Introduction to Perl Programming

H4311S B.00 Module 1

What Is Perl?
Perl Practical Extraction and Reporting Language. Perl has similarities with the C programming language. Perl has similarities with shell scripting. Perl is a linear programming language, not a cyclic processor like sed and awk. Perl has built in commands and functions. Perl uses modules to extend its capabilities. Extensive documentation is available on the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network (CPAN).

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Parts of a Perl Program

1. #! /opt/perl5/bin/perl 2. # @(#) Version A.00 3. # $Revision: 1.2$ 4. # 5. # This program prints a greeting then exits. 6. # 7. print Hello, world.\n; # tradition 8. print Welcome to Perl programming.\n; 9. 10.exit;

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Creating a Perl Program

Plan the flow of the program. Use a text editor to create a program file. Specify in the first line that Perl will be the interpreter. Add a line for version control. Use comments to document the program. Execute the program: Make it executable: chmod +x prog.pl or Execute as input to Perl: perl prog.pl

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Perl Statements

H4311S B.00 Module 2

Format of Perl Statements

A simple statement consists of

a command or subroutine call an assignment a terminating semicolon a condition a block a pair of braces a set of simple statements

A compound statement consists of

A block consists of

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Statements Example
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 } print $var1\n; exit; #! /opt/perl5/bin/perl # # # $var1 = Im in the outer block.; print { my $var1 = Im in the inner block.; print $var1\n; $var1\n; @(#) statements.pl: Version 1.0 # This program demonstrates Perl statements

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Variables
Perl does not have data types. Perl will store data in

scalar variables lists arrays hashes

Perl will convert data to the proper type for the statement. Scalar variables start with $ followed by alpha followed by an alphanumeric

allow underscores store a single value that may contain white space

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Scalar Variables
Assigning scalar variables: $cost = 50000; $margin = 0.15; $product = car; Using scalar variables: $price = $cost + ($cost * $margin); $desc = A red car with lots of extras. Only $price dollars; print (The cost is: , $cost);

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Commands
Built-in commands for

variable manipulation input and output program flow management of processes, users, groups network information IPC and sockets

User-defined subroutines

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Evaluation and Assignment

Has the format operand1 operator operand2 Operand1 can be a literal or a variable in some expressions. Operand1 must be a variable if the operator is an assignment. Operand2 can be a literal, a variable, or the return value of a function call. The operator can be any one of the operators in the list of operators.

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Operators
list operators, parentheses, braces, quotes, (){} array and hash index [] {} dereference and method calls -> increment, decrement - unary operators + bit operators & | logical && || comma , logical and or xor ^ ! ~ ++

arithmetic operators + * / % relational gt > < eq

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Managing Data

H4311S B.00 Module 3

Standard File Descriptors

Three file descriptors are opened automatically:

STDIN the standard input device (the keyboard) STDOUT the standard output device (the monitor) STDERR the standard error device (the monitor)

Some commands will use them as the defaults: <> is the same as <STDIN> print This is a line of output.\n print STDOUT This is a line of output.\n STDERR must be specified explicitly print STDERR This is an error!\n

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Opening Files
open (filehandle, mode filename); close filehandle; Filehandle is any name you want to use. Mode can be the following: omitted or < input (reading) > output (writing) >> append (writing) +> input and output truncate the file if it exists. +< input and output do not truncate the file. Filename in quotes is the pathname of the file: filename alone is a file. | filename is a command that reads from the pipe. filename | is a command that writes to the pipe.
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Reading and Writing Files

Reading $var = <FILEHANDLE> read getc seek tell eof Writing print printf write formats syswrite

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print and printf

print outputs a list of items that may be enclosed in parentheses. print The value of var is , $var, .\n; print($var+7, is more than , $var-7, .\n); printf outputs a formatted string.

printf(format string, positional parameter); The format string contains literals and field specifiers that will be replaced by the positional parameters. printf The value of var is %s.\n, $var; printf %d is more than %d.\n, $var+7, $var-7;

Substitutions and evaluations will be done before the data is output.

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write and Formats

write sends output to the filehandle specified using its associated Filehandles start with a format name that matches the filehandle name The default file handle is STDOUT. The select function allows the default filehandle to be changed. The format name is assigned to default filehandles using the $~ special variable. The default format can be changed by assigning a format name to the special variable: select NEWDEFAULT; $~ = NEWFORMAT;

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Formats
1. format SALARYFORM = 2. Employee 4. @<<<<<<<<<< 5. $name 6. . 7. $~ = SALARYFORM; 8. $name = M Mouse; 9. $salary = 1000; 10.write; , Salary @>>>>>>> $salary 3. ========================

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Looping and Branching

H4311S B.00 Module 4

What Is True? False?

In Perl, particular values are considered FALSE

Numeric: 0, 0.0 String: , 0 Other: undef, null 1, hello, 3.1415926, -32, 0x0003152BF0, 0.0, return value of zero or null is FALSE e.g. int(0.0) return value of non-zero or non null is TRUE

Everything else is TRUE!

Commands

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if
if (condition) { block; } if (condition) { block; } elsif (condition) { block; } . . . else { block; }

if (condition) { block; } else { block; }

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unless
unless (condition) { block; } unless (condition) { block; } else { block; }

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while Loop
while (condition) { block; } executes if condition is true will execute 0 or more times stops executing when (condition) is false

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until Loop
until (condition) { block; } will execute 0 or more times executes if condition is false stops execution when condition is true

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

for Loop
for (initializer; condition; iterator) { block } initializer can be any valid Perl expression, but is usually a single assignment statement condition is a relational or conditional expression to evaluate iterator is executed at the end of each block i.e. just before the next iteration for ($i = 0; $i < 10; $i++) { print $i; }

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

foreach Loop
foreach $value (list) { block; } executes the command block once for each element of the list stops execution when no more elements are in the list

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Lists, Arrays, and Hashes

H4311S B.00 Module 5

Lists
A list is an ordered set of values enclosed in parentheses. A list has no name. Each element in the list can be accessed by an index. The index is enclosed in square brackets. The members of a list can be literals, scalars, or other lists. A list can be used as an rvalue or an lvalue. (1, 2, 3, 4, $varX) ($v1, $v2) = <STDIN> ($v1, $v2, $v3) = (1, 2, 3) a list a list as an lvalue a list as an rvalue

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Working with Lists

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. (1, 2, 3) (1..10) (a..z,A..Z) (1, 2, (a, b, c), 5, (3, 4)) ($item, $cost) = (lunch, 10.00) ($item, $cost) = ($description, $price, $part_number) ($animal) = qw(cat dog fish bird) $animal = qw(cat dog fish bird) $animal = (cat, dog, fish, bird)[0] $sz = (stat(inventory.db))[7] $word = (cat, dog, fish, bird)[rand(3)]

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

List Related Commands

join split reverse sort map join list elements together into a single string create a list by splitting up a string reverse a list sort a list perform activity for each element of a list

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Arrays
An array is a list with a name. The name must start with @. The name starts with a letter followed by alphanumeric and underscore. An array can be populated from a list @arrayname = (list); Array elements are accessed using an index. $element = $arrayname[index]; index can be any expression that evaluates to a number. A slice is an array that is a subset of a larger array. @array_slice = @array[index list];

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Working with Arrays

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. @animals = (cat, dog, fish, bird) $animals[1] $animals[-1] @numbers = (1..10) @nums = @numbers ($my_pet, $your_pet) = @animals ($my_pet, @rest_of_the_animals) = @animals ($your_pet, @rest_of_the_animals) = @rest_of_the_animals print (@animals) $array_size = @animals $animals[5] = lizard @slice = @animals[1, 3] @slice = @animals[0..2]

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Array Related Commands

pop push shift unshift splice remove and return last array element append a list to an array remove and return first array element prepend a list to an array insert a list into an array

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Hashes
A hash is a named list that contains key-value pairs The key is frequently a string The name starts with a %. The first character is a letter, followed by alphanumeric or underscore. Hashes may be populated from a list %hash = (key1, value1, key2, value2,); or %hash = (key1 => value1, key2 => value2,); Access a value by specifying its key $hash{key2};

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Working with Hashes

1. %animals=(cat,persian,dog,collie,bird,eagle); 2. %animals= ( cat => persian, dog => collie, bird=> eagle ); 3. $animals{fish} = shark;

4. %new_animals = %animals;

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Hash Related Commands

exists keys values delete each check if a key is in the hash list all of the keys in the hash list all of the values in the hash delete a key-value pair or pairs list the next key-value pair

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Looping and Branching Controls

H4311S B.00 Module 6

Modifiers
Any statement may be augmented with a modifier: statement modifier (condition);

if, unless, while, until and foreach

The condition is evaluated before executing the statement if and unless cause the statement to be executed once, or not at all, depending on the condition. while, and until cause the statement to be executed 0 or more times, depending on the condition Exception: if the statement is a do statement modified with while or until, the condition is checked after the statement is executed. Thus a do statement will be executed at least once with while and until.

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Using Short-Circuit Statements

Perl will not evaluate the right hand side of a logical operator if it would not change the true / false result: For logical and, and && if the left side is false, the result is false no matter what the right side is For logical or, and ||, if the left side is true, the result is true no matter what the right side is The result of a command can be considered true or false. Consequently, two commands can be connected with or or and, and the second command will be executed conditionally: open FH, < $fname or die Could not open $fname

($name) and print Name is $name\n;

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Modifying Execution of a Loop

next ends the current execution of the loop and resumes executing at the condition. last ends the current execution of the loop and resumes execution after the current block. redo ends execution of the current loop and resumes execution after the condition. Instead of the default, you can specify a label: next LABEL; last LABEL; redo LABEL: If LABEL is omitted, next, last and redo use the current block.

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Labels
A label provides a name by which a block of code can be referenced. Labels can be used by redo, last, next, and goto. A label consists of an alpha or underscore, followed by one or more alphanumeric or underscore characters. A label is terminated by a colon. A label is case sensitive.

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Pattern Matching

H4311S B.00 Module 7

Pattern Matching
Pattern Matching is part of the Perl language, not an add-on Pattern Matching uses Binding Operators, Regular Expressions (REs), Commands, and Command Modifiers Binding operators associate a string topic to a RE pattern Sail Away =~ m/^Sail \w+/i; REs express patterns using literals, and special characters Commands specify how the pattern is used against the bound topic: m// (match), s/// (substitute), tr/// or y/// (transliterate) Command Modifiers change command behaviour i (ignore case), g (global), s (squash)

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Uses for Pattern Matching

Verify a string/topic matches a pattern returns true or false. if ($line =~ /^root:/) # m assumed: m/^root:/ Save whether, or what, the RE pattern matched in the topic. $matched = $line =~ m/RE/; # matched = 1/0 @matches = $line =~ m/RE/g; # saves matches Perform substitution or translation on the string $line =~ s/RE/string/g; $line =~ tr/string1/string2/; Extract parts of the topic without changing it:$name, $host, $domain) = [email protected] =~ /(\w+)@(\w+)\.(.*)/;

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Binding with the m// Command

Binding (=~) associates a string topic with a Regular Expression pattern The m match command indicates whether or not the topic matches

a 0 (no match) or 1 (match) is returned if binding in scalar context

a () (no match) or (1)(match) is returned if binding in list context $a = Abe Lincoln =~ m/Wash/; # $a is 0 @arr = Abe Lincoln =~ m/Lincoln/; # @arr is (1) The m is assumed if missing @arr = Abe Lincoln =~ /Wash/;# @arr is () Topic and binding may be omitted: if so, $_ is bound $_ = Abe Lincoln; $a = /Lincoln/; # $a is 1 $character = (/Lincoln/) ? honest : cagey;

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

What Is a Regular Expression?

A Regular Expression (RE) is

a pattern of what to look for in a string, usually delimited with / interpolated before processing, just like a double-quoted string used with m// and s/// commands, as well as with Perl functions (e.g. split) literal characters

Regular Expressions can contain any mix of

/root/, /42/, /# Done!/

special characters (metacharacters)

/^root/, /[a-zA-Z]+/, /(0x)?[0-9a-fA-F]+/

metasymbols

/\d/, /\w+\s\d+/

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Literal Matching
Most characters in an RE are matched to themselves: yes: / matches yes: 45, and ayes: 36 Some characters have special meaning: \ | ( ) [ { ^ $ . * + ? Precede special characters with backslash (\) to match them literally /hp.com/ matches hp.com and hpicom /hp\.com/ matches hp.com, but not hpicom The delimiter is special, but may be changed: m/\/usr\/tmp/ # matches /usr/tmp m#/usr/tmp# # same, but easier to read Note: the m is required when specifying a different delimiter than /

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Special Characters
^,$ Anchors to the start, end of a line (or string) [ ] Matches one of the specified group of characters . \ | * + ? {} () Matches any single character (except newline) Treat next character as literal; also, start metasymbol sequence Separates alternatives Matches 0 or more of the preceding RE element Matches 1 or more of the preceding RE element Matches 0 or 1 of the preceding RE element; also, create a minimal match for the preceding quantifier Used to specify quantifiers Used to capture sub-expressions

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Metasymbols
A metasymbol is a character sequence with a special meaning

The sequence is not matched literally The first character is \

Specifying a specific, perhaps non-printable, character: \a, \n, \r, \t, \f, \e, \007, \x07, \cx Specifying one of a certain type of character: \d,\D, \w,\W, \s,\S, \l, \u Specifying an assertion / anchor / boundary: \b, \B, \A, \Z, \z, \G Start / End specified case of letters \L, \U, \E

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Match a Single Character from a Group

Use a period (.) to match any single character (except newline) /c.t/ matches cat, c t, c.t, boycott Use metasymbols to match pre-defined lists of characters \d (digit) \s (white space) \w (word character)

\D (non-digit) \S (non-white) \W (non-word) order doesnt matter (except for readability!) ranges are specified using [abcde], [ebdca], [a-e] # equivalent ^, when first, means except for; when not first, it means itself [^0-9], [a-z\-0-9], [ABC^,_] Backslash and metasymbols may also be used: [ \t]

Use [, ], - and ^ to specify a list of alternative characters

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Character Matching Quiz

Given the following list: a, abcd, ab9Cd, aBC, Abc, Abc1, Abc12a, .0901, Abcf, abc, abc2 , bbbb, ABc, Abc3, bbabb, 99.99, 123 Construct an RE, which matches words that: 1. contain "abc 2. contain a number 3. contain digits higher than 2 4. has a b or B followed by a digit followed by a c 5. has a 1 , 2 followed by a lower case letter

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Anchors
^ $ \b \B \A \Z \z \G anchors the pattern to the start of the string or a newline. anchors the pattern to the end of a string or a newline. anchors to a word boundary. anchors to a non-word boundary. anchors to the start of a string. anchors to the end of a string or a newline at the end. anchors to the end of a string. anchors to where the previous m/RE/g finished. /^root/ matches root and rooter, but not chroot /root$/ matches root and chroot, but not rooter /^root$/ matches only root

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Quantifiers { }
Quantifiers specify how many times a pattern should occur:

{1,6} {3,3} or {3}

at least once but no more than six exactly 3 times

{3,} a minimum of three times * match the preceding character 0 or more times /do*r/ matches dr dor door dooor. + ? match the preceding character 1 or more times /do+r/ matches dor door dooor. match the preceding character 0 or 1 times /do?r/ matches dr dor

Default is maximal match; follow with ? for a minimal match: *?, +?, ?? {}? Makes the match minimal.

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Anchors and Quantifiers Examples

$string = This is a string that has words, sentences, and punctuation. It also has a newline embedded. So there it is. \nStrings like being, bekeeeping and bookkeeping are sometimes included. Create a regular expression to locate: 1. A line starting with capital S up to a word boundary. 2. Repeat with a minimal match to return just the word. 3. Match words with strings of 2 or more letter es. 4. Match words that have only one letter e.

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Saving Matched Data

1. Bind in a list context, and use the /g modifier $str = This is too risky.; @arr = $str =~ /.is/g; # @arr gets (his, is, ris) 2. Place parentheses around or within the pattern, and bind in a list context @arr = $str =~ /(.is)/; # @arr gets (his) @arr = $str =~ /((.)is)/; # @arr gets (his, h); 3. In scalar or list context, use parentheses to capture, and backreferences to refer to them Abraham Lincoln =~ /((\w+) (\w+))/; # $1 = Abraham Lincoln # $2 = Abraham # $3 = Lincoln

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Modifying Strings with s///

Bind with the s substitute command to change the topic string $topic =~ s/pattern/replacement/ The operation counts the number of substitutions made $str = This is risky.; $res = $str =~ s/.is/at/; Use /g to replace globally $str = This is risky.; @res = $str =~ s/.is/at/g; # @res is (3) print $str\n; # prints Tatat atky. # $res is 1 print $str\n; # prints Tat is risky.

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More on Capturing and Backreferences

Two forms of backreferences are available: $1, $2, $3, ... persist until the next pattern match (m// or s//) completes

\1, \2, \3, ... persist only during the current binding

In subsequent statements, use $N In substitutions and matching patterns, use \N jub-jub =~ m/(\w+)-\1/; # matches dim-sum =~ m/\(\w+)-\1/; # doesnt match In substitution replacements, use either $N or \N: $name = Abraham Lincoln; $name =~ s/(\w+) (\w+)/\2, $1/;# mixed $N and \N print $name\n; # prints Lincoln, Abraham print $1\n; # prints Abraham

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Backreferences Examples
1. Given an array @pal1 = (noon, naan, pip, pie, nine); Create a regular expression that will identify the four character palindromes. Create a regular expression that will identify the three character palindromes. 2. Given an array @pal2 = (wing on wing, dollar for dollar,at the ball) Create a regular expression that will identify the three word palindromes. 3. Given a string $string = root console Mar 22 16:45

Display this as: Mar 22 16:45 ---> root on device console

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Modifying Strings with tr/// or y///

tr/// and y/// are identical commands, that transliterate (also called translate) specified characters in the topic into others $topic =~ tr/searchlist/replacementlist/ No pattern is used, despite use of the binding operator The last character of replacementlist is replicated until replacementlist is the same length as searchlist The binding operator returns a count of characters replaced $topic = cats catch critters; $res = $topic =~ y/cat/dog/; # $res is 10 print $topic\n; # prints dogs dogch driggers Different from global substitution: $topic = cats catch critters; $res = $topic =~ s/cat/dog/g; # $res is 2 print $topic\n; # prints dogs dogch critters

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Command Modifiers
m and s patterns i Ignore case. x Ignore white space. s Let the dot match a newline. m Let anchors match a newline. o Compile pattern only once. m only g (list) find all matches g (scalar) save position cg Do not reset search position after a failed match. s only g global replace e evaluate right side tr and y c Complement the search list. d Delete specified characters. s Squash duplicate characters.

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Command Modifiers Examples

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. $string1 = On day one we go to London; $string1 =~ s/on/ON/; $string1 =~ s/on/ON/g; $string1 =~ s/o n #comment/ON/xg; $string2 = oooaa $string3 = dogs; $string3 =~ tr/dog/cat/; $string3 =~ tr/cs//d; eeee; $string2 =~ tr/oa e//s;

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Module Subroutines

H4311S B.00 Module 8

Creating and Calling a Subroutine

sub mysub { my ($arg1, $arg2, @other_args) = @_; my ($tmp, $retval, @atmp); return $retval; } $result = mysub ( a, b, c, d, e ); $result = mysub a, b, c, d, e; $result = &mysub(a, b, c, d, e); # subroutine implementation code # return with an answer # args # local vars

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Scope of Variables
By default, variables in Perl have global scope The my and local list operators create variables of limited scope:

Variables hide previous variables with the same name Variables may be initialized when created

Variables disappear when the current block completes The my list operator creates variables with static scope Variables are accessible by code located within the current block The local list operator creates variables with dynamic scope

Variables are also accessible by any code called from within the current block

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Example: Comparing my and local

sub print_ab { print } sub scope_demo { local $a = 5; my $b = 5; print print_ab; } $a = $b = 7; scope_demo; print $a, $b\n; # prints 7, 7 $a, $b\n; # prints 5, 5 $a, $b\n; # prints 5, 7
limited

$a $b

5 5

global

$a $b

7 7

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Subroutine Aliasing (Pass by Reference)

sub swap { my $tmp = $_[0]; $_[0] = $_[1]; $_[1] = $tmp; } . . . ($a, $b) = (24, 7); print $a, $b\n; swap $a, $b; print $a, $b\n; # prints 7, 24 # prints 24, 7

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Prototypes
Prototypes may be used to specify the number and type of arguments a subroutine expects Prototypes are necessary when using forward declarations Use of prototypes is optional Example sub mysub ($$@); . . . mysub 1, $i, @items; . . . sub mysub ($$@) { . . . } # forward declaration # use # subroutine defined

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Preserving Arrays in a Subroutine Call

sub mysub { my ($aref1, $aref2, $v) = @_; my @a = @$aref1; my @b = @$aref2; . . . } mysub \@arr1, \@arr2, $var;

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2003 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P.

Special Variables

H4311S B.00 Module 9

Special Variables Record Handling

$_ $. $/ $\ $, $ $; $ARG $INPUT_LINE_NUMBER $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR %OUTPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR $OUTPUT_FIELD_SEPARATOR $LIST_SEPARATOR $SUBSCRIPT_SEPARATOR $NR $RS $ORS $OFS Input value The line number in the current file handle. Reset by close. Input record separator Output record separator Output field separator Separator for the elements of a list $SUBSEP Default separator for simulated multidimensional arrays.

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Special Variables Formats

$% $= $$~ $^ $FORMAT_PAGE_NUMBER $FORMAT_LINES_PER_PAGE $FORMAT_LINES_LEFT $FORMAT_NAME $FORMAT_TOP_NAME Current page number in the output channel Number of lines per output page Number of lines left on the current page Name of current format Top of page format (could be the header)

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Special Variables Regular Expressions

$n $& $` $ $+ $MATCH $PREMATCH $POSTMATCH $LAST_PAREN_MATCH The positional subexpression found in last match String matched by last pattern match The string preceding the last pattern matched The string following the last pattern matched The last match as a subexpression.

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Special Variables Process Information

$$ $< $> $( $) $0 $PROCESS_ID $REAL_USER_ID $EFFECTIVE_USER_ID %REAL_GROUP_ID $EFFECTIVE_GROUP_ID $PROGRAM_NAME $PID $UID $EUID $GID $EGID Process ID of the Perl program UID of the process Effective UID of the process GID of the process Effective GID of the process File name of the Perl script

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Special Variables Arrays and Hashes

@ARGV @INC %INC %ENV Array of command line arguments passed to the script Array of directories to search for scripts referenced by do, require, and use Hash of file names included by do or require functions Hash of the current environment

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Advanced Data Structures

H4311S B.00 Module 10

What Is Possible
records

simple complex

anonymous arrays and hashes multidimensional arrays

arrays of arrays arrays of hashes hashes of hashes hashes of arrays

linked lists

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References
Array and hash element values must be scalars References refer to a block of memory belonging to a scalar, array, or hash (or code) All references are scalars; what they refer to need not be

$sref

SCALAR(0x4002abcd)

$temp

warm

scalar values $aref ARRAY(0x4002ef02) @temps

0 hot 1 cold

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Creating References
Use \ to create a reference to that variables memory: $sref = \$var; $aref = \@arr; $href = \%hsh; The value of the variable indicates the data type, and memory location: print $sref; # prints SCALAR(0x4001abcd) print $aref; # prints ARRAY(0x400a0010) print $href; # prints HASH(0x400e00aa) Anonymous references can be created to arrays and hashes: $anon_array = [value1, value2, value3]; $anon_hash = {key1, value1, key2, value2};

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Using References
SCALAR References $var = warm; $sref = \$var; print $sref; print $$sref; ARRAY References @temps = (hot, cold); $aref = \@temps; print $aref; print @$aref; print $$aref[1]; print $aref->[1]; HASH References %book = (Title => Lord of the Rings, Author => JRR Tolkien); $href \%book; print $href; print %$href; print $href->{Title}; print $$href{Title};

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Anonymous References
Variable associated with this block of memory:

Reference to Named Variable:

0x4001abc0 @seasons @seasons = ( winter, spring, summer, fall ); 0 winter $aref = \@seasons; 1 spring # print summer: $aref ARRAY(0x4001abc0) 2 summer print $seasons[2]\n; 3 fall print $$aref[2]\n;

print $aref->[2]\n;

Anonymous Reference:

No variable directly associated with this block of memory:

0x4008def0

$aref = [ winter, spring, summer, fall ]; # print summer: print $$aref[2]\n; print $aref->[2]\n;
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0 1 2 3

winter spring summer fall

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Records
A record is a list of related items. The items have a name and a value. Simple records are usually hashes, occasionally arrays, with scalar data values Complex records contain arrays and hashes A record is often implemented as an anonymous hash, using the hash constructor {}. Records are often stored in arrays or hashes, i.e. references to the records are stored.

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Simple Record
Hash implementation %book = ( Title => Lord of the Rings, Author => JRR Tolkien ); Hash reference implementation $book = { Title => Lord of the Rings, Author => JRR Tolkien };

Access with $$book{Title} or $book->{Title}

Array implementation @book = ( Lord of the Rings, JRR Tolkien ); Array reference implementation $book = [ Lord of the Rings, JRR Tolkien ];

Access with $$book[0] or $book->[0]

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Complex Records Example

Hash reference implementation $boat = { Manu => Beneteau, Model => 311, Year => 2000, Color => white, Features => [furling jib, hot water], Options => { main => in mast furling, keel => bulb} }; Access data using : $boat->{Manu}; $$boat{Features}[0];

$$boat{Model}; $$boat{Options}{main};

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Example: Array of Records

$library[1] = getbook(); #create a book print $library[1]{Title}; #print the title sub getbook{ my ($title, $author); print Enter a title: ; chomp ($title = <STDIN>); print Enter the author: ; chomp ($author = <STDIN>); #return a reference return {Title=>$title, Author=>$author}; }

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Arrays of Arrays
Multidimensional arrays are created as arrays of references. @array = ( [one, two, three], [dog, cat, bird], [golden, tiger, canary]); $array[0] is (one, two, three) $array[1] is (dog, cat, bird) $array[2] is (golden, tiger, canary) $array[1][2] is bird This could also be done using an anonymous array constructor instead of a list.

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Arrays of Hashes
@dogs = ( { dog => lab, name => rover , size => big }, { dog => spaniel, name => bowser , size => medium } $dogs[0]{dog} refers to lab. )

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Hashes of Hashes
%pets =(dogs => {mine => obedient, yours => untrained}, cats => {mine => independent, yours => undisciplined}, hamsters=> {mine = >perfect, yours => unmotivated}); $pets{cats}{mine} refers to independent.

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Hashes of Arrays
%animals = ( dogs => [spaniel, poodle, lab], cats => [persian, tabby], birds => [canary, duck, goose, turkey] ); $animals{dogs}[1] is poodle $animals{cats}[0] is persian

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Linked List
sub make_node{ print Enter record: ; chomp ($value = <STDIN>); my $node = {value => $value, next => $next}; return } . . . if (defined $head){ $last_node = find_last_node($head); #see notes $last_node{next} = make_node(); } else{ $head = make_node(); }
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$node;

15

The CGI Protocol

H4311S B.00 Module 11

The CGI Protocol Defined

Common Gateway Interface is a protocol, not a programming language Can be implemented using any language UNIX shells, C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, but especially Perl Works cross-platform UNIX, Linux, NT A protocol is an accepted method of doing something a set of conventions governing the treatment and especially the formatting of data

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CGIs Role
CGI is the glue that holds the web together. Typically sandwiched between HTML forms A client completes a form to provide needed information to the program running on the server. The CGI script is executed on the server in real time. Results are relayed back to the client. A cheap disclaimer. We will keep HTML as simple as possible. The module, cgi.pm will be deferred until the next unit in this course. This lets us get a better look at the data flow.

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Creating a Form

print Content-Type: text/html\n\n; print <FORM ACTION=http://www.servername.com/cgibin/task.cgi METHOD=POST> <B>Select task:</B> <SELECT NAME=task> <OPTION VALUE=check_daemons>check daemons <OPTION VALUE=kill_old_users>kill old users </SELECT> <INPUT TYPE=submit VALUE=submit task> ;

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Text Area and Radio Buttons on a Form

print Content-Type: text/html\n\n; print <FORM ACTION=http://www.servername.com/cgibin/task.cgi METHOD=GET> First Name: <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="firstname" SIZE="25"><BR> Last Name : <INPUT TYPE="TEXT" NAME="lastname" SIZE="25"><BR> <INPUT TYPE=radio NAME=job_title VALUE=S>Sysadmin <INPUT TYPE=radio NAME=job_title VALUE=N>Netadmin <INPUT TYPE=radio NAME=job_title VALUE=W>Webmaster <INPUT TYPE=submit VALUE=submit> ;

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Security
Security is naturally a concern. The ISP or webmaster will determine if and where CGI scripts will be allowed to run. Three levels: /opt/apache/cgi-bin (more secure) allow users to maintain their own directory for CGI scripts (less secure) any directory, the program name must end in .cgi (insecure) If users are allowed to maintain their own CGI scripts a configuration change will be made to allow public_html this path is appended to ~user. For example, the script called by http://r208w100/~instr/prog.cgi will be /home/instr/public_html/prog.cgi

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The Issue of Pathnames

Path names are not the same as URLs. Structurally they look similar. URLs may have path names embedded, which makes them look like path names. UNIX path names (either absolute or relative) are literal. You know your starting place (you can see it). CGI pathnames are composites. They have roots defined by the webmaster in configuration files. Check httpd.conf in /opt/apache/conf/httpd.conf Look for DocumentRoot, UserDir, ScriptAlias, ServerRoot. Test to verify your discoveries.

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CGI Programs as a Security Issue

CGI programmers also have security responsibilities. CGI programs are tempting targets. Adopt a defensive mindset. remember, just because youre paranoid doesnt mean someone isnt really out to get you. Identify lines in your code that grant access to the server. Scrutinize them and test rigorously for valid (expected) data, or ranges origin (Is this data provided from where I expect?) Path names require extra vigilance. Dont allow double dots (..) as this could be an attempt to get to ../../etc/passwd or the like.

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Environmental Variables in Programs

Variables live in %ENV hash DOCUMENT_ROOT Absolute path of the servers root directory GATEWAY_INTERFACE The version of CGI the servers running HTTP_ACCEPT A list of supported MIME types HTTP_USER_AGENT Name/version of browser QUERY_STRING String resulting from form data REMOTE_ADDRESS IP address of users system REMOTE_HOST Host name of users system REQUEST_METHOD METHOD of HTML form (GET or POST) SCRIPT_NAME Current programs relative pathname SERVER_ADMIN Email address of server administrator SERVER_NAME Domain name or IP address of server SERVER_PORT Port the request was sent to (80 default) SERVER_PROTOCOL Name and version of request protocol SERVER_SOFTWARE Name and version of server software

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Debugging CGI Scripts

Debugging Perl scripts is easy use perl -w or perl -c or perl -d. Debugging CGI scripts is difficult. distractions that are side effects of the client-server architecture (name lookups, connectivity issues, cross-platform issues, etc) Development environment for testing ideally under your control Some things to look for: The HTTP header line (print Content-Type: text/html\n\n;) Try running the script with perl -c before browser invocation. To let you see what happens before the 500 Server Error add: #!/usr/bin/perl $| = 1; print Content-Type: text/plain\n\n;

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10

Perl Modules

H4311S B.00 Module 12

What Is a Module?
A module is Perl script that another programmer wants to share located at CPAN web sites a combination of C source and header files, configuration files, documentation, and scripts accessed as a zipped tar file available for web, networking, windows, X11, etc. can be improved on and resubmitted

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Building and Installing Modules

Go to the web site and copy the file to the local server. DECOMPRESS

Use the proper unzip utility to restore the tar file. Untar the file.

UNPACK

BUILD Make the unpacked module directory your current directory.

Execute perl Makefile.PL Execute make Execute make test

INSTALL Execute make install

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Sockets
A socket can be a port at an IP address that receives data. A socket can be a port at which a local application receives data. A server listens at a port. A client is a program that sends information to or requests information from a server at a specific port. There are two different types of messages, streams and datagrams.

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Sockets Example
SERVER 1. Use IO::Socket; 2. $sock=IO::Socket::INET ->new 3. (LocalPort => 12345, 4. Type => SOCK_STREAM, 5. Reuse => 1, 6. Listen = 5) or die message; 7. while ($client = $sock->accept){ 8. $line = <$client>; 9. print $line; } 10. close ($sock); 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. CLIENT Use IO::Socket; $sock=IO::Socket::INET ->new (PeerAddr => hostname, PeerPort => 12345, ype => SOCK_STREAM, Proto => tcp,) or die message; while (more_to_send){ $line = data_to_send; print $sock $line; }

10. close ($sock);

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CGI
The CGI module is a standard module. The CGI module generates the web pages dynamically. <STDIN> and <STDOUT> now use the web browser. The screen is created by printing the HTML commands to the browser. The CGI methods produce HTML code dynamically.

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CGI Example
use CGI; $page = new CGI; print

$page -> header(),

$page -> start_html(), $page center($page -> h1(Hello World)), $page start_form(), $page -> textarea( -name => My Text Area, -rows => 10, -columns => 40),

$page -> end_form(), $page -> end_html();

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