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The Principles of LCD Technology

The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules along grooves

When coming into contact with grooved surface in a fixed direction, liquid crystal molecules line up parallelly along the grooves.
Natural state

Molecules are When coming Molecules line arranged in a into contact with up parallel along loosely ordered a finely grooved grooves. fashion with their surface long axes (alignment layer). parallel.

When liquid crystals are sandwiched between upper and lower plates, they line-up with grooves pointing in directions 'a' and 'b,' respectively

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The molecules along the upper plate point in direction 'a' and those along the lower plate in direction 'b,' thus forcing the liquid crystals into a twisted structural arrangement./ (figure shows a 90degree twist) (TN type liquid crystal)

Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement

The light also "twists" as it passes through the twisted liquid crystals Light passes through liquid crystals, following the direction in which the molecules are arranged. When the molecule arrangement is twisted 90 degrees as shown in the figure, the light also twists 90 degrees as it passes through the liquid crystals.

Light bends 90 degrees as it follows the twist of the molecules

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Molecules rearrange themselves when voltage is applied

When voltage is applied to the liquid crystal structure, the twisted light passes straight through.

The molecules in liquid crystals are easily rearranged by applying voltage or another external force. When voltage is applied, molecules rearrange themselves vertically (along with the electric field) and light passes straight through along the arrangement of molecules.

Blocking light with two polarizing filters

When voltage is applied to a combination of two polarizing filters and twisted liquid crystal, it becomes a LCD display.

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Light passes when two polarizing filters are arranged with polarizing axes as shown above, left. Light is blocked when two polarizing filters are arranged with polarizing axes as shown above, right.

TN type LCDs
A combination of polarizing filters and twisted liquid crystal creates a liquid crystal display.

When two

When voltage is

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polarizing filters are arranged along perpendicular polarizing axes, light entering from above is redirected 90 degrees along the helix arrangement of the liquid crystal molecules so that it passes through the lower filter.

applied, the liquid crystal molecules straighten out of their helix pattern and stop redirecting the angle of the light, thereby preventing light from passing through the lower filter.

This figure depicts the principle behind typical twisted nematic (TN) liquid crystal displays. In a TN type LCD, liquid crystals in which the molecules form a 90-degree twisted helix, are sandwiched between two polarizing filters. When no voltage is applied, light passes; when voltage is applied, light is blocked and the screen appears black. In other words, the voltage acts as a trigger causing the liquid crystals to function like the shutter of a camera.

Display Systems
Display principles
Displaying letters, numbers and graphics are based on the following three display methods:

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1. Segment system Long display units are arranged to form a figure '8' to display numbers. 2. Dot matrix system (character display) Display units are arranged in rows and columns to form characters.

3. Dot matrix system (graphics display) Display units are arranged in rows and columns to depict graphics.

The principle of color displays

A color display is made possible by placing color filters over each display unit. In dot matrix systems, red, green and blue dots are obtained through the use of filters for each of the three primary colors red (R), green (G) and blue (B). A variety of colors can then be expressed by combining them.

Display configurations
The light passing through the liquid crystals is merely natural or artificial ambient light. The configuration of the display is categorized by the relative position of the light source. There are three types:

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1. Transmissive type (LCD TV) 2. Reflective type (LCD calculator, watch) 3. Projection type (LCD projection)
LCD configurations

LCD Structure and Production Methods

Next is a brief description of the structure, liquid crystal materials and production process of a simple matrix LCD.

LCD structure
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Sandwiched structure
Color LCDs have a structure in which their components are formed into a sandwich-like arrangement. 1. Polarizing filter This controls the light entering and leaving. 2. Glass substrate This stops the filtering of electricity from electrodes 3. Transparent electrodes These electrodes drive the LCD. A highly transparent material is used that will not interfere with the quality of the image's integrity. 4. Alignment layer Film is used to align the molecules in a fixed direction. 5. Liquid crystals
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6. Spacer Maintains a uniform space between the glass plates. 7. Color filter Color is expressed through the use of R, G and B filters. 8. Backlighting The display is lit from behind to make the screen brighter. In some types of monochrome LCDs, a mirror is used in place of backlighting so the display can be seen with ambient light.

The Evolution of LCDs

LCD technology has come a long way in the last several years, resulting in a steady stream of new products.

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LCD Evolution

Improved display performance

The first displays were segment types that could only display numbers, and then these were followed by dot-matrix systems capable of displaying characters and graphics. Displays later evolved from monochrome to color, from still images to moving images, and from small to large screens.

The evolution of three LCD technologies

1. Drive systems 2. LCD types 3. Peripheral technologies

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The Evolution of Drive Systems

Static drive system Dynamic drive system

An upper electrode is connected to each display segment.

Example showing four upper electrodes and two lower electrodes. The display segment to be shown is selected by segment to be shown is selected by combinations of upper and lower electrodes.

From static to dynamic drives

A drive system 'drives' the LCD by applying voltage to specific electrodes. In the early days of LCD development, segment systems

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used a static drive system in which each segment was driven separately. The number of terminals required in this system increases with the number of display units, making it unsuitable for use with large screens. The development of a dynamic drive made it possible to drive displays with fewer terminals.

Simple and active matrix drives

Today, static drives are now rarely used. The most common dynamic drive systems in use today are active matrix drives and simple matrix drives. Active matrix drives are used for TVs and other moving picture applications, which require high picture quality and a fast response. Simple matrix drives are mostly used in calculators, word processors, personal computers and other still image applications. Classification of dynamic drive systems

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The Structure of Simple/Active Matrix Drive Systems

Structure of simple matrix drive system
Structure

Circuitry

The X electrodes are laid on the lower substrate of the liquid crystal cell, and the Y electrodes are laid on the upper substrate. Electrical signals are applied to the X and Y conductors with the proper timing to select the target pixels.

The structure of active matrix drive systems (TFT)

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Structure

Circuitry

In active matrix LCDs, switching transistors (TFTs) or diodes are attached to each pixel to switch each one on or off. X and Y electrodes are formed on the same substrate as TFT (or diode) arrays. The switching signals are applied to the X electrodes. Video signals are then applied to the Y electrodes.

The Evolution of Different LCD Types

Major types of LCDs
TN Structure Twists nematic crystals 90 degrees STN TSTN

Twists nematic crystal Replaces DSTN about 260 degrees compensation cell with (opposing twist directions) plastic film

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Color

Black/white Low power consumption Thin, lightweight Low cost Cannot handle a large capacity Calculators, electronic organizers

Yellow-green/dark blue

Black/white, multicolor

Features

Large capacity display Large capacity display Thin, lightweight Thin, lightweight Low power Low power consumption consumption High contrast Color display High contrast Black/white display not possible (therefore, color display not possible) Word processors (monocolor) High contrast and high speed Word processors, laptop computers

Problems or advantages Main applications

From TN to STN, TSTN, and FSTN

The very first types of LCDs were called DSM (dynamic scattering mode), but TN (twisted nematic) has become the standard today. Almost all active matrix drive displays use TN type LCDs, and numerous types of active elements are being developed. The use of TN type LCDs in simple matrix drive displays causes the contrast to drop as the numbers of scan lines of the image displayed is increased. To compensate for this, new types of LCDs are being researched and developed. Advances in LCD R&D have already led to the development of STN (super twisted nematic) type LCDs, which offer high contrast, even on large screens; and TSTN (triple STN) and FSTN (film STN) LCDs, which feature a lightweight and thin body design that are optimal for large black-and-white LCDs and precise color imaging when equipped with a color filter.

Conceptual diagrams of major LCD types

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Twisted Nematic (TN) Type

Contrast tends to drop when used with large screens.

Molecules twisted 90 degrees. Super Twisted Nematic (STN) Type

Good rise characteristic for a high contrast display

180 degrees to 260 degrees twist. Colored yellow-green and blue Triple Super Twisted Nematic (TSTN) Type A high polymer, double refraction film is used to create blackand-white LCDs of exceptional quality. The single-layer compensation film is called FSTN (Film Super Twisted Nematic). A compensation film is placed above and below the operating cell.

Classifying Active Elements

TFT structural configuration

TFT structure is composed of three electrodes--X,Y and Z--which act as switching transistors.

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MIM structural configuration

This is structurally identical to the simple matrix system, but has only the two X and Y electrodes. A diode with a metallic-insulated metal structure is sandwiched between the two terminals. The diode performs the switching function in place of the transistor, but it is slow.

Active elements
The following types of active elements are used in active matrix systems: the three-terminal element, typified by thin-film transistors (TFTs) including amorphous Si-TFTs, high-temperature polycrystalline Si-TFTs, and low-temperature polycrystalline Si-TFTs; the two-terminal element, of which metal-insulator-metal (MIM) is typical; and plasma and address variations. The structure of the three-terminal element offers superior switching performance. TN is the most commonly used LCD structure.

Summary--comparing various types of LCDs

Below is a list of the differences between drive systems, LCD types and active elements, together with their respective features. As can be seen from the table, an LCD with an active matrix system, TN type LCDs, and TFT LCDs offer the best overall performance.
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System

Structure

Features

Problems

Applications Primarily still images such as in the electronic organizers, word processors and personal computers

Picture quality drops when the X and Y electrodes Simple number of are laid out in a production Simple wires is matrix drive vertical and Superior cost increased horizontal lattice advantages Halftone response speed

Picture quality is between An insulator which that of simple matrix and TFT performs switching active matrix drive displays Word processors, is sandwiched MIM Production ease and cost are personal computers, between the X and both between those of simple TVs Y terminals matrix and TFT active matrix drive displays Active matrix drive High contrast and high picture quality regardless of number of High cost conductors Permits halftone display Superior response Display performance

A silicon thin-film semiconductor which performs TFT switching between the X and Y terminals

TVs, projection displays and other moving picture applications

Response Display Drive (moving Large Type Terminals capacity Cost Full Viewing system picture screen Contrast Halftone (high color angle applications) resolution) TN Duty STN drive USTN TSTN Active TN TFT

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matrix drive

MIM

Essential Peripheral LCD Technology

The impact that "peripheral technologies" have had on the evolution of LCDs is to great to be ignored. The elemental technologies surrounding the LCD play a critical role in actual cell assembly. Below are some of the essential technologies that help improve LCD performance.

Conceptual diagram of a TFT LCD panel

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Color LCDs have a structure in which liquid crystals are sandwiched between the alignment layers, glass substrates, and polarizing filters. They are backlit in order to obtain the clearest possible pictures through the color filter. The gap between the glass substrates is several microns wide. To correctly maintain a uniform gap width, transparent spacers (beads) are required.

Color filter technology

Progress is also being made in the production of RGB color filters for full color displays. Putting RGB color filters in electrode substrates forms color filter methods. Color filter methods have to be simple to make in order to reproduce clear colors, the brightest white and when use of all RGB lights is required. Color filter formation methods
Features Method name Gelatin dyeing method Patterned resin is dyed Pigment impregnation method Resin containing pigments made into a pattern Printing method Color ink containing pigment is printed on Electroplating molecules A resin coat is electroplated on the pigment surface Pragnan Chakravorty, Director, CARET, Advaita Corporation No Description Resolution Color Reliability reproduction

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LSI and mounting technologies

As display capacity increases, the number of liquid crystal cell terminals also increases and LSI devices are required with pin numbers ranging from 80 to 100 or 160. Diversification in screen size and dot configuration likewise requires diversification in semiconductor elements. Higher cost performance, simpler system design and other needs must also be met. To solve these problems, advances must be made in the mounting technology used to form the circuit substrate, as well as in the LSI technology itself. One of these production technologies, tape automated bonding (TAB), contributes to more compact, thinner systems by permitting the tape mounting of LSI devices with 100 to 160 film type terminals. A chip-on-glass (COG) method which mounts LSIs on LCD panel substrates is now underway for some products.

Backlight technology
Since LCDs themselves do not themselves emit light, an external light source is needed. In monocolor displays for calculators and other devices, a mirror is used to reflect ambient light, and in LCD TVs and other color displays, a backlight is used. A semi-transparent type of lighting, which integrates the features of both kinds of lighting sources, is being developed for use in vehicles. It uses a mirror when the ambient light is sufficiently strong, and a backlight when it is not.

Low reflection LCD technology

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Conventional LCD displays could not show images clearly in light place. Low reflection LCDs are improved by 1) anti-reflection coating on the front cover 2) incorporating low reflection rated materials to black matrix parts. The end result is brilliantly clear pictures projected because of the low reflection to out coming light. Structural view of a low reflective LCD

A new single-panel optical system

Because dichroic mirrors perform color separation into red, green, and blue, no color filter is required. Adoption of an integrated flat micro lens for gathering light makes it possible to obtain brighter, clearer highdensity pictures. Structural view of the new single-panel optical system

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Defining the New LCD Age with New LCD Technology Super High Aperture TFT LCDs (Super HA)

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An extraordinary level of super high picture aperture, quality and low power consumption
A screen with a high aperture of 81% (current conventional LCD aperture: 47%), high brightness, high contrast will be implemented, and a gradation of 256 levels (current number of levels: 64), which has been regarded as almost impossible to obtain with LCDs will also be produced. Furthermore, power consumption will be greatly reduced. These advances will allow the introduction of next-generation, multimedia-ready notebook PCs capable of handling moving pictures from TV broadcasts, CD-ROMs, DVDs and other video media products, offering exceptional viewing quality even in a brightly lit place, and will utilize a long-life battery. This technology will also contribute to the evolution of audio-visual equipment, car navigation and other visual systems. Sharp's LCD technology breakthroughs: 1. Power consumption is greatly reduced by 57%*. (10.4-inch fixed intensity, 70 cd/m2 SVGA) 2. Brightness levels are increased by 72% (compared with
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current conventional models), and an 120 cd/m2 configuration will be implemented. (10.4-inch SVGA with a backlight power consumption of 3.5 W) 3. A contrast ratio 300:1 is achieved.

* Compared with conventional Sharp products

Low-Temperature Polysilicon TFT LCDs (LPS)

"System-on-Panel" create the next generation products

Without LCD technology, the evolution of various products would have been impossible, especially in the areas of information equipment, audio-visual equipment, and consumer electronic products. In order to obtain an even higher level of LCD product performance and to further lessen costs, the development of new and innovative LCD technologies is necessary. A new, encouraging technology is an LCD integration design called "System-on-Panel," which mounts a screen and its peripheral circuits on the same substrate. The successful implementation of this technology will lead to a substantial savings in
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costs by shortening the display manufacturing and inspection processes while maintaining a level of high reliability. System-on-Panel designs will help realize the implementation of high-density, multifunctional, compact LCD products, which until recently were thought to be an impossibility. As a method for implementing the System-on-Panel design, polysilicon thin film transistor (p-Si TFT) LCD technology, not the conventional amorphous silicon thin film transistor (a-Si TFT), is showing the most promise. This System-on-Panel technology maximizes reliability and reduces display costs by replacing conventional high temperature processing (at 1000 centigrade), with low temperature processing (500 centigrade or lower), allowing mass production by using large glass substrates. (This will be applicable to 20-inch monitors in the future.) In the future, System-on-Process applications will be used in: super highdefinition Hi-Vision Projectors, multimedia-ready ultra-compact Personal Information Tools, pocket-size audio-visual equipment, ultra-slim digital cameras, etc.

Super Large Screen Direct-Viewing LCDs

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A new joining technology for the world's largest LCD screen

Sharp has developed a new LCD multipanel technology for creating large screen LCDs, and trial production of the world's largest 28-inch direct-viewing TFT LCD has begun. This technology makes the best use of technological resources including the currently used TFT technologies and equipment to develop large screen direct-viewing LCDs. A new joining technology has also been developed to create large, multipanel screens without conspicuous seams. This breakthrough will make it possible for large screens to project powerful images, and expands the range of possible new LCD inventions in the multimedia age. Some of the features of this new technology include: 1 A uniform pixel pitch (880m) is evenly implemented throughout the seams. 2. The high-precision glass cutting technology allows the joint
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width to be reduced to 30 m or less, and the fine sealing line is reduced to a width of 150 m (which is one-fifth of the conventional sealing width) by using a new high polymer material. This polymer allows the joining distance, including the sealing width, to be within half of the pixel pitch (less than 440 m), making seams inconspicuous. 3. A new adhesive having an optical refractivity near that of glass, with high transparency and low double refractivity is used for joining two panels. This adhesive reduces scattering and reflection of light at the seams. 4. The above-mentioned joining technology is being applied to 21inch TFT LCDs, which has led to creation of the industry's first 28inch LCD multipanel (using two 21-inch TFT LCDs). This multipanel technology is the most suitable for multitask display production for PCs, information boards, presentation boards and a host of other visual products.

6. Other Flat-Panel Displays

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In addition to LCDs, other types of flat-panel displays are being developed. Below are descriptions of their operating principle, features and applications.

Electro luminescent (EL) Panels

These panels use zinc sulfide or other materials that emit fluorescence when voltage is applied to them. Powder electro luminescence has been known since 1937, but it did not come into practical use until around 1981, when a thin-film EL panel was developed in which fluorescent material was deposited on a glass substrate. These displays have high contrast and are used in space shuttle displays as well as office equipment.

The outstanding features of EL technology

EL displays use thin-film phosphors, which emit light when subjected to an electrical field. These displays offer the following advantages over LCD or PDP displays. 1. High resolution and large size (16-level gray scale, 1024 x 768 dots) 2. High contrast 3. High response 4. Wide viewing angle 5. Lightweight, thin profile 6. Low power consumption

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EL display applications
EL displays enjoy an ever widening range of applications, including office automation equipment such as laptop computers and word processors, displays in the space shuttle, delivery vehicle navigation terminals, train ticket vending machines, etc.

Future evolution
EL displays are expected to find use in a widening range of application areas, but there is strong demand for multicolor or full-color versions that enable the display of multifaceted data. At the present stage of development, EL displays have been created which can emit green, red or yellow light based on the use of filters and the development of new phosphor layering technologies using CVD (chemical vapor deposition) processes. As these EL displays approach a suitable level for practical use, we can anticipate the availability of high resolution, full-color EL displays in the near future. Recently, the development of material for use in organic EL displays has proceeded very rapidly, and has become practical. Thin-film EL display

Thin-film EL display

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

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By joining two types of semiconductors, LEDs emit light when a current is passed through them. These devices are capable of converting a flow of electrons into light. Due to their excellent brightness, they are often used on outdoor signs.

Vacuum Fluorescent Displays (VFD)

This is a type of vacuum tube composed of positive, negative and gridlike electrodes. Positive electrodes and fluorescent material are separated into display units on a glass substrate, and thermo electrons are emitted from separate negative electrode filaments in another location. These thermo electrons are accelerated by the grid located between them and impact on the target display unit, whereby it is illuminated.

Plasma Display Panels (PDP)

This is a type of two-electrode vacuum tube, which operates on much the same principle as a household fluorescent light. An inert gas such as argon or neon is injected between two glass plates on which transparent electrodes have been formed, and the glass is illuminated by generating discharge. These have high contrast and are relatively easily applied to color displays. Development of 40-inch full color PDPs has developed so rapidly, that they can now be used for public information signs or televisions.
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Features and applications of various flat display

LCD Non-light emitting elements LED EL VFD PDP Vacuum discharge

Type Display capacity (sharpness) Display performance Contrast Full color Halftones Response (natural) Large screen Brightness Voltage/power consumption Cost

Solid Solid light light Vacuum emitting emitting discharge elements elements

(Backlighting)

Main applications

Calculators, word processors, personal computers, TVs, vehicle displays

Word processors, Outdoor personal signs computers, vehicle displays

Car Outdoor dashboards, signs, audio TVs equipment

Field Emission Display (FED)

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An FED projects pictures using the same light emitting principle as CRTs. An FED removes electrons from the cathode, and makes them collide with fluorescent material applied to the cathode, thus emitting light. While the cathode of a CRT uses a point electron source, an FED uses a surface electron source. Six-inch color FED panels have already been manufactured, and research and development on 10-inch FEDs is proceeding very rapidly. When compared with TFT LCDs, FEDs offer a superior viewing angle (160 degrees both vertically and horizontally) and are several microseconds quicker in response speed.
Light emitting principle of an FED system

Digital Micro mirror Device (DMD)

A DMD has a structure in which an SRAM chip is covered with aluminum mirrors measuring 16 m square. The two opposite corners of each mirror are supposed by columns, and rotate while keeping a }10 degrees angle from the horizontal. The mirrors control the reflecting volume of light from its source, projecting a picture on the screen.
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Because a DMD operates completely under digital control, the picture is not distorted by noise, and a seamless picture can be projected on the screen. (DMD technology is only applicable to projectors) A DMD projector consists of a DMD of 768 by 576 pixels, a Xe arc lamp, a color filter and a lens. The DMD chip is irradiated with light approximately 2,000 lumens in brightness, and 640 by 480 pixel pictures are projected. Sixty 480-line pictures are projected on a 100-inch screen every 1/60 of a second.
Configuration of a DMD projector

1. Evolution Toward the Future

Compared to cathode ray tubes (CRTs), LCDs offer the significant advantages of greater compactness, lower operating power, and lower power consumption. Development to date has sought to improve
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materials and drive systems while taking advantage of LCD features. As a result, a growing number of LCDs are being used for the display screens of word processors and personal computers, and full-color LCD TVs. In the future, LCDs are expected to be used in larger screens offering higher picture quality. As vacuum tubes were replaced by semiconductors, LCDs are expected to start assuming all the roles that CRTs are now fulfilling.
Technological breakthroughs

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Introducing the fourth generation of LCDs

Since the world's first commercially practical LCD was introduced in 1973, various technological innovations have been made that have improved picture quality, reliability, screen size, and have reduced body size, weight and power consumption. Every new technological innovation has brought forth new products and led to the growth of LCD business. Sharp regards the latest LCD breakthroughs as the fourthgeneration of LCD technology and products, and plans to aggressively promote the further expansion of the LCD business.

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New Liquid Crystal Materials

Ferroelectric LCDs
Engineers have high expectations for the newest advance in LCD technology, ferroelectric LCD displays, and intense research efforts are underway. Mayer first used ferroelectric liquid crystal in an LCD in 1975. These liquid crystal molecules are endowed with a positive or negative polarity in their natural state, even without the application of an electric field. In other words, ferroelectric LCDs utilize intrinsic polarization. Attention is being focused on ferroelectric LCDs because they offer the following unique characteristics which differ from conventional LCDs:

1. Memory
Ferroelectric display images are not lost when the power is cut; the image remains intact. Since the arrangement the liquid crystal molecules had when voltage was last applied is retained, the number of scanning lines can be increased without sacrificing contrast quality.

2. High response rate

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Very high-speed displays are possible. Speeds more than 3,000 times faster than TN LCDs.

3. Wide viewing angles

Reduces viewing angle limitations. Since the contrast does not change depending on the viewing angle, high resolution, largescale LCDs are possible. Ferroelectric LCDs do not require expensive switching elements like active matrix drive systems (as TFT LCDs do), making large-scale highresolution displays with large information capacity are possible using simple passive matrix addressing. These displays are still in the research stage of development, but expectations are high that this technology will reveal a dramatic new LCD potential. Future challenges lie in correcting manufacturing difficulties related to improving radiation and more effectively controlling uniform cells (2 m max.), and product development.

Anti ferroelectric (AFLC) LCDs

An AFLC LCD creates optimum optical switching by using a phase transition from the anti ferroelectric phase to the ferroelectric phase that is caused by an electrical current. In the anti ferroelectric phase, when no electric current is applied, the optical axis is along the liquid crystal layer is normal, resulting in "dark" state. In the ferroelectric phase when an electric field is applied, the optical axis tilts and causes double refraction, resulting in a "bright" state. Thus, switching between a "dark"
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state and a "bright" state is controlled by using an electrical field to display picture images. (See Fig. 1) An AFLC offers an excellent gradation display and good image reproduction. Its panel structure is similar to that of conventional LCDs except that the cell gap is thinner. In addition to having a quick response time, an AFLC offers other advantages including a wide viewing angle and a simple structure that leaves room to make the highdefinition screen as large as possible. (See Fig. 2) Figure 1-Display principle of AFLC

Figure 2-AFLC panel structure

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2. The Monitor Displays of Tomorrow

(Application of Low-temperature Polysilicon TFTs: System-on-Panel)

LCD Still-Image Camera

SOP technology integrates a photographic lens, an ultra-compact CCD, flash memory, and an LCD, to create a credit card-sized electronic camera. This LCD electronic still camera can be used by anybody-anywhere, anytime.

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Wristwatch-Type Personal Information Manager

This ultra small Personal Information Tool can receive FM teletext broadcasts and has a PHS (Personal Handy phone System) personal information manager functions. When equipped with a PHS portable phone function, a pen-input computer changes into a personal information station, which can handle various types of information. When data obtained with an LCD still camera is transmitted to the Wristwatch-Type Personal Information Manager (PIM) through an optical communication link, it also functions as a monitor.

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Wristwatch-Type Multimedia-Compatible Equipment

This Wristwatch-Type Personal Information Manager comes equipped with multimedia-compatible applications including a built-in MMIC (mixed microwave IC) and integrated drive circuits, and a high-definition display that all fits into the units slim-profile, lightweight and narrow frame. By means of satellite data broadcasting (BS data broadcasting and CS data broadcasting), this equipment can handle still picture data, text data, facsimile data, etc., and can be used as a TV phone.

Hi-Vision LCD Projector

This compact, lightweight, Hi-Vision LCD Projector reproduces highdefinition images for superb picture quality. It helps create an environment where products can be seen in life-like, vivid colors so viewers can conduct their entire home shopping needs while paying great attention to details.
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Multimedia-Compatible Notebook
With this multimedia-compatible notebook, you can use the reflective full-color LCD, called "industrial paper," exactly as a paper notebook, as well as receive satellite broadcasted communications. This notebook has an advanced handwriting recognition feature, which allows easy cut-and-paste editing and corrections.

Panel Computer
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This multimedia-compatible panel computer can be easily used by anybody, anywhere, anytime. The system can be readily expanded to handle optical and other advanced communication functions. The PIM (Personal Information Manager) Panel Computer can be customized, making operation incredibly easy. All a user has to do is input the required data.

Advancing LCD Technology Toward the Next Century High Polymer Dispersion LCDs
Increased brightness through the elimination of polarizing filters
New developments in LCD research have made it possible to increase brightness by eliminating the use of polarizing filters. The principle is that fine liquid crystal particles, which are dispersed among high polymers, when exposed to an electrical field, operate as an optical shutter. Unlike TN LCDs, this LCD uses the scattering and nonscattering molecular states to enhance brightness intensity, thus eliminating the need for polarizing filters.

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In the future, the following features will be included in projection type LCDs: 1. High brightness without polarizing filters 2. High speed operation (1 m sec.) 3. The elimination of the liquid crystal injection process 4. Easy cell gap control 5. No rubbing is required

Ferroelectric LCDs
High contrast, large displays featuring wide angle viewing
Ferroelectric LCDs are expected to usher in a new generation of high contrast, large displays offering a wide-viewing angle. Ferroelectric LCD features: 1. A memory function and a direct matrix electrode structure which allows large-capacity displays to be utilized 2. Quick response time of 10 sec. 3. Wide-viewing angle 4. High contrast picture quality The problems:

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1. The shock resistance, high-voltage resistance, hightemperature resistance and low-temperature resistance are still too low 2. Continuous gradation is difficult because of stability factors 3. Because the picture-changing speed is low, ferroelectric LCDs are not suitable for moving pictures 4. Manufacturing ferroelectric LCD panels is quite difficult

Introduction to Major Flat Panel Display Technologies

1. Liquid crystal displays
Liquid crystal displays (LCD s) are the most common type of flat panel displays (FPD s) and have been widely used since the early 1970's. All LCD s utilize the fact that certain organic molecules (liquid crystals, LC) can be reoriented by an electric field. As these materials are optically active, their natural twisted structure can be used to turn the polarization of light by, for example, 90 degrees. Two crossed polarizers normally do not transmit any light but if a 90-twisted LC is inserted in between, light will be transmitted as shown to the left in. On the other hand, applying an electric field will unwind the helical structure and the LC therefore loses its polarization-rotating characteristics. As a result, the display turns dark as shown to the right in. An LCD consists of an array of picture element ("pixels"), which can be individually addressed according to the principle below. Direct-view LCD s can largely be categorized into reflective and transmissive displays, which utilize ambient light and light from a fluorescent backlight tube, respectively.

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Figure 1. Principle of a passive-matrix twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

The twisted nematic (TN) type of LC s shown in are in the passive matrix configuration (i.e. simple electrodes for applying the electric field) primarily used in products such as wrist-watches, handheld calculators, pagers, pocket games, and other inexpensive devices requiring low power consumption and a small form factor. Its response speed is, however, insufficiently fast for high resolution and/or high frame-rate displays. In the late 1980's, this problem was solved by the introduction of super twisted nematic (STN) LC s which are twisted 270 instead of 90. With a response speed of around 200 ms, STN enabled screen sizes of 8-10 inch with VGA resolution (640x480 pixels). It is no exaggeration to say that STN was the enabling technology for notebook computers. Despite this progress, though, the response speed is still not high enough for displaying fast moving images such as mouse movements or video. Moreover, increased screen-size and pixel counts negatively affects STN parameters such as contrast, gray scale capability, and noise because of a large capacitance and limited conductivity of the electrodes. To solve this, a sample-and-hold circuit can be attached to each pixel, which maintains the voltage during one frame scan. Such a circuit was practically realized by the advent of thin-film transistors (TFT s). At first, TFT s were extremely expensive to manufacture and the price of a notebook with STN and TFTLCD s could differ more than $1,000. Today, however, production technology has caught up and TFTLCD s is now the mainstream technology for notebook displays. The structure of a TFTLCD is shown in.

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Figure 2. Structure of a thin-film transistor liquid crystal display

The first TFT s were made from cadmium selenide (CdSe) in 1972 but an investment momentum in the solar cell industry convinced the Japanese to move towards amorphous silicon (a-Si) although CdSe both has higher electron mobility and handles higher current densities. The electron mobility is a crucial parameter increasing the frame rates and/or pixel count. It is also important when downsizing TFT devices for fine-pitch displays such as 120 ppi (pixels per inch) or more. Polycrystalline silicon (p-Si), with a higher mobility than a-Si, is expected to play an important role in this context. Indeed, projection displays using tiny TFTLCD shutters (typically 2-inch diagonal) often employ p-Si because of a pixel pitch of only a few tens of micrometers. Whereas these devices are grown at high temperatures on expensive quartz substrates, direct-view displays require lowtemperature processes, which are compatible with conventional glass. Low temperature processing of p-Si is therefore attracting extremely much attention at the moment. In 1998, Sharp Corp. and the Semiconductor Energy Laboratory announced a new technology called continuous grain silicon (CGS), which could potentially revolutionize TFTLCD s. With mobility close to crystalline silicon, a 2.6-inch projection display device for high-definition TV was successfully demonstrated. In addition to enabling higher resolutions, the CGS and p-Si technologies allow driver circuitry - and eventually complete LSIs and CPUs - to be integrated monolithically. Apart from being employed in notebook computers and, recently, in desktop monitors with diagonal sizes up to 30 inch, TFTLCD s are used in reflective displays for mobile terminal applications requiring video speed.

2. Displays for portable devices

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The strong customer demand for portable gadgets in Japan has triggered research on alternatives to the mainstream liquid crystal modes TN and STN, which, because of low transmittance and thus high power consumption, are more suitable for backlit displays for desktop monitors. With the goal of bringing reflective display quality close to paper print, brightness, contrast, and color saturation must be improved. Since polarizers effectively cut off 50% and color filters 66% of the incoming ambient light energy, several new modes without color filter or polarizers have been developed. One such mode is guest-host in which an isotropic dye (guest) is incorporated in a LC (host). The applied electric field reorients both the LC and the dye molecules, which due to its an isotropic absorption will switch between transparent and opaque states. Displays employing the guest-host mode are bright, have wide viewing angle, but slow response. It is therefore mainly used in watches and portable digital assistants (PDA s) Another way to switch light is by controlling the amount of scattering in a mixture of polymers and LC droplets. Whereas the polymer matrix is fixed, the LC droplets can be reoriented as usual by an electric field. For certain directions, the refractive indices of the droplets and polymer are matched and light therefore goes through without scattering. On the other hand, orienting the droplets in such a way that the indices are mismatched causes increased scattering and therefore a lower brightness. Displays based on this principle still needs color filters but the brightness is greatly improved over the twopolarizer conventional TN display. Applications include projectors and large-size shutters for window glass. Another type of reflective displays utilizes light control via diffraction by changing the LC phase electrically. Cholesteric LC s, for example, have a periodic structure that either selectively backscatters light of a certain wavelength or transmit the remaining ones. Applying an electric field will change the cholesteric phase to focal conic, which efficiently scatters incoming light, and the display will appear dark. In the reflective mode, the helical pitch determines the wavelength of the diffracted light so cholesteric LCD s appear colored. The electrically induced phase change is reversible but has a hysteresis with built-in bistability. Therefore, display contents will be maintained even after the power has been switched off. Moreover, Ch LCD s do not require active matrix driving because of the bistability and displays with extremely high resolutions (300+ ppi) are therefore within the reach. There are still, however, several problems that have to be solved prior to commercialization. Switching is slow (typically hundreds of ms) and requires high voltages (typically 40 V) incompatible with battery power. Because of the bistability, means to achieve full color are also an issue. Ferro electric LC s (FLC s) play a special role in LCD s because of an intrinsic fast response in the microsecond range. The surface stabilized FLC (SSFLC) mode is bistable and does not require any active matrix driving. With the bistability, however, gray scale (or color) must be simulated by spatial dithering. Manufacturing SSFLC devices is very challenging since it requires a laterally homogeneous inter-substrate spacing of less than 2 micrometers. Canon has, nevertheless, commercialized a 15-inch SXGA (1280x1024) display using the SSFLC technology. Meanwhile, Toshiba is working on an active-matrix anti - FLC which does not suffer from bistability and, consequently, not from any lack of Pragnan Chakravorty, Director, CARET, Advaita Corporation

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gray scale capability. Similarly, Denso has developed prototypes of a passive-matrix AFLC using a partial phase-change mode. Although FLCD s look promising from a material point of view, unreliable production, limited operating temperature range, and lower contrast are still issues.

3. Field Emission Displays

Field emission displays (FED s) have many similarities with conventional cathode ray tubes (CRT). In fact, one company calls its FED product "flat CRT ". As for the CRT , electrons are accelerated in vacuum towards phosphors which then glow. The main difference is that the electrons are generated by field emission rather than thermal emission so the device consumes much less power and can be turned on instantly. Instead of one single electron gun, each pixel comprises several thousands sub-micrometer tips from which electrons are emitted. To achieve a low operating voltage, the tips are made of a low-work function matieral such as molybdenium and are shaped into very sharp tips so that the local field strengths become high enough for even a moderately low gate voltage. The state-of-theart FED s can operate at gate voltages as low as 12 V. Sucked out of the tips, the electrons are accelerated towards the phosphor screen by either a low or high voltage. A low voltage simplifies the device design but disables the use of highly efficient and mature CRT phosphors. The design problems are rapidly being overcome and the mainstream FED is therefore of the high-voltage type. Since it is difficult to control the current of each individual tip, the display operates in a saturated mode with each pixel turned either on or off. Thanks to the fast response of the device (ns range), gray scale can be obtained by pulse-code modulation (PCM). Much of the FED research is still focused on suitable emitter materials, which can lower the driving voltage. One of the most exciting ones is diamond which enables field emission at voltages as low as 1-2 V. Manufacturing such tips, however, is a hurdle and the commercial FED s are therefore still using metal tips. Since the FED is a vacuum device, atmospheric pressure becomes a severe problem for large-area panels. In particular, internal support posts, which prevent the device from imploding, must be thin enough to fit into space between pixels. This together with lifetime issues and bringing down the driving voltage are the main challenges ahead for FED developers.

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Figure 3. Field emission display

Typical FED applications include portable ruggedized instruments, pocket video players, mobile videophones, aircraft video displays, and, eventually, laptop computers. Compared to TFTLCD s, FED s are far superior with a wider viewing angle, faster response, higher color saturation, and lower power consumption. Despite this, however, manufacturing and lifetime problems have prevented a full-scale commercialization of FED s as have furious investment in the TFTLCD production capacity, resulting in unhealthy price drops. Surface conduction emitter display (SED) is a new FED -type display type pursued by Canon. The emitter consists of a thin film of ultra small palladium oxide (PdO) particles, which is patterned into narrow gaps (10 nm) where the film has been removed. As electrons are driven in the surface film, they tunnel through the gap, are multiply scattered against the other edge and finally accelerated by the anode voltage. SED devices are not new but emission of previous materials (mainly metals) has proven unstable and thus unsuitable for display applications. SED prototypes have promisingly demonstrated luminance more than twice of that of PDP s at lower power consumption so Canon is aiming at introducing the technology in consumer products.

4. Cathode Ray Tubes

Invented in 1897, the cathode ray tube (CRT) is still the most common display type today. The picture is rasterized by rapidly scanning an electron beam in a vacuum tube Pragnan Chakravorty, Director, CARET, Advaita Corporation

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whose inner front surface is covered by red, green, and blue phosphors. Electrons generated by a heated electron gun are accelerated towards the phosphors by a static high-voltage field and deflected by magnetic fields, which, together with the electron beam current, is controlled by a video signal. As the electrons impact on the screen, phosphors are excited and emit colored light The CRT is a very simple and matured device and the production costs have been trimmed. It features advantages such as high response speed suitable for high-frame rate, high-resolution video, wide viewing angle, saturated colors, high peak luminance, and high contrast. However, due to the high-voltage field, oscillating magnetic field, and Bremsstrahlung (X-rays) generated by electrons hitting the screen, the CRT has been regarded as hazardous for long-term use. During the last decade, though, several of these problems have successfully been solved and modern computer monitors are today being designed according to strict environmental standards such as TCO -95.

Figure 4. Principle of a cathode ray tube.

Another common cause of eye fatigue is flickering which occurs from the short emission lifetime of the phosphors. An NTSC TV signal with a 30 Hz frame frequency is therefore interlaced at 60 Hz to reduce flicker. Because of the higher resolution of computer monitors, the limited response speed of the video electronics makes it difficult to increase the frame frequency of non-interlaced signals (standard computer output). Recent state-of-the-art video electronics can handle SXGA (1280x1024) at 75 Hz or more, though. In addition to its size, weight, and high power consumption, traditional CRT s with cylindrically or spherically curved surfaces have suffered from geometrical distortion, particularly at the edges. Recently, however, flat-surface CRT s has been introduced by companies such as Sony, Sharp, and Matsushita (Panasonic), which eliminate such distortion. Pragnan Chakravorty, Director, CARET, Advaita Corporation

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Although several of the drawbacks above have been removed by new technologies, s will eventually face problems with high-resolution displays requiring finer pixel pitches. Rather than thinness, lower power consumption and weight, it is for this reason TFTLCD s will be a serious competitor to CRT s.
CRT

Figure 5. Principle of vacuum fluorescent displays

5. Vacuum fluorescent displays

Vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs) are another display that utilizes thermal emission (640C filament) of electrons and phosphor excitation to generate color. In contrast to a CRT, however, the electrons are accelerated by a much lower voltage and the pixels are switched on/off by changing the sign of the electric potential at the target anode. A positively charged target will attract electrons whereas a negatively charge target will repel them. Attracted electrons excite the phosphors, which thereby emit light. Contrary to a CRT, the phosphors can be patterned in any shape and VFDs are therefore suitable for displaying icons in consumer electronics. Due to their ruggedness and high luminance, Pragnan Chakravorty, Director, CARET, Advaita Corporation

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they are also employed in automobile dashboard- and head up displays. The two major companies in Japan pursuing VFD s are Ise Electronics and Futaba. In principle, VFD s could be used in larger displays for monitor applications but since it is a vacuum device, the mechanical construction could be a problem. An advantage over FED s, though, is that no spaces are needed between the pixels.

6. Plasma Display Panels

A plasma display panel (PDP) is essentially a matrix of tiny fluorescent tubes, which are controlled, in a sophisticated fashion. There are two main types, DC - and AC of which the latter has become mainstream because of simpler structure and longer lifetime. This section treats the AC -type. A plasma discharge is first induced by the positive period of an AC field and a layer of carriers is shortly thereafter formed on top of the dielectric medium. This causes the discharge to stop but is induced again when the voltage changes polarity. In this way, a sustained discharge is achieved. The AC voltage is tuned just below the discharge threshold so the process can be switched on/off by adding a relatively low voltage at the address electrode.

Figure 6. Principle of an AC PDP

The discharge creates plasma of ions and electrons, which gain kinetic energy by the electric field. These particles collide at high speed with neon and xenon atoms, which thereby are brought to higher-energy states. After a while, the excited atoms return to their original state and energy is dissipated in the form of ultraviolet radiation. This radiation, in turn, excite the phosphors which glow in red, green, and blue ( RGB ) colors, respectively. Since each discharge cell can be individually addressed, it is possible to switch on and off picture elements (pixels).

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To generate color shades, the perceived intensity of each RGB color must be controlled independently. While this is done in CRT s by modulating the electron beam current, and therefore also the emitted light intensities, PDP s accomplish shading by pulse code modulation (PCM). Dividing one field into eight sub-fields, each with pulse weighted according to the bits in an 8-bit word, makes it possible to adjust the widths of the addressing pulses in 256 steps. Since the eye is much slower than the PCM, it will integrate the intensity over time. Modulating the pulse widths will therefore translate into 256 different intensities of each color. The number of color combinations is therefore 256 x 256 x 256 = 16,777,216. At first, PDP s had problems with disturbances caused by interference between the PCM and fast moving pictures. By fine-tuning the PCM scheme, however, this problem has been eliminated. While PDP s are relatively lightweight and can be manufactured at a thickness of 3-4 inches, they still consume prohibitively much power. The luminous efficiency, i.e. the amount of light for a given amount of supplied electric power, is still at approximately 1 lm/W, about 10% of some other FPD technologies. Also, the discharge process causes sputtering of the cells, which inevitably reduces lifetime. With a new protective dielectric layer of MgO, however, this problem has largely been solved. Despite these problems, PDPs are promising because of their modest requirements on manufacturing technology. Compared to TFTLCD s, which use photolithographic and hightemperature processes in clean rooms, PDP s can be manufactured in less clean factories using low-temperature and inexpensive direct printing processes. Also, PDP s feature wide viewing angles, no susceptibility to magnetic fields, and are easy to scale up for wallhanging TV applications.

7. Other FPD technologies

This report will be updated shortly and information added on the following technologies. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Thin film electro luminescent displays (TFEL) Light emitting diode arrays (LED) Electro chromic displays (ECD) Thermo chromic displays (TCD) Organic luminescent displays (OELD) Plasma addressed liquid crystal displays (PALC) Micro displays on CMOS back planes Micro-Optical Electromechanical Systems (MOEMS)

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