Purposeful Classroom by Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Establishing Purpose for Yourself and Your Students

"Great minds have purposes, others have wishes." The author of this quote, Washington Irving, created the memorable character Rip Van Winkle. You may recall that Rip fell asleep one day and awoke 20 years later, confused about what had occurred and unable to make sense of his surroundings. Misadventures ensued as he failed to recognize his neighbors, confronted a man using his name (really his adult son), and announced his loyalty to the British throne, unaware that the American Revolution had been fought while he slept. Although Van Winkle was immersed in an environment that held all the clues he needed to understand his circumstances, he couldn't recognize them. Otherwise effective classrooms sometimes operate this way, too. The cues that seem so obvious to us as teachers can be lost on students who, like Rip Van Winkle, fail to perceive the context and intent of what we're doing and what they should be learning. Good teachers work hard, using the latest in research-based practices and well-designed curriculum materials. But sometimes teachers rely a little too much on hopehope that students will learn what we're teaching. Instead, we need to be clear about the purpose of every lesson.

Establishing Purpose
Establishing the purpose of a lesson, often through a written objective, is a common educational practice. From the time teachers get their professional licensure, they are encouraged to consider what their students will know and be able to do. An established purpose alerts learners to important information and garners their attention while helping teachers decide how best to use their instructional time. Consider the following content purpose statement: To identify the steps in the life cycle of a frog After reading that statement, do you know what the teacher wants her students to learn? Could you identify instructional materials or plan instructional events that would help guide students' understanding? Could you identify an assessment that would reveal which students had mastered this information? Hopefully, your answer to each of these questions is "yes." While we can improve the quality of the statement above, perhaps by increasing relevance or focusing on the linguistic demands of the lesson (elements that will be discussed further in this book), our point is that a clearly established purpose drives instruction. We don't ask students to infer the purpose; we clearly state it.

Purpose = Expectations
Establishing a clear purpose for learning content serves as a priming mechanism for new learning and results in increased student understanding of the content (Gagn & Briggs, 1974; Hunter, 1976; Mager, 1962). Simply put, when students understand the purpose of a lesson, they learn more (Fraser, Walberg, Welch, & Hattie, 1987).

In stating a purpose, we make our expectations for learning clear. When teachers have high expectations for students, communicate those expectations, and provide the support necessary to achieve them, student performance soars; conversely, when teachers have low expectations and communicate this either verbally or nonverbally, student achievement suffers (Marzano, 2011). Evidence from high-poverty schools in London, England, suggests that high expectations can also help reduce delinquency and behavioral disturbances (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, Ouston, & Smith, 1979). We also know that teachers' low expectations for students from traditionally underperforming groups contribute to the achievement gap (van den Bergh, Denessen, Hornstra, Voeten, & Holland, 2010). One of the ways teachers can measure high expectations is by analyzing whether the stated purpose for learning content matches the grade level being taught. A simple review of the purpose statement will reveal lessons that are below grade level and thus not designed to ensure that students reach high expectations. After all, excellent teaching of 4th grade standards to 6th grade students will result, at best, in a group of 7th graders performing at the 5th grade level. That's not to say that a teacher would never provide students with some developmental instructionclosing knowledge and skills gaps is important, and can be accomplished during guided instruction. But lessons that are provided to the whole class, as well as the productive group work that students do collaboratively, should be aligned to grade-level expectations.

Objectives Versus Purpose Statements

A lesson objective is in the mind of the teacher; establishing purpose refers to the act of carefully communicating the objective to students. The establishment of purpose is accomplished through intentional use of lesson objectives by the teacher to let students know what they will learn and what they will be expected to do with what they've learned. A clearly stated and understood purpose lays the foundation for a schema building of concepts, skills, and information. There are many excellent resources focused on writing lesson objectives (e.g., Mager, 1962; Marzano, 2009). We will touch on this subject in Chapter 2, but it is not the main focus of this book. We are interested in how the purpose of a lesson is communicated to students and how the established purpose guides learning. This requires more than writing a quality objective, which, though important, is insufficient to achieve the results we're after. We want students to become self-directed, motivated, critical thinkers who understand the world around them. The terms goals and objectives have been used for decades to refer to broad categories of written or verbal statements that describe what students should learn in a given unit or lesson. Goals most often represent a larger curricular focus, while objectives represent smaller, more specific segments of learning that lead to the goal (Gronlund & Linn, 1990). For example, in special education, a goal on an Individual Education Program (IEP) typically encompasses a year of instruction, with stated objectives representing incremental benchmarks toward the goal (Billingsley, 1984). These objectives require that the time and evidence of learning be specified. The design of IEPs is influenced by the work of Mager (1962), who suggested that behavioral objectives (1) contain a measurable verb that describes the performance, (2) outline the conditions under which the objective is to be achieved, and (3) note the criteria for determining success. However, as Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) explain, a narrowly defined objective can actually inhibit student performance because it "focuses students' attention to such a degree that they ignore information not specifically related to the goal" (p. 94). This effect can be especially troubling for teachers of English language learners, who are attempting to build schema by encouraging students to draw on their background knowledge and prior experiences. An overly narrow objective may result in students editing out such salient information. "SMART" is a commonly used mnemonic device for helping people remember the components of a wellcrafted objective. Originally, SMART stood for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-based.

However, it has been revised over time with additional words for added clarity. For example, Haughey (2010) suggests the following: S - Specific, significant, stretching M - Measurable, meaningful, motivational A - Agreed-upon, attainable, achievable, acceptable, action-oriented R - Realistic, relevant, reasonable, rewarding, results-oriented T - Time-based, timely, tangible, trackable As we will discuss in greater detail in Chapter 2, understanding the components of an effective objective is important in a teacher's planning process, whereas the purpose has to be understood by students such that they can explain it in their own words and grasp its relevance. In other words, teachers who painstakingly write objectives that meet the SMART criteria should do so for themselves and their own understanding of the lesson. An objective probably won't work as a purpose statement, as students are likely to get lost in the details. Students want to know what they are going to learn and how they will be expected to demonstrate their understanding. Consider the following objective for a biology class designed to meet the SMART criteria: By the end of the period, students will describe the role of DNA in the creation of proteins by summarizing the process in writing. This objective is useful for teachers. It has a time component and mentions specific content and a measurable outcome. But even though it meets the SMART criteria, we would argue that it is not very useful for students. First, while time limits are important in teaching, we're not convinced that they are necessary for a purpose statement. Second, when the purpose statement includes a task, students pay more attention to the task rather than to what they are expected to learn. For us, a better content purpose statement, based on the objective that the teacher has written, would read as follows: Explain the role of DNA in the creation of proteins. In this case, students are immediately alerted to what they are expected to learn. They assume that the teacher will structure class time to ensure that they do, in fact, learn this and that they will be held accountable for doing so. Thus, the purpose statement is focusing for students, while not being so narrow as to limit their understanding.

Standards Versus Purpose Statements

As states increased the development of content standards in the 1980s, the standards effectively replaced the objectives that teachers posted for their students. (We even worked for a superintendent once who required standards to be posted on classroom walls and principals to check for them during their classroom observations.) However, replacing objectives with standards was actually a step backward in education. Although we believe that objectives may be overkill for students, at least they focus on what students are learning at the moment. Imagine the classroom that has the following 6th grade standard posted on the wall: Explain the significance of Greek mythology to the everyday life of people in the region and how Greek literature continues to permeate our literature and language today, drawing from Greek mythology and epics, such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and from Aesop's Fables. (California Department of Education, 2000, p. 25)

The first problem with this statement is that the content described is taught and learned over several days, if not weeks. Our experience suggests that a purpose statement should focus on what can be accomplished today, rather than over several days. As it stands, this standard posing as a purpose statement is likely to be seen as wallpaper by students because it will be posted for so long. Second, there are too many ideas wrapped up in the statement. What should the students focus on? What, specifically, are they supposed to learn, and why? Standards are meant to be unpacked and unwrapped, not simply posted on the wall (Ainsworth, 2003; Jackson, 2009). All kinds of excellent processes have been developed, such as Understanding by Design (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005), to ensure both that teacher lessons are based on standards and that students know what is expected of them. Many states are now adopting the Common Core State Standards, which will provide a new opportunity for teachers to focus on content and what they want students to learn. Again, simply posting one of the common core standards will not focus students on what they need to learn now.

Purpose and Inquiry

Some educators believe that establishing a clear purpose is actually detrimental to inquiry-based lessons. In fact, we were recently talking with a science teacher who said, "I don't state the purpose because then the inquiry process is ruined and my students won't want to do the lab." We are puzzled by this attitude, especially given that the scientific process clearly suggests that researchers have a purpose for their investigations. Consider the steps of the scientific process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ask a question. Do background research. Construct a hypothesis. Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment. Analyze your data and draw a conclusion. Communicate your results.

There is a purpose to each of these steps, and if the purpose is not identified, novices are likely to be confused and misinformed. The science teacher with whom we spoke may have meant that purpose statements for inquiry-based lessons should be focused on content rather than process, as in the following example: Identify outliers in data sets. This statement provides students with information about what they should learn as they determine the validity of given data points. In this case, students are learning how to review their data sets before analyzing data to determine if any of the data points were entered incorrectly. Over time, they will learn about outliers and why some researchers remove them. Understanding the role of outliers is part of the inquiry and research process and one that most students need to be taught. Or perhaps the science teacher meant that the purpose should be established at the outset of a lesson. One of the most common misconceptions about establishing purpose is that it has to be done as soon as students enter the room. This is simply not true. We believe that students need to understand the purpose of the lesson at some point during the course of it, but not necessarily at the very beginning. For example, when we read informational texts to our students, we don't always establish the purpose in advance of the reading. Often, we read parts of the text, invite students to talk with group members, draw connections between the text and their experiences, and then debate the information presented before revealing the purpose behind what we're doing. One of our colleagues, a physics teacher, rarely reveals the purpose in advance of a lab because she wants

students to first have experiences that will then make the purpose statement relevant. In many cases, students hypothesize the purpose, asking their physics teacher about it, as they complete the lab.

Purpose and Attention

What is important from the outset is student attention. When the lesson begins with something that grabs students, the purpose does not have to be set in advance; at other times, the purpose can serve to focus students and gain their attention. There is a reciprocal relationship between purpose and attention, and one that is worthy of the teacher's time. It has been said that teachers are really brainworkers, and thus should be knowledgeable about how the brain works so that we can more skillfully influence its development (Battro, Fischer, & Lna, 2008). The explosion of knowledge about the brain in recent years has led to an intersection of fields that share a common interest in its structure and function. Psychologists, neuroscientists, and educators have all come to appreciate how each specialty can inform the other, and have even dubbed this emerging field neuroeducation (Battro, Fischer, & Lna, 2008). A major area of shared research among the disciplines is on the role of attention in learning. Attention is, after all, a psychological state of being that is evoked by the environment itself. The ability to pay attention for longer periods has both a developmental component (young children have a shorter span of attention than older ones) and a contextual one (we can sustain our attention when the object is of interest). However, what is often overlooked is that expertise also plays a role. A novice is not especially good at attending to the most salient information in the environment; to someone who isn't quite sure what to pay attention to, everything and nothing seem important all at once. You've seen this happen whenever you're in the company of someone who possesses a high degree of expertise. Perhaps you're in a museum with your friend the art buff, and she points out the unique brushstrokes that are characteristic of a particular painter. To you, the painting may simply be a pleasing image, but to your expert friend it's replete with telltale details. In the same way, a novice learner of multiplication may overlook a pattern that emerges, or fail to see that an operation is really rapid addition. A well-crafted purpose by the classroom expert helps the novice attend to these nuances. Your art-loving friend didn't simply pay attention; she knew what to look for and how to look for it. Her brain functions as a network of operations that are not well understood. Her attention influences and is influenced by perception, memory, and learning. In the same way, you learned something that you didn't know before because she took the time to point it out to you. As you listened to her, you focused your attention to screen out the voices of other patrons (selective attention), shifted it rapidly back and forth between what she was saying and the painting itself (alternating attention), and commanded yourself not to allow your mind to wander (sustained attention). She paused to make sure you were following what she was saying and checked your understanding by engaging you in conversation. It's the same way in the classroom: Attention is jointly constructed, and each person plays a part. The real trick is whether you remember what your friend said after you leave the museum. Again, attention plays a key role. Your friend can help you remember information if she tells you how it relates to something you already know. For instance, she may tell you that the visible brushstrokes in a painting were a feature of the Impressionist painters. You immediately recall what you know about this period from an art history class you took in college. You may even think to yourself, "Hmm, that's interesting," and consciously decide to remember it. Both of you are building your schema about Impressionism, and your interaction reinforces your existing knowledge in the process of adding new knowledge. Establishing purpose not only focuses the learner's attention on the information to be learned, but also reinforces what has been previously learned. Perhaps you can appreciate why the fields of psychology, education, and neuroscience find themselves drawn together. Understanding how the brain works involves psychological, cognitive, and biological perspectives;

none stands completely apart from the others. Our field's expertise is in the cognitive/ behavioral realm. Like the friend in the art museum, we can interpret what we observe for our science colleagues. And one of the most influential theories of cognition is the gradual release of responsibility.

Purpose and Gradual Release of Responsibility

The gradual release of responsibility model has its roots in the work of Campione (1981) and colleagues, who developed what they came to call a "cognitive apprenticeship model." They describe the role of the teacher across six phases: "(1) models expert behavior; (2) monitors the group's understanding; (3) engages in on-line diagnosis of emerging competence; (4) pushes for deeper understanding; (5) scaffolds the weaker students' emerging competence; and (6) fades into the background whenever the students are able to take charge of their own learning" (Brown & Campione, 1996, p. 122). The development of this model was intended to strike a middle ground between purely discovery learning and a strictly teacher-led model of telling, rather than teaching. Pearson and Gallagher (1983) applied this approach to the development of reading comprehension, describing a framework that included shared, guided, and independent reading. Calling the framework "gradual release of responsibility," they emphasized the reciprocal relationship between the cognitive burdens of the student and teacher: As the student gains expertise, the cognitive responsibility shifts to him or her, and the teacher takes on a more supportive (rather than directive) role. We have built on the work of these researchers to articulate an instructional framework that builds the cognitive and metacognitive skills of learners. Drawing particularly from the work of Vygotsky (1978) in the realm of the social nature of learning, we have illustrated our framework as a series of teaching phases that together serve to build knowledge and deepen understanding (see Figure 1.1). These phasesthe focus lesson, guided instruction, collaborative learning, and independent learningare all influenced by the established purpose. (An overview of this model is presented in our book, Better Learning through Structured Teaching [2008].) Importantly, these phases occur in a different order depending on the purpose of the lesson.

Figure 1.1. Gradual Release of Responsibility

Source: From Better Learning Through Structured Teaching (p. 4), by D. Fisher and N. Frey, 2008, Alexandria,

VA: ASCD. Copyright 2008 by ASCD.

Purpose and the Focus Lesson

Purpose is established in the focus lesson, when the teacher introduces and demonstrates concepts or skills that are new to students. When kindergarten teacher Mitzi Levinson says, "Today we're going to learn about the differences between triangles and squares, and we'll work together to sort them," she is establishing purpose for her students. "You'll be explaining how you decide what kind of shape you have." She models her thinking about the shapes as she chooses one and holds it up: "Now I'm looking at this one, and I am thinking about what I know about shapes," she offers. "The first thing I'll do is count the sides: one, two, three sides. There's only one shape I know of that's got three sides, and that's a triangle. I'm going to match it to the shape on the box to be sure," she says, holding it up to a labeled triangle on the sorting box. "Yes, it matches, so I know I should put it in here." By initially establishing the purpose, Ms. Levinson draws her students' attention to the concepts that she wants them to learn and further explains how they will explore the concepts today. As she thinks aloud, she shares her decision-making process. While further experiences with the shapes will be needed, the focus lesson lays the groundwork. Because the focus lesson is brief (only 5 to 15 minutes), Ms. Levinson knows that she needs to find out what her students have absorbed. This occurs during guided instruction.

Purpose and Guided Instruction

The guided instruction phase provides the teacher with information about how well students absorbed the initial instruction, as well as any misconceptions or partial understandings that the students may have. The teacher checks for understanding, asks questions to activate background knowledge or reflective thinking, and offers cues as needed to shift attention more overtly to sources of information. When these scaffolds fail, the teacher temporarily reassumes cognitive responsibility to provide direct explanation and modeling. Purpose is essential to this phase of learning, as the teacher needs to have a clear vision for what exactly to assess. A lack of purpose can devolve into low-level measurement of compliance and assignment completion, rather than learning. If Ms. Levinson did not have a learning purpose in mind, her assessment of the students would be a strict tally of correct or incorrect outward behaviors. Fortunately, because her purpose is clear, the scaffolds that she can offer Joseph, a student having difficulty, are more helpful. As she sits with the boy while he sorts the shapes, she analyzes his errors and asks, "Joseph, can you tell me what you know about triangles and squares?" When Joseph correctly explains that the two shapes have a different number of sides, Ms. Levinson says, "Show me how you decide if the shape is a triangle or a square." As Joseph counts the sides, Ms. Levinson notices that he doesn't have a reliable technique for counting, and often counts the same side twice as he turns the shape. "As I'm watching you, I think I can see where you're making the mistake," she says. "Let me show you a different way." She places a shape on the desk and tells Joseph she is not going to move it, then places one finger on the side from which she begins. "When I get back to the place I started, I stop. Now you try it." In this case, Ms. Levinson's established purpose helps her recognize that the student understands the concept, but lacks a reliable technique.

Purpose and Collaborative Learning

Consistent with Vygotsky's tenet that all learning is social, we believe strongly in the power of collaborative learning to consolidate understanding and refine skills. As students move forward in their growing mastery of a

topic, they need time with fellow learners to clarify and consolidate their knowledge. In some cases, such collaboration also exposes what they don't yet know. The opportunity to make mistakes and have the time and support to correct them can lead to a more solid understandinga concept known as productive failure (Kapur, 2008). Purpose plays a role in peer learning in that students have an expectation of what they are supposed to do. Let's return to Ms. Levinson's class. She sets the purpose again, explaining that students will work in small groups to sort large versions of the shapes: "Remember, this is a time when you get a chance to tell each other why you know a shape is a triangle or a square." As the students place the shapes into large plastic buckets, they use a language frame to extend their academic language in mathematics. Each table has a chart that says, "I know it is a ________ because ________." Ms. Levinson sits with each small group, providing guided instruction when the students are not able to resolve problems on their own.

Purpose and Independent Learning

As students move toward mastery, they assume more cognitive responsibility for their learning. In-class independent learning happens most commonly through reading and writing tasks; out-of-class independent learning is usually called homework. We believe debate around the usefulness of homework overlooks a glaring problemnamely, traditional homework occurs too early in the instructional cycle. Consider the purpose that Ms. Levinson sets for her kindergarten students: learning the differences between triangles and squares. This isn't a concept that is completely mastered in one lesson. Students need many experiences with the shapes to solidify their understanding. Ms. Levinson extends what they have been learning together by using an out-ofclass task that they are reaching mastery on. She tells her students, "When you go home tonight, I'd like for you to find something in your house that is similar to a triangle or square. Choose one of the paper shapes to help you find a shape that looks like it. You can draw a picture or write the name of the object you find on your shape. Tomorrow you'll each tell us about the shapes you found and we'll sort them." Ms. Levinson has in-class independent learning for her students to do as well. After choosing a paper shape, they are to look around the classroom to find an object that is similar. Joseph chooses a picture book that looks like his square, while Corrine selects a triangular wooden building block. Ms. Levinson talks briefly with each student to determine what he or she knows about the shape. Tomorrow they'll continue, now talking about objects that are more abstract.

Indicators of Success
Figure 1.2 contains a rubric that can be used to identify areas of strength and need in terms of establishing purpose. As a note of caution, using a rubric such as this one to evaluate teacher performance is probably not very helpful and could result in hurt feelings and conflict. Instead, we suggest that the rubric be used as a needs assessment following a conversation about quality. When teachers, coaches, and administrators agree on quality, amazing conversations can be held. Without agreements about quality, even agreements that grow and develop over time, conversations can become defensive and accusatory. We strongly suggest taking the time to talk about quality and to reach agreements about quality before providing one another with feedback. We believe that all of the indicators on this rubric are important considerations, and have developed descriptors for each of them. We'd like to say that we consistently teach at the "4" level, but that would not be true; although we aim for a 4 each time we teach, we don't always reach our goal. The rubric helps us to reflect on our teaching and to identify areas of strength and need. For example, Nancy knows that she is very strong in the area of linking lessons to a larger theme, problem, project, or question. When colleagues need help in this area, they often seek her out for assistance. Doug is strong at developing content and language components for each lesson. He likes to think about the linguistic demands of the lesson and how to help students master content. As

such, he is often asked about the linguistic demands of a lesson and how to develop the language component of the purpose statement.

Conclusion
All of the indicators on the rubric in Figure 1.2 are further described and defined in the chapters that follow. They are presented in the same order as in the rubric, but that's not to say that you have to read them in any particular order. If you need, for example, immediate information about meaningful experiences that are linked to purpose, skip to Chapter 6 and find out more. If you want to know why we think it is critical that students can explain the purpose in their own words and why the purpose should have relevance for students, jump to Chapters 3 and 4. We do hope that you'll eventually read the whole book, as it contains our best thinking about this very important aspect of teaching and learningestablishing purpose. As author W. Clement Stone said, "Definiteness of purpose is the starting point of all achievement."

Figure 1.2. Indicators of SuccessEstablishing Purpose

Indicators The established purpose focuses on student learning, rather than an activity, assignment, or task.

The established purpose contains both content and language components.

Students understand the relevance of the established purpose.

Phase 2 Phase 1Minimal Approaching The established purpose The established The established The established requires students to use purpose is linked to a purpose mostly purpose fails to link critical and creative theme, problem, contains statements the lesson's thinking to acquire project, or question, about activities, classroom work to information, resolve a but the lesson's work is assignments, or tasks, any theme, problem, problem, apply a skill, or primarily on an with minimal linkage project, or question. evaluate a process. The isolated activity, to a theme, problem, Instead, an agenda lesson's work is clearly assignment, or task, project, or question. of isolated activities, linked to a theme, rather than an enduring The work is primarily assignments, or problem, project, or understanding. reproductive in tasks is listed. question the class is nature. investigating. The established purpose The established The established The statement is not contains statements about purpose contains purpose omits either grade- or coursegrade- or coursecontent and language the content or appropriate. The appropriate content as demand components language component. statement is vague well as language demands that are grade- or It is grade- or and does not provide that can be learned and course-appropriate, but content-appropriate, students with a clear accomplished today. are too broad and but is too broad and sense of what is require several lessons requires several expected and what is to learn. lessons to to be learned. accomplish. Randomly selected Randomly selected Randomly selected The statements of students can explain the students can restate the students can restate randomly selected stated purposes of the purpose and report how the relevance students emphasize lesson and how they are the purpose is related established by the compliance, rather linked to a theme, to a theme, problem, teacher, but do not than a link to a problem, project, or project, or question. see connections with theme, problem, question. The student The students may a theme, problem, project, or question. Phase 4Exemplary Phase 3Proficient

Students can explain the established purpose in their own words.

recognizes the relevance recognize some of the purpose beyond the relevance to their own classroom or for learning's life or technology. sake as well as how information can be found, used, created, or shared. Randomly selected Randomly selected students can explain or students can accurately demonstrate what they are restate the purpose of learning in their own the lesson using their words and what is teacher's words. expected of them for the lesson. The established purpose requires students to actively construct meaning through interaction with the teacher, the content materials, and each other. Students receive feedback about the task, the processing of the task, self-regulation, and about the self as person. The established purpose requires interaction with the teacher, content materials, and each other, but the teacher, rather than the students, mostly develops the meaning. The feedback students receive focuses mainly on the task with some information about the process used. The teacher can explain how he or she checks for understanding during and after the lesson. The results of the lesson's work are used to make instructional decisions about the next lesson.

The teacher designs meaningful experiences and outcomes aligned with the established purpose.

The teacher has a plan for determining when the established purpose has been met.

The teacher can explain a system to check for understanding during and after the lesson and how this information is used to inform instructional decisions within the current lesson and the lessons that follow. The format of the lesson is designed to allow the teacher to respond to students' misconceptions or partial understandings.

project, or question. They are not able to They are tentative or link their learning to unsure of the usefulness beyond usefulness of the the classroom. learning beyond the classroom. Randomly selected Randomly selected students can restate students are unable portions of the to correctly state the purpose of the lesson. purpose of the These partial lesson. explanations reflect the teacher's wording more than their own. The established The established purpose requires purpose focuses on a some interaction, but one-way is mostly confined to transmission model reproduction and of instruction, with recall of content. little or no Students may not see interaction with the task as teacher, content, or meaningful and each. Students receive feedback that receive little timely is not specific and and specific only focused on the feedback other than task. whether or not they completed the task correctly. The teacher checks The tasks are for understanding at graded, but do not the end of the lesson drive instruction. only. He or she can Instead, the explain how these emphasis is on task results are used to completion, rather make instructional than on gauging decisions about the student learning to next lesson. design the next lesson.

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