22

DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER REVIEW
During fertilization, the acrosome of a sperm releases enzymes that digest a hole in the jelly coat around the egg and then extrudes a filament that attaches to a receptor on the vitelline membrane. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus. During the early developmental stages, cleavage leads to a morula, which becomes the blastula when an internal cavity (the blastocoel ) appears. Then, at the gastrula stage, invagination of cells into the blastocoel results in formation of the germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. During neurulation, the nervous system develops from midline ectoderm, just above the notochord. At this point, it is possible to draw a typical cross section of a vertebrate embryo. Differentiation begins with cleavage, when the eggs cytoplasm is partitioned among the numerous cells. In a frog embryo, only a daughter cell that receives a portion of the gray crescent is able to develop into a complete embryo. Morphogenesis involves the process of induction, as when the notochord induces the formation of the neural tube in frog embryos. Today we envision that cells are constantly giving off signals that influence the genetic activity of neighboring cells. Human development can be divided into embryonic development (months 1 and 2) and fetal development (months 39). The extraembryonic membranes, including the chorion, amnion, yolk sac, and allantois, appear early in human development. Following fertilization in an oviduct, cleavage occurs as the embryo moves toward the uterus. The morula becomes the blastocyst before implanting in the uterine lining. Organ development begins with neural tube and heart formation. There follows a steady progression of organ formation during embryonic development. During fetal development, refinement of features occurs, and the fetus adds weight. Birth occurs about 280 days after the start of the mothers last menstruation. Development after birth consists of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Young adults are at their prime, and then the aging process begins. Aging may be due to cellular repair changes, which are genetic in origin. Other factors that may affect aging are changes in body processes and certain extrinsic factors.

S T U DY E X E R C I S E S
Study the text section by section as you answer the questions that follow.

22.1 EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES (P . 444)

Development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg. The first stages of embryonic development in animals lead to the establishment of the embryonic germ layers. The presence of yolk affects the manner in which animal embryos go through the early developmental stages. 1. Put these events in order to describe fertilization. a. The vitelline envelope becomes the fertilization envelope, which prohibits any more sperm from entering the egg. b. When released, these enzymes digest away the jelly coat around the egg, and the acrosome extrudes a filament that attaches to a receptor on the vitelline envelope. c. A head of a sperm has a membrane-bounded acrosome filled with enzymes. d. Now the sperm nucleus enters and fuses with the egg nucleus, and the resulting zygote begins to divide.

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2. Label this diagram of early development with the following terms: Gastrula endoderm Blastula ectoderm blastopore Morula blastocoel (used twice) archenteron
cleavage is occurring

a. b.

c. d.

gastrulation is occurring

e.

f. g. h. i.

3. Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F): a. Cell division during cleavage does not produce growth. b. The blastula is a solid ball of cells. c. The ectoderm and endoderm form after the mesoderm in the gastrula. d. The germ layer theory states that the development of later structures can be related to germ layers. 4. Indicate the germ layer (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) of the vertebrate gastrula stage that is the source of the following: epidermis of the skin nervous tissue lining of the stomach blood
a. ____________________ b. ____________________ c. ____________________ d. ____________________

muscles of the forelimb

e. ____________________

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5. Complete these sentences by using the terms lancelet, frog, or chick. In the the cells have little yolk and cleavage is equal. In the the the the
c. ____________________, d. ____________________ f. ____________________,

a. ____________________

embryo,

b. ____________________,

the cells at the animal pole are

smaller than those at the vegetal pole because those at the vegetal pole contain yolk. In the cells with yolk cleave more slowly than those without yolk. Still, in both and the
e. ____________________,

the blastula is a hollow ball of cells. In

there is so much yolk that the embryo forms on top of the yolk and the blastocoel

is created when the cells lift up from the yolk. 6. Indicate which of these describes formation of mesoderm and the coelom in the lancelet, frog, or chick. a. invagination of cells along the edges of primitive streak followed by a splitting of the mesoderm b. migration of cells from the dorsal lip of the blastopore followed by a splitting of the mesoderm c. outpocketings of the primitive gut form two layers of mesoderm and the coelom Neurulation and the Nervous System (p. 447) In vertebrates, the nervous system develops above the notochord after formation of a neural tube. 7. Label this diagram of a vertebrate embryo using the following terms: coelom ectoderm endoderm gut mesoderm neural tube notochord somite
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

8. The diagram in question 7 shows the neural tube above the notochord. Explain the significance of this tissue relationship.

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22.2 DIFFERENTIATION

AND

MORPHOGENESIS (P . 448)

Cellular differentiation and morphogenesis are two processes that occur when specialized organs develop. Induction explains the development of the nervous system and why development in general is an orderly process. Homeotic genes are involved in shaping the outward appearance of the developed animal. 9. Cellular differentiation begins with which developmental process? be?
b. a. ____________________. a. ____________________.

Hans Speman

showed that a frog embryo needs a portion of the gray crescent in order to develop normally. Why might that 10. Morphogenesis begins with which developmental process? process of morphogenesis.
b.

Hans Speman showed

that presumptive notochord tissue induces the formation of the nervous system. Relate these findings to the

11. Homeotic genes are involved in pattern formation. In Drosophila, what happens when a homeotic mutation occurs? 12. Apoptosis is involved in sculpting the fetus. What happens when apoptosis doesent occur as it should?

22.3 HUMAN EMBRYONIC

AND

FETAL DEVELOPMENT (P . 451)

Humans, like chicks, are dependent upon extraembryonic membranes that perform various services and contribute to development. During the embryonic period of human development, all systems appear. Humans are placental mammals; the placenta is a unique organ where exchange between fetal blood and mothers blood takes place. 13. Label this diagram of the extraembryonic membranes of the human embryo with the following terms: allantois amnion chorion embryo fetal portion of placenta maternal portion of placenta yolk sac

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14. Complete the following table:

Membrane chorion amnion allantois yolk sac Chick Function Human Function

15. To describe human embryonic development, complete the following table with the number of the event that occurs at each time indicated. 1 all internal organs formed; limbs and digits well formed; recognizable as human although still quite small 2 fertilization; cell division begins 3 limb buds begin; heart is beating; embryo has a tail 4 implantation; embryo has tissues; first two extraembryonic membranes 5 fingers and toes are present; cartilaginous skeleton 6 nervous system begins; heart development begins 7 head enlarges; sense organs prominent
Time a. first week b. second week c. third week d. fourth week e. fifth week f. sixth week g. two months Events

Fetal Development and Birth (p. 458) During fetal development, the fetus grows large enough to live on its own. Birth is a multistage process that includes delivery of the child and the extraembryonic membranes. 16. Indicate whether the following statements about fetal development (months 39) are true (T) or false (F): a. It is possible to distinguish sex. b. The notochord is replaced by the spinal column. c. Limb buds are still present. d. Fingernails and eyelashes appear. 17. The placenta produces the hormones progesterone and a. ______________, which have two effects: to inhibit the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary from causing new follicles from maturing and to maintain the lining of the b. ______________ so that the corpus luteum is not needed. The chorionic c. ______________ are surrounded by maternal blood sinuses; yet maternal and fetal d. ______________ never mix. The umbilical cord is the lifeline of the fetus, because the umbilical arteries take e. ______________ and urea wastes to the placenta for disposal, and the umbilical f. ______________ takes oxygen and nutrients to the fetus.

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18. What events are associated with the three stages of parturition? first stage third stage
a. b.

second stage
c.

22.4 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AFTER BIRTH (P .463)

Investigation into aging shows hope of identifying underlying causes of degeneration and prolonging the health span of individuals. 19. Three theories of aging: Some believe that aging is a.__________________ in origin, meaning that our
b.

__________________ inheritance causes us to age. Others maintain that c.__________________ processes are

involved; for example, the hormonal system and the immune system decrease in efficiency as we age. Still others believe that d.__________________ factors influence aging more than we realize; for example, diet and exercise keep us healthy despite added years. 20. Aging affects body systems. Certain systems maintain the body; in regard to the circulatory system,
a.

__________________ disease may be associated with b.__________________ blood pressure, and reduced blood

flow to the c.__________________ may result in less efficiency at filtering wastes. In regard to those systems that integrate and coordinate the body, actually few d.__________________ are lost from the brain, and the elderly can learn new material; loss of skeletal mass and osteoporosis can be controlled by e.__________________. In regard to the reproductive system, there is a reduced level of f.__________________ in both males and females, although males produce sperm until death. Young people should be aware that now is the time to begin the health habits that increase the life span.

CHAPTER TEST
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Do not refer to the text when taking this test. 1. The ______ develops first. a. morula b. blastula c. blastocoel d. gastrula 2. The ______ is a hollow ball. a. morula b. blastula c. gastrula d. Both a and b are correct. 3. The ______ contains germ layers. a. morula b. blastula c. gastrula d. All of these are correct. 4. The ______ undergoes cleavage but lacks a morula. a. lancelet b. frog c. chick d. Both a and b are correct. 5. The __________ has a notochord during development. a. lancelet b. frog c. human d. All of these are correct. 6. The nervous system develops from the a. ectoderm. b. mesoderm. c. endoderm. d. notochord. 7. Cellular differentiation is due to a. parceling out of cytoplasm. b. activation of particular genes. c. parceling out of genes. d. Both a and c are correct. e. Both a and b are correct. 8. What induces the development of the nervous system? a. endoderm b. presumptive notochord c. ectoderm d. presumptive neural tube 185

9. Homeodomain proteins a. occur in the nucleus. b. regulate transcription. c. regulate translation. d. Both a and b are correct. For questions 1014, match the extraembryonic membranes with the following descriptions: a. placenta b. umbilical blood vessels c. watery sac d. first site of red blood cell formation e. treelike extensions that penetrate the uterine lining 10. chorionic villi 11. chorion 12. amnion 13. allantois 14. yolk sac 15. The zygote begins to undergo cleavage in the a. cervix. b. ovary. c. oviduct. d. uterus. 16. Which of these is mismatched? a. cleavagecell division b. morphogenesisfertilization c. differentiationspecialization of cells d. growthincrease in size

17. The placenta a. brings blood to the developing fetus. b. allows exchanges of substances between the mothers blood and fetal blood. c. forms the umbilical cord. d. Both a and b are correct. e. All of these are correct. 18. When an embryo is clearly recognizable as a human being, it is called a a. developed embryo. b. fetus. c. newborn. d. blastocyst. 19. Which system is the first to be visually evident? a. nervous b. respiratory c. digestive d. skeletal 20. During which stage of parturition is the baby born? a. first b. second c. third

THOUGHT QUESTIONS
Answer in complete sentences. 21. Should the chemicals functioning during induction be considered hormones?

22. What is the significance of the homeobox?

Test Results: ______ Number right 22 = ______ 100 = ______ %

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ANSWER KEY
STUDY EXERCISES
1. c, b, d, a 2. a. blastocoel b. Morula c. Blastula d. blastocoel e. archenteron f. ectoderm g. endoderm h. blastopore i. Gastrula 3. a. T b. F c. F d. T 4. a. ectoderm b. ectoderm c. endoderm d. mesoderm e. mesoderm 5. a. lancelet b. frog c. frog d. lancelet e. frog f. chick 6. a. chick b. frog c. lancelet 7. a. neural tube b. somite c. notochord d. ectoderm e. endoderm f. gut g. mesoderm h. coelom 8. The notochord induces the formation of the neural tube. See Figure 22.5, p. 447, in text. 9. a. cleavage b. The chemical molecules in the gray crescent may act as signals to turn certain genes on in certain cells. 10. a. migration of cells during gastrulation b. During morphogenesis, one tissue induces another in sequence and this explains why development is so orderly. 11. Body parts are misplaced. See Figure 22.8, in text. 12. Too many cells results in abnormalities. 13. a. chorion b. amnion c. embryo d. allantois e. yolk sac f. fetal portion of placenta g. maternal portion of placenta 14.
Chick Function gas exchange Human Function exchange with mothers blood protection; prevention of temperature changes

15. a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 3 e. 7 f. 5 g. 1 16. a. T b. F c. F d. T 17. a. estrogen b. uterus c. villi d. blood e. carbon dioxide f. vein 18. a. dilation of cervix b. The mother pushes as the baby moves down the birth canal. c. Afterbirth is expelled. 19. a. genetic b. genetic c. whole-body d. extrinsic 20. a. cardiovascular b. high c. kidneys d. neurons e. exercise f. hormones

CHAPTER TEST
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. c 8. b 9. d 10. e 11. a 12. c 13. b 14. d 15. c 16. b 17. b 18. b 19. a 20. b 21. Traditionally, a hormone is considered to be a secretion of an endocrine gland that is carried in the bloodstream to a target organ. According to this definition, the chemicals that function during induction are not hormones. In recent years, some scientists have broadened the definition of a hormone to include all types of chemical messengers. Therefore, in the broadest sense these chemicals are hormones. 22. A particular sequence of DNA nucleotides, called the homeobox, occurs in homeotic genes in almost all eukaryotic organisms. This suggests that this sequence is important to development because it has been conserved for quite some time.

protection; prevention of desiccation and temperature changes collection of nitrogenous wastes provision of nourishment

blood vessels become umbilical blood vessels first site of blood cell formation

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