Operating Systems Chapter 1: Introduction

General Info
Course
Instructor Office Phone E-mail

: Operating Systems (3 credit hours)

: Dr. Marenglen Biba : Faculty building 2nd floor : 42273056 / ext. 112 : [email protected]

Office Hours : Wednesday 6-8 PM or by appointment

Course page : http://www.marenglenbiba.net/opsys/

Use of E-mail: Always put Operating Systems in the subject

of your e-mail.

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Where, when and why?

Course Location and Time

Laboratory Room 4B, Wed.13-16. Catalog Description This module covers the core concepts of modern operating systems, and provides contextual application of theory, using examples of currently used operating system environments. Course Purpose This course will provide an introduction to operating system design and implementation. The operating system provides an efficient interface between user programs and the hardware of the computer on which they run. The operating system is responsible for allowing resources (such as processors, disks or networks) to be shared, providing common services needed by many different programs (e.g., file service, the ability to start or stop processes, and access to the printer), and protecting individual programs from one another.

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What does the OS course contain?

The course will start with an historical perspective of the evolution

of operating systems since their birth. Then it will cover the major components of most operating systems and the tradeoffs that can be made between performance and functionality during the design and implementation of an operating system. Particular emphasis will be given to three major OS subsystems:

process management (processes, threads, CPU scheduling, synchronization, and deadlock), memory management (segmentation, paging, swapping) storage management (file systems, disk management, I/O operations).

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Why bother with OS?

Understand the design and implementation issues that have led to the current modern operating systems.
Understand and apply key concepts for process management in modern operating systems. Understand and apply essential concepts for memory management in modern operating systems. Understand and apply important concepts of storage management in modern operating systems. Understand and compare different operating systems in order to be able to select them in different use scenarios.

Understand and apply essential algorithms that are implemented as part of an operating system.
Understand and apply essential concepts regarding the deployment of modern operating systems. Understand and apply essential concepts for increasing the performance of modern operating systems.

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Requisites and Readings

Course Prerequisites

Data Structures. Silberschatz, Abraham, Galvin, Peter and Gagne, Greg, (2005). Operating System Concepts, Seventh edition, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons ISBN: 0-471-69466-5. (required). Andrew Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems, Prentice Hall. Second Edition. (only specific sections of the book will be required for special topics).

Required Readings

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Contents
Introduction to Operating Systems
Operating System Structure Processes Threads

CPU Scheduling
Process Synchronization Deadlocks Main Memory Virtual Memory File System Interface File System Implementation

Mass-Storage Systems
I/O Systems

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Grading
Project Midterm
Final

40% 30%
30%

Internet use is necessary since students should regularly check the course home page. Material can be downloaded from course website! Continued and regular use of e-mail is expected Students must keep copies of all assignments and projects sent by e-mail.

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Before we start: why failure happens

Reasons

Lack of concentration? Lack of continuity?

Lack of determination?
Lack of target? Lack of work? Hard work will help!!!

Response

Some funny epic fails, ask yourself why?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dy6DRsm2VaM
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Recommendations
Start studying now
Do not be shy! Ask any questions that you might have. Every

questions makes you a good candidate.

The professor is a container of knowledge and the goal is to get

most of him, thus come and talk.

Respect the deadlines Respect the appointments Try to study from more than one source, Internet is great! If you have any problems come and talk with me in advance so that

we can find an appropriate solution

GOOD LUCK!

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Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
History of Operating Systems Computer-System Organization Computer-System Architecture

Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations Process Management Memory Management Storage Management Protection and Security Distributed Systems

Special-Purpose Systems
Computing Environments

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Objectives
To provide a grand tour of the major operating

systems components
To provide coverage of basic computer system

organization

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What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary

between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier. Make the computer system convenient to use.

Use the computer hardware in an efficient

manner.

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Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components

Hardware provides basic computing resources

CPU,

memory, I/O devices

Operating system
Controls

and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

Application programs define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
Word

processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games machines, other computers
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Users
People,

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Four Components of a Computer System

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Computer components hierarchy

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Wish you were here!

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Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator

Manages all resources Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use

OS is a control program

Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer

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Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition

Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating

system is good approximation

But varies wildly

The one program running at all times on the computer is

the kernel. Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program

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What is an Operating System

It is an extended machine

Hides the messy details which must be performed

Presents user with a virtual machine, easier to use

It is a resource manager

Each program gets time with the resource Each program gets space on the resource

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History of Operating Systems

First generation 1945 - 1955

vacuum tubes, plug boards Second generation 1955 - 1965

transistors, batch systems Third generation 1965 1980 ICs and multiprogramming Fourth generation 1980 present personal computers

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First generation 1945 - 1955

Not really Operating Systems
Howard Aiken and John Von Neumann at Institute

for Advanced Study Princeton

J. Eckert and William Mauchley at University of

Pennsylvania
Vacuum Tubes, plug boards

Computers were used for calculations and all programming was done in MACHINE LANGUAGE.

Machine basic functions were controlled through plugboards.

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Second generation 1955 - 1965

Introduction of transistors
Programs were first written on paper in the FORTRAN

language then they were translated into punched cards.

After the program had finished, a human operator would

take the result and take it into the output room.

Batch system

A collection of jobs given in input

IBM 1401: read cards, copy tapes, print output

Programmed in Assembly and Fortran

Large 2nd generation computers with operating systems

FMS: Fortran Monitor System

IBSYS: IBM operating system for 7094.

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History of Operating Systems (1)

Early batch system bring cards to 1401 read cards to tape put tape on 7094 which does computing put tape on 1401 which prints output

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History of Operating Systems (3)

Structure of a typical FMS job 2nd generation

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History of OS: 3rd generation 1965 1980

Multiprogramming system

three jobs in memory 3rd generation

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3rd generation 1965 1980

Integrated Circuits IBM: OS/360

Weakness: all software including the OS would run on all models Millions of lines of code written by hundreds of programmers Copy jobs from cards onto disk

Spooling

Whenever a running job finishes, load a new one

CPU allocation in turn to different jobs

Time-sharing systems

CTSS: Compatible Time Sharing System

Developed at M.I.T on a specially modified 7094.
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3rd generation 1965 1980

Multics: MULTIplexed Information and Computing Service

Written

in PL/I seminal idea into the computer literature

Introduced

DEC PDP-1
Only

4k of 18-bit words in PDP-11

120.000$ Culminating

Unix
Ken

Thompson, wrote from PDP-7 a one-user version of MULTICS. Berkeley Software Distribution

BSD:

System
Posix,

V: AT&T.

Minix, Linux.
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Fourth generation 1980 present

CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers) 1974

Disk-based operating system To run on 8-bit Intel 8080 Digital Research rewrote CP/M and for 5 years it was the most used system in the world IBM released IBM Personal Computer DOS: Disk Operating System

1980s

Bill Gates bought it from Seattle Computer Products ($50.000) Package DOS/Basic was offered by Gates to IBM

IBM wanted some modifications on the system

Microsofts hired programmer Tim Paterson who wrote DOS MS-DOS
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Fourth generation 1980 present

Apple Macintosh

GUI: Graphical User Interface Microsoft Windows: 90s Initially run over DOS Not really a different OS Windows 95 Underlying DOS: only for booting and running old DOS programs. Windows 98 Both W95 and Win98 retain large portions of 16-bit assembly language. Windows NT (New Technology) Full 32-bit system Would kill off DOS: Win NT 4.0 Win NT 4.0 was renamed to Windows 2000.

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Fourth generation 1980 present

UNIX

Best for workstations, high-end computers, network servers

Popular on machines with high-performance RISC chips

Linux is also going strong on Intel machines

X Windows

Graphical User Interface for UNIX developed at M.I.T.

Distributed Operating Systems Network Operating Systems

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The Operating System Zoo

Mainframe operating systems
Server operating systems Multiprocessor operating systems

Personal computer operating systems

Real-time operating systems Embedded operating systems Smart card operating systems

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Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware Initializes all aspects of system Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation

One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

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Bus

Bus

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Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device

type.
Each device controller has a local buffer. CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller. Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its

operation by causing an interrupt.

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Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service routines.

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction. Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.

Interrupts can be software or hardware generated.

A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an

error or a user request.

Software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special

operation called a system call.

An operating system is interrupt driven.

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Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing

registers and the program counter.

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

Polling: a polled interrupt is a specific type of I/O interrupt that notifies the part of the computer containing the I/O interface that a device is ready to be read or otherwise handled but does not indicate which device. The interrupt controller must poll (send a signal out to) each device to determine which one made the request. vectored interrupt system: The alternative to a polled interrupt is a vectored interrupt, an interrupt signal that includes the identity of the device sending the interrupt signal.

Separate segments of code determine what action should be

taken for each type of interrupt

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Interrupt Timeline

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Two I/O Methods

1. After I/O starts, control returns to user program only

upon I/O completion: synchronous Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt Wait loop (contention for memory access). At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing.
2. After I/O starts, control returns to user program without

waiting for I/O completion: asynchronous System call request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion. Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state. Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
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Two I/O Methods

Synchronous

Asynchronous

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Device-Status Table

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Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds.

Device controller transfers blocks of data from

buffer storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention.

Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather

than the one interrupt per byte.

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Storage Structure
Main memory only large storage media that the CPU can

access directly.
Secondary storage extension of main memory that

provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.

Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters covered with

magnetic recording material

Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors. The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer.

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Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

Speed Cost Volatility

Caching copying information into faster storage

system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage.

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Storage-Device Hierarchy

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Disk is slow

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Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

in hardware, operating system,

software

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage

temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if

information is there

If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast) If not, data copied to cache and used there Cache management important design problem Cache size and replacement policy
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Cache smaller than storage being cached

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Storage-Device Speed

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Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

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Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute

A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

One job selected and run via job scheduling When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing

Response time should be < 1 second Each user has at least one program executing in memory process If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling If processes dont fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex

Several copies of a datum can exist

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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap

Division by zero, request for operating system service Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other or the operating system Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components User mode and kernel mode

Mode bit provided by hardware Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user

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Transition from User to Kernel Mode

Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

Set interrupt after specific period Operating system decrements counter When counter zero generate an interrupt Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time

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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within

the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

Process needs resources to accomplish its task

CPU, memory, I/O, files Initialization data

Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying

location of next instruction to execute Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some

operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs

Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes Suspending and resuming processes Providing mechanisms for process synchronization Providing mechanisms for process communication Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing
All instructions in memory in order to execute Memory management determines what is in memory

Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory

Memory management activities

Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive) Varying properties include access speed, capacity, datatransfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

File-System management

Files usually organized into directories Access control on most systems to determine who can access what

OS activities include Creating and deleting files and directories Primitives to manipulate files and dirs Mapping files onto secondary storage

Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or

data that must be kept for a long period of time.

Proper management is of central importance Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem

and its algorithms

OS activities

Free-space management Storage allocation Disk scheduling Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape Still must be managed Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)

Some storage need not be fast

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I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware

devices from the user

I/O subsystem responsible for

Memory management of I/O including

buffering

(storing data temporarily while it is being transferred) (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance) (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)

caching

spooling

General device-driver interface

Drivers for specific hardware devices

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Protection and Security

Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS Security defense of the system against internal and external attacks Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated with each process, file

Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights

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Computing Environments
Traditional computer

Blurring over time Office environment

PCs

connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and timesharing portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same resources to be single system, then modems

Now

Home networks
Used Now

firewalled, networked

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Computing Environments (Cont.)

Client-Server Computing Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs Many systems now are servers, responding to requests generated by clients Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e. database) File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

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Peer-to-Peer Computing
Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers

Instead all nodes are considered peers

May each act as client, server or both

Node must join P2P network
Registers

its service with central lookup service on network, or request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol

Broadcast

Examples include Napster and Gnutella

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Web-Based Computing
Web has become ubiquitous (existing or being everywhere

at the same time)

PCs most prevalent devices More devices becoming networked to allow web access New category of devices to manage web traffic among

similar servers: load balancers

Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have

evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and servers

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Readings
Silberschatz: Chapter 1.
Tanenbaum: Sections 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 Get slides from website

http://www.marenglenbiba.net/opsys/

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Keep in mind

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End of Chapter 1