TECHNICAL REVIEW - VENTILATION

Design of a modern subway ventilation system

Although subway transportation is an inherently more sustainable option than individuals using cars, it is important that the designer of such an infrastructure system is aware of the environmental impact of its construction, maintenance and operation. Mohammad Tabarra, associate, Arup (New York), Davar Abi-Zadeh director, Arup (London) and Stefan Sadokierski, graduate engineer, also of Arup (London), consider the thermal performance of the system as a whole, the effect this will have on its operation and the associated implications on sustainability
on board the trains also produce heat. However, train movement also drives air inside the tunnels, stations and vent shafts, i.e. the piston effect. Trains usually move through a system stopping at stations as scheduled (normal mode). For various reasons trains may come to a halt inside the tunnel (congested mode). It is also possible that a train will catch re and become stranded within the system (emergency mode). The ventilation system must provide an acceptable environment in terms of both temperature and air quality during normal mode. This can often be achieved through the use of appropriately sized and located blast shafts, which allow the train piston effect to ventilate the tunnels and stations. In warm environments, mechanical cooling systems may be necessary. The system must also be capable of providing fresh air to a stranded train during congested mode and control smoke movement to provide a safe evacuation route during emergency mode. Fan plants, usually located within stations, are necessary to provide the airow rates required for this. A typical ventilation arrangement for two stations and a section of tunnel within a larger system is shown in gure 1. This arrangement shows the blast shafts integrated with the mechanical ventilation system via a by-pass system with dampers. During normal operation, the fans will be off and natural ventilation will take place via the by-pass dampers to relieve the train-induced piston effect.

T
Below: Fig 1 - End of station ventilation fans with independent blast shafts

his paper presents in a very general format, results of a parametric study that was undertaken on the relative effects of a number of parameters that can often be inuenced in the early design stage of a project. Awareness of the relative benets of each, and judicious combination of these at the design stage, can help signicantly in arriving at an engineering solution that is both economic and sustainable. Many variables interrelate to determine the aerothermodynamic performance and therefore comfort of a subway system. Some of these can be manipulated to create an inherently better passenger environment. This parameter alteration will have performance and operational cost implications. Therefore investigation of the effect of any alteration is required to produce an optimal, cost effective and sustainable solution.

Generic system parametric study

A generic four-station model with independent end-ofstation blast shafts (one direct shaft to ambient per tunnel) was used for this parametric study. Subway Environmental Simulation Software (SES)[1] was used as the main modelling tool. Table 1 lists the parameters of the base case, against which all parametric study simulations were compared. The analysis is for a design summer day, assuming that the system is operating under normal conditions and is not mechanically ventilated or cooled. The effects of parametric changes are displayed as changes of temperature in tunnels and platforms.

Overview of a contemporary ventilation system

Trains running in a subway system can be viewed as moving heat sources, with the heat primarily being generated by the train braking systems. Inefciencies in the propulsion system as well as on-board auxiliary systems such as air conditioning units and passengers

Table 1: Parametric study base assumptions

Louvers above grade Vent shafts Street level Station Mezzanine Fan rooms Tunnels Platform

Parameter
Deep sink temperature Ambient design temperature Maximum train speed Tunnel nominal diameter Tunnel cross sectional area Train cross sectional area Vent shaft cross sectional area Station entrance area-total Tunnel configuration

Base value
12C 30C 90km/hr 5.5m 20m2 10.8m2 32.5m2 15m2 Twin bore tunnels

Mezzanine Station Platform

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TECHNICAL REVIEW - VENTILATION System wide design

The capacity of the tunnel ventilation system is often dictated by smoke control requirements. As this ensures the safety of passengers in the event of a re the design cannot be compromised. However, a holistic design of the system can result in lower operating temperatures in both tunnels and stations. This reduces the amount of time mechanical ventilation is needed to control temperatures, leading to lower electricity consumption, wear and tear, maintenance and replacement costs, i.e. a more sustainable design. station was to be mechanically cooled, the inltration of ambient air should be minimised.

5.0 4.0 Temperature change (C) 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Tunnel Platform

Track grade and vertical alignment

Blast relief shaft size

The cross-sectional area of the blast shafts affects the amount of air exchange between the tunnel and the ambient environment. For unconditioned stations in summer, it is desirable to have as much air exchange with ambient as possible, as this will reduce temperatures within the system. Figure 2 plots the temperature change in tunnels and stations for various vent shaft sizes. For platforms, the results show that changes to vent shaft area over the range investigated have limited effect on the resultant temperature. For tunnels, the effect is more marked with temperature increases of about 4C for vent shafts of 15m2. It can be seen that further increasing shaft area will have a diminishing return. Other factors like spatial limitations and construction costs also determine the size. If stations are air conditioned to a temperature below
5 Tunnel 4 Temperature change (C) Platform 3 2 1 0 -1 10

15

20 25 30 Vent shaft CSA (m2)

35

40

ambient, air exchange with ambient is generally benecial for the tunnels, but not the stations. Station depth is usually dictated by tunnel alignment and geotechnical considerations. Deeper stations means longer blast shafts with a greater aerodynamic resistance. This reduces the airow through the shafts and increases the volume of air re-circulated each time the ow direction changes. As a result, if other parameters remain the same, temperatures are typically about 2C warmer on relatively deep platforms (30m-40m) than a shallow cut and cover type station. The station layout has an impact on the tunnel/station environment. Congurations featuring one, two and three exits from the upper mezzanine to street level were modelled. The base design features two 7.5m2 (CSA) stairwells. The impact on temperature is shown in gure 3. Equivalent results would be achieved through alteration of exit area rather than number, however exit size is often determined by factors such as expected passenger volume and real estate considerations. It should be noted that the simulation was based on a warm summers day with passive ventilation. If the
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Track prole affects train -1.0 braking and propulsion -2.0 heat production and -3.0 therefore system -4.0 temperatures. Ideally, station -5.0 3 exits Base case 1 exit approaches should be at (2 exits) an upgrade, reducing heat load due to braking. To minimise acceleration, station exit tunnels should be Above: Fig 3 - Effect of downgrade utilising the train potential energy to full number of station exits on advantage. For maximum benet drivers must coast tunnel and station environment trains into stations. The base case model has random alignment variations along the track way, typical of a subway tunnel. The track gradients on this model were altered to produce three additional proles the humped, well and at. All other parameters were kept constant. Simulation results show that, compared to the base case, platform temperatures expected in a naturally ventilated system will be about 3C cooler for the humped case, 1C warmer for a at alignment and 4C warmer for a well station. Clearly the humped alignment will result in a better station environment. Lower traction power demands would also be Left: Fig 2 - Effect of station blast area on expected. It should be noted that large tunnel gradients can system temperatures affect the ventilation system in other ways. Increased critical velocities and buoyancy forces will require increased ventilation capacity to drive smoke downgrade in the event of a re. Drainage installation and operational costs may also increase. Reducing the kinetic energy of the trains will result in a drop in traction power required for propulsion as well as a reduction in the heat generated during braking while approaching stations. This can be achieved by reducing either the train mass or speed. While reducing the mass of the stock has clear benets in terms of power consumption and heat generation several other factors must be considered. The benets of using lighter materials, such as plastics and polymers, are often outweighed by the increased re load when compared to metal. However, the mass of the train stock (per passenger carried) varies widely between different subway systems around the world, indicating efciency gains are still possible. The effects of train speed on system temperatures REFERENCES are complex. Reducing the speed of the trains decreases the amount of kinetic energy converted to 1. US Department of heat each time a train brakes. It also reduces the Transportation, Research piston effect of the trains and therefore the volume of and Special Programs Administration, 1997. Suboutside air entering and cooling the system. way Environmental Design Additionally, depending on the type of signalling Handbook Volume II: Subsystem used, reducing the maximum train speed may way Environment Simulation Computer Program, affect the passenger capacity of the line. Therefore Version 4, Part 1, Users train speed limits cannot realistically be set by Manual. ventilation design requirements. 2. C W Pope, D G New-

Sustainable cooling systems

Air conditioning may be necessary to achieve acceptable system conditions in hot/tropical climates. Additionally, creating a more comfortable station environment may help to increase subway patronage. In such cases more sustainable approaches than

man & G Matschke, 2000. The Factors Affecting Draught Relief and Air Temperature in an Underground Metro System, 10th ISAVVT, Boston, USA, BHRG, Publication 43.

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TECHNICAL REVIEW - VENTILATION

design cycle. Jet fans are essentially longitudinal thrust devices, normally installed on tunnel ceilings, walls or corners. A large quantity of air is drawn into one end and a jet of conned high velocity air is blasted out of the other. The imparted momentum then moves a greater mass of air through the tunnel. Jet fans can provide a cost-effective means of achieving the desired ow in tunnels and assisting with air movement. In a system without jet fans (gure 5) air will take the path of least resistance and ow primarily to the open station box or non-incident tunnels. Jet fans can be utilised to counteract this effect and can also help pressurise escape routes during an emergency. The benets that can be gained by using jet fans are shown in gure 6. The percentage of effective ow into the incident tunnel for a given fan plant ow has been plotted against number of jet fans (nominal thrust of 700N each) operating in that tunnel section. All simulations were based on a 15MW re in a tunnel section between two stations (gures 5, 6 and 7). It is also possible to use emergency tunnel ventilation fans to ventilate the system at night. These fans are capable of moving large amounts of air through both tunnels and stations and could remove more heat than passive ventilation. However any
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8 jet fan 6 jet fan 4 jet fan 2 jet fan 1 jet fan

supply duct Escalator OTE duct Supply Supply OTE duct

UPE duct Platform

UPE duct Tunnel

Above: Fig 4 - Typical under platform and over track exhaust and supply system in stations

traditional refrigeration cycles may be suitable. Alternatives include geothermal, river, sea or groundwater cooling or evaporative cooling. Where signicant volumes of groundwater inltrate the tunnel lining, this water can be used to cool stations or tunnels before it is pumped into a sewer.

Ventilation system design

Right: Fig 7 - Percentage of effective ow from 110m3/s plant with varying number of jet fans

Apart from those parameters that are dictated by other system requirements and therefore beyond the control of the ventilation design engineer, there are specic design steps that he/she can take to inuence the tunnel and station conditions. Extracting high-grade heat at source is the most efcient way of preventing train heat loads from entering the station environment. Depending on the exact location of a car braking system and/or onboard air-conditioning units, this can be achieved by mechanical extract via an Under Platform Exhaust (UPE) or an Over Track Exhaust (OTE) system (gure 4). The OTE is also necessary for removing smoke at platform ceiling, above the train, and that is what normally drives the size of the OTE ducts. If air conditioning is used, it is usually benecial to ensure that the station remains at neutral or slightly positive pressure. Hence the extract airow must be balanced with fresh supply air from outside to reduce inltration from the tunnel environment. An appropriate extract ow rate per meter of platform length can reduce overall station temperatures by about 10C[2]. Tunnel ventilation fans, normally used during Below: Fig 5 - Airow split congested and emergency modes, can also replace without jetfans the fans for UPE/OTE. This functional sharing of fan plants restricts the location of the fan plant at either Bottom: Fig 6 - Airow end of the station box, as shown in gure 1, but results split with jet fans (two in substantial savings in space, capital and life cycle pairs) costs. If this integrated fan plant design is chosen, the tunnel ventilation shafts should be inclined away from the station box Supply air Exhaust air towards the tunnel, so as to improve the proportion Station Station of air entering the incident 80% 20% 20% 80% Train tunnel, and thus minimise the fan plant room size. This inclination can be implemented either in plan or in elevation, but it will Supply air Exhaust air impact the architectural layout of the ancillary Station Station 50% 50% 50% 50% areas signicantly, and Train should therefore be implemented early in the

% useful flow

1000

2000 3000 4000 Jet fan thrust (N)

5000

6000

cooling benet must be weighed against the cost of running the fans.

Further design possibilities

There are many opportunities to further reduce either the need for ventilation, or the proportion of the year that it will be needed. Many of these present considerable technical difculties but, if overcome, could signicantly reduce the impact of subway systems on the environment. Opportunities exist in the development of noise control for tunnel ventilation fans, regenerative breaking, external resistor grids and platform edge doors (PED). PED in particular can result in a 75% reduction in station heat loads at the cost of a larger capital investment and increased maintenance.

Conclusions
Outside air is needed to control temperatures within a subway system, to provide patrons with fresh air to breathe and, in an emergency, control the ow of smoke and allow the safe escape of passengers. In some cases, mechanical cooling of stations may be required to achieve the desired conditions throughout the year. Typically, the capacity of the tunnel ventilation system is determined by re emergency mode requirements. However, the need for mechanical ventilation to control temperatures and supply outside air for patrons can be reduced by careful design of the ventilation system and other system-wide parameters. This sustainable approach to ventilation design of subway systems reduces both the impact of the system on the environment, as well as capital and T & T running costs.
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