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3. Control Structures, Branches, and Scopes March 9, 2011

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Outline

Recapitulation & Missing Slides Simple Control Structures Strict Evaluation Branches Scopes An Example: Prime Numbers

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Recapitulation
This is both, a control opportunity for the audience and a feedback mechanism for the lecture. It is denitely not some kind of exam or a competition.
How do you dene a natural number in C++?

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Recapitulation
This is both, a control opportunity for the audience and a feedback mechanism for the lecture. It is denitely not some kind of exam or a competition.
How do you dene a natural number in C++? int a; int b;

How do you increment a natural number (variable)?

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Recapitulation
This is both, a control opportunity for the audience and a feedback mechanism for the lecture. It is denitely not some kind of exam or a competition.
How do you dene a natural number in C++? int a; int b;

How do you increment a natural number (variable)? a ++; a=a +1;

What is the difference? a=b a==b

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Recapitulation
This is both, a control opportunity for the audience and a feedback mechanism for the lecture. It is denitely not some kind of exam or a competition.
How do you dene a natural number in C++? int a; int b;

How do you increment a natural number (variable)? a ++; a=a +1;

What is the difference? a=b a==b

How can we plot the value of a variable to the terminal?

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Recapitulation
This is both, a control opportunity for the audience and a feedback mechanism for the lecture. It is denitely not some kind of exam or a competition.
How do you dene a natural number in C++? int a; int b;

How do you increment a natural number (variable)? a ++; a=a +1;

What is the difference? a=b a==b

How can we plot the value of a variable to the terminal? std : : cout < < a;

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Recapitulation
Default Values int a; / / some computation a = / r e s u l t / ;

What is a declaration? Do default values induce performance penalties? Do default values facilitate bugs?

Using g++

g++ is both compiler and linker. Well use multiple les later (actually we already do). You can shorten the things you have to type in by g++ -o applicationame file1.cpp file2.cpp file3.cpp but that really is just a short cut.

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Recap: Initialisation Pitfalls IIIAssignment Operators

int a = 3 bool b = (a==3); bool c = (a=3); int d = 0 bool e = (d==0); bool f = (d=0);

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Missing Slide: Initialisation Pitfalls IVFreaky Collaborators

int a = 3; int b = ++a; (that is want we want) int c = 3; int d = c++; (that is something different) int e = (d+=a)++; (also very funny) int f = ((d=4)+a)--;

C/C++ offer many strange constructs. This is good luck for posers, freaks, and people giving lectures. Others should avoid them.

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3.1. Control Structures

We want to compute the maximum of two oating point values.
# i n c l u d e <iostream > i n t main ( ) { double a = 0 . 5 5 ; double b = 2 3 . 2 ; std : : cout < < a is < < a< < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < b is < < b< < std : : endl ; double max ; max = a ; max = b ; std : : cout < < max i s < < max < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

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Operators
Operator Comparison (equals) Comparison (smaller) Comparison (greater) And Or Not Symbol == < < & | ! Symbol (non strict) Works for . . . doubles (machine precision) and booleans doubles (machine precision) doubles (machine precision) booleans booleans booleans

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Operator Semantics
a true true false false b true false true false a & b true false false false

a true true false false

b true false true false

a | b true true true false

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Examples
# i n c l u d e <iostream > i n t main ( ) { double a = 0 . 5 5 ; double b = 2 3 . 2 ; std : : cout < < a is < < a< < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < b is < < b< < std : : endl ; double max ; bool bool bool bool bool bool bool ... } b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 = = = = = = = a==b ; ! ( a==b ) ; b0 | b1 ; b0 | ( a<b ) ; a<=b ; ( a<=b ) & ( a>=b ) ; ! ( ( a<=b ) & ( a>=b ) ) ;

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Machine Code Stream

# i n c l u d e <iostream > i n t main ( ) { double a = 0 . 5 5 ; double b = 2 3 . 2 ; std : : cout < < a is < < a< < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < b is < < b< < std : : endl ; double max ; b o o l i s A G r e a t e r = a>b ; max = a ; max = b ; std : : cout < < max i s < < max < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

How can we tell the computer to increase the program counter without executing a line?

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Solution
# i n c l u d e <iostream > i n t main ( ) { double a = 0 . 5 5 ; double b = 2 3 . 2 ; std : : cout < < a is < < a< < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < b is < < b< < std : : endl ; double max ; max = a>b ? a : b ; std : : cout < < max i s < < max < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

This is a new expression of the form lvalue = expression ? expression :

expression.
It is interpreted from left to right. We could also write something like max = a>b ? a : b*2.

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First Example
# i n c l u d e <iostream > # i n c l u d e <math . h> o r <math> o r <cmath> o r math . h i n t main ( ) { double x = ; double r e s u l t = s t d : : s i n ( x ) / x ; std : : cout < < result is < < result < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

Again, let x be a oat. Compute x =

sin(x ) . x

Test x {20.0, 3.1415, 1.0, 0.25, 0}.

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Strict Evaluation
# i n c l u d e <iostream > # i n c l u d e <math . h> o r <math> o r math . h i n t main ( ) { double a , h ; double r e s u l t = ( x ==0) | ( 1 / x = = 1 . 0 ) ? 1 . 0 : s t d : : s i n ( x ) / x ; std : : cout < < result is < < result < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

Same setting as before, but modied formula. Test x {1.0, 0.0}.

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Strict Evaluation
# i n c l u d e <iostream > # i n c l u d e <math . h> o r <math> o r math . h i n t main ( ) { double a , h ; double r e s u l t = ( x ==0) | ( 1 / x = = 1 . 0 ) ? 1 . 0 : s t d : : s i n ( x ) / x ; std : : cout < < result is < < result < < std : : endl ; return 0; }

Same setting as before, but modied formula. Test x {1.0, 0.0}. sometimes, boolean expression should not be evaluated completely. often, this would be expensive anyway.

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Operators
Operator Comparison (equals) Comparison (smaller) Comparison (greater) And Or Not Symbol == < < & | ! Symbol (non strict) Works for . . . doubles (machine precision) and booleans doubles (machine precision) doubles (machine precision) booleans booleans booleans

&& ||

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Non-strict Operator Semantics

a true true false false b true false true false a & b true false false false a true true false b true false ? a && b true false false

a true true false false

b true false true false

a | b true true true false

a true false false

b ? true false

a || b true true false

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Operator Semantics Revisited

a true true true false false false b true false true false a & b true false false false a true true true false false false b true false true false a && b true false false false false

a true true true false false false

b true false true false

a | b true true true false

a true true true false false false

b true false true false

a || b true true true true false

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3.2. Branches An Alternative Formulation of the max Function

double a = . . . ; double b = . . . ; double max = a<b ? b : a ; ...

Alternative Formulation:
double a = . . . ; double b = . . . ; double max ; i f ( a<b ) max = b ; else max = a ; ...

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The if-Statement
Memory

double max; if (a < b) max = b; else max = c;

21: 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28: 29:

? 4 5

max a b

113: 114: 115: 116: 117: 118: 119:

(a<b)? yes PC := 119 max := a PC := 120 max := b

PC

...

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if-else Statements
i f ( boolean e x p r e s s i o n ) Yes s ta t e m e n t else No s t a t e me n t i f ( boolean e x p r e s s i o n ) { Yes st a t e m en t s } else { No s t at e m e n ts }

First variant: Only one statement executed. Second variant: Several statements can be executed. Else statement always is optional.

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if-else Pitfalls

i f (a!=0) result = 1.0/a; else { result = 0.0; std : : cout < < max s e t t o < < d e f a u l t value < < std : : endl ; }

Pitfall I: Never use the = operator! Pitfall II: Always use the brackets { } .

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Nested if-else Statements

Nested statements. i f ( a<b ) { ... i f ( a==b ) { ... } } else { ... } Concatenated if statements i f ( a==b ) { ... } e l s e i f ( a<b ) { ... } else { ... }

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Switch Statements I
An alternative to concatenated if statements for integers is the switch statement.
int a; ... switch ( a ) case 0 : result break ; case 1 : result break ; case 2 : result break ; }

{ = 10;

= 23;

= 25;

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Switch Statements II

s w i t c h ( expr ) { case x : ...; break ; case x : ...; break ; default : ...; break ; }

Always provide a default branch. Always use a break command. Always use == instead of =. Never use a switch statement for integers (bad style). There will be something

more sophisticated called enum later on.

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Switch StatementsAn Example

i n t vehicleClass ; double t o l l ; switch ( vehicleClass ) { case 1 : std : : cout < < car ; t o l l = 0.50; break ; case 2 : std : : cout < < bus ; t o l l = 1.50; break ; default : std : : cout < < not motorized ; t o l l = 0.0; break ; }

What happens for vehicleClass=2? What happens for vehicleClass=4? What happens if we remove rst break and vehicleClass=1?

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3.3. Scopes
i n t a=; ... a = 20; ... i f ( something happens ) { a = 30; } ...

A variable is an abstraction of a memory address. It consequently has to be declared before we use it.

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A First Experiment
int a; a = 20; std : : cout < < a= < < a < < std : : endl ; i f ( a==20) { i n t b = 10; std : : cout < < b= < < b < < std : : endl ; } else { b = 0; std : : cout < < b= < < b < < std : : endl ; } std : : cout < < b= < < b < < std : : endl ;

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A Second Experiment
int a; a = 20; std : : cout < < a= < < a < < std : : endl ; i f ( a==20) { / Replace t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e with i n t a = 30; / a = 30; std : : cout < < a= < < a < < std : : endl ; } std : : cout < < a= < < a < < std : : endl ;

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Scopes
A variable has to be declared within the same brackets { } . Otherwise, compiler searches within the enclosing brackets (not within the

neighbours).
The brackets dene a scope. The outer brackets dene an outer scope. Some compilers allow the programmer to redene variables within subscopes.

This hides variablesthey are not overwritten.

This whole thing relies solely on the syntax, i.e. it has nothing to do with the actual

execution. Otherwise,
i f ( a==20) { i n t b = 30; } std : : cout < < b= < < b < < std : : endl ;

might work in some cases.

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3.4. While Loops

double a = 4 0 . 0 ; while ( a > 2.0) { std : : cout < < a= < < a< < std : : endl ; a /= 2 . 0 ; }

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While Loops in Action

double a = 4 0 . 0 ; while ( a > 2.0) { std : : cout < < a= < < a< < std : : endl ; a /= 2 . 0 ; }

a=40 a=20 a=10 a=5 a=2.5 a=1.25

(?)

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A While in Action
double a = 4 0 . 0 ; while ( a > 2.0) { std : : cout < < a= < < a< < std : : endl ; a /= 2 . 0 ; }

a=40 a=20 a=10 a=5 a=2.5 a=1.25

(?)

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Syntax of While Loops

while ( expression ) one s t a t em e n t ; while ( expression ) { m u l t i p l e s t a t em e n t s ; }

Code performs (multiple) iterations. Each iterations executes the complete loop body. Expression is the guard of the block (scope). It is evaluated before the loop body is

executed.
If expression is false the rst time, loop reduces to no operation (nop).

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Properties of While Loops

int i ; w h i l e ( i >40) { int a = i /20; ... }

Variables contained in the expression have to be declared outside. Inner variable declarations are not visible in the guard expression. Inner variables might hide (not overwrite) outer variables (see scoping rules)

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Properties of While Loops

int i ; w h i l e ( i >40) { int a = i /20; ... }

Variables contained in the expression have to be declared outside. Inner variable declarations are not visible in the guard expression. Inner variables might hide (not overwrite) outer variables (see scoping rules) Again, avoid intermixing = and ==. As while guard expects an expression, we could however modify variables. w h i l e ( ( i ++) > 40) { ... }

However, many consider this to be a bad smell.

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3.5. Prime Numbers

Run through all the integers from 0 to

100.
Check for each number whether it is a

prime number.
Write the result of the check to the

terminal.
Check is very simple:

Take a second variable running from 0 to the current integer studied. Evaluate the modulo (operator %).

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Prime NumbersA Code Template

i n t currentNumber = 2 ; w h i l e ( currentNumber <=100) { bool r e s u l t = t r u e ; i n t currentStudy = 2; w h i l e ( c u r r e n t S t u d y < currentNumber ) { i f ( currentNumber % c u r r e n t S t u d y == . . . ) { ... } ... } i f ( result ) { std : : cout < < ... } else { std : : cout < < ... } currentNumber ++; }

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