Logic Analyzer

INTRODUCTION TO THE DIGITAL DOMAIN

The advent of digital circuits dramatically changed the concerns of engineers and technicians working with electronic circuits. Ignoring for a moment digital signal quality or signal integrity, the issues switched from the world of bias points and frequency response to the world of logic ones, zeroes, and logic states (see Fig. a !. This world has been called the "data domain." #sing off$the$shelf components virtually guarantees correct values of voltage and current if clocks are kept to moderate speeds (less than %& '(z! and fan$ in)fan$out rules are observed. The ob*ective for circuit verification and test focuses on questions of proper function and timing. +hile parametric considerations are simplified, there is a tremendous increase in functional comple,ity and the sheer number of circuit nodes. 'easurements to address these questions and to manage the increased comple,ity are the fort of the - .ogic analyzer./ .ogic analyzers collect and display information in the format and languages of digital circuits. 'icroprocessors and microcontrollers are the most common logic$ state machines. 0oftware, written in the unique form of a microprocessor1s instruction set, provides the direction for these handy state machines. 'ost logic, analyzers can he configured to format their output as a sequence of microprocessor instructions. This makes them useful for debugging software. For real$lime or time$critical embedded controllers, a logic analyzer is an e,cellent tool to both trace program flow and measure event timing.

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Logic Analyzer

2ecause logic analyzers do not affect the behavior of processors, they are e,cellent tools for system performance analysis and verification of real$time interactions. 3ata stream analysis is also an e,cellent application for logic analyzers. 4 stream of data from a digital signal processor or digital communications channel can be easily captured, analyzed, or uploaded to a computer.

BASIC OPERATION
In order to understand how logic analyzers work, it is helpful to differentiate between two modes of operation5 asynchronous timing mode and synchronous state mode. 6lock 3ata & 3ata 7ate8clk
Fig. (a! .ogic timing diagram. .ogic value versus time is shown for four signals

Fig (b! .ogic state diagram. Input I 90 control transitions from state to state. : 9 ; are output set to new values upon entry to each state. Govt..Poly., Washim

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Logic Analyzer

a) Asynchronous Mode :n screen, the asynchronous mode looks very much like an oscilloscope display. +aveforms are shown, but in contrast to an oscilloscope=s two or four channels, there are a large number of channels 5 eight to over a hundred. The signals being probed are recorded either as a -one/ or a - >ero/. ?oltage variation other than being above or below the specified logic threshold is ignored, *ust as the physical logic elements would do. Figure < a compares an analog waveform with its digital equivalent. 4 logical view signal timing is captured. 4s with an oscilloscope, the logic analyzer in timing mode provides the time base that determines when data values are clocked into instrument storage. This time base is refereed to as the -internal clock./ 4 sample logic analyzer display showing waveforms captured in timing mode is shown in Fig. < b.

?olts versus time

Threshold

.ogic value versus time &

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Logic Analyzer

Fig. < (a! 4nalog versus digital representations of a signal. b) Synchronous Mode The synchronous state mode samples signal values into memory on a clock edge supplied by the system under lest. This signal is referred to as the "e,ternal clock." Aust is a flipflop takes on data values only when it is clocked, the logic analyzer samples new data values or stales only when directed by the clock signal. 7roupings of these signals can represent state variables. The logic analyzer display shows the progression of states represented by these variables. 4 sample logic analyzer display showing a trace listing of a microprocessors bus cycles (state mode! is shown in Fig. @. c) Block Diagram 4n understanding of how logic analyzers work can be gotten from the block diagram in Fig. B. .ogic analyzers have si, key functions5 the probes, high$ speed memory, the trigger block, the clock generator, the storage qualifier, and the user interface. 1. Probes. The first function block is the probes. The function of the probes is to make physical connection with the target circuit under test. To maintain proper operation of the target circuit, it is vital that the probes not unduly load down the logic signal of interest or disturb its timing. It is common for these probes to operate as voltage dividers. 2y dividing down the input signal, voltage comparators in the probe function are presented with the lowest possible voltage slew rate. (igher$speed signals can be captured with this approach. The voltage comparators transfer form the input signals into logic values. 3ifferent logic families, i.e., TT., ;6., or 6':0 have different voltage threshold, so the comparators must have ad*ustable thresholds.
Govt..Poly., Washim

Logic Analyzer

Govt..Poly., Washim

Logic Analyzer

2. High-Speed Memory : The second function is high$speed memory, which stores the sampled logic values. The memory address for a given sample is supplied internally. Typical memory depth is B&CD or BE sampies. 0eine analyzers can store several megasamples. #sually the analyzer user is interested in observing the logic signals around some event. This event is called the "measurement trigger." It will be described in the ne,t functional block. 0amples have a timing or sequence relationship with the trigger event but are arbitrarily placed in samples memory depending on the instantaneous value of the internally supplied address. The memory appears to the user as a continuously looping storage system. 3. Trigger lo!" . The third functional block is the trigger block. Trigger events are a use tied pattern of logical ones and zeroes on selected input signals. Figure %. shows how a sample trigger pattern corresponds with timing and state data streams. 0ome form of logic comparators is used to recognize the pattern of interest. :nce the trigger event occurs, the storage memory continues to store a selected number of posttrigger samples. :nce the posttriger store is complete, the measurement is stopped. 2ecause the storage memory operates as a loop, samples before the trigger event are captured, representing time before the event. 0ometimes this pretrigger capture is referred to as "negative time capture." +hen searching for the causes of a malfunctioning logic circuit, the ability to view events leading up to the problem, i.e., the trigger event, makes the logic analyzer e,tremely useful.

Govt..Poly., Washim

Logic Analyzer

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Fig. @5 0tate mode display. .isting shows inverse assembly of microprocessor bus cycles.

Fig. B 5 .ogic analyzer block diagram

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Logic Analyzer

Trigger

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Fig % ;,ample of trigger pattern showing match found with timing mode data 9 then state

#. $lo!" Ge%erator . The fourth bock is the clock generator. 3epending on which of two operating modes is selected, state or timing, sample clocks are either user supplied or instrument supplied. In the state mode, the analyzer clocks in a sample based on a rising or falling pulse edge of an input signal. The clock generator function increases the usability of the instrument by forming a clock from several input signals. It forms the clocking signal by -:M/ ing or -4L3/ ing input signals together. The user could create a composite clock using logic elements in the circuit under test but it is usually more convenient to let the analyzer1s clock generator function do it.
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Logic Analyzer

In timing mode, two different approaches are used to generate the sample clock. 0ome instrument offer both approaches, so understanding the two methods will help you to get more from the instrument. The first approach, or "continuous storage mode." simply generates a sample clock at the selected rate. Megardless of the activity occurring on the input signals, the logic values at the time of the internal clock are put into memory (see Fig. D!. 0ample clock 0ignal 0ample ?alue

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Fig. D 5 6ontinuous storage mode. 0ample value is captured at each sample clock and stored in memory.

The second approach is called -transitional timing mode/ the input signals are again sampled at a selected rate. The clock generator function only clocks the input signal values into memory if one or more signals change their value. 'easurements use memory more efficiently because storage locations are used only if inputs change. For each sample, a time stamp is recorded. 4dditional memory is required to store the time stump. The advantage of this approach over continuous storage is that long time records of infrequent activity or bursts of finely timed events can be recorded (see Fig. I!.

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Logic Analyzer

&. Storage '(ali)ier . The fifth function is the storage qualifier. It also has a role in determining which data samples are clocked into memory. 4s samples are clocked, either e,ternally or internally the storage qualifier function looks at the sampled data and tests them against a criterion. .ike the trigger event, the qualifying criterion is usually a one$zero pattern of the incoming signal. If the criterion is met, then the clocked sample is stored in memory. If the circuit under test is a microprocessor bus, this function can be used to separate bus cycles to a specific input)out$put (I):! port from instruction cycles or cycles to all other ports. *. +ser ,%ter)a!e . The si,th function, the user interface, allows the user to set up and observe the outcome of measurements. 2enchtop analyzers typically use a dedicated keyboard and cathode$ray tube (6MT! display. 'any products use graphic user interfaces similar to those available on personal computers. Oull$down menus, dialog bo,es, touch screens, and mouse pointing device", are available. .ogic analyzers are used sporadically in the debug process, so careful attention to a user interface that is easy to learn and use is advised when purchasing. Lot all users operate the instrument from the built$in keyboard and screen. 0ome may operate from a personal computer or workstation. In this case, the "user interface" would be the remote interface5 M0$<@<, I;;;$BHH, or local area network (.4L!.

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Logic Analyzer

0ignal 0ample 0tored time & ?alue T& 'emory location & & T% < & TC B

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Fig. I 5 Transitional storage mode. The input signal is captured at each sample clock but is stored into memory only when the data changes. 4 time value is stored at each change so that the waveform can be reconstructed properly.

INSTRUMENT SPECIFICATIONS / KEY FEATURES

Eey parametric specifications include ma,imum sample rate for both internal and e,ternal clocks, setup and hold or capture aperture, and probe loading. Eey functional specifications include the number of channels, memory depth, the number of trigger resources, the availability of preprocessors and inverse assemblers, nonvolatile storage, and time stamps, and correlation between measurement modules. 3ata and control interfaces for I;;;$BHH and M0$<@< have been important in manufacturing applications of logic analyzers. .ocal area network interfaces have emerged as critical links in research and development (M93! to tie these instruments with pro*ect databases. I) Sample Rate 0ample rate determines the minimum time interval, which can be resolved and measured in timing mode. The relationship of the sample clock to an input signal transition is completely random. The transition may occur *ust after a preceding

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Logic Analyzer

clock edge, or it may have happened *ust before the clock that did capture it. This is shown graphically in Fig. H. The uncertainty of placing a signal transition is a full sample period. Two edges of the same signal can be measured to an accuracy of two sample periods. 'easuring a transition on one signal versus a transition on another signal can be done to an accuracy of two sample periods plus whatever skew e,ists between the channels. "6hannel skew" is the difference in path delay between two channels of the analyzer. 6hannel skew is usually specified by the analyzer vendor and will typically be one$half the minimum sample period. 0ample clock 6aptured data 4ctual signal
;dge *ust ;dge *ust 6lock and actual data after clock P before clock have asynchronous or random relationship. Aust after Aust before

:ne sample #ncertainty

Fig H 5 Time interval uncertainty of the timing mode. The analyzer=s captured data represent the actual signal only at the time of the sample clock. The actual signal as shown could have gone high almost a full sample period before it was recorded as high. The same uncertainty e,ists when the signal goes lowQ it could have gone low almost a full sample period before it was recorded.

Govt..Poly., Washim

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Logic Analyzer

For state measurements, sample rate determines $the ma,imum clock rate, which can be measured in the target state machine. The required sample rate for microprocessor buses is usually one$half or one$third the processor1s clock. For the processor in Fig. C a, bus cycles take up four processor clocks. Figure C b. shows a more sophisticated processor, which uses two clocks for most bus cycles but can

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Logic Analyzer

operate with only one clock in a burst mode. These processors and certain reduced instruction set computer (MI06! processors require state sample rates equal to the processor1s clock. 6areful thought to the ma,imum bus rate, not the processor clock rate, should be given when determining the need for ma,imum state sample rate. II) Setup an H!l 6losely related stale sample rate are the setup and hold time specifications for the analyzer. 0ome analyzers have a selectable "capture aperture." 2oth specifications refer to the time interval relative to a clock edge when the data must be stable for accurate capture. +ith any synchronous logic circuit, the occurrence of a clock causes the output of a flipflop or register to transition to its ne,t state value. The transition must be complete and stable a specified time before the ne,t clock. .ikewise, the inputs to the flipflop must be held for a specified time after the clock. 4 similar situation e,ists for microprocessor buses. The output of memories changes as the ne,t address is presented. The memory data must be stable before they are sampled by the processor and held after the clock the required amount. .ike flipflops, registers, and memory elements, a logic analyzer also needs stable data a specified time before the e,ternal sample clock. This is the "setup time specification." The "hold specification" likewise must be met, but it is typically zero time. For setup time. a number of vendor attitudes are represented in setup specifications. From the perspective of the instrument user, the analyzer should have the same characteristics as the user1s circuit. 4t high clock rates, a very short setup time is difficult for vendors to achieve. It is common for the setup time to be in the range of

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Logic Analyzer

one$half to one$third the clock period at ma,imum sample rate. #sers planning on using the analyzer at its ma,imum state speed should check this specification to be sure their circuit will present acceptable setup times. 0ome analyzers have a selectable aperture in which the state data are sampled. This can be an e,tremely useful feature for checking or characterizing the target system1s own setup and hold margins. III) P"!#e L!a $n% The last parametric specification is "probe loading." .ogic analyzer probe usually come specified with static resistive and capacitive loading values.

:bviously, the target system should not be perturbed by probe loading. (owever, the effects of these static loads cannot be interpreted for logic analyzers as easily as they might be for an oscilloscope. .ogic analyzers are sensitive to edge placement, so signal rise time and delay are more important than pulse response. .atitude can be taken in optimizing the probe$comparator network. 'ost popular analyzers sampling at %&& '(z and below have probe specifications of && k and & to H pF. In series with this shunt reactance is a <%&$ to %&&$ resistance (see Fig. &!. The capacitance is largely isolated from the target system by this series resistance. Thus the difference between %and & pF is relatively unimportant. The nominal dc loading is && k , and even high frequencies never see a reactance less than <%& . <%&$%&& To target circuit To probe comparators

Govt..Poly., Washim

Logic Analyzer

D$H pF

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Fig. &5 ;quivalent circuit for logic analyzer probe.

4nalyzers having greater than a

$7(z sample rate have started

supplying 0OI6; models for their probes so that the true impact on signal integrity can be evaluated. I&) C'annel C!unt The key functional specification is "channel count." The number of input channels, along with ma,imum sample rate. drives the cost of a logic analyzer. 0electing the appropriate number of channels for a current pro*ect as well as future needs is very important. The use model for debugging a problem in timing mode often involves an incremental hunt and probe approach. 4 minimum count of @< channels is recommended. Thirty$two channels n also the minimum for probing an H$bit microprocessor5 D channels for addresses, H channels for data and about H channels for status and random circuit points. For D Rbit processors the, minimum is closer to %D channels5 <B for addresses, D for data and D for 0tatus and random probes. For @<$bit processors, the number is H& channels5 @< for addresses, @< for data, and D for status. For analyzers, which can be configured to operate as two simultaneous machines, e.g., one as a state analyzer and the other as a timing analyzer, H to @< channels should be added to the preceding recommendations.

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Logic Analyzer

&) Mem!"( Dept'/Ma)$mum Sample* 'emory depth is directly related to the ma,imum time window captured in timing mode or the total number of states or bus cycles captured in state mode. :ften depth is traded against sample $ rate, channel count, or the availability of instrument resources such as time stamps for state samples. 'emory can sometimes be cascaded or interleaved for more depth, but at the e,pense of channels or time stamps. The high cost of memory components makes it uneconomical to record directly into logic analyzer memory at && '(z to < 7(z. The data are usually decorated or fanned out to multiple banks of memory. 'emory banks can be interleaved together to achieve ma,imum sample rates. This also provides "double depth" memory. If the interleaving is switched off, the sample rate must drop along with a decrease in memory depth. The remaining memory can be used to create additional channels. 4s a general rule more memory depth is better. 'ost analyzer, provide from B&CD to million samples. 6apturing a packet of data such as a single

scan line from a television or computer" monitor may require a certain analyzer depth. 4 common measurement is to trace a processor "crash.". 4 crash occurs when a processor fetches an instruction stream, which directs it to a portion of memory that has not been loaded with a valid program. In each a case, the processor will fetch an invalid instruction or one intended to literally stop the processor1s e,ecution. :nce the crash is detected, deep memory can be searched backward to the root cause of the crash. 4 third purpose of deep memory is to trace software written in a high$level programming

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Logic Analyzer

language. Ten or more bus cycles may be needed to capture a single high$level instruction. 4 useful snapshot will require the capture of a couple of hundred high$level instructions, meaning several thousand bus samples. The down side of deep memory is a sluggish user interface and the potential waste of time while wading through thousands of samples. Transitional storage mode for timing measurements is an e,cellent feature to optimize memory needs. 0amples are only stored when input signals change values. (igh$resolution pictures over wide time windows can be captured. The tradeoff here is the ma,imum sample rate and richness of trigger features, which can be achieved in this mode relative to the simpler continuous storage mode. &I) T"$%%e" Re*!u"+e* The key to finding obscure or subtle problems is in the number and sophistication of trigger resources. 'ost important are the number of patterns and some number of sequencer levels. "0equence levels" refer to the number of states that the trigger block can be programmed to step through while finding the trigger event or while finding the trigger event or while controlling storage qualification. For e,ample, a three$level sequencer could be set to first find pattern and then find pattern < before finally

finding pattern @ and triggering. 0tudies have been done on the usefulness of multiple sequence levels, It is rare to find a measurement needing more than three sequence levels. ;ven two levels are used infrequently.

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Logic Analyzer

It is common for instruments, e,cept the highest$sample$rate machines, to offer H to D simultaneous patterns and a like number of sequence levels.

From a user$interface perspective, <& or @& patterns can sometimes be defined and kept ready for a measurement. The instrument hardware is usually more limited than that allowing less than D simultaneous patterns. #sually there is a counter associated with each level of the sequencer. Mange patterns are e,pensive to implement. #nless the analyzer has been specifically designed for software tracing,$there will usually only be one or two range patterns. Mich trigger capabilities can be more effective than capturing a long record with deep memory and then having to wade through all the data. &II) P"ep"!+e**!"*/In,e"*e A**em#le"* 4 key benefit to using a logic analyzer is looking at many channels of data simultaneously. (ooking up all these channels is the number one barrier to using a logic analyzer. Orewired probes called -preprocessors/are an effective way to overcome this barrier. They are available for many microprocessors and standard buses ,such as the personal computer e,tended industry standard architecture (;I04! bus and the serial bus M0$<@<. 'any package types like dual$in$line (3IO!, pin$grid array (O74!, and leadless carriers are available. Ourchasing a preprocessor is well worth the money. Lot all vendors support all processors nor all their package variants, so careful attention should be paid to this limitation when selecting an analyzer vendor. 6lose companions to preprocessors are irrerse assembler software packages. They run on the logic analyzer to format the captured data as processor

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Logic Analyzer

instructions. This greatly enhances the readability of displays and usefulness of 4te instrument. ;arly microprocessors had their e,ecution units tied directly to their bus interface. The correlation of bus activity with instruction e,ecution was

straightforward. Today, processors employ pipelining, caching, and memory address translation. These methods cause a poor correlation between bus activity (which is what a logic analyzer observes! and instruction e,ecution. Oreprocessors for these chips incorporate special hardware, and their inverse assemblers use sophisticated techniques to overcome these problems as best they can. Oreprocessors and inverse assemblers have become matched sets. There is a wide disparity of function among vendors on the quality of inverse assembler displays. &III) N!n,!lat$le St!"a%e Instrument setup involves channel selection and creation of data labels and trigger specs. The ability to save these setups along with measurement data in nonvolatile storage is critical to productivity. Flash memory and disk drives are the two most common options available. 6losely related to setup is the documentation of setups and measurement results. 6onnection of the analyzer to a printer or plotter is a good way to output this information, but transfer of the data to a personal computer via a compatible disk drive is quickly becoming the preferable route. In this case, popular documentation packages, database programs, or spreadsheets can use the information

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Logic Analyzer

directly. In addition to the media compatibility between O6 and instrument, the data format compatibility with word processors or graphics packages must be considered. I-) T$me Stamp* +hen operating in state mode, the timing of clocks is determined by the circuit under test. 0ometimes the clocking is sporadic, or store qualification is engaged, which obliterates any implied timing from a regularly paced state clock. The ability of a logic analyzer to store a time value along with the captured data can be very useful. The stored time value is called a "time stamp." The time stamp is especially useful with an instrument split into state and timing machines. It enables the user to correlate the state and timing measurements. 'odular instruments that can host multiple logic analyzers or other measurement modules such as pattern generators or oscilloscopes sometimes are able to time stamp and correlate events from each of the modules.

GETTING THE MOST FROM LOGIC ANALY.ER

The attributes of a logic analyzer, which make it usefulSlogic domain data capture and presentation, large channel count, and fle,ibility of measurementSalso can make the instrument intimidating. The recommendations, which follow, should help you overcome whatever fears keep you from getting the most from your logic analyzer. The most common task when troubleshooting a logic signal is the incremental "hunt and probe" session. 'any people use oscilloscopes for this procedure, but logic analyzers can be substantially more productive. In a "hunt and

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Logic Analyzer

probe" session, a symptom is identified by probing a single channel. .ooking upstream, the probe is moved or more probes are added. 0pecific events, usually 2oolean combinations of signals, are used to isolate events. If the target system is a microprocessor, the symptom is often see as state behavior or software behavior. A) Re+!mmen at$!n* t! Imp"!,e U*a#$l$t( . Olan the use of input channels. 'ultibit uses such as address, data, and status should all be assigned to ad*acent channels. (old out some channels on a free pod for -hunt and probe/ timing measurements. First choice is for these channels to be the default setup. +hen the instrument is first turned on, check to see what the default channel assignment is. #sually the instrument will default to a timing mode measurement. Identify which pod (probably it will be pod ! contains the selected channels. 4s you move these e,ploratory channels along, you may find that you1ve probed a multibit bus. Nou may want to add this signal and its companions to your suite of input channels. If you took the time to plan ahead, you1ll have already reserved channels for all the other bits. If a split timing and state measurement looks promising, it will be easy to incrementally set up the machine, since usable pod configurations will have been reserved. <. #se preprocessors or specially designed, package clips to mass connect the probes. .ittle value is added by the user to hook up all these lines. 4nd the frustration can be overwhelming when general$purpose clips fall off. Oreprocessors usually come with preconfigured setup including labels and symbols. 4nd they come with inverse

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Logic Analyzer

assemblers or data formatters so that information can be presented in standard mnemonics. @. Ohysically label the probes if the flying$lead probes arc used. 'ost people *ust a keep track mentally of four to a hundred probe lines. B. Take the time to create labels and multibit symbols. 4fter the potential for a probing snarl, the ne,t opportunity for contusion will be when making sense of the display. .abels and symbols keep the instrument tracking your thought process and avoid mistakes of interpretation. %. 0tore setups, labels, and symbols on your storage. 0tore your "hunt and probe" setup well as snapshots of your incremental measurement, especially complicated triggers or split machine configurations. These stored setups and measurements will allow you almost single button recall of your thoughts during the troubleshooting process D. Invest in hardcopy output for your analyzer, and use it. 'anual notes and sketches of waveforms or trace listings are unnecessary and time consuming. 3irectly output to a printer or use a .4L connection to transfer machine$readable data to your O6 or workstation. I. .earn how to set triggers or store qualify data beyond a simple single pattern. 'ost users never get beyond the simple single pattern. #nderstanding concepts such as sequencing and special trigger events such as edges, etc., will stick even if the specific setup of a specific analyzer fades from your memory. It has been said that no one ever got rich by being a logic analyzer guru. That1s true, hut people do get paid for solving

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Logic Analyzer

tough problems in the shortest possible time. The trigger controls are the key to achieving this. H. Invest in an instrument with a point and shoot user interface. #sually this means a touch screen or a mouse pointer. Eeyboards for entering labels and symbols will enhance usability. The fle,ibility of these instruments means that many potential choices need to be made. 3irectly pointing to these choices instead of moving incrementally to them with arrow keys will greatly speed things up.

CONCLUSION
In this way we conclude that logic analyzer is advanced, most efficient and effective equipment which has many application in educational as well an industrial field.

REFERENCE
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Logic Analyzer

. ;.;6TM:LI6 IL0TM#';LT (4L32::E ( 0econd ;dition! 6.N3;. F. 6::'20, Ar. 6hapter @ 5 2y 3avid 2. Michey <. T.4 I&& .:7I6 4L4.N>;M #0;M '4L#4. @. T.4 I&& .:7I6 4L4.N>;M IL0T4..4TI:L '4L#4..

/0102 A ,anta%e* !n u*$n% l!%$+ anal(3e"* Though some type of oscilloscope also have the ability to view digital signals, but normally they only have < to B channels, they cannot satisfy the analysis requirements for % or more channels, especially for microprocessor buses. Lormally a logic analyzer will have D or more channels, even over @&& channels for some high$end product types. 6omparing to oscilloscopes, the logic analyzer has these advantages5 . 'onitors multiple channels at a same time <. +ith good and various triggers @. Oowerful analysis functions /0104 F!u" appl$+at$!n 5$el * !5 l!%$+ anal(3e" There are four application fields for a logic analyzer /0 O*+$ll!*+!pe :bserve the waveform to find out if there=re burrs or interferes, or check if there=s error on frequency. 10 T$m$n% mea*u"ement* 'easure the timing of signals to find out conflicts or timing problems. 20 A**$*tan+e !n anal(*$* Orovide additional analysis to bus signals or protocols to simplify the development cycle. 40 Bu% 5$n e" +ith its strong trigger ability, a logic analyzer can be used for error tracing or finding hidden bugs within the system, this advantage improves the stability and reliability of the product under development.

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