. He chaired the meeting and in this meeting the every agreed on the need to form a separate political party. The early objectives of the League were,
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i. To protect the rights of Muslims ii.To cultivate friendly relations with British. iii.
To prevent the rise a hostile feelings in the hearts of Muslims for other
communities and in the hearts of other communities for Muslims.
The formation of Muslim League was inevitable due to the behavior of Hindus and Congress. After its formation Congress blamed the League as the representative of British and said that British have made Muslim League to divide Indians and to counter Congress. 17
Morley Minto Reforms 1909:

British introduced legis lative reforms after 1892 in 1909. These reforms are known as Indian Councils act 1909 or Morley Minto reforms. Lord Minto was Viceroy and Lord Morley was the Secretary of State for India. Salient features of these reforms are as under;
i.
The separate electorates were given to Muslims in the provinces where they were in minority.
ii.
The number of seats in the provincial councils was increased as 30 in sma ll provinces and 50 in large province.1
iii.
The number of central council was increased to be 60 members.
These reforms were very important for Muslims in two aspects. i. Firstly in it the Separate Electorates were offic ially granted to Muslims which meant a great Victory for early Muslim politics. ii. Secondly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these reforms which meant that British kept their promise. These reforms were not meant to give Indians a chance to rule themselves but on the contrary to give them the opportunity to convey their issues or problems to British. The Indian members of the counc ils were not there to make any significant changes in the laws or frame them. They were there to advice British and it depended on them to accommodate those advices or to reject them. British could easily ignore their advice. On the other hand Congress was very unhappy with these reforms. They also refused to accept these reforms for the following three reasons: i. It did not grant self- rule to Indians which was the demand of Congress before these reforms. ii. Secondly separate electorates were given to Muslims in minority provinces and Congress was against this demand of Muslims. iii. Thirdly the partition of Bengal was not reversed in these reforms. Congress was agitating against the partition of Benga l since it was done in 1905 and they were expecting that British government would officia lly reverse this partition in these reforms. 18
Third Phas e 1913 till 1928 (Hindus+Muslims Vs British)
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Change of Objectives by Muslim League:

After the reversal of partition of Bengal in 1911 during Delhi Darbar, the leadership of Muslim League was shocked and felt betrayed by British. Dur ing the movement against the partition Muslims were curious about the future of East Bengal (a Muslim majority area) and they were satisfied by British that it will remain separated no matter how many tactics would be utilized against it. On this assurance Muslim League during its earlier years into politics decided to side with British if they continue to favor the community across India. The decis ion to re- unite East and West Bengal was an eye opener for Muslims. They realized that British are not there to provide relieve to anyone their only motif is trade, profits earned from it and the revenues from India. During 1911 and 1912 the leaders of Muslim League wanted to deviate from earlier objective of the League which said to cultivate friendly relations with British. Finally in the annual session of 1912- 13 Muslim League announced the change in its objectives. The friendly relations with British were replaced with the demand for self- rule from Br itish. This was a significant demand because it brought Muslim League and Congress closer and it also compelled Muha mmad Ali Jinnah to join Muslim League in 1913.
Lucknow Pact 1916:

In 1913 Jinnah joined Muslim League. He was already a member of Congress since he came back to India. After joining Muslim League he believed that these two political parties could come closer and work together. He believed that they both are Indians and they should not become each-others weakness. The change of objectives by Muslim League in 1913 brought these two political parties closer due to the common demand of Self Rule. Jinnah was successful to convince both parties to conduct their annual session at the same time in same city. Lucknow was chosen for this purpose. After conducting their own sessions both conducted a common session.
i.
For the first time the Congress agreed to the right of separate electorates for Muslims. They also introduced the separate electorates in Punjab and Bengal 20
where they did not exist. ii. They agreed that no bill will be passed in any provincial assembly if of the community concerned with that law agrees to it. iii. iv. Muslims were given the 1/3 seats in the councils where their ratio was . In another demand it was asked that any act passed by a large majority in any provincial should become a binding on the government. v. Provincia l autonomy was asked in all provinces. vi. Both parties agreed that they will protect the rights of minorities living in their areas.
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Muhammad Moiz Khan Lecturer Department of General History University of Karachi 0322-2391591
or
law
council
Khilafat movement (1919-1924)

Different aspects to be covered in this topic; 1. Why did the Khilafat movement start? 2. The movement was week from the start 3. Events of Khilafat Movement. 4. The reasons for its failure.
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1 Why did the Khilafat movement start?

It was a political movement launched by the Muslims of sub- continent. There were two main reasons behind Khilafat Movement i. Protection of Ottoman Emp ire and Caliph and ii. To join all the Muslims of the world under single caliph like the early days of Islam by re-establishing the system of Caliphate. The First World War started in 1914. Indian Sub-continent was under the rule of British. The Great War was amongst two groups of countries. First group was led by England and the second group was led by Germa ny. In the German group a very important ally was Turkey. Turkey was the seat of Caliphate of Muslims. Caliph means successor or representative. British asked Indians to fight along with them in the war against Germany. The Muslims of India refused to fight against Turkey which was supporting Germany. After the reversal of Partition of Bengal in 1911 Muslim League lost confidence in British and started to build friendly relations with Congress. On behalf of this friendship Hindus also refused to fight for British. To further convince Indians British said that their ma in enemy is not Turkey. They further assured that after the war Turkey would not be treated harshly. On behalf of this assurance Indians decided to support British. The First World War ended in 1918. After the war the victorious countries started to treat all of the loosing countries harshly through different treaties. The first treaty which affected Turkey was the Armistice of Mudros signed on 30 th October 1918. According to this treaty Turkey accepted defeat in the war and surrender Hejaz, Yemen, Syria, Mesopotamia, Tripolitania, and Cyrenaica. The allies also got control over
Dardanelles and the Bosporus the two traits of Black sea, which lie with in the boundaries of Turkey. Then Treaty of Sevres in 1920 August 10th further humiliated Turkey. It broke the Ottoman Emp ire and reduced the control Turkey to the city of Istanbul and surrounding territory and to part of Asia Minor. The Muslims of India felt that they have been cheated by British. In 1919 they started to raise their voice against this harsh treatment of Turkey. They also reminded British about their promise in which they said that Turkey would be left alone after the war. When these early attempts did not work then people like Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar, Abul Kalam Azad etc. started a full fledge 22
movement to pressurize British. Another long term or wider goal of the movement was to unite all Muslims of the world against anti-Muslim forces such as west.
The movement was weak from the start

The movement was weak from the start. The basic reason behind the movement
was the restoration of Caliphate in Turkey, but on the contrary the people of Turkey wanted to get rid of Caliphate and make Turkey a republic under the leadership of Kamal Ataturk. So the claim of restoration from outside by design became week. Secondly the aim to unite all Muslims of the world under the leadership of one Caliph was also an idealistic one. The institution of Caliphate was able to run properly only under the four pious Caliphs. After the takeover of Umayyads the institution was lost and it became kingship where the successors were nominated and families ruled. The Muslim world had many diverse cultures and people during the days of Khilafat Movement.
Events of Khilafat Movement

The movement started with few people but shortly it ga ined mo mentum and
mass in India. The first session of Khilafat conference was held 1919 December. Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hasrat Mohani, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Dr. Hakim Ajmal Khan along with Shaukat Ali and Muha mmad Ali Jauhar establis hed Khilafat Committee.
First Khilafat conference 23 and 24 Nov. 1999 in Delhi 19 Jan. 1920 Khilafat deputation of 35 went to meet viceroy led by Ansari Khilafat delegation led by Muhammad Ali went to England and met Lloyd George PM England on 17 March 1920.
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Source: Young India (20 October 1921); writer Gandhi; I claim that with us both the Khilafat is the central fact, with Maulana Muhammad Ali because it is his religion, with me because in laying down my life fir the Khilafat I ensure the safety of the cow, that is my religion, from the Mussalman knife. Both hold swaraj equally dear because only swaraj is the safety of our respective faith possible.
The reasons for its failure :

The movement was fragile from the beginning. It did not last long and started to
erode with time. Some main reasons behind the failure of the Khilafat movement are discussed as under:
a)
Hijrat Movement 1920 In 1920 some religious leaders and the leaders of Khilafat movement declared
Indian Sub- continent a Dar- ul- Harb. It means a place where Muslims cannot live their lives according to the teachings and practices of Islam. Around 20000 Muslims from Sind, Punjab and N.W.F.P migrated to Afghanistan, the nearest Dar - ul- Islam. They sold all of their belongings and other house hold to go to Afghanistan. When they reached there the government of Afghanistan refused to take them in. They were turned back forcibly. Most of them died on the way. The ones who were able to reach back found it very difficult to start a new life. In other words it was a complete failure and brought humiliation for the leaders of Khila fat movement. People lost their confidence in the leadership.
b) Chaura Chauri incident 1922 In 1920, the leaders of Khilafat Movement decided to start Non-Cooperation movement under the guidance of Gandhi. British arrested these leaders on behalf of this movement. Through time, the movement grew more violent due to the frustration they were facing. In 1922, an angry mob torched a police station. 22 police officers also were killed in this incident. When Gandhi got this news in the jail, he decided to withdraw his support from 24
the movement. He said that now the movement has become very violent and he canno t be a part to any violent movement. He was a strong fo llower of the theory of Ahinsa, meaning non- vio lence. With the departure of Gandhi all the Hindus supporting the movement also left and the movement became weak because now only Muslims were supporting the cause.
c)
Proclamation of Republic in Turkey 1924 Since the end of World War I a movement for democracy in Turkey started.
It aimed the monarchy or Caliphate in Turkey. The last Caliph signed a very humiliating treaty with the victorious powers and it caused unpopular ity for the Caliph. Finally, in 1924 the movement got successful under the leadership of Kamal Ataturk. The people of Turkey abolished Caliphate and declared Turkey a Republic. When the people of Turkey themselves abolished Caliphate then the demand to restore Caliphate from other countries made no sense.
Montague Chelmsford Reforms or Act of India 1918:

Immediately after the Second World War, British brought a new constitution in India. According to them it gave more opportunity and power to the local people. This can said right in theory but in practice it was nothing like what they claimed it was. In reality all the powers were in the hands of British. Some salient features of these reforms are as under.
1. The Central Legis lature was divided into two ho uses. Counsel of state and Legislative assembly. 2. The Legislative Assembly would consist of 144 members out of which 103 would be directly elected by people of India 3. The voter qualification was relaxed due to which more Indians got the chance to vote. 4. The Viceroy of (a British officer) was given Veto power to stop any law which he did not agree to. 5. The number of elected members in Provincial Council would be more than the official members. 25
6. The recommendation made in 1916 regarding passing of any law concerning a particular community was accepted. In it, it was recommended that any law which affects or concerns any particular community would not be passed if elected members of that community agree to it in that province. 7. A new system of diarchy was introduced in the provincial governments. di means two and archy means rule it means dual rule. The adminis tration of provinces was divided in between Chief Minter and Governor. The thing to understand here is that Chie f Ministers were to be elected so they represented the people of that province. On the other hand the Governors were selected and appointed by the Viceroy which means they were not the representatives of the people. The administration was divided into two section i. Reserved Subjects and ii. Transferred Subjects. First section was given to Governors and the second was given to Chief Ministers. In reserved subjects all important ministries related to the collection of taxes were retained by British. This way they had the upper hand and they did not lose any money. On the other hand British gave all such ministries to Indians which were related to expenditure for example, education, roads, health, municipal services. On paper British transferred some subjects to Indian but in reality real powers were still in the hands of British because whenever any Indian minister wanted to construct a school or college he needed money and money was still in the hands of British.
Reaction of Muslim League and Congress on these reforms.

Both parties refused to accept these reforms because majority of the demands were not accepted. The system of diarchy was also heavily criticized by all Indians. Both parties knew that British government has played a trick through introduction of diarchy. This way the real financial powers were still in the hands of British. Self- rule was also not accepted in these reforms.
Rowlett Act:
It was an act which was specifically introduced to control the different political 26
movements in India during that time. The most important movement was Khila fat Movement which was gaining momentum. British after dealing with First World War started to concentrate in Indian Affairs. Through this act the police became powerful to arrest anyone without warrant and any reason. The arrested people also did not have any right to go on trial. This meant that police can do anything at any time and the people of India did not have any security from police. Jinnah resigned from the legislative council in protest of this act because he was strongly against it.
Jhalianwala Bagh Incident:

One day people living around Jhalianwa l Bagh gathered into the garden to celebrate a local festival. The military in charge of Amr itsar General Dyer appeared on the scene with his forces. He ordered people to leave the area or he would shoot ind iscriminately. The local people ignored him and continued with their festivities. Finally General Dyer ordered his forces to shoot at people at their will. Around 400 people died at the spot and 1600 injured.
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Simon Commission (1927):
In 1927 the secretary of state for India Lord Birkenhead announced a commission to work for the recommendations for the new constitution of India, which would replace Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. It was good news for Indians but there was a surprise of bad news in it. He did not inc lude any Indian in it and was strongly against the idea of including Indians in any type of legislation process for India. He stated that Indians are not capable of legislation. They cannot agree on anything among themselves and can only criticize on legislation done by British. This commission was not accepted by almost all Indian political parties. There was only one section of Muslim League which welcomed it. The league got divided on this issue. One section was under Jinnah called Jinnah League and the other was under the leadership of Shafi called Shafi league or Punjab league. The Punjab or Shafi League welcomed it and Jinnah was against it. The report of this commission came out in 1929, which was rejected by all political parties of India. 27
Nehru Report (1928):

In response to this commission Congress being the largest political party of India invited all other political parties to talk. They called All Parties Conference in 1928. The main idea was that British have put up a challenge in front of Indians and now the time has come to unite and work together. All political parties of India welcomed it. Even Muslims League under Jinnah was a part of this unity. A committee was shaped under the chair manship of Motilal Nehru (father of Jawaharlal Nehru). There two Muslim me mbers in this committee as well. When the report came out it was not acceptable to Muslims. The two Muslim me mbers Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi resigned from the committee. It was against the benefit of Muslims. Jinnah made a very famous statement on this occasion that, it is the parting of the ways, of Hindus and Muslims. Since then Muslims and Hindus never came on terms again and started working for their own separate agendas.
1. N.W.F.P should be given full provinc ial status and Sind should be separated from Bombay. 2. Separate Electorates should be immediately abolished. 3. No weightage should be allowed. 4. It did not allow for the reservation of Muslim seats in provinces having a Muslim minority of at least ten percent, but this was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community.
First ever demand of full independence:

In 1929 the annua l session of Congress was held in Lahore. Jawaharla l Nehru was the president of the session. In his presidential address he demanded full independence of India and comp lete withdrawal of British from India on 26 th January. Later on they took this demand back during the second round table conference for the time being. Today Indians celebrate republic day on 26th January every year and its their national holiday.
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Fourteen points of Jinnah

Nehru report was not acceptable to Muslims and they had already rejected the Simon Commission. Now Muslims had to come up with a set of the ir own demand s which they could put in front of British. Jinnah took up this task and presented fourteen points. In these points he summed up all the demands of Muslims of India. This was the first time that Muslims of India came up with constitutional recommendations. For a long time it was believed that Muslims are not capable enough to take part in constitutional developments. Fourteen points proved to British and Hindus that they were wrong and made them, realize the fact that now Muslims will not accept such legislation which is against their rights. It also declared that Muslims of Sub-continent are not just spectators.
Allahabad Address 1930:

The All India Muslim League decided to conduct its annual session of 1930 at Allahabad. Allama Iqbal was the president of this session. This session became memorable due to the presidential address of Allama Iqbal. In his address Allama presented an outline of the future independent country for Muslims. In his long address he emphasized on the need for an autonomous Muslim section. He
Round Table Conferences:

The constitutiona l process which was started by the announcement of Simon Commission in 1927 was unresolved till 1930. To resolve this issue the Prime Minister of England Ramsay McDonald through Viceroy of India Lord Irwin invited all political parties to London.
First Round Table Conference;

The conference started on 12th November 1930. All parties sent their representatives to attend the session. Congress was not present in it. Congress demanded independence on 26th January 1929. Since then they started Civil Disobedience for grant of their demands. They also decided to boycott the round table conference. The first Round Table conference started in the absence of Congress. It was 29
impossible to achieve any constitutional solutions for India without including Congress because it represented more than 70% of Indians. It was attended by other political parties inc luding Muslim League and the Princes of Independent states. Those who were present there agreed on two basic principles. i. first to continue separate electorates for minorities and ii secondly that India should become a federation in future. The representatives of Independent states agreed to join the Indian federation. The conference officially ended without achieving its goals in ..
Second Round Table Conference

After the failure of the first round table conference the Prime Minister of England Ramsay McDonald told Lord Irwin that he should make sure that the Congress would attend the next conference going to be held in 1931. Lord Irwin met Gandhi in jail to discuss the issue. Both of them agreed to resolve this matter. They made concessions to each other and this agreement is known as Gandhi Irwin Pact. Gandhi Irwin Pact 1931
Congress 1. Congress agreed to withdraw demand of 1. independence. 2. Congress would attend the Second 2. Round Table conference. 3. Congress would discontinue its civil disobedience movement.
British British agreed to release all the prisoners of Congress. British agreed to lift ban from the political activities of Congress.
After it the Second Round Table started with maximum hope of success but no one knew the true designs of Congress. Gandhi was alone to represent Congress in the conference. The problem started when Gandhi started to treat other political parties with disregard. He said that all the representatives present here are hangers on and do not 30
represent true India. He further said that British should only talk to Congress in regards to the future of India. Due to this arrogant attitude of Gandhi the Conference was bound to fail. The second round table conference was also unable to achieve its objectives. The Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald had made it clear that if Ind ians are unable to come up with a solution then British government had the right to come up their own solutions. This gave way to Communal Awards which were announced by the government before the third round table conference.
Third Round Table Conference:

The third round table conference was also hope less like the first one. Gandhi went back to India after the second conference and started his civil disobedience movement and was duly arrested. Mohammad Ali Jinnah had also le ft the polit ics of India and went on a self-exile to England. This conference also ended without achieving any success.
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali:

He was a very enthus iastic Muslim young man who was keen towards changing the political and socia l conditions of Muslims of India. He was a student of Cambridge University, Emanue l College in England during 1930s. During the round table conferences he was in England and wanted the Muslim delegates in the conferences to demand a separate homeland for Muslims within the geographical boundaries of India where Muslims would live with complete independence. For this purpose he wrote a pamphlet kn own as Now or Never published in January 1933. In it he demanded Muslim leaders to demand a new separate land for which he also proposed a name Pakistan. He also mentioned the areas which he wanted to become a part of Pakistan and he also took letters from these areas to make the word PAKISTAN.
P = Punjab A = Afghania K = Kashmir 31
I = Used as a vowel S = Sind TAN = Baluchistan Other than consisting of alphabets from the demanded areas the name has another significance, it means Land of Pure.
Controve rsies attached to Ch. Rehmat Ali: Ch. Rehmat Ali is one of those political figures who are not recognized as much as others. There are many reasons behind less importance given by historians and other political leaders to Rehmat Ali. First of all when he came up with the demand of Pakistan no one (Muslim Leader) was in the mood of taking the struggle for the rights of Muslims to another level of complete independence. He was not taken seriously at the time. Later on when he progressed in politics he demanded two other independent states out of India for Muslims along with Pakistan. The new states were, Bangistan (consisting of todays Bangladesh) and Usmanistan (consisting of Hyderabad Deccan in South India) inc luding the previous demand of Pakistan. Later he furthered his demands and finally in third step he demanded seven (7) more independent Muslim states including he earlier three, which made the total number of independent Muslim states to be 10 out of India. Another significance of these particular demands was that if all these areas are given to Muslims as independent states then the remaining India would become land locked. After these demands no one took him seriously and every one ignored him to be as an idealist whos political vision is vague. Another reason for ignoring him is that he was against the ideas of Jinnah and openly used to say that Jinnah is not working in the favor of Muslims of India. He argued that by making the current Pakistan a large number of Muslims would still remain in India and they would be subjected to the same or may be more persecution or behalf of the majority. He wrote a book Pakistan in which he has discussed his ideas about the solution of Muslims of Pakistan. He did not come to Pakistan after independence and continued his struggle for the remaining Muslims of India. He also wished not to be buried in Pakistan so after his death he was buried in England where he still rests today. There is a debate about bringing the remains of Ch. Rehmat Ali to Pakistan and construct his mausoleum.
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Self-Exile of Muhammad Ali Jinnah:

In 1931 Muhammad Ali Jinnah left the politics of India and went to England. He was disheartened from the politics and differences of Indian Muslims. He said that we have so many differences amongst us that we cannot present a united front to our opponents. He stayed in England with his daughter and sister for three years. Although he wanted to work for Indian Muslims but he knew that it was hopeless. In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan paid him a vis it to England along his wife Begum Rana Liaquat. There he was able to convince Jinnah to go back to India and work for the betterment of Muslims. Liaquat Ali Khan offered Jinnah life time president ship and also assured that all other Muslim Leaders would follow his advice. Muhammad Ali Jinnah came back from his self-exile in 1934 and immediately started to work for the upheaval of Muslim League. Under his leadership Muslim League became the most popular political party of Muslims of India. In the elections of 1945-46 Muslim League proved its popularity.
Communal Awards (1932):

In 1932 when nothing was achieved through the first and second round table conference then British decided to pressurize Indians to come up with a solution. For that they presented Communa l Awards in 1932 August just before the third round table conference. They said if this time Indians do not decide something then they would have the right to go ahead with Communal Awards. The main features of these awards are as under.
1. The separate electorate would be continued for Muslims and would be extended to other communities. 2. The population in Bengal was not correctly calculated and they decreased the Muslim population on paper reducing their percentage to less than 50%. 3. In Punjab as well the Muslim population was reduced on paper.
These awards were rejected by Muslims because according to it they lost their clear majority in Benga l and Punjab. Congress also rejected it because it retained the
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separate electorates for Muslims.
Self-exile of Jinnah and his return to politics:

The leadership of Muslims had shown weaknesses during 1920s. The main problem was the trust on each others and strategy. The leadership argued among them on how to resolve the problems faced by Muslims of sub-continent. The major example of these differences was the division of Muslim League in 1927 on the issue of Simon Commission. One section went with S ir Shafi who was of the idea that Muslim League should welcome Simon Commission and support it. On the other hand Jinnah was of the idea that because there are no Indians inc luded in it so it should not be accepted. Sir Shafi made a section of the League known as Punjab League and the people who went with Jinnah became part of Jinnah League. Although the two section of League came together again but differences did not stop there. Finally after the First Round Table Conference Jinnah decide to leave the politics of sub-continent and go to England. He left India in 1931 and settled in England where he started to work as barrister. He lived there with his daughter and sister. In 1934 Liaquat Ali Khan and other leaders of Muslim League decided that they needed the leadership and guidance of Jinnah. Liaquat Ali Khan along with his wife Rana Liaquat Ali went to England and convinced Jinnah that he should come back to India because the Muslims of India needed his to guide them. He also offered him the lifetime presidentship of Muslim League and assured that now there would be no differences and every one listen to him. Jinnah came to India in 1934 and took the co mmand of Muslim League.
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Act of India 1935:
The constitutional process which started with the announcement of Simon Commission in 1927 fina lly ended in 1935 with the announcement of Act of India 1935. British fina lly made a constitution themselves with kee ping the demands of Indians in their minds. The demands of Indians could not have been fulfilled because this way British will lost their control over India. So this act was a mixture of many things. Some 34
salient features of this act are as under:
1. The country would become a federal form of Government in future and the independent states would join the federation. 2. The system of diarchy was abolished in the provinces and was introduced at the center. 3. There would be governor appointed by the viceroy in each province. These governors would have specia l powers to dissolve the provinc ial. This was the most controversial point in the act. 4. 5. Sind would be separated from Bombay and would be made a new province. Provinces would be given maximum autonomy, so the Chief Ministers can work freely in the provinces. 6. 7. India was going to be divided into 11 provinces. Fresh elections would be conducted to form provinc ial and central legislative assemblies. 8. The recommendations of Communal Awards of 1932 were incorporated in this Act.
Conclus ion: Quid-e-Azam being the president of the Muslim League called it a defected piece of document for many reasons. The League showed concerns about the decrease of Muslim population in Punjab and Bengal on paper my Britis h. Secondly the powers which were given to governors of the provinces to dissolve the provincial assemblies were against the princip les of democracy. This means that the provinc ial government would be in continuous pressure and fear that if they do something against the wishes of British then they will dissolve the provincial assembly through the Governor. Lastly the much debated system of diarchy was still in use in the central administration.
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Federal form of government:
It is needed where there are more than two provinces. It has two house parliaments, which is also known as bicameral legislation. 35
Its first house is elected on the basis population. So the provinces which has large population will have more people. The second house has equal number of representation from all provinces regardless of their population or size. Pakistan is an example of this type.
Unitary form of government:

It is suitable in countries where there are no provinces at all, like England, Germany etc. It has only one house parliament known as unicameral legislation. There is no need to have the second house it only house is elected on the basis of population. Germany is an example of this type.
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Election of 1937:
These elections were very important for the politics of India in general and politics of Muslim League in particular. The results of these elections were in favor of Congress and Muslim League got its wakeup call. Congress was able to secure victory in 8 out of 11 provinces. On the other hand Muslim League was unable to form Government in any of the provinces. To make the things worse there were other Muslim local political parties which got victory in provinces but not the League. In 5 out of 8 Congress provinces they had full majority to form government and in the other three they formed coalition governments. In Punjab Sir Sikandar Hayat won the elections under his political party Unionist. In N.W.F.P. Dr. Khan Sahab secured victory under his political pa rty Red Shirts but he formed government with the help of Congress. In Bengal, Fazul- ul- Haq formed Government with the help of Independent Muslim candidates. The only significant victory for Muslim League was in those provinces where Muslims were in minority. In Muslim majority areas the League failed comprehensively. Sir Ghula m Husain Hidayatullah, the leader of Sind United Party, formed a cabinet of three members with Hindu help 1 , in Sind. Congress became more rude 36
towards all other political parties particularly Muslims League. They started to say that Muslim League does not enjoy the support of Muslims and Congress has more support of Muslims than the League.
Reasons for the failure of Muslim League:

Muslim League was formed in 1906 Dec. but in its first major elections after 31 years of its formation it was unable to achieve what it claimed. The League claimed that they were the true representatives of Muslims of India but in the elections of 1937 Muslims of India preferred other local parties over the League. There are many reasons behind this failure, which are as under: 1. The Leagues leadership had aristocratic outlook. Most of them were Nawabs and landlords. They did not have a proper link with common people. The meetings of the league were also not attended by many people. This gulf between the leadership and the common people played an important role in the defeat of Muslim League in the elections of 1937.
2. The main demand of Muslim League was Separate Elec torates. This demand only addressed the issues of Muslims living in Hindu majority areas. The League failed to address the issues of the Muslims of Muslim majority areas. This is why the people of Muslim majority areas did not vote for the League.
3. Before the elections there was a very weak network of the offices of Muslim League across India due to which the message of the League was not spreading properly. People also were unable to become a part of Muslim League due to lack of offices.
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Efforts of Jinnah to reconstruct Muslim

Jinnah after coming back to India from his self-exile stated to concentrate towards the weaknesses of Muslim League. Following are the measures he took to make Muslim League popular among the Muslim masses;
1. He vis ited many colleges and universities and met many students. He asked them to participate in Muslim Politics to help their community to achieve its goals. He made them believe that they are the future and they have to play their role.
2. Muslim League opened new offices in many different cities across the country to accommodate more Muslims. This helped in spreading the message of Muslim League.
3. He travelled across India to get support from Muslims living in all parts of the country.
1 I.H.Qureshi, The Struggle for Pakistan, University of Karachi, 2006, p. 73
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Congress Rule and difficulties faced by Muslims (1937-39):

After a comprehensive victory Congress was able to form their government in 8 out of 11 provinces. In 5 of them they formed single party government and in other three they formed coalition governments. Before taking oath Congress party made it sure that there is no check on their ministries that is why they said that they will not take oath until British assure that the governors of the provinces will not use their emergency powers. After forming government Congress brought all the changes they wanted to without considering the feeling of other communities particularly Muslim community. Immediately after taking control Congress started to pass draconian laws which were offensive to Muslims. Many Muslims living in the Congress provinces started to complain to Muslim League. In March 1938 a committee of 8 members was formed to find out about the grievances of Muslims. The chairman of this committee was Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur. The report came out in November 1938 which identified and discussed the atrocities of Congress. Then another report came out in March 1939 known as Shareef Report which served the same purpose. Following are the find ings of these reports which describe the true picture of Muslims of Hindu majority areas;
1. Ban on Azan: The congress ministries banned Azan on loud speakers in their provinces. This was a step which infuriated Muslims livin g in these provinces. Muslims are bound to observe Namaz and Azan is the call for it. By taking this step they showed that they do no care about other religions.
2. Ban on slaughte ring of cows: Cow is one of those animals which are not forbidden by Allah for Muslims. It also is a main meat source for Muslims across the world. On Eid - ul- Azha Muslims sacrifice animals in the path of Allah and cow is the main choice of most.
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3. Disturbances during worships in mosques: The congress supporters and Hindus used to conduct noisy processions during the namaz time which was disturbing Muslims. Then in some places it was re ported that some fanatic Congress supporters threw dead pigs in Mosques.
4. Education Policy: A new education policy was introduced under the title of Wardha Scheme. There were many new proposals which were not acceptable to Muslims living in Congress Provinces. The religious education was not allowed at any level. This way the Muslim families thought that their children will s lowly get far from their religion. Then the Hindu princ iple of Ahinsa was propagated on a large scale according to which one should not resort to violence at any cost. On the other hand Islam also teaches about the peace but it also tells Muslims to fight in the name of Allah, Jihad if someone tries to wage war against you.
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5. Schools and colleges:
Students of schools and colleges were supposed to pay respect to the portrait of Gandhi on their way into the building. This was again an act which Muslims cannot accept. Then in schools and colleges the practice of making thread by throwing wheel was adopted. This was a political symbol of Congress which was started by Gandhi.
6. Wande Mataram: A Hindu nationalist song was written by a Bengali writer. This song gave the message that India is a sacred land only for Hindus and all the other people including Muslims are outsiders.
Day of Deliverance 22 nd December 1939:

In September 1939 World War II started and again England was involved in it. The government of England asked for support in the war from Indians. The people of India replied that they will only support British in this war if they get complete independence from British rule.
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When British government did not accept this demand Congress party resigned from all of their provincial ministries. Jinnah considered this resignation as good news for all the Muslims who were living under Congress government. He declared that on 22 n d December 1939 all Muslims will celebrate Day of Deliverance. The main reason for this celebration was that now Muslims would not have to face all the atrocities and hardships of Congress rule any more.
Pakistan Resolution 23rd March 1940:

The Muslim League decided to conduct its annua l session of 1940 in Lahore in Manto Park also known as Iqbal Park. During this session the final decision of most of the Muslims of sub-continent was spelled out. A resolution was passed which changed the future of all the people of India Muslims and non-Muslims. A.K.Fazlul Haq forwarded the resolution asking a separate homeland for Muslims of Western India (existing Pakistan).
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Cripps Mission Plan 1942:
Since the start of the Second World War in 1939 British wanted the complete support of Indians in the war. First offer was made in 1939 but it was refused by Indians and Congress also resigned from their ministries. The events which occurred in the early 1940s changed the situation and British thought that now Indians would reconsider their position and may support the war. In 1941 Japan attacked USA at Pearl Harbour and entered the Great War. It joined the German Camp and declared war against England and her allies. England looked at it as an opportunity to pursue India to support the war. Japan started to invade countries towards east. India was in approach of Japan. If Japan wanted to attack England directly it was very difficult because geographically England was very far from Japan. So the best way to harm England was to attack India because it was the economic engine of England. In 1942 British sent Stafford Cripps to India with a set of proposals for India. In return they wanted Indian support in the war. The draft declaration which Cripps brought
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with him to India was published on 30 th March 1942. These proposals are as under:
1. India would be made a dominion of United Kingdom. 2. Immediately after the war a new body for making a constitution would be framed through provincial legislatures. Any constitution made by this body would be acceptable to British. 3. India would be made a union and any province would be free to join this union or not.
Quit India Movement:

In reaction the Congress party said they do not accept the proposals offered by Sir Stafford Cripps. They said Japan does not have any enmity with India. If British leave India there is no threat of Japanese invasion. So British should give complete independence and leave India as soon as possible. To further pressurize British the Congress started a political movement Quit India movement. In this movement they demanded British to immediately leave India and give it independence. Although this movement was unable to achieve its objectives at that time but in the longer run it became helpful to make British realize that now Indians are unwilling to allow them to manipulate India.
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Divide and Quit India:
On the other hand Muslim League was also not satisfied with the proposals of Sir Stafford Cripps. They said his proposals do no talk about the creation of Pakistan. So Muslim League cannot accept anything without Pakistan being offered in it. Muslims were also suspicious of the Quit India Movement because it did not consider the demand of Muslims of separate home land. So Muslims League started Divide and Quit India movement. Through this movement Muslims of sub-continent gave a clear message to British and Congress that they wanted independence and separatio n from Hindus.
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Gandhi Jinnah Talks 1944:

In 1944 Lord Wavell became Viceroy of India. He was man of moderate approach towards the problems. To create the feeling to reconciliation and brotherhood he released many political prisoners. Gandhi was also released during this time, who was in jail due to his Quit India movement. After coming out of jail he immediately contacted Jinnah to talk about the future of Muslims in India. Jinnah agreed and the meetings were held at Jinnahs home in Bombay. The first thing Gandhi said was that Congress and Muslim League should come over their differences and join hands to get rid of British. He said we need to work together to send British back to England and then we will talk about the rights and problems of India after we get Independence. He said this is our internal matter. Jinnah was staunch enough to understand that it was a trap in which Congress wanted Muslims to fell. He knew it well that once British leave India without decid ing the issue of Muslim separate home land Congress will do anything to suppress the voices of Muslims and will not give them their rights. Jinnah refused this offer. Secondly Gandhi tried to argue that Muslims of India do not have proper ground to ask for a separate home land with in India. He said there are two types of Muslims in India and both of them cannot ask for a separate home land. The first type he said are those who have come from other parts of the world and stayed in India for example, Arabs, Turks, Persian and Afghans. In this case if they want their homeland then they should return back to their countries. Secondly there are those Muslims who are the inhabitants of India and they converted their faith after Muslims came to India. In this case India is their home land and they do not have any right to ask a separate home land. Jinnah dismissed his arguments on the basis of modern democratic principles.
Simla Conference 1945:

In 1945 the Viceroy of India Lord Wavell decided to conduct new elections. For this purpose an administrative setup was required to conduct elections. To form this setup he invited major political parties to Simla. He said that in the interim setup there would be equal number of Muslims and Hindus. To discuss the working and formulation of this interim setup Lord Wavell invited major political parties to Simla in June 1945. Everyone agreed to the principle of having a 43
council. However the discussion came on a standstill on the point of nominations. The main issue was the nomination of Muslim me mbers. Muslim League was cla iming that all the Muslim members would be nominated by us. On the other hand Congress was claiming that they have a large number of Muslim me mbers and they represent Muslims as well, so Congress also has the right to nominate Muslim members. Muslim League was in an awkward position because it cannot claim that they represent Hindus as well. However Jinnah gave one name of a Hindu member to represent Muslim League. The dispute between the parties was not resolved and the conference ended without achieving its goals.
Winter Elections 1945-46:

In 1945 British conducted general elections for new governments across India. The results of these elections were like a new life for Muslim League. The league got convincing victory across India. In central legislative assembly the League was successful in winning all Mus lim seats which means it was a 100% victory for Muslim league. In the provinces they were able to get 87% of total Muslims seats. Before the elections Congress was confident that they would get a large number of Muslim votes and that is why they used to portray themselves as the true representatives of Muslims of India. These elections offic ially brought Muslim League on the equal footings with Congress. Now Muslim League has earned the right to talk on behalf of all Muslims of India. This convinc ing victory also strengthened the demand of Pakistan, because people voted for Muslim League which had a single demand of Pakistan. The results of winter elections also bring into prominence the leadership qualities of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Since the loss of the election in 1937 Jinnah had taken full charge of Muslim League and had taken the League to new heights. The results of Winter Elections were the confirmation of the fact that Jinnahs leadership was very important for the Muslims of sub-continent.
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Cabinet Mission Plan 1946:

The winter elections proved that the divis ion of India was now inevitable. The success of Muslim League in the elections proved that Muslims all across India have supported the demand of Pakistan. However the British gave it a last try to keep India united. For this purpose three members of Br itish Cabinet Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander and Pathick Lawrence. Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India assisted them. The Cabinet Mission Plan gave different proposals to Congress and Muslim League and asked them to consider them to live together. They said that any solution achieved now would be a temporary solution which would work for 10 years. During these ten years the either parties or communities would give another a chance to prove them. At the expiration of the time either parties or communities would be free to stay together or to make their own country. Until then the country would work as a union. Congress and Muslims League agreed to this basic principle. The next step was the demarcation of the boundaries of Muslim areas and Hindu areas for making different provinces. Wavell said Muslim League should take Baluchistan, Sind, N.W.F.P and West Punjab and make western part of Muslims India. Jinnah replied that Punjab cannot be accepted without its Eastern part. He said this way the province would be very weak because most of the resources of Punjab are located in Eastern part. That is why Jinnah refused this proposal. Then in the second proposal Br itish said that the province of Bengal would be divided between Hindu and Muslim population. According to this plan most of the important areas of Bengal were going to be given to Hindus including the most important city of Calcutta. It is located on the bank of river Hugly and has served as the center of trade of Bengal since British established it in 1690. This plan was also refused by Jinnah. He said that this way the part which British are offering to Muslims will be handicapped. Lastly Br itish said that the Indian Territory should be divided in three parts. Part A would include all the Muslim majority areas of West. Part B would consist of all the Hindu Majority areas in the central India and Part C would have the Eastern Muslim majority areas. Further it was decided that this setup will last for ten years and the parties at the end of this period would decide about the future that they want to stay together or they want to divide India. Jinnah agreed to this last proposal. Congress also agreed o n it. Unfortunately Jawaharla l Nehru made a statement regarding this agreement. He
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said that Congress would not feel bound by this agreement once British leave India. This act of Nehru decided the fate of sub- continent. This meant that Muslims of India would have to face Congress rigidity and atrocities which they faced during Congress rule of 1937-39. Consequently Muslim League backed out of the agreement and protested on the attitude of Nehru. This way the final attempt to keep India united also failed. Abul Kalam Azad rightly said in his book, India Wins Freedom that Jinnah did not make Pakistan Nehru did.
Direct Action Day (16th August 1946):

After the failure of Cabinet Mission plan and rude attitude of Congress Jinnah and Muslim League decided that there was need to take the struggle for Pakistan to the next level. Jinnah stated that now its our turn to hold the pistol and dic tate our terms. So it was declared that on 16th August 1946 a Direct Action Day would be conducted by Muslim League across sub-continent in which Muslims where ever they live would come out on streets to protest. This turned to be a very dangerous decis ion. Riots erupted across India and only in Calcutta around 4000 people lost their lives. These were the largest riots before 1947. Although many lives were lost but it became evident that Muslims cannot be ignored and their demands are serious.
3rd June plan 1947 and Independence Act 1947:

In the first quarter of 1 947Lord Atlee the new prime minister of England declared that British will leave sub-continent by June 1948. Till then the British government will make the necessary arrangements to accommodate the transfer of power to the local people. He called back Lord Wavell and sent Lord Mountbatten as new viceroy of India. The main task of him was to arrange the transfer and divide the assets, resources and land between the two future parts of Indian sub- continent. He arrived in India in March 1947. On 3rd June Lord Mountbatten came up with a plan of division of sub-continent. In it he sealed the fate of the future state of Pakistan. This plan became famous as 3rd June Plan. Some salient features of this plan are as under:
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1. 2.
The British will give independence to India on 15 th August 1947. The assets between Pakistan and India would be divided on the ratio of 5/17.
3.
Sind, Baluchistan and N.W.F.P would be given to Pakistan completely if their people confirm it and give a vote for Pakistan.
4.
The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided because they have mix population. According to a formula the Muslim majority districts would become part of Pakistan and non-Muslim majority districts would become part of India.
5.
To decide the boundaries between Pakistan and India a commission was setup and Cyril Radcliff became its chairman. He had hardly spent any time in India so it was clear that such a man would not be able to deliver. He used to take direct dictation from the viceroy over the issue of division of land. There were two sub- committee of this commission one for Punjab and one for Benga l. (The final report of this commission came out on 16 th August 1947, which means two days after the independence of Pakistan. This contributed a lot in the vio lence during the migration after independence, because the people living in areas close to present Pakistan thought their area would be part of Pakistan).
6.
All the independent states in sub- continent were given the choice to decide on their own that which country would they accede to or they want to remain independent.
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Different movements:
1. Swadeshi Movement:
In this movement Congress asked their fellow Indians Boycott all the British goods and buy only Indian products. This movement was launched during the protests for reversal of Partition of Bengal by Congress. Its aim was to frustrate British financially and to make them except Congress demand regarding the partition.
2. Civil Disobedience Movement:

This movement is about not following the laws of the country and not paying taxes and bills to government. This movement has been used many times by Congress and Gandhi against British.
3. Non-Cooperation Movement:
In this movement the participants do not cooperate with the government regarding their duties and create problems for them. Congress used this movement at different occasions however it became famous during Khilafat Movement.
4. Sawraj:
It means self-rule. It was demanded by Congress and later by Muslim League.
5. Satyagraha:
It is Hindi word which means truth- force. There were many angles to this idea and movement. Through this Gandhi wanted to cultivate the ideas of non-violence and simple living into the hearts of common Indians. It was also considered as a new method of fighting against British colonialism
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Allama Iqbal. born (November 9, 1877 Sialkot death Lahore April 21, 1938)
Chaudhry Re hmat Ali. Born in Balachaur in Hoshiarp District of Punjab (November 16, 1897- February3, 1951
Jawaharlal Ne hru. Born Nov. 14, 1889, Alla habad, India died May 27, 1964, New Delhi. First prime minister of independent India from 1947 till 1964.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Born Oct. 2, 1869, Porbandar, India died Jan. 30, 1948, Delhi. Came to India in 1914.
Muhammad Ali Jauhar
M uhammad Ali Jinnah. Born Dec. 25, 1876, Karachi, India [now in Pakistan] died Sept. 11, 1948, Karachi
Shuakat Ali Jauhar
Sir Agha Khan III Also known as Sultan Sir Mohammed Shah was born November 2, 1877, Karachi, India and died in July 11, 1957, Versoix, Switzerland. He became the Imam in 1885 after the death of his father.
Motilal Nehru
Justice Ameer Ali
Sir Agha Khan III
Liaqaut Ali Khan
Abul Kalam Azad, Maulana
49
Sir Shafi
Khan Sahab, Dr.
Sikandar Hayat Khan
Gangadhar Tilak
Sarojni Naido
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1947-1988
Early Problems Faced by Pakistan
Pakistan when came into being faced many problems. First of all it was a country which was based over an Ideology. Secondly the country from which Pakistan was made did not want Pakistan to remain independent. Then finally no other country wanted Pakistan to be made although other than Afghanistan every other country accepted Pakistan in United Nations. The government of Pakistan had a mammoth task of making Pakistan acceptable in the world and to survive against all odds. Some early problem which Pakistan faced in its early years of Independence is as under:-
1. Financial assets 2. Refugee problem 3. Military assets. 4. Accession of Princely states. 5. Canal Water dispute. 6. Constitutional development.
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1. Financial Assets:
Pakistan was allotted 750 million Rs. according to partition plan. India as a first installment paid 200 million Rs. Then India refused to pay the further 550 million Rs . to Pakistan. The case then was taken up by Gandhi who pressed on the fact that although Congress has always worked against the creation of Pakistan but now Pakistan has become a reality so we should accept it and pay the due share to Pakistan. He went on a hunger strike for the right of Pakistan to get money. As a result the Government of India paid another 500 million Rs. to Pakistan. India has not paid the remaining 50 million Rs. to Pakistan.
2. Refugee problem:
The roots of refugee problem can be found in the 3rd June plan. In this plan the last 51
Viceroy to India Lord Mount Batten lessened the time allowed by Lord Attlee (the prime Minster of England) by almost a year. Lord Attlee said in his speech in House of Commons the British will leave India by June 1948 and in 3rd June plan the Viceroy declared that partition would take place on 15 August, 1947.This proves that the Viceroy totally ignored the Communa l tension and the dispute over land distribution between Muslim League and Congress. The main cause of the refugee proble m was Radcliff Awards. It was decided that Pakistan would get Sind, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P, East Bengal and West Punjab. Muslims had full majority in all provinces other than Punjab and Bengal where they had more than 50% population but there were other communities as well. According to the original plan it was decided that the provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided according to the population distribution. Means the area which have Muslim majority would be given to Pakistan and the areas which have non-Muslim majority would be given to India. The people living in Punjab were sure that their area would be included in Pakistan, so they did not try to migrate before 14th August. The problem started when on 16th August Radcliff Awards were announced. According to it many districts of Punjab which had Muslim majority, like, Gurdaspur, Firozpur, Amritsar etc, were included in Indian territories. When Muslims of these areas came to know about this foul play by the Viceroy they left everything in India and tried to reach Pakistan. Many of them were killed on the way and those who reached Pakistan had no belongings. To counter the proble m Jinnah set up a Quaid -e- Azam Refugee relie f fund and asked people to donate money in the fund to help the refugees. Then he moved his headquarters from Karachi to Lahore for some time to counter the problem and have a close eye on the relief work.
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3. Military assets:
All army officers were given the choice to join any country after the Independence. Other physical assets were to be divided according to 5/17 ratio between Pakistan and India. The only problem which Pakistan faced was that there were 16 ordnance factories in undivided India unfortunately for Pakistan all of them were located in divided India. So India agreed to set up an ordinance factory in Pakistan. Wah ordinance factory was 52
established with the help of India.
4. Accession of Independent states There were 562 independent states in Sub-continent at the time of partition. British gave two choices to them, i) either to remain independent or ii) to join any country they would like to. Out of these 562 independent states only 14 were within the boundaries of Pakistan. The problem of accession was with only 3 of them namely Kashmir, Junagarh and Hyderabad Deccan. Kashmir, Dir, Sawat, Lasbelah, Bhawalpur, Khairpur, Kalat,
i. Kashmir: Kashmir was sold to the Dogra fa mily by British in mid dle of the 19th century. Since then they were ruling over it. The majority of its population, which was Muslim, was not satisfied with their rulers. At the time of Independence Kashmir had the status of Independent state, which had the right to accede to any country. The ruler of Kashmir at the time Hari Singh Dogra wanted to accede to India, but the 75% Muslim population wanted to accede to Pakistan. The clash between the ruler and the ruled resulted in violence. Hari Singh ordered the killing of anyone who was against him. In this situation Muslims living in Pakistan on the bordering areas of Kashmir attacked Kashmir to save their fe llow Muslims. Hari Singh in reply asked for the help from India. Lord Mount Batten was the Governor General of India at the time; he immediately sent Indian troops into Kashmir. Indian army stopped the advances of liberation army. Since that day Indian army has occupied Kashmir and refuse to leave and claim that Kashmir is part of India.
ii. Junagarh: It is a maritime state which does not have a land link with Pakistan. It can be reached from Pakistan through sea. The majority of the population in the state was Hindu but the ruler was Muslim who wanted to accede to Pakistan. Indian government wanted it to accede to India. Due to this tussle the ruler and the population was in dile mma of either joining any country or to remain independent. Fina lly a large force of liberation army entered into the borders of Junagarh and forcefully took it from the ruler. 53
iii. Hyderabad Deccan: The case of Hyderabad was like Junagarh. The population was Hindu majority but the ruler was Muslim. However there was a difference in the location of this area. Hyderabad is situated in the South of India and it is surrounded by Indian Territory from all sides. The ruler although wanted to join Pakistan initia lly but realizing the geographical handicap he decided to rema in independent. The Government of India cannot allow the most powerful and the richest independent state to rema in independent. Indian forces also entered into Hyderabad and took the area by force.
5 Canal Water dispute:

Pakistan is an agricultural economy. Still today Pakistan earns most of it foreign exchange through agro based industry and exports. For agriculture and second most important element after land is water. Fortunately Pakistan is blessed with every efficient river system. Without rivers Pakistan could not progress in any field. India took advantage of this weakness of Pakistan immediately after independence. The five major rivers which bring water into Pakistan have their headwork in Kashmir and India. Indus, Jhelum and Chenab have their sources in Kashmir and Ravi, Sutlej and Beas have their source in Northern India. India stopped the water of these rivers. Pakistan objected on it. India said these rivers start from Indian Territory thats why we have the right to use their water. Pakistan argued that these rivers should be allowed to flow on their natural course which means allowing them to flow through Pakistan. However the dispute took more than 12 years to be solved. It was finally resolved in 1960 that the three Eastern Rivers Indus, Jhelum and Chenab would be given to Pakistan and Ravi, Sutlej and Beas would go to India. World Bank played the role of arbitrator in this treaty and it is known as Indus Basin Treaty.
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The politics of Pakistan from 1947 till 1958:

Pakistan after coming into being went through a very ruthless phase of political chaos. After the death of Jinnah there was a vacuum of leadership, although Rana Liaquat Ali Khan was the best person to lead the party and the country however there were many opportunists who were waiting for any loop hole to take advantage of it in their own favor. It was clear that there was a lack to capable politicians to take control of all important portfolios of Government. Due to this paucity the Prime Minister had to rely on bureaucrats to fill the slots. In the early governments the administration relied heavily on bureaucrats and that became a weakness of politicians and strength of civil servants. Liaquat Ali Khan governed the government to best of his abilities from 1947 till his death in assassination on 16th October 1951. During these four years we do not find any evidences that he worked for his own selfish goals and did not give his 100% to his beloved country. After his sad demise again there was a split between the leadership of Muslim League that who should govern the country. Finally the finance minister Mlik Ghulam Muhammad convinced Governor General Khawaja Nazim ud Din to step down from his post and to take up the post of Prime Minister because the work started by Rana Liaquat can be best continued by the Khawaja Nazim because of his close working relations with the former Prime Minister. Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a bureaucrat and did not have his roots in people and therefore did care about the will of people. He later fully utilized powers vested in the office of Governor General. He dismissed Khawaja Nazim Uddin in 1953 and later dismissed a Constituent Assembly in 1954. He brought Muhammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister in place of Khawaja Nazim, who was another bureaucrat. So after 1953 both major governing offices were occupied by bureaucrats without the process of elections.
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Era of Ayub Khan 1958-1969:

Ayub Khan became first chief of army staff from Pakistan. He replaced General Douglas in 1951 when he was appointed as the Chie f of Army Staff by Liaquat Ali Khan. Then he was appointed as the defense minister of Pakistan in 1953 by the Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra when there was a political crisis in the country. Since then army became a very integral part of government. The difference amongst the political leader ship further gave way to the military intervention in political matters. After the proclamation of martial law by Iskandar Mirza on 7th October 1958 Ayub Khan saw a greater role for himself and the army in politics of the country. He seized power for himself two weeks later and threw Iskander Mirza out of Government. After assuming full power for himself he needed to legitimize his rule and stay in power. So he started the system of Basic Democracies. In first stage he divided the country into 80000 administrative units or Basic Democracies. Then he raised the number to 120000. After the elections of these basic democracies Ayub Khan took the vote of confidence from the newly elected Basic Democrats. He became second President of Pakistan in 1960. His rule over Pakistan was a long rule of 11 years. During this time he introduced many new policies which are discussed as under:
Constitutional reforms:
After becoming president the highest priority was given to the constitutio nal problem. With the proclamation of Martial Law in 1958 the constitution of 1956 was abrogated so there was a need for a new constitution. For this purpose he ordered the formation of a commission. The composition of this commission was retired chief jus tice of Supreme Court who would work as the chairman of this commission, two retired judges, a lawyer, a mill owner, a business man, a land lord and a member from minorities. This composition gives the hint about the final product and the intentions of Ayub Khan that what sort of government and constitution he wanted to create. There was no representation of majority of the people for example common man, laborers, farmers etc. This commission prepared a detailed questionnaire for understanding the views of people. This questionna ire was produce in the quantity of 28000 copies. Other than this exercise the commission conducted 565 interviews of people belonging to different walks of life. Many people were apprehensive about the wishes of Ayub Khan. Finally the report 56
of the commiss ion came out and it met the decided fate. It was not the commission which was running the show it was Ayub Khan. The report said the government should be formed on the model of USA with directly elected President and check and balanc e of Legislative, Executive and Judiciary. Ayub was willing to adopt it but with his own interpretation which says that the executive should not have any checks but other two pillars needs its authentication. Whatever the shortcomings of the commissions proposals, their chie f merit was the concern for the rehabilitation of democratic process, and whatever merit the president saw in his own proposal, their main was to provide a constitutional faade for a dictatorial design. 1 Finally the constitution came out in 1962. Some salient features of this constitution are as under;
i.
The name of the country would be the Republic of Pakistan. (In the last constitution it was Islamic Republic of Pakistan)
ii.
The country would be presidentia l form of government and president would be directly elected.
iii. iv. v.
All the executive authority would be exercised by President. President will select Prime Minister from the national assembly. All the laws passed by the parlia ment will be subject to the presidentia l consent. If the president disagrees with any particular legislation he would send it back to the parlia ment. (If the parliament still does not make any changes then fina lly the president has the power to send parlia mentarians to home by dissolving the assembly).
vi.
President will appoint governors in all the provinces. These Governors were giver extra powers of dissolving the provincial assemblies on the order of the President.
Agricultural reforms:
Ayub Khan paid a lot of attention towards agricultural potentia l of Pakistan. He knew that it is the back bone of Pakistan and it is the only quick way to boost the economy of Pakistan. In longer run reforms in other sectors like industry and export were needed for stability.
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1.
He ordered the import of Highly Yielding variety of seed. Through these seeds
farmers can get extra yield from the same land during the same amount of time. This way the annua l produce of any particular crop can increase. The main areas in which HYVs helped were exports. The HYVs of particular crops like cotton, wheat, rice and sugarcane contributed a lot in the economy. Even today rice and cotton are the main exports of Pakistan. 2. The mechanization process also started during his rule. Through it the efficiency
of work increased and finally it translated into increase in annual growth. This advancement helped in increasing the cultivatable land. Earlier agricultural activity needed lots of labor now machines can do work of many people at one time. 3. Another important aspect of agriculture is fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers are crucial for the agricultural activity of any country especially in todays world when the demand is increasing day by day and the land is continuous ly used. Land starts losing its fertility after some time for which some months of gap is required. However countries like Pakistan which only depend on agriculture cannot afford any break. In this situation chemical fertilizers provide strength to the land and soil. Ayub Khan imported and introduced many chemical fertilizers in Pakistan and he also supported the growth of chemical fertilizer industry. 4. He also introduced land reforms. He limited the la nd holding of irrigated and
non- irrigated land. Through this way his target was to distribute land amongst the people of Pakistan. Theoretically this was supposed to increase the annual production of crops because large land holding means unutilized land. The big land lords may not need to cultivate all the land they have because their life style can be supported easily by much less cultivation. This unutilized land may not affect the land lord but it is bound to affect the country because the annual production cannot be maximum according to the potential of the country. By distributing it in many owners the government wanted to make sure that the land is properly used.
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Industrial Reforms:
The process of industrialization started by Ayub Khan was very benefic ial to the economy of Pakistan. He invited investments from across the world and convinced the local investors to invest in the country. He assured them that their investments would be safe and profitable. The industrial growth indicators during his time were favorable. He established an oil refinery in Karachi in 1962. Oil refinery is a very important feature of industrialization. More industries means rise in the demand of electricity and the major source of electricity in Pakistan is fossil fuel. Earlier Pakistan was importing refined oil which costs much more than crude oil. In addition, by refining the crude oil many by products are also getable which are used for other purposes. He started a very important program Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) with Iran and Turkey. This was a very important program which had the potential of pulling Pakistan out of the list of Third World Countries. This was a very well thought out plan that could benefit all the three partners. Pakistan shares 450, miles border with Iran in South West and Iran shares approximately 200 mile long border with Turkey in North West. The program suggested road and railways links from Pakistan till Turkey passing through Iran. To promote exports he gave many incentives to exporters. He introduced a scheme called Bonus Export Scheme. Any exporter who met the targets set by the government was given extra incentives. Although all of these reforms resulted in record high growth rate of Pakistan but created another problem. The main criticism of his industria lization policy was that it favored few big business families rather than the whole population. 22 business families controlled around 80% of all the industries of Pakistan and 60% of all the banking and insurance business. Although the growth rate of Pakistan was very high the beneficiaries of this growth and development were few and the distribution of wealth or money was vertical rather than horizontal. Secondly all of these families were located in West Pakistan.
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Downfall of Ayub Khan:
The downfa ll of Ayub Khan was not sudden it took some years. We can say that his decline started after 1965. Pakistan entered into war with India in September the same 59
year. This war was an adventure that the people and government of Pakistan could not afford at that time. The war lasted less than a month and went into the favor of India. Both countries signed a peace treaty with the help of Russia in Tashkent. Although Ayub Khan told the people that it was great victory of Pakistan but the reality was something else. Ayub Khan blamed the war and the treaty on his foreign minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and asked him to leave his cabinet in July 1966. Bhutto in retaliation started his own political party Pakistan Peoples Party and became the center of the opposition against Ayub Khan. The presidentia l elections also earned him a bad name. The presidentia l candidate against him was Fatima Jinnah and the people who were against him saw a savior in the form of Ms. Fatima. She also had lots of popularity and there was a chance that she could surprise every one and sweep the polls. The results showed that Ayub Khan was very popular with the people and they support him to become the president again. This result was not accepted by people. The opposition parties protested and said that Ayub Khan has used his official powers to turn the elections in his favor. The political agitation against Ayub got strong during 1968. He was not a man who would leave the power easily or unless he tries out all the options he had. He arrested thousands of people. He also ordered the arrest of political leader ship includ ing Bhutto. The agitation against him rather than slowing do wn paced up. In February 1969 he released many political prisoners and offered the opposition to reconcile the difference but it was too little too late. Fina lly in March 1969 he decided to leave power and step down as president. He did not go silently; he proclaimed Martial Law once again in the country and gave all the powers to the Chief of Army Staff General Yahiya Khan.
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The partition of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh 1971:

Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947 and as a new country it was a different example in front of the world. First of all it was divided into two part and these two parts were separated from each other by enemy territory. Furthermore there were many other differences between the two parts of Pakistan. Pakistan was created on the basis of an ideology. However many scholars believe that we lost this ideology when we lost more than half of our population in 1971. There are many reasons behind the separation of East Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh. Even at the time of independence many political leaders had argued that should Bengal become a part of Pakistan or should it be made a separate Muslim country like Pakistan? Following are some reasons behind the divis ion of Pakistan and creation of Bangladesh;
Population distribution:
At the time of independence Pakistan had around 70 million people in both parts of the country. Out of them more than 55% were living in East Bengal. Pakistan had 5 provinces in total at that time. The rema ining 45% population was living in the other four provinces. Then all the people living in Bengal were Bengalis. On the other hand the remaining population was divided into four major types of people and multiple sub groups. The first proble m which arose between the people of East Bengal and other Pakistanis was on the issue of national language. Urdu was chosen as the national language and on the contrary Bengalis were asking the government to make Bengali the national language of Pakistan. This issue was resolved in the first constitution when both languages were made the national languages under the constitution of 1956. Then their majority was falsely decreased and was brought to the level of West Pakistan. This was done in 1955 when parity formula or one unit plan was introduced. In it all the provinces in Western Pakistan were united together to form one province called West Pakistan. The main purpose of this plan was to bring East Bengal on the equal level and to deny the majority it had. Although this plan was imple mented but the people of East Pakistan or Bengal never forgot the mistreatment of the ruling elite.
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Representation in army:
Pakistan army had a very few people from East Bengal. More than 85% of Pakistan army consisted on the people from two provinces Punjab and N.W.F.P. People of Bengal hardly had any respectable share in national army. This led to the rise of sense of deprivation in the hearts and minds of the people of East Bengal. After eleven years of the establishment of Pakistan martial law regime took over the country. Again like first 11 years Bengalis had no role to play in the new politics of Pakistan because of their representation in the army.
Representation in Government:
Like army the people of East Bengal were poorly represented in important offices of government. The cabinet and other advisors of the government were from the West side of the country. Also the power to make any decis ion was not in the hands of the East Bengalis.
Flight of money from East to West Pakistan:

East Pakistan was the largest supplier of Jute in the world. Other than that many crops of East Pakistan had high demand across the world. Bengal was the first province that East India Company captured. The main reason for their presence was the economic potentia l of Bengal. They stayed there and spread to other areas of India from here. Since the British rule Bengal was the center of all the major economic activity of sub-continent. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947 East Bengal still had the economic value. The main grievance of the people of East Pakistan was not that the Federal Government is earning money from there but the Government was not giving anything back. All the development was taking place in West Pakistan while the East side was growing frustration. The new capital Islamabad was built with the money of East Pakistan or with the major contribution from East.
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Six Points of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman:

The political direction of East Pakistan started to deviate from pro Pakistan towards Bengali nationalism as early as 1948. The address of Jinnah in Dhaka in which he declared that Urdu would be the national language of Pakistan was not taken lightly. Agitations started immediately after the speech. Since then Muslim League started to lose popular ity. In these circumstances a nationalist party Awami League attracted the inhabitants of East Pakistan by promising them the rights which the government of Pakistan was not giving them. Sheikh Mujib ga ined popularity in short time and established himself as the savior of his people. He was able to reach the apex of his political career after he presented his famous six points, which are as under; 1. Both sides of Pakistan should have their own currency. (The reason behind this point was that they believed that due to the West Pakistan the currency does not have value in international market. By separating currency they wished to safe themselves from the impact of slow and weak economy of West Pakistan). 2. The provinces should have full power to collect and set taxes within their jurisdiction. The provinces will pay the due share to the federal government. (This point suggests that they wanted to keep the money with themse lves which seems right as well. This way they can develop their part of the country which they think is behind the pace of development of West.) 3. Both sides should have their own paramilitary forces. (There was a strong believe that East Pakistan is very venerable compared to West Pakistan. Another reason was that majority of the army personals were from West Pakistan so there should be parity in this regard.) 4. A directly elected government should be installed at the center and allowed to work properly. 5. Each part should be allowed to make their own trade agreements. (The Federal Government was getting all the profits made through the trade East Pakistan. This point says that now the money would stay in the province.) 6. Federal Government should only control defe nse and foreign relations. All the other subjects should be given to the province The nature of these six points suggest that the people who have asked these points 63
do not wish to stay with Pakistan any more.
Muhammad Moiz Khan

Elections of 1970:
The first general elections were finally conducted in 1970 December under the LFO issued by Yahiya Khan. According to this ordinance the One Unit Plan was abolished and total number of seats was 300. West Pakistan was allocated 138 seats and East Pakistan was allocated 162 seats. The results of elections were very unique. Awami League won 161 seats in total but all of them were in East Bengal (Pakistan). They were unable to secure a single seat in the Western part. On the other hand the second largest party was Pakistan Peoples Party and they were able to secure 81 seats in total and all of these seats were located in four provinces of West Pakistan. PPP was comp letely rejected in Bengal. According to the rules of democracy it was the right of Awami League to form the government because of their clear majority in the parliament. However the demography of the election results can easily confuse any one. The people of both sides have rejected each other. The verdict of the people is very clear that they reject the other part. The political parties of the East were unable to attract the people of west and vice versa. Yahiya Khan thought that he has done his job and now its the politicians turn to form the government and serve the country and its people. He was wrong. He did not see the divide and its impact. Bhutto the leader of PPP said that he has the right to form the government because he was won seats in four out of five provinces of Pakistan. On the other hand Awami League said that they have clear majority so they should be asked to form the government. Yahiya Khan announced that the first session of the national assembly would be conducted in Dhaka in March 1971. Unfortunately some days earlier this session he postponed it till further notice. This proved to be the last nail in the coffin. The people of East Bengal started to agitate against this decision and full riots started in Bengal. Army was called and suppression on great scale was launched. Now it was too late the Bengalis were not willing to surrender. Finally on 16th December the East Pakistan became Bangladesh and the Pakistan lost most of its population.
Muhammad Moiz Khan
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Bhutto and his era 1971-77:

Important aspects to be covered:
1. Constitution of 1973 2. Nationalization policy 3. Education and health policy 4. Control over army 5. Steps towards Islamization 6. His downfall 7. Death of Bhutto
Muhammad Moiz Khan

Introduction:
Bhutto entered into politics of Pakistan during the rule of Ayub Khan. Ayub Khan made young Bhutto his cabinet me mber as a foreign minister. During his minister ship he impressed everyone within and outside Pakistan. All historians agree that Bhutto was the best foreign minister Pakistan ever had. In 1965 Pakistan entered in war with India which ended Bhuttos association with Ayub Khan. He was dismissed by Ayub Khan who blamed the war and its handling on Bhutto. After leaving government Bhutto started his own political party called Pakistan Peoples Party. He took the support of Marxist ideas and made a very popular slogan roti, kapra aur makan, means bread, clothing and shelter for everyone. The major problem of Ayub Khans era was accumulation of money in the hands of 22 business families; Bhutto carefully targeted this problem and used it in his own favor. He party became popular in very short time. However this popularity was restricted only in the West Pakistan. He and his Party was the spear head the movement against Ayub Khan. In the elections of 1970 his party was able to grab 81 seats out of 132 in West Pakistan however it failed to win any seat out of 162 seats in East Pakistan. After the separation of Pakistan on 16th December General Yahiya Khan then President and Chief Martial Law Administrator invited Bhutto to take charge of the country. On 20 th December Yahiya made Bhutto the President and Chief Martia l Law Administ rator of the country and backed away. 65
After becoming President Bhutto started to work towards framing the new constitution of Pakistan. He formed the national assembly on the basis of the results of 1970 elections. Within a year the new constitution was completed and it was implemented in 1973. According to the new constitution the form of government was parlia mentary and all the executive powers were in the hand of Prime Minister. Bhutto became Prime Minister of Pakistan.
1. Constitution of 1973:
i.
All the executive power will be in the hands of Prime Minister and he will be the head of the government.
ii.
The legis lation would be bi- camera (consisting of two houses). National assembly would be elected on the basis of population and in senate all the provinces would have equal number of seats regardless of population.
iii. iv. v.
President and the Prime Minister of Pakistan must be Muslims. The name of the country would be Islamic Republic of Pakistan. All the people of the country includ ing religious minorities would enjoy full civil liberties. President of Pakistan would be elected in directly through all the assemblies national assembly, senate and provincial assemblies.
vi.
2. Nationalization Policy:
The link of Bhuttos nat ionalization policy can be found in Ayub era. This policy was a reaction of the economic policy of Ayub Khan. Ayub introduced such economic policies which benefited only a fraction of the population of Pakistan which has been discussed in detail earlier. Since Bhutto started his political party promised common people of Pakistan to make their economic conditions better. During his political campaign he used the slogan, roti, kapra aur makan, (bread, clothing and shelter). After coming to power he followed a socialist plan to fulfill his promise. The plan seemed simple. All the private industries and businesses would be taken up by the government. He thought this way the government would open the employment to all and when people will get employment their living conditions would automatically improve. 66
In other words taking money away from rich and giving it to poor. Problem according to Bhutto was that private owners of industries limited the number of employees due to which less people got the chance. Bhutto after taking all the industries opened employment. This plan was initially successful but it had long term harmful effects; a) Industries started to more salaries than they were earning. Therefore government started to face heavy losses. b) By nationalization Bhutto closed the window for private investors. Local and foreign investors kept away from Pakistani market because of the fear of losing industries and investments. Due to this Pakistan did not see industrialization for more than a decade. This affected the economic growth of Pakistan.
3. Education Policy:
Bhutto also ordered to take over many schools. He opened many new government schools and colleges across Pakistan. He tried to homogenize education system of Pakistan. He made Primary education compulsory for every student. Although Bhutto introduced educational reforms but they were not enough to cope up with the needs of the country. Even today after 30 years of Bhutto, education is the foremost issue the government has to face. Unfortunately political parties hardly pay any attention towards these issues.
Muhammad Moiz Khan
4. Health Policy:
a.
Bhutto started Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilitie s to the population living in villages. According to the plan there would be one RHC for every 60000 people.
b.
He introduced Basic Health Units (BHU) in urban areas. One unit for every 20000 people.
c.
Training colleges were setup for the training of medical staff and assistants. Nursing schools were also started to train nurses to work across the country.
5. Control over army:

Before Bhuttos rule the politics of Pakistan was dominated by army under the influence of Ayub Khan. Bhutto took some steps to minimize the role of army and to have a check over them; 67
a. b. c.
He ordered the removal 29 important army commanders. He appointed army commanders who were more loyal to him. He established Federal Security Force to assist police in civilian matters. Earlier army used to be called by government for out of control civilian matters. This way army used to get a chance in power politics. FSF was also used for political victimization.
6. Downfall of Bhutto:
When Bhutto introduced the constitution of 1973 he formed the governme nt on the basis the results of 1970 elections. Opposition parties critic ized this step of Bhutto. The main argument was that when those elections were conducted Pakistan included East Pakistan as well and now its new Pakistan with new boundaries. All oppos ition political parties started protesting against Bhuttos government and demanded him to conduct new elections. Bhutto was confident that he enjoys popularity in majority of the people so he announced to conduct elections. On the other hand 9 different political parties joined and formed Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). These political parties in their political agitation and campaign were able to gather thousands of people of streets. In the elections PPP won 154 seats out of 200. PNA accused the government of rigging. They said that we do not accept the results of these elections and the government has wrongfully turned the results in its favor with the help of state machinery. The fr iction between the two parties grew and both were not willing to step aside. Government ordered to arrest anyone who goes against it. However the protest against the government became stronger. Thousands of people we re arrested but the movement did not die. Army played its role and tried to end the situation with their way. On 5th July 1977 Zia- ul- Haq the Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan stepped in and proclaimed martial law in the country. He took all the powers in his hands and arrested Bhutto. He also suspended the constitution of 1973.
Muhammad Moiz Khan
8. Death of Bhutto:
After Bhuttos arrest after the martial law he was released within few days. Zia knew that if he want to establish his rule over Pak istan then he need to get rid of Bhutto by 68
any means. Zia found out that there was a pending case of assassination against Bhutto. He was accused of ordering the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan father of Ahmed Raza Qasuri. Zia reopened the case and Lahore high court awarded death sentence to Bhutto. This sparked and international reaction regarding the politics of Pakistan. Many leaders of the world asked Zia not to go for this punishment and leave Bhutto. Only Zia had the power to pardon Bhutto as a president. Bhutto was rearrested in September 1977 and finally was put to death on 4th April 1979.
Muhammad Moiz Khan

69
Zia and his Era 1977-88

Zia came in power through martial law on 5th July 1977. He suspended the constitution and promised the people of Pakistan a new government would be formed through elections within three months. Later he stayed in power for the next 11 years. Zia told people that the country is going through a very chaotic phase and we need someone to save us from this turmoil. He presented himself to be that savior and claimed that he would take the country out of all the troubles. Zia was unable to abrogate the constitution of 1973 because according to it whoever abrogate this constitution will be considered enemy of the country and should be hanged. The main problem in front of Zia was to get support for his rule and legitimize it through any means. For this purpose he took the support of Isla m and the religious political parties who were against Bhutto. Some steps of his Islamization process;
Muhammad Moiz Khan
Is lamis ation by Zia:
i.
He made Dupatta compulsory for all Muslims women going in public places.
ii.
He prohibited the sale of alcohol openly and specially to Muslims. It could be sold by and to non-Muslims under a license.
iii.
He made Islamiat and Pakistan studies compulsory for all students in Pakistan.
iv. v.
He made shariat courts, He introduced and imple mented Hudood ordinances. There were four major aspects covered in ; a) offences of wrong allegation b) offences of Zina c) Offences against property and d) prohibition of drinking alcohol.
vi. vii.
He also introduced Zakat and Ushur ordinance. A council of Isla mic ideology was setup to recommend different policies in economics and other matters. He introduced the Ehteram- e- Ramzan (respec t of the holy month of Ramzan) ordinance.
viii.
ix.
The government issued the orders for the regular observance of Namaz and special arrangements were made to arrange Zohar in government offices.
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x.
The degrees granted by the religious institutions were given the equal status to M.A.
Support to Zias rule:

Till 1979 the rule of Zia was not stable but some international events became the saviors of Zia. Russia attacked Afghanistan. This was a great event and was very significant for the Western World. USA and other Western countries saw it as a spread of socialism which was not acceptable to them at any cost. Afghanistan became the battle field for the all the great powers. In this situation Western World wanted someone like Zia (who could be easily manipulated) to support them in all aspects. Zia was an army man and country was under martial law so whatever Zia does he can enforce it through power. It was an ideal scenario for the West. They support Zias rule and return they wished that he support them to check the advances of Russia. West fought whole Afghan War from Pakistan. A new term came in international politics proxy war due to this event. Finally West was able to achieve its goals and Russia lost the war and disintegrated. Secondly another great event of international importance took place which also ind irectly supported the rule of Zia. In Iran Isla mic Revolution took place. In this revolution the more liberal and modern government was over thrown by Islamic political leader led by Imam Khomeini in 1979. The revolutionaries first attacked US embassy and an international scandal started. In this scenario as well US needed unconditional support from Pakistan. The reason due to which these two events affected Pakistan was that it shared borders with both the countries. For USA a strong rule like military rule of Zia was ideal under the circumstances because he would do whatever they wished because his rule was illegitimate and USA was a super power. Zia willingly agreed to the wishes of US and secured a strong position for himself in the politics of Pakistan. He later stayed in power till 1988 when a tragic air crash took his life near Bahawalpur.
Muhammad Moiz Khan
The referendum:
Zia conducted a referendum before conducting electio ns. He wanted to strengthen
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his position and provide legitimacy to his rule. He knew that he might not get popular vote through e lections so he planned a tricky referendum in which he played with his voters. He posted a question which was very difficult for common people to say no to. Instead of asking people a simple question about his presidency like, do you want to see Zia as president he framed a question, do you agree with the process of Islamization and do you want to continues or not. Most of the population of Pakistan did not take part in this so called referendum. Those who went to take part were unable to deal with this tricky referendum and fell pray of Zias wish.
Elections of 1985:
After securing his position through referendum he went for elections. Again like referendum he planned to conduct which suited him and his plans to stay in power. He declared that the elections would be conducted on nonparty basis. This sounds like a joke and mockery of democracy. How is it possible for people to take part in electoral process without their political orientation and association? The elections were conducted under the strict supervis ion of army. Muhammad Khan Junejo became the Prime Minister of the so called elections. Even after the elections Zia did not lift Martial Law. Junejo was pressurized by the parliament to lift the Martial Law. However Zia had other plans. He said until the parlia ment accepts all the amendments made by him he will not lift it. So under the pressure the parliament legalized all the ordinances he made. 59 articles were amended in this single amendment called 8th amendment. The most famous artic le is 58 ii b, through which the president has the power to dissolve national assembly.
Muhammad Moiz Khan
Benazir Bhutto Frist Government 1988-1990:
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Introduction:
Benazir Bhutto was the eldest daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto the founding member and first chairman of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). She stayed outside of Pakistan throughout her educational years and received education in Oxford University, England. Whe n her fathers government was taken over by General Zia ul Haq she with other members of her family was captured by Zia and sent to jail for several years. After coming out of jail she and her family went out of Pakistan. She decided to permanently join politics and carry the mission of her father forward. She was guided by some senior members of PPP and finally decided to come back to Pakistan in 1986 and take charge of the party. She was married to Asif Ali Zardari in 1986 at Karachi. In 1988 August Genral Zia ul Haq died in an air crach near Bahawalpur after which the army of Pakistan decided to back out from active politics and did not announce another military president. The military administration announced election in 1988 which were conducted accordingly.
Formation of Government:
The party position in the elections of 1988 was not very strong however PPP emerged as the single largest party which did not have enough seats to make government on their own. Consequently a coalition government was formed with the support of other political parties. Due to the weak position of Benazir she made some compromises with the army and the caretaker President Ghulam Ishaq Khan. She agreed to support Ghulam Ishaq Khan in presidential election. Ghulam Ishaq was a former bureaucrat with illustrious career in terms of holding important government posts. She even agreed to continue with the foreign minister of Zias regime Sahibzada Yaqub Khan because the establishment could not afford any alteration in the foreign policy during those trouble years.
The troika:
The term Troika was coined during the first government of Benazir it means the Prime Mininster, President and Army Chief, consult before major important decisions. This was a compromise Benazir had to make if she wanted to form a government. The political forces were weak and army backed out of their own decision rather than the wishes of people or
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political parties. Army could have taken over again at any time if their ro le in decision making was challenged.
Friction between Islamabad and Provinces:

According to the constitution of 1973 Pakistan was a federation with four provinces which were responsible for many things concerning their development for example, educatio n (schools, colleges, and universities), health (hospitals, clinics, doctors, nursing schools), roads, some taxes, industrialization etc. However the power to govern these elements was not yet given to provinces in reality. The provincial governments wanted autonomy over these things so that do not have to depend upon Federal Government any more. The major opposition was posted from Punjab where anti PPP government was ruling under the leadership of Mian Nawaz Sharif. Islamic Democratic Front (Islami Jamhori Ittehad) was a union of pro-Islamic parties under the central leadership of Nawaz Sharif. This party was made b army in 1988 to counter the public popularity of PPP. Army although backed out from politics in 1988 but they did not want any single party to be powerful enough to make major changes in the government so they preferred a dilute political structure. The headlines of daily newspapers were occupied by comments and remarks of the leadership of PPP and IJI against each other. Benazir had control over federal government and Nawaz Sharif was ruling the largest province of Pakistan with more than 60% population. It was a fight between two giants and people were suffering. Benazir made Ghulam Mustafa Khar governor of Punjab who had the power to dissolve the provincial assembly on the advice of President. IJI reacted strongly against this appointment. A very shameful incident occurred during 1990 when three FIA (Federal Investigation Agency) agents were arrested by Punjab Police on the orders of Punjab Government, when they were investigating tax evasion by a minister of Punjab Government in one of his factories. The establishment of Punjab Bank in 1989 was seen a rebellion against the federation of Pakistan by Nawaz Sharif however the constitution provided provisions for such step by provincial governments. The blame game escalated by passing time and both parties targeted next elections. IJI wanted midterm elections so they can test their arm in government. IJI targeted Benazir for her position on Kashmir and relations with India. She was looking forward
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to defuse tension between the two countries for their better future. This issue was highlighted by IJI and they twisted it to such angles which supported them. This fight between the two largest parties of Pakistan served no purpose to the people perhaps it served the ambitions of political leadership. There was a debate that democracy could no function in Pakistan because of incompetent political leadership and the 1988-90 government strengthen this believe.
Fall from power:

The decline of Benazir started form Karachi. The government in Islamabad was supported by MQM (Muhajir Quami Movement). The leadership of MQM was facing different challenges than any other political party in Pakistan because o f their political agenda. MQM was established due to the marginalization of Muhajir community and people supported them because they stood for them. There were many expectations from MQM due to which the leadership had to work quick. Before 1988 election a massacre took place in Hyderabad in area of MQM supporters in which around 120 people lost their lives in spray of firing from cars at several places at one time. MQM demanded action from PPP their coalition partners on many such issues and they finally left PPP in 1989 and joined IJI and blamed PPP for turning away from its promises. On the top of it Pucca Qila operation took place in May 1990 when police raided Pucca Qila an old fort in Hyderabad in suspension of criminals hiding in it. Police opened fire and killed 31 supporters of MQM along with women and children. It is reported that women came out with Quran on their heads to stop the shooting but they were unable to do so. After this incident violence started in Karachi and Hyderabad. The president of Paksitan Ghulam Ishaq Khan used his power to dismiss government under the article 58-2,b. He said the government has failed to control violence, they are corrupt, they introduced nepotism and they are incompetent.
Some achievements of Benazir:

1. First Women Bank was opened by Benazir for giving larger role to women of Pakistan.
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2. There was a ban on trade unions during the time period of Zia. Benazir lifted the ban and allowed worker to make unions and demand their rights from employers. 3. In1971 Bangladesh was created and it became a member of Commonwealth. Since then Pakistan left commonwealth on protest. In 1988 Benazir government rejoined commonwealth. 4. Women were given job on a greater scale. They were now more government job than ever. They went into police and judiciary.
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Nawaz Sharif
Introduction:
Nawaz Sharif belonged to a well-established business family of Punjab. He started hi politics during the time of Zia ul Haq, who was responsible for many business favors to Nawaz Sharif. Even today the sugar mill owned by Sharif in Pakpattan in Punjab has Zia ul Haqs name on the founding stone. He was in fact brought into politics by military establishment to counter PPP in Punjab and later across the country. He became the Chief Minister of Punjab n 1986 due to good graces of Zia. He became the leader of IJI in 1988 when military establishment founded this party by bribes given to many leaders. The founder of IJI General Asif Nawaz has now told the story of its establishment and Mr. Asghar Khan has challenged the founding of IJI in court in a case, which is still pending in Supreme Court. In t 1990 elections Nawaz Sharif and his party claimed 105 seats against 45 seats of PPP. IJI emerged as the single largest party in Pakistan and went to form federal government. After forming the government he started to works towards his policies which were business friendly.
Economic policies:
Being a business man he believed in free market economy and decided to privatize 89 government owned organization which included railways, shipping, energy, telecommunication etc. Uncontrolled pr ivatization was dangerous to Pakistans economy and people because it would allow owners to maximize their profit without giving benefits to their workers. During his time millions of dollars came in for investment. He started a yellow cab scheme in which loans were given to people who could become owners of a taxi and pay the government later through its income. This was a very popular scheme and thousands of households benefitted with it. He fixed the minimum wages for workers to be 1500 Rs.. His policies were heavily criticized by PPP who compared his policies with plundering of Pakistan. His economic efforts generally benefitted the wealthy due to encouragement private business without governmental control.
Gulf war and Nuclear issue:
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In 1990 Gulf War started when Ghulam Mustaf Jatoi was care taker Prime Minister. He supported USA on its advances on Iraq and also sent Pakistani soldiers to support US. When Nawaz Sharif became Prime Minister he continued the policy of support. This was not taken as a good move by many Pakistanis including many supporters of Nawaz. He face huge criticism but did not change his stance. One of the reasons for Pakistans support was that US had put some economic and military sanctions on Pakistan on the doubt that Pakistan is developing it nuclear weapons. US demanded to immediately stop the nuclear program. Pakistans government thought by supporting US in Gulf war they might get some benefits, however US did not lift the sanctions even after unconditional support by Pakistan.
Internal disturbances:
During Afghan war Pakistan became a market for illegal weapons and drugs. Thousands of Afghan Refugees came to Pakistan who had their links back at home. All the weapons used in Afghan war came to Pakistan which were being bought by criminals and drug dealers. Nawaz Sharif faced the challenge of dealing with this menace with firm hand. He took many steps towards controlling these elements but did not succeed. He also made Speedy Trial Courts to conduct and conclude cases related to crimes then and there so more and more cases can be solved. However criticism was raised against the function of these courts and dealing with innocent because it had only one chance of appeal.
Reasons for removal from Power:

Bank scandals were the first major blows to the government of Nawaz Sharif. A bank BCCI (bank of Credits and Commerce International) was started by a Pakistani banker Agha Hasan Abedi in 1972. This bank dealt with most of the prominent politicians and business men of Pakistan including Sharif family who were major costumer of the bank. The bank was black listed by England and they closed all operations of the bank on the charges of frauds, money laundering and criminality. However Pakistans government supported the bank and allowed it to function in Pakistan. US government wanted to arrest Agha Hasan and extradite him fo America, but Nawaz Sharif refused to hand him over. On the other hand Nawaz Sharif started a military operation on it coalition partner MQM in Karachi. Army wasted to conduct this operation against the criminals of Sind. There
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was a division of opinion with in Nawazs leadership Chaudhry Nisar was of the opinion that it should not target MQM because it will further deteriorate the situation. However the operation was given green signal and Karachi became an urban battlefield. According to MQM thousands of it supporters were killed under the shadow of the operation. Ghulam Ishaq Khan the president of Pakistan once again decided to use his power to dissolve the national and provincial assemblies. He did it and framed same allegations against IJI government as Benazirs government. Nawaz went Supreme Court against the use of 58 -2b by president. Supreme Court favored Nawaz and ordered the restoration of assemblies calling the act by president as illegal. After restoration Nawaz under the pressure of military establishment finally decided to resign and call for fresh elections. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was also forced by army to resign as president.
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Languages:
Why Urdu was chosen as the national language of Pakistan?
At the time of independence there were many languages spoken in Pakistan, for examp le Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi and Pushto. However all of these languages were associated with a particular province or pe ople. There was no single language which was spoken all across Pakistan. The other fact was that all the above mentioned languages were regional and people speaking them could not understand each others language. In these circumstances choosing any one re giona l language over the other could create regional jealousies and hatred. Urdu was a language which was not associated with any one province. Urdu could also work as a bridging language between the different communities of Pakistan. This way no province of Pakistan can say that the government has neglected them over other province. Secondly Urdu was a language which originated in sub-continent some 8 centuries ago amongst Muslims. The early Muslim invaders had different races in their army for examp le Arabs, Turks, Persian, and Afghans etc. These people when started to communicate with each other a new language was formed which had words from all the languages these people spoke. So Urdu had always been associated with Muslims of sub- continent. Pakistan was a country made for the Muslims of sub- continent so their cultural identity was Urdu and this factor was considered by the early Government of Pakistan before choosing Urdu as a national language.
Muhammad Moiz Khan

Development of provincial languages by the government:
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Many steps have been taken by the government to promote provincia l languages in their respective provinces. The government universities offer Masters level degree in their regional language, for example Karachi University and Sind University situated in Sind have Sindhi department where students study Sindhi literature. Likewise Punjab University has Punjabi department which offers Punjab i literature. ii. The government supports the institutions which promote regional languages. For example newspapers are being published in the regional languages which are authorized by the government. iii. On the national televis ion PTV news was telecasted in provinc ial language in respective province.
i.
Muhammad Moiz Khan

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List of Secretary of state for India

1. 2.
Edward Henry Stanley, Lord Stanley Sir Charles Wood
(September 2, 1858 - June 11, 1859) (June 18, 1859 - February 16, 1866)
(resigned after being injured in a hunting accident)

3.
George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 3rd Earl de Grey (February 16, 1866 - June 26, 1866)
4.
Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne (July 6, 1866 - March 8, 1867)
5. 6.
Sir Stafford Henry Northcote
(March 8, 1867 - December 1, 1868)
George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll (December 9, 1868 - February 17, 1874)
7.
Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (February 21, 1874 - April 2, 1878)
8.
Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 1st Viscount Cranbrook (April 2, 1878 - April 21, 1880)
9.
Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington (April 28, 1880 - December 16, 1882)
10. 11. 12. 13.
John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley Lord Randolph Churchill John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley
(December 16, 1882 - June 9, 1885) (June 24, 1885 - January 28, 1886) (February 6, 1886 - July 20, 1886)
Sir Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross (1886) (August 3, 1886 - August 11, 1892)
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley Henry Hartley Fowler Lord George Hamilton St John Brodrick John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley (1908)
(August 18, 1892 - March 10, 1894) (March 10, 1894 - June 21, 1895) (July 4, 1895 - October 9, 1903) (October 9, 1903 - December 4, 1905) (Dec. 10, 1905 - November 3, 1910)
Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Earl of Crewe, 1st Marquess of Crewe (1911) (November 3, 1910 - March 7, 1911)
20. 21. 22. 23.
John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley
(March 7, 1911 - May 25, 1911)
Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe (May 25, 1911 - May 25, 1915) Austen Chamberlain Edwin Samuel Montagu (May 25, 1915 - July 17, 1917) (July 17, 1917 - March 19, 1922)
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24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier Frederick Smith, Earl of Birkenhead William Peel, 2nd Viscount Peel William Wedgwood Benn Sir Samuel Hoare
(March 19, 1922 - January 22, 1924) (January 22, 1924 - November 3, 1924) (November 6, 1924 - October 18, 1928) (October 18, 1928 - June 4, 1929) (June 7, 1929 - August 24, 1931) (August 25, 1931 - June 7, 1935)
Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland (June 7, 1935 - May 28, 1937)
List of Governors-General
Governors-General of the Presidency of Fort William, 1774 1833
1. Warren Hastings, 2. Sir John MacPherson, 3. The Earl Cornwallis, 1792, The Marquess Cornwallis) 4. Sir John Shore, 28 October 5. Sir Alured Clarke, March 6. The Earl of Mornington, Marquess Wellesley) 7. The Marquess Cornwallis, 8. Sir George Hilario Barlow, 9. The Lord Minto, 10. The Earl of Moira, Marquess of Hastings) 11. John Adam, 12. The Lord Amherst, Earl Amherst) 13. William Butterworth Bayley, 14. Lord William Bentinck 13 March 18284 July 1828, provisional 4 July 18281833 9 January 18231 August 1823, provisional 1 August 182313 March 1828 (from 1826, The 30 July 18055 October 1805, second time 10 October 180531 July 1807, provisional 31 July 18074 October 1813 4 October 18139 January 1823 (from 1817, The 1793March 1798 179818 May 1798, provisional 18 May 179830 July 1805 (from 1799, The 20 October 17731 February 1785 1 Feb. 178512 September 1786, provisional 12 Sept. 178628 Oct. 1793, first time (from
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Governors-General of India, 1833 1858

1. Lord William Bentinck 2. Sir Charles Metcalfe, 3. The Lord Auckland, of Auckland) 4. The Lord Ellenborough, 5. William Wilberforce Bird, 6. Sir Henry Hardinge, Hardinge) 7. The Earl of Dalhousie, Marquees of Dalhousie) 8. The Viscount Canning, 28 February 18561 November 1858 12 January 184828 February 1856 (from 1849, The 28 February 1842June 1844 June 184423 July 1844, provisional 23 July 184412 January 1848 (from 1846, The Viscount 183320 March 1835, continued 20 March 18354 March 1836, provisional 4 March 183628 February 1842 (from 1839, The Earl
Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858 1947

1. The Viscount Canning, 1859, The Earl Canning) 2. The Earl of Elgin, 3. Sir Robert Napier, 4. Sir William Denison, 5. Sir John Lawrence, 6. The Earl of Mayo, 7. Sir John Strachey, 8. The Lord Napier, 9. The Lord Northbrook, 10. The Lord Lytton, 11. The Marquess of Ripon, 12. The Earl of Dufferin, 21 March 186220 November 1863 21 November 18632 December 1863, provisional 2 December 186312 January 1864, provisional 12 January 186412 January 1869 12 January 18698 February 1872 9 February 187223 February 1872, provisional 24 February 18723 May 1872, provisional 3 May 187212 April 1876 12 April 18768 June 1880 8 June 188013 December 1884 13 December 188410 December 1888 11 October 18946 January 1899 1 November 185821 March 1862, continued (from
13. The Marquess of Lansdowne, 10 December 188811 October 1894 14. The Earl of Elgin, 15. The Lord Curzon of Kedleston, 6 January 189918 November 1905 16. The Lord Ampthill, 17. The Earl of Minto, 1904, acting for the Lord Curzon of Kedleston 18 November 190523 November 1910
18. The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst, 23 November 19104 April 1916 84
19. The Lord Chelmsford, 20. The Earl of Reading, 21. The Lord Irwin, 22. The Earl of Willingdon,
4 April 19162 April 1921 2 April 19213 April 1926 3 April 192618 April 1931 18 April 193118 April 1936 1 October 194321 February 1947
23. The Marquess of Linlithgow, 18 April 19361 October 1943 24. The Viscount Wavell, 25. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 21 February 194715 August 1947
Governors-General of India, 1947 1950

1. The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma, 2. Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, 15 August 1947June 1948, continued June 194825 January 1950
Governors-General of Pakistan, 1947 1958

1. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, 2. Khwaja Nazimuddin, 3. Ghulam Mohammad, 4. Iskander Mirza, 15 August 194711 September 1948 14 September 194817 October 1951 17 October 19516 October 1955 6 October 195523 March 1956
85
Prime Ministers of Pakistan

1) Liaquat Ali Khan 2) Khawaja Nazimuddin 3) Muhammad Ali Bogra 4) Chaudhry Muhammad Ali 5) Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy 6) Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar 7) Sir Feroz Khan Noon 8) Mohammad Ayub Khan (August 14, 1947 to October 16, 1951) (October 17, 1951 April 17, 1953) (April 17, 1953 August 12, 1955) (August 12, 1955 September 12, 1956) (September 12, 1956 October 17, 1957) (October 17, 1957 December 16, 1957) (December 16, 1957 October 7, 1958) (October 7, 1958 October 28, 1958) ,(chief martial law administrator to 24 Oct 1958). From 1958 until 1973, no person held the title of Prime Minister due to martial law. (December 7, 1971 December 20, 1971) (August 14, 1973 July 5, 1977)
9) Nurul Amin 10) Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
The office was again suspended from July 5, 1977 until March 24, 1985 due to martial law. (July 5, 1977 March 24, 1985) ,(chief martial law administrator). 12) Muhammad Khan Junejo (Again) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq, 13) Benazir Bhutto 14) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi 15) Nawaz Sharif 16) Balakh Sher Mazari (Restored) Nawaz Sharif 17) Moin Qureshi (Again) Benazir Bhutto 18) Miraj Khalid, (interim) (Again) Nawaz Sharif (March 24, 1985 May 29, 1988) (June 9, 1988 August 17, 1988) (Dec 2, 1988 August 6, 1990) (August 6, 1990 November 6, 1990) (November 6, 1990 April 18, 1993) (April 18, 1993 May 26, 1993) (May 26, 1993 July 18, 1993) (July 18, 1993 October 19, 1993) (October 19, 1993 November 5, 1996) (November 5, 1996 February 17, 1997) (February 17, 1997 October 12, 1999)
11) Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq
On October 12, 1999, Pervez Musharraf overthrew Nawaz Sharif, and took the title of Chief Executive. On June 20, 2001, he was made the President of Pakistan.
86
19) Pervez Musharraf
(October 12, 1999 November 23, 2002) ,(de facto to 14 Oct 1999, from 14 Oct 1999 chief executive)
Elections were held on October 10, 2002 leading to the return of the position of Prime Minister 20) Zafarullah Khan Jamali 21) Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain 22) Shaukat Aziz 23) Mian Muhammad Sumru 24) Sayyed Yousuf Raza Gillani (November 21, 2002 June 26, 2004) (June 30 2004, August 28 2004 (August 28, 2004- November 16, 2007 (November 16, 2007 March 25, 2008 (March 25, 2008 Present
Presidents of Pakistan:
1) Iskander Mirza 2) Muhammad Ayub Khan* 3) Yahya Khan* 4) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 5) Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry (March 23, 1956 to October 27, 1958) (October 27, 1958 - March 25, 1969) (March 25, 1969 - December 20, 1971) (December 20, 1971 - August 13, 1973) (13-Aug-1973 to September 16, 1978)
6) Muhammad Zia ul-Haq* (September 16, 1978 - August 17, 1988) 7) Ghulam Ishaq Khan 8) Wasim Sajjad 9) Farooq Leghari 10) Wasim Sajjad (August 17, 1988 - July 18, 1993) (July 18, 1993 - November 14, 1993) (November 14, 1993 - December 2, 1997) (December 2, 1997 - January 1, 1998) (June 20, 2001 August 18 2008) (August 18 2008 September 9, 2008) (September 9, 2008 till present)
11) Muhammad Rafiq Tarar (January 1, 1998 - June 20, 2001) 12) Pervez Musharraf* 13) Muhammad Mian Soomro 14) Asif Ali Zardari
87

Pak. St. Notes. 1857-1947

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Pak. St. Notes. 1857-1947

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War of Independence:

Different aspects to be covered in this topic;

2. Reasons for the failure of Indians in the War:

iv. Lack of unity and coordination:

Phases of Indo-Pak history from 1857 till 1947:

First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British vs. Muslims)

Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims vs. Hindus)

Third Phase 1913 till 1928 (Muslims + Hindus vs. British)

Muhammad Moiz Khan

First Phase 1858 till 1905 (Hindus + British Vs Muslims)

Muhammad Moiz Khan

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: (1817-1898)

Contributions and services of Sir Syed:

Quran) It was a detailed commentary on Holy Quran.

Educational ins titute s :

ii.Two nation theory:

Indian Councils Act 1861:

Hindi-Urdu controversy 1867:

Formation of Congress 1885:

Indian Councils Act 1892:

Muhammad Moiz Khan

Second Phase 1905 till 1913 (British + Muslims Vs Hindus)

Partition of Bengal 1905:

Why the partition was done?

forced to reverse the partition.

Simla deputation, 1906

The Formation of Muslim League 1906:

communities and in the hearts of other communities for Muslims.

Morley Minto Reforms 1909:

The number of central council was increased to be 60 members.

Third Phas e 1913 till 1928 (Hindus+Muslims Vs British)

Muhammad Moiz Khan

Change of Objectives by Muslim League:

Lucknow Pact 1916:

Khilafat movement (1919-1924)

1 Why did the Khilafat movement start?

The movement was weak from the start

Events of Khilafat Movement

The reasons for its failure :

Montague Chelmsford Reforms or Act of India 1918:

Reaction of Muslim League and Congress on these reforms.

Jhalianwala Bagh Incident:

Simon Commission (1927):

Nehru Report (1928):

First ever demand of full independence:

Fourteen points of Jinnah

Allahabad Address 1930:

Round Table Conferences:

First Round Table Conference;

Second Round Table Conference

Third Round Table Conference:

Chaudhry Rehmat Ali:

P = Punjab A = Afghania K = Kashmir 31

Self-Exile of Muhammad Ali Jinnah:

Communal Awards (1932):

Lecturer Dept. of General History University of Karachi 0322-2391591, [email protected]

separate electorates for Muslims.

Self-exile of Jinnah and his return to politics: