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FRESH SURFACE WATER Vol. II - River Flow - P. Carling
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
RIVER FLOW

P. Carling
Department of Geography, Highfield, Southampton University, UK

Keywords: Alluvial channels, Bed forms, Bed load, Channel morphology, Flow
processes, Rivers, Sediment, Shear distribution, Velocity distribution

Contents

1. Introduction
2. The Near-Bed Boundary Layer
3. Bulk Flow in Straight Channels
4. Bulk Flow in Curved Channels
5. Initial Motion of Loose Bed Sediment
6. Bed-Form Phase Existence Fields
7. Suspension Dynamics
8. Transport of Bed Materials
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

Summary

This chapter presents a range of key concepts that enable natural rivers to be understood
as complex flows of water and sediment that interact and often result in changes to the
channel shape. The implications for salmon fisheries and invertebrates are also
considered. Rivers are linear features and so it might be supposed that the flow
hydraulics would be unidirectional and relatively simple to describe. To some extent
this is true. Except for the largest of the world rivers, the effects of wind-waves and
geostrophic circulation can be ignored, as can periodically reversing flow which
dominates tidal reaches. However, to complicate matters, rivers are characterized by
relatively rapid changes in flow rate and consequently can be regarded as stationary in
behavior only over short time spans. The relative shape and roughness of the channel
may change as water levels fluctuate, and the twisting and turning of meandering
channels means that often water is spiraling and only short reaches can be considered as
linear conduits.

Despite complexities, the relatively two-dimensional nature of many rivers has meant
that engineers have been able to describe the flow structure present by two-dimensional
or even one-dimensional flow models with sufficient accuracy for most practical
applications. However, all rivers are characterized by turbulent flow, and large rivers in
particular have a complex three-dimensional structure that can be well described only
by sophisticated mathematical modeling, scaled by laboratory data.

It is clear that there are a number of levels of increasing complexity at which the natural
river system can be described. It is important to decide at which level of complexity
observations should be made to obtain answers to problems and to consider whether
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genuine understanding can be obtained at any one level. For example, at the most basic
level a good correlation may be obtained between the behavior of an organism and
mean current speed when in fact it is the level of turbulence intensity that is really
controlling behavior. However, moving to a higher level of explanation may not be
productive if too many assumptions are required to produce a working model of
hydraulic structure.

1. Introduction

Rivers are linear features and so it might be supposed that the flow hydraulics would be
unidirectional and relatively simple to describe. To some extent this is true. Except for
the largest of the world rivers, the effects of wind-waves and geostrophic circulation can
be ignored, as can periodically reversing flow which dominates tidal reaches. However,
to complicate matters, rivers are characterized by relatively rapid changes in flow rate
and consequently can be regarded as stationary in behavior only over short time spans.
The relative shape and roughness of the channel may change as water levels fluctuate,
and the twisting and turning of meandering channels means only short reaches can be
considered as linear conduits.

Despite complexities, the relatively two-dimensional nature of many rivers has meant
that engineers have been able to describe the flow structure present at any one moment
by two-dimensional or even one-dimensional flow models with sufficient accuracy for
most practical applications. However, all rivers are characterized by turbulent flow, and
large rivers in particular have a complex three-dimensional structure that can be well
described only by sophisticated mathematical modeling, scaled by laboratory data
obtained using delicate apparatus. The latter are usually not suitable or are difficult and
expensive to use in real rivers.

It is clear, then, that there are a number of levels of increasing complexity at which the
natural river system can be described. It is very important to decide at which level of
complexity observations should be made to obtain answers to problems and to consider
whether genuine understanding can be obtained at any one level. For example, at the
most basic level a good correlation may be obtained between the behavior of an
organism and mean current speed when in fact it is the level of turbulence intensity that
is really controlling behavior. However, moving to a higher level of explanation may
not be productive if too many assumptions are required to produce a working model of
hydraulic structure. For many applications, sophisticated explanation is neither
necessary nor cost effective. As Peters and Goldberg (1989) observed, average data
may well describe the environment, and standards exist that assume temporal stability
of simple phenomena (Gore 1978, Newbury 1984). Peters and Goldberg (1989) further
noted that the field scientist frequently has to rely on rough, robust apparatus, often
lacking sensitivity and consequently it is important to consider what can realistically be
achieved when designing any field monitoring or experimental program. The tools
available must be capable of providing at least a degree of insight into the problem of
interest.

With these limitations in mind, a considerable degree of understanding can be obtained
by those who appreciate the complexities of natural flow structure even if they are
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unable to describe fully many phenomena mathematically. To this end, this article aims
to provide a practical approach to dealing with the intricacy of hydraulics and sediment
transport within the context of recent research related to real rivers, and to emphasize
those methods that are likely to be fruitful in practical applications. It is not possible
within the space available to describe all procedures fully but details can be found in the
references cited.

2. The Near-Bed Boundary Layer

Fluvial currents are driven by gravitational gradients, either imposed by the nature of
the terrain or as modified by fluvial erosion and deposition and the quantity of water
delivered to the channel. In turn, the structure of the flow is mediated by the friction
induced by the channel boundary. In deep rivers the region where the frictional effects
are felt, the boundary layer, may occupy only a small proportion of the total depth
whilst in shallow rivers it may extend to the water surface. Laminar (non-turbulent)
flow never occurs throughout the full depth in natural rivers, so that it is turbulence
which transfers frictional forces throughout the fluid and redistributes suspended
particles. Further, turbulence intensity mediates the momentary level of shear stress
exerted on the boundary which may result in the movement of bed and bank sediments
so modifying the shape and capacity of the river channel. A consideration of the
velocity structure is therefore of prime importance.

Turbulent flow may be divided into smooth, transitional and rough hydrodynamic
regimes. Such a consideration is required to select appropriate equations to describe the
velocity structure. For flat sand-beds the division may be given by considering the
roughness Reynolds number, a non-dimensional ratio defined by the shear velocity (
*
u ,
defined below), the grain size (D) and the kinematic viscosity (v):

Smooth turbulent:
*
/ 3.5 u D v < (1a)

Transitional:
*
3.5 / 68 u D v < < (1b)

Rough turbulent:
*
/ 68 u D v > (1c)


The ratio expresses the balance of inertial and viscous forces. Where bed roughness is
due to gravel or ripples, for example, then D (the grain size) needs replacing by some
other characteristic roughness length (k
si
Table 1). The Reynolds number, with the
length defined by flow depth, will be referred to again in Section 5.3

k
s
is the equivalent roughness,
*
u is the shear velocity, and v is the kinematic velocity
(0.013 cm
2
s
-1
, 10
o
C, freshwater).

The time-averaged velocity (denoted as U, ignoring the usual over-bar) usually
increases from zero at the bed to the free-stream velocity (U
x
) at the edge of the
boundary layer where the water is sufficiently deep to exceed the boundary layer
thickness (Fig. 1(a)). However, in shallow flow the boundary layer may extend close to
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the surface (Fig. 1(b)).

Bed type k
s
(cm) u.(cm s
-1
) u.k
s
/v Regime
Smooth mud 0.006 1.2 0.5 Smooth
Smooth sand 0.03 2.2 5 Transitional
Dunes 15 2.8 3000 Rough
Flat gravel bed 1.5 3.6 400 Rough
Rocks >30 4.6 >10
4
Rough

Table 1: Assessment of probable hydrodynamic regime
(Reproduced with modification from Soulsby (1983))

The theoretical structure of the flow can be divided into sublayers. The layer closest to
the bed, the bed layer, is usually thin, often only a few millimeters thick. In slow flow
over smooth beds (such as clay) it may be termed the laminar sublayer. In natural
flows, however, the laminar nature may be disrupted. Local distortions in the velocity
profile and turbulence levels then exist within the bed layer. The theoretical thickness
of the laminar layer () in ideal flow can be estimated using the relationship:

11.5 / v u = (2)

The value of the constant can vary between 8 and 20 (Chriss & Caldwell 1983) but in
rough turbulent flow over a gravel bed, where the calculated thickness is only
millimeters, the layer is disrupted and often absent. In general, if the bed roughness
value is greater than the calculated thickness of , then the latter is absent.

Many ecological texts argue that invertebrates are adapted morphologically to live
within a laminar layer (see references in Statzner & Holm 1982), but Carling (1991) has
argued that in many streams invertebrates that venture out of the interstitial environment
are subject to low current speed but high shear stress and turbulence levels, a point
made by Dcamps and co-workers (1972, 1975) but largely ignored in contemporary
literature.

Above the bed layer is the logarithmic layer (Figs. 1(a) & 1(b)), the basic form of which
is neither affected by the local roughness of the bed nor by the free-stream flow
structure. As its name implies, the structure can be described by logarithmic functions.
This latter is very important, as measurements taken within it allow estimation of the
shear stress acting on the bed. Usually it extends over 10-15% of the depth and may
extend to the surface.

To estimate the boundary shear stress, it is important not to include current readings in
the outer layer (Figs.1(a) & 1(b)), where the flow may be non-logarithmic. The usual
relationship for the log-layer in the rough turbulent regime is:

0
( ./ )ln( / )
z
U u k z z = (3)

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Figure 1: (a) Structure of the boundary layer in deep flow.(b) Structure of the boundary
layer in shallow water. (c)Velocity profile data used to estimate u, (the shear velocity)
and z
0
(the roughness length). (d) Effect of unsteady flow on profile shape (after
Soulsby 1983). (e) Development of S-shaped profiles over very rough bed (after J arrett
1990)

where von Krmns constant (k) equals 0.40, and the roughness length (z
0
) scales with
the roughness of the river bed (Table 1). An estimate of z
0
can be obtained assuming z
0

=D/30 for sand or D/15 for well-sorted gravel, whilst the roughness of periodic bed-
forms depends on height and spacing (e.g. Wooding et al 1973). Estimates of
*
u and z
0

can be obtained from a regression analysis of current speed (U
z
) against the height (z)
above the bed (Fig. 1(c)). The shear stress (
0
) is related to u as
2
0
u = . However,
profiles should be plotted to ensure that the data conform to the logarithmic model,
otherwise incorrect values of
*
u and z
0
may be obtained.

The structure of the outer layer may be influenced by the free-stream velocity and
consequently may not be described by any universal relationship. It is worth noting that
the common practice of assuming that the depth-averaged velocity in the profile exists
at 0.6 of the depth assumes that the logarithmic profile extends to the surface (Walker
1988).

Although Fig.1(c) is a true representation of an idealized velocity profile, the
logarithmic profile may be distorted by such effects as acceleration or deceleration
(Fig.1(d)), extreme bed roughness (dunes or large rocks, J arrett 1990), or bank drag
which may suppress the filament of maximum velocity to below the water surface
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FRESH SURFACE WATER Vol. II - River Flow - P. Carling
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
(Fig.2). In the case of large-scale roughness an S-shaped profile may be present with a
logarithmic section close to the bed and a further log-profile at some distance from the
bed (Fig.1(e)). If this reflects the influence of two scales of roughness (Dyer 1971),
respectively that induced by the size of the bed material and that owing to the size of
larger projections such as dunes, then each section of the log-profile may be treated
separately to estimate the frictional effect of both roughness scales (Paris 1989).
However, such an approach is open to criticism and where the height of the bed
roughness is of the same order as the water depth no accepted theory exists to describe
the vertical current structure.

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experiments on salmon spawning success]
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[Describes flow in high-suspension currents]
Helley E.J . and Smith W. (1971) Development and calibration of a pressure-difference bedload sampler.
US Geological Survey Open-File Report. Washington DC. [Calibration of bedload sampler]
Henderson F.M. (1966) Open Channel Flow. MacMillan, New York. [Good introduction to channel
processes]
Heslop S.E. and Allen C.M. (1989) Turbulence and dispersion in larger UK rivers. In: Proceedings of the
International Association of Hydraulic Research Congress, Ottawa, Canada, pp D75-D82. [Links
turbulence in rivers to dispersion processes in natural river]
Hey R.D. and Thorne C.R. (1975) Secondary flows in river channels. Area 7: 191-6. [Classic description
of helical flow cells]
Hirsch P.J . and Abrahams A.D. (1981) The properties of bed sediments in pools and riffles. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 51: 757-76. [Describes the changes in bed grain size]
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Hooke J .M. and Harvey A.M. (1983) Meander changes in relation to bend morphology and secondary
flows. In: Collinson J .D., Lewin J . (eds.) Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems, pp 121-32. Special
Publication No 6, International Association of Sedimentologists. Blackwell, Oxford. [Links channel
change to secondary currents]
Horowitz A.J ., Rinella F.A., Lamothe P. et alI (1990) Variations in suspended sediment and associated
trace element concentrations in selected riverine cross-sections. Environmental Science and Technology
24: 1313-20. [Links suspended sediment to contaminant transport]
Howard A.D. (1987) Modelling fluvial systems: rock-gravel-and sand-bed channels. In: Richards K.S
(ed.) River channels: Environment and Process, pp 69-94. Blackwell, Oxford. [Simple introductory
modeling concepts]
Hubbell D.W. (1987) Bedload sampling and analysis. In: Thorne C.R., Bathurst J .C., Hey R.D.(eds.)
Sediment Transport in Gravel-bed Rivers, pp 89-120. Wiley, Chichester. [Classic description of sampling
method]
Iseya F. and Ikeda H. (1987) Pulsations in bedload transport rates induced by a longitudinal sediment
sorting: a flume study using sand and gravel mixtures. Geografiska Annaler 69A: 15-27. [Describes
unsteady bedload transport owing to sorting effects]
J ames C.S. (1990) Prediction of entrainment conditions for nonuniform, noncohesive sediments. Journal
of Hydraulic Research 28: 25-41. [Explains effect of mixtures on grain entrainment from bed by flow]
J ansen P.P., van Bendegom L., van den Berg J ., de Vries M. and Zanen A. (1979) Principles of River
Engineering: The Non-tidal Alluvial River. Pitman, London. [Introductory text on hydraulics of larger
rivers]
J arrett R.D. (1984) Hydraulics of high gradient streams. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 110:1517-18.
[Classic description of mountain stream flow structure]
J arrett R.D. (1990) Hydrological and hydraulic research in mountain streams. Water Resources Research
26: 419-29. [Classic description of mountain stream flow structure]
J obson H.E. and Carey W.P. (1989) Interaction of fine sediment with alluvial streambeds. Water
Resources Research 25: 135-40. [Decsribes the infiltration of fine sediment into gravel bed]
Kline S.J . Reynolds W.C., Schraub F.A. and Rundstadler P.W. (1967) The structure of the turbulent
boundary layer. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 30: 741-73. [Classic description of flow structure above river
bed]
Komar P.D. (1987) Selective gravel entrainment and the empirical evaluation of flow competence.
Sedimentology 34: 1165-76. [Provides empirical expressions for sediment entrainment]
Komar P.D. (1989) Flow-competence evaluations of the hydraulic parameters of floods: an assessment of
the technique. In: Beven K. and Carling P (eds.) Floods: Hydrological. Sedimentological and
Geomorphological Implications, pp 107-34. Wiley, Chichester. [A review of empirical expressions for
sediment entrainment]
Komar P.D. and Carling P.A. (1991) Grain sorting in gravel-bed streams and the choice of particle sizes
for flow-competence evaluations. Sedimentology 38: 489-502. [Provides empirical expressions for
sediment entrainment]
Komar P.D. and Li Z. (1988) Applications of grain pivoting and sliding analysis to selective entrainment
of gravel and to flow competence evaluations. Sedimentology 35: 681-95. [Provides empirical
expressions for sediment entrainment]
Kondolt G.M. Cada G.F. and Sale M.J . (1987) Assessing flushing-flow requirements for brown trout
spawning gravels in steep streams. Water Resources Bulletin 23: 927-35. [Explains how fine sediment
can be flushed from gravel beds]
Kuhnle R.A. and Southard J .B. (1988) Bedload transport fluctuations in a gravel bed laboratory channel.
Water Resources Research 24: 247-60. [Details the time-varying fluctuations in bedload transport]
Lee H.J . and Hsieh K.C. (1989) Flow characteristics in an alluvial river bend. In: Proceedings of
Technical Session B. Fluvial Hydraulics, pp B25-B31. IAHR, Ottawa, Canada, 21-25 August 1989.
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[Details flow in river bend]
Leeder M.R. (1983) On the interactions between turbulent flow, sediment transport and bedform
mechanics in channelized flows. In: Collinson J .D. and Lewin J . (eds.) Modern and Ancient Fluvial
Systems, pp 121-132. Specialk Publication No. 6, International Association of Sedimentologists,
Blackwell, Oxford. [Links turbulence to sediment transport]
Leopold L.D. (1982) Water surface topography in river channels and the implications for meander
development: In: Hey R.D, Bathurst J .C and Thorne C.R (eds.) Gravel-bed Rivers, pp 359-88. John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester. [One of few papers that details water surface level changes and link to
meandering tendency of the channel]
Limerinos J .T. (1970) Determination of the Manning coefficient from measured bed roughness in natural
channels. US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1898-B. Washington, DC. [Determines important
roughness coefficient]
Lisle T.E. (1989) Sediment transport and resulting deposition in spawning gravels, North Coastal
California. Water Resources Research 25: 1303 19. [Explains how sediment transport can affect salmon
spawning habitat]
McQuivey R.S. (1973) Summary of turbulence data from rivers, conveyance channels and laboratory
flumes. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 802B. Washington, DC. [Compendium of data]
Mangelsdorf J, Scheurmann K.and Weiss F-H. (1990) River Morphology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
[Details river channel morphodynamics]
Mantz P.A. (1978) Bedforms produced by fine, cohesion-less, granular and flaky sediments under
subcritical water flows. Sedimentology 25: 83-103. [One of a few papers considering the movement of
very fine grain sizes]
Mantz P.A. (1980) Laboratory flume experiments on the transport of cohesion-less silica silts by water
streams. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 69: 977-94. [One of a few papers considering
the movement of very fine grain sizes]
Martvall S, and Nilsson G. (1972) Experimental Studies of Meandering. University of Uppsala, UNGI
Report No. 20.[A detailed appraisal of meandering processes]
Matlack K.S, Houseknecht D.W, and Applin K.P. (1989) Emplacement of clay into sand by infiltration.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 59: 77-87.[One of very few papers considering infiltration of clay into
porous river bed]
Meade R. (1985) Wave-like movement of bedload sediment, East Fork River, Wyoming. Environmental
Geology and Water Science 7: 215-25. [Describes long-term unsteady transport of bedload in natural
river]
Meyer-Peter E. and Mueller R. (1948) Formulas for bedload transport. In: Proceedings of the
International Association of Hydraulic Research, Third Annual Conference, Stockholm, pp 39-64.IAHR,
Delft, Ottawa, Canada. [Compares formulae]
Middleton G.V. (1976) Hydraulic interpretation of sand size distributions. Journal of Geology 84: 405-
26. [Explains how grain size data can provide hydraulic insight]
Miller M.C. McCave I.N, and Komar P.D. (1977) Threshold of sediment motion under unidirectional
currents. Sedimentology 24: 507-27. [A classic description of entrainment functions]
Naden P.S. and Brayshaw A.C. (1987) Small and medium-scale bedforms in gravel-bed river. In:
Richards KS (ed.) River Channels: Environment and Process, pp 249-71. Blackwell, Oxford. [Describes
small accumulations of gravel as bedforms]
Nelson J .M. and Smith J .D. (1989) Mechanics of flow over ripples and dunes. Journal of Geophysical
Research 94: 8146-62. [Classic description of flow over bedforms]
Newbury R.W. (1984) Hydrologic determinants of aquatic insect habitats. In: Resh V.H. and Rosenberg
D.M (eds.) The ecology of Aquatic Insects, pp 323-57. Praeger, New York. [Hydraulic parameters are
described for biologists]
Novak P. (1957) Bedload meters development of a new type and determination of their efficiency with
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the air of scale models. In: Transactions of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 1,
pp A9-1-A-11. Seventh General Meeting, Lisbon. [Describes the VUV bedload sampler]
Okoye K.G. (1989) Mean flow structure in model alluvial channel bends. In: Proceedings of Technical
Session B. Fluvial Hydraulics, pp B-81-B-90. IAHR, Ottawa, Canada, 21-25 August 1989. Delft Ottama,
Canada. [Describes flow structure in river bend]
Paris E. (1989) Velocity distribution over macroscale roughness: preliminary results. In: Fourth
International Symposium on River Sedimentation, pp 625-32. Water Resources and Electric Power Press,
Beijing. {Describes flow structure over very rough bed]
Parker G. and Andrews E.D. (1985) Sorting of bedload sediment by flow in meander bends. Water
Resources Research 21: 1361-73. [Describes the sorting of sediment in meander bends]
Parker G, Klingeman P.C. and McLean D.G. (1982) Bedload and size distribution in paved gravel-bed
steams. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 108: 544-71. [Describes
bedload sorting in armored river beds]
Peters J .J . and Goldberg A. (1989) Flow data in large alluvial channels. In: Malesimovic C. and
Radojkovic M (eds.) Computational Modelling and Experimental Methods in Hydraulics, pp 75-85.
Elsevier, London. [Data compendium]
Petts G.E, Thomas M.C, Brittan K. and Atkin B. (1989) A freeze-coring technique applied to pollution by
fine sediment in gravel-bed rivers. The Science of the Total Environment 84: 259-72. [Describes a
sampling technique to obtain undisturbed gravel samples from river bed]
Prestegaard K.L. (1983) Bar resistance in gravel bed streams at bankfull stage. Water Resources Research
19: 472-76. [Describes the flow resistance induced by bedforms]
Reid I. and Frostick L.E. (1984) Particle interaction and its effect on the thresholds of initial and final
bedload motion in course alluvial channels. In: Koster E.H. and Steel R.J (eds.) Sedimentology of
Gravels and Conglomerates, pp 61-8. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 10. [Describes
how particle sorting can influence beginning and cessation of transport]
Reid I, Layman J.T. and Frostick L.E. (1980) The continuous measurement of bedload discharge.
Journal of Hydraulics Research 18: 243-9. [Describes bedload sampler]
Reid I, Brayshaw A.C. and Frostick L.E. (1984) An electromagnetic device for automatic detection of
bedload motion and its field applications. Sedimentology 31: 269-76. [Describes bedload sampler]
Reid I, Frostick L.E. and Layman J .T. (1985) The incidence and nature of bedload transport during flood
flows in coarse-grained alluvial channels. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 10: 33-44. [Describes
bedload transport in coarse-grained stream]
Reiser D.W, Ramey M.P. and Lambert T.R. (1985) Review of flushing flow requirements in regulated
streams. In: Report to Pacific Gas and Electric Company No.Z19-5-120-84. San Roman, California.
[Describes practical flows required to flush fine sediments from gravel]
Reynolds C.S, Carling P.A. and Beven K.J. (1991) Flow in river channels: new insights into hydraulic
retention. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie 121: 171-179. [Links physical data on dispersion with biological
requirements]
Richards K.S. (1982) Rivers: Form and Process in Alluvial Channels. Methuen, London. [Classic
introduction to river geomorphology]
Richardson J.F. and Zaki W.N. (1954) Sedimentation and fluidization Part 1. Transactions of the
Institute of Chemical Engineers 32: 35-53. [Introduction to concept of fluidization]
Roberts R.G. and Church M. (1986) The sediment budget of severely disturbed watersheds. Queen
Charlotte Ranges, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 16: 1092-96. [Decsribes how
sediment is delivered to rivers from forest management]
Roy A.G. and Bergeron N. (1990) Flow and particle patterns at a natural river confluence with coarse bed
material. Geomorphology 3: 99-112. [Describes flow at river confluence]
Saunderson H.C. and Lockett F.P. (1983) Flume experiments on bedforms and structures at the dune-
plane bed transition. In: Collinson J .D. and Lewin J (eds.) Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems, pp 49-58.
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Special Publication No. 6, International Association of Sedimentologists. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.[Describes the bedding within a transitional bedform].
Scrivener J .C. and Brownlee M.J . (1989) Effects of forest harvesting on spawning gravel and incubation
survival of chum (Oncorhynchus beta) and coho solmon (D. Kisutch) in Carnation Creek, British
Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46: 681-96. [Describes adverse effects of
forestry on salmon]
Shen H.W, Fehlman H.M. and Mendoza C. (1990) Bedform resistance in open channel flows. Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering 116: 799-815. [Describes flow resistance owing to bedforms]
Shih S-M. and Komar P.D. (1990) Differential bedload transport rates in a gravel-bed stream: a grain-size
distribution approach. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 15: 539-52. [Considers bedload by size-
fraction]
Smith N.D. (1978) Some comments on terminology for bars in shallow rivers. In: Miall A.D (ed.) Fluvial
Sedimentology, pp 85-8. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 5. [Considers terminology]
Soulsby (R.L). (1983) The bottom boundary layer of shelf seas. In: J ohns B (ed.) Physical Oceanography
of Coastal and Shelf Seas, pp 189-266. Elsevier, Amsterdam. [Good exposition of flow behavior]
Soulsby R.L, Atkins R. and Salkield A.P. (1987) Observations of the turbulent structure of a suspension
of sand in a tidal current. In: Euromech 215, Mechanics of Sediment Transport in Fluvial and Marine
Environments, pp 88-91. Balkema, Rotterdam. [Links flow structure and suspended sand dynamics]
Southard J .B. and Boguchwal L.A. (1973) Flume experiments on the transition from ripples to lower flat
bed with increasing size. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 43: 1114-21. [Explains the limiting effect of
grain size on bedform characteristics]
Statzner B. and Holm T.F. (1982) Morphological adaptation of benthic invertebrates to stream flow an
old question studied by means of a new technique (Laser A Doppler Anemometry), Oecologia 53: 290-2.
[Applies modern techniques to characterize flow around invertebrates]
Stevens H.H. and Yang C.T. (1989) Summary and use of selected fluvial sediment-discharge formulae.
US Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 89-4026. Washington, DC. [Reviews
formulae]
Thibodeaux L.J . and Boyle J .D. (1987) Bedform-generated convective transport in bottom sediment.
Nature 325: 341-3.[Explains how bedforms influence interstitial flow]
Thompson A. (1986) Secondary flows and the pool-riffle unit: a case study of the processes of meander
development. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 11: 631-41. [Links secondary flow to meander
development]
Thorne C.R. and Rais S. (1984) Secondary current measurements in a meandering river. In: Elliot C.M
(ed.) River Meandering, pp 675-86. ASCE, New York. [Measures secondary currents directly].
Thorne P.D, Williams J .J . and. Heathershaw A.D. (1989) In situ acoustic measurements of marine gravel
threshold and transport. Sedimentology 36: 61-74. [Early use of acoustic signal to measure bedload]
Toffaleti F.B. (1968) A procedure for computation of the total river sand discharge and detailed
distribution bed to surface. Committee on Channel Stabilization, US Army Corp of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station Technical Report 5, Vicksburg. [Details method to determine total river
load].
Vanoni V.A. (1977) Sedimentation Engineering. ASCE, New York. [Sedimentation from an engineering
perspective]
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Hydraulic Engineering 114: 801-5. [Discusses using limited data to derive useful hydraulic information]
Wells S.G. and Dohrenwend J .C. (1985) Relief sheetflood bedforms on Late Quatemary alluvial-pan
surfaces in the southwestern United States. Geology 13: 512-13. [Describes fast moving low-amplitude
bedforms].
White C.M. (1940) The equilibrium of grains on the bed of a stream. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
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Whiting P.J , Dietrich W.E, Leopold L.B, Drake T.G. and Shreve R.L. (1988) Bedload sheets in
heterogeneous sediments. Geology 16: 105-8. [Describes fast moving low-amplitude bedforms].
Whittaker J .G. (1987) Sediment transport in step-pool streams. In: Thorne C.R, Bathurst J .C. and Hey
R.D (eds.) Sediment Transport in Gravel-bed Rivers, pp 545-79. J ohn Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
[Describes bedload transport in mountain streams]
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floor of ocean].
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Wooding R.A, Bradley E.F. and Marshall J .K. (1973) Drag due to arrays of roughness elements of
varying geometry. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 5: 285-308.[Explains how different configurations of
obstacles effects flow].
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[Describes the sedimentary structure inside a bedforms]
Yang C.T. (1973) Incipient motion and sediment transport. Journal of the Hydraulics Division of
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motion].
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determine flow retention].

Biographical Sketch

Paul A. Carling worked at the NERC Institute of Freshwater Ecology at Windermere in England from
1977 until 1994 as a sedimentologist and hydrologist. From 1994 until 1999 he was Professor of Physical
Geography and Director of the Hydrodynamics and Sedimentology Research Laboratory within the
Institute of Environmental and Natural Sciences at Lancaster University. In March 2000 he took up the
post of Professor of Physical Geography and Director of the Centre for Environmental Sciences at the
University of Southampton.
His research interests span fluvial geomorphology and sedimentology including the interface with
geological, engineering and biological sciences. Current themes include palaeofloods, bedform dynamics,
turbulent-mixing processes in gravel and bedrock channels and overbank flood processes in UK rivers.
Additional interests include; partitioning the control of climate versus landuse on the rainfall-runoff
relationship in upland catchments; and the sustainable management of UK soils under forestry operations
and the physical spawning habitat of salmon and trout. The majority of research involves international
collaboration most recently with scientists in the UK, Canada, Germany, Thailand, J apan and Siberia. In
2003, with his co-author Dr. Z. Cao, he won the Institute of Civil Engineers Telford prize for a paper
entitled Mathematical Modelling of Alluvial Rivers: Reality and Myth. Part 1: General Review.
Recent fluvial research is sponsored by the NERC, EPSRC and by DEFRA and is concerned with mixing
processes in rivers, floodplain flow, the development of innovative tracers for gravel bedload and the
development of software for managing salmonid spawing gravels adversely effected by siltation. British
Council and Royal Society funded projects are investigating changes in rainfall-runoff in Thailand and
gravel and sand dune development in UK and Polish rivers. Paul has a long-term commitment with
Russian colleagues to decipher the Pleistocene history of large-scale catastrophic flooding in southern
Siberia.