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Main Contents

This document outlines the contents and structure of a textbook on differential equations. It provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the book, including basic concepts and terminology related to differential equations, methods for solving separable, linear, and exact first-order differential equations, numerical methods like Euler's method, and qualitative analysis using slope fields. The table of contents previews the chapters and major sections that make up the textbook.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
35 views

Main Contents

This document outlines the contents and structure of a textbook on differential equations. It provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the book, including basic concepts and terminology related to differential equations, methods for solving separable, linear, and exact first-order differential equations, numerical methods like Euler's method, and qualitative analysis using slope fields. The table of contents previews the chapters and major sections that make up the textbook.
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 10

Contents

To the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Basics

The Starting Point: Basic Concepts and Terminology


1.1 Differential Equations: Basic Definitions and Classifications . . . . .
Solutions: The Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initial-Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Why Care About Differential Equations? Some Illustrative Examples
The Situation to Be Modeled: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Simplest Falling Object Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Better Falling Object Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Our Models and the Related Initial Value Problems . .
1.3 More on Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intervals of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solutions Over Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Describing Particular Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Integration and Differential Equations


2.1 Directly-Integrable Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 On Using Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 On Using Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages of Using Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . .
Important Named" Definite Integrals with Variable Limits
2.4 Integrals of Piecewise-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . .
Computing the Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Continuity of the Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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II First-Order Equations

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Some Basics about First-Order Equations


3.1 Algebraically Solving for the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.2
3.3
3.4

Constant (or Equilibrium) Solutions . . . . . . . . . .


On the Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions . . . . .
Confirming the Existence of Solutions (Core Ideas) . .
Converting to an Integral Equation . . . . . . . . . .
Generating a Sequence of Approximate Solutions .
(Naively) Taking the Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Details in the Proofs of Theorem 3.1 . . . . . . . . . .
Confirming the Existence of Solutions . . . . . . . .
The Uniqueness Claim in Theorem 3.1 . . . . . . .
3.6 On Proving Theorem 3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Appendix: A Little Multivariable Calculus . . . . . . .
Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Functions of More than Two Variables . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4

Separable First-Order Equations


4.1 Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integrating Separable Equations . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Constant Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avoiding Division by Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Importance of Constant Solutions . . . . . . .
4.3 Explicit Versus Implicit Solutions . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 The Full Procedure for Solving Separable Equations .
4.5 Existence, Uniqueness, and False Solutions . . . . .
On the Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions . .
A Caution on False Solutions . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 On the Nature of Solutions to Differential Equations .
4.7 Using and Graphing Implicit Solutions . . . . . . . .
4.8 On Using Definite Integrals with Separable Equations
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Linear First-Order Equations


5.1 Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deriving the Trick for Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Solving First-Order Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 On Using Definite Integrals with Linear Equations . . . . .
5.4 Integrability and the Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplifying Through Substitution
6.1 Basic Notions . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Linear Substitutions . . . . . .
6.3 Homogeneous Equations . . .
6.4 Bernoulli Equations . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Exact Form and General Integrating Factors


7.1 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 The Exact Form, Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Solving Equations in Exact Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using a Known Potential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finding the Potential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Testing for Exactness Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Exact Equations: A Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 Converting Equations to Exact Form . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finding Integrating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7 Testing for Exactness Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Connectivity and the Complete Test for Exactness
Proving Theorem 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Slope Fields: Graphing Solutions Without the Solutions


8.1 Motivation and Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 The Basic Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Observing Long-Term Behavior in Slope Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constant Solutions and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Problem Points in Slope Fields, and Issues of Existence and Uniqueness
Infinite Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Undefined and Indeterminant Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curves Diverging From or Converging To a Point . . . . . . . . . . .
On Existence and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Tests for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Autonomous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonautonomous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eulers Numerical Method
9.1 Deriving the Steps of the Method . . . . . . . . . . .
The Basic Step Approximation . . . . . . . . . . .
Generating the Numerical Solution (Generalities) .
9.2 Computing Via Eulers Method (Illustrated) . . . . .
The Steps in Eulers Method . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using the Results of the Method . . . . . . . . . .
On Doing the Computations . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 What Can Go Wrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Reducing the Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Smaller Step Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Better Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Error Analysis for Eulers Method . . . . . . . . . .
The Problem and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum Error in the Underlying Approximation

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vi

Ideal Maximum Error in Eulers Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205


Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10 The Art and Science of Modeling with First-Order Equations
10.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 A Rabbit Ranch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Situation to be Modeled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Setting Up the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Our Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Population Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 The Rabbit Ranch, Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Situation (and Problem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Better Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using the Better Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Notes on the Art and Science of Modeling . . . . . . . . .
First Steps in the Modeling Process . . . . . . . . . . .
Developing the Differential Equation for the Model . . .
Testing and Using the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Mixing Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Simple Mixing Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Mixing Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Simple Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 Appendix: Approximations That Are Not Approximations
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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III Second- and Higher-Order Differential Equations


11 Higher-Order Equations: Extending First-Order Concepts
11.1 Treating Some Second-Order Equations as First-Order . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solving Second-Order Differential Equations Not Explicitly Containing y
Equations of Even Higher Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Converting a Differential Equations to a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 The Other Class of Second-Order Equations Easily Reduced to First-Order
Solving Second-Order Autonomous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Few Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Initial-Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initial Values with Higher-Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solving Higher-Order Initial-Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 On the Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Second-Order Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems of Any Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211
212
213
213
213
215
215
216
217
218
218
219
221
222
222
223
226
226
227
230
230
231
233

239
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241
242
242
245
245
247
247
249
250
250
250
253
253
254
255

12 Higher-Order Linear Equations: Introduction and Basic Theory


259
12.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

vii

12.2 Basic Useful Theory about Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . .


The Operator Associated with a Linear Differential Equation
The Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Fundamental Sets of Solutions and Some Suspicions . . . . .
12.4 Multiplying and Factoring Operators . . . . . . . . . . .
The Composition Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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262
262
265
267
269
271
271
275
277

13 Reduction of Order
13.1 The General Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Reduction of Order for Homogeneous Linear Second-Order Equations . .
The Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An Observation About the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Reduction of Order for Nonhomogeneous Linear Second-Order Equations
13.4 Reduction of Order in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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283
283
284
284
288
289
292
294

14 Homogeneous Linear Equations The Big Theorems


14.1 Preliminaries and a Little Review . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Second-Order Homogeneous Equations . . . . . .
The Form of the Reduction of Order Solution . .
Applying a Little Linear Algebra . . . . . . . .
14.3 Homogeneous Linear Equations of Arbitrary Order
14.4 Linear Independence and Wronskians . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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297
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300
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307

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15 Homogeneous Linear Equations Verifying the Big Theorems


311
15.1 First-Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
15.2 The Second-Order Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
The Equation and Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Basic Existence and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
What Wronskians Tell Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
The Big Theorem on Second-Order Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations321
15.3 Arbitrary Homogeneous Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
The Differential Equation and Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Basic Existence and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
A Matrix/Vector Formula for Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Initial-Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Expressing All Solutions as Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Existence of Fundamental Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
A Little More Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Summary and Final Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
16 Second-Order Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients
337
16.1 Deriving the Basic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

viii

Seeking Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exponential Solutions with Second-Order Equations
16.2 The Basic Approach, Summarized . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Case 1: Two Distinct Real Roots . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Case 2: Only One Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Reduction of Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skipping Reduction of Order . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 Case 3: Complex Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blindly Using Complex Roots . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Complex Exponential Function . . . . . . . . .
Intelligently Using Complex Roots . . . . . . . . .
16.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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337
338
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343
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349
351
354
355

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357
357
357
358
360
361
361
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366
371

18 Arbitrary Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients


18.1 Some Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Solving the Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Characteristic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Particular Solutions Corresponding to One Root . . . . . . . . .
18.3 Some More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 On Verifying Theorem 18.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linear Differential Operators with Constant Coefficients . . . . .
Proof of Theorem 18.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.5 On Verifying Theorem 18.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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375
375
378
378
379
382
385
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391
393

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395
395
395
397
399
399
400
403
405
407

17 Springs: Part I
17.1 Modeling the Action . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mass/Spring System . . . . . . . . .
Modeling the Forces . . . . . . . . . . .
A Note on Units . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 The Mass/Spring Equation and Its Solutions
The Differential Equation . . . . . . . .
Undamped Systems . . . . . . . . . . .
Damped Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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19 Euler Equations
19.1 Second-Order Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Steps in Solving Second-Order Euler Equations . . . . .
19.2 The Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Single Value for r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Complex Values for r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Euler Equations of Any Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4 The Relation Between Euler and Constant Coefficient Equations
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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ix

20 Nonhomogeneous Equations in General


20.1 Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recollections about Linearity . . . . . . . . . . .
General Solutions to Nonhomogeneous Equations
20.2 Superposition for Nonhomogeneous Equations . . .
20.3 Reduction of Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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409
409
409
410
413
416
416

21 Method of Undetermined Coefficients (aka: Method of Educated Guess)


21.1 Basic Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 Good First Guesses For Various Choices of g . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Products of Exponentials, Polynomials, and Sines and Cosines . . . .
21.3 When the First Guess Fails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Method of Guess in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5 Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Bad Alternative to Formula (21.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Too Many Undetermined Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6 Using the Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.7 On Verifying Theorem 21.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Useful Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proving the Main Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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421
421
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433
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438

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441
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453

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22 Springs: Part II
22.1 The Mass/Spring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2 Constant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3 Resonance and Sinusoidal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sinusoidal Force in Undamped Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sinusoidal Force in Damped Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.4 More on Undamped Motion Under Nonresonant Sinusoidal Forces
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23 Variation of Parameters (A Better Reduction of Order Method for Nonhomogeneous


Equations)
457
23.1 Second-Order Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Derivation of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Summary: How to Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Possible Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
23.2 Variation of Parameters for Even Higher Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
23.3 The Variation of Parameters Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Second-Order Version with Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Second-Order Version with Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
For Arbitrary Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

IV The Laplace Transform

473

24 The Laplace Transform (Intro)


24.1 Basic Definition and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition, Notation and Other Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transforms of Some Common Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2 Linearity and Some More Basic Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.3 Tables and a Few More Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arbitrary Powers (and the Gamma Function) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Shifted Unit Step Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4 The First Translation Identity (And More Transforms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.5 What Is Laplace Transformable?
(and Some Standard Terminology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jump Discontinuities and Piecewise Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exponential Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transforms of Piecewise Continuous Functions of Exponential Order . . . .
24.6 Further Notes on Piecewise Continuous and Exponentially Bounded Functions
Issues Regarding Piecewise Continuous Functions on (0, ) . . . . . . . .
Testing for Exponential Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proving Theorem 24.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Proof of Theorem 24.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

475
475
475
477
481
483
484
487
488
491
491
494
494
496
496
498
499
500
502

25 Differentiation and the Laplace Transform


25.1 Transforms of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Main Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using the Main Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2 Derivatives of Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.3 Transforms of Integrals and Integrals of Transforms
Transform of an Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integral of a Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.4 Appendix: Differentiating the Transform . . . . . .
The Main Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Rigorous Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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507
507
507
509
512
514
515
517
518
519
519
521
523

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527
527
527
528
530
530
531
535
537

26 The Inverse Laplace Transform


26.1 Basic Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
On Recovering a Function from Its Transform .
The Inverse Laplace Transform Defined . . . .
26.2 Linearity and Using Partial Fractions . . . . . . .
Linearity of the Inverse Transform . . . . . . .
Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3 Inverse Transforms of Shifted Functions . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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xi

27 Convolution
27.1 Convolution, the Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observations on the Existence of the Convolution . . . . . .
27.2 Convolution and Products of Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.3 Convolution and Differential Equations (Duhamels Principle)
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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539
539
539
541
543
543
548
552

28 Piecewise-Defined Functions and Periodic Functions


28.1 Piecewise-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piecewise-Defined Functions, Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Step Functions, Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.2 The Translation Along the T -Axis Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Computing Inverse Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Computing Transforms with the Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.3 Rectangle Functions and Transforms of More Complicated Piecewise-Defined
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rectangle Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transforming More General Piecewise-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . .
28.4 Convolution with Piecewise-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.5 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transforms of Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addendum: Verifying Equation (28.15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.6 An Expanded Table of Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.7 Duhamels Principle and Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solutions Using Arbitrary f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resonance from Periodic Forcing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

563
563
565
568
571
571
572
576
577
578
578
578
581
585

29 Delta Functions
29.1 Visualizing Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 Delta Functions in Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strong Forces of Brief Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . .
As Density Functions for Point Masses . . . . . . . . .
29.3 The Mathematics of Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integrals with Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laplace Transforms of Delta Functions . . . . . . . . .
Differential Equations with Delta functions . . . . . . .
29.4 Delta Functions and Duhamels Principle . . . . . . . . .
29.5 Some Issues with Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Defining the Delta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Continuity of Solutions and Problems with Initial Values
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

589
589
590
591
593
594
594
596
597
599
601
601
603
604

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555
555
555
556
558
558
559
562

xii

Appendices

607

A Guide to Using This Text

609

Answers to Selected Exercises

615

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