Child Temperament Review

Review Article
Child Temperament: An Integrative Review of Concepts, Research Programs, and Measures

1
University of Geneva, CH, and University of York, UK 2 Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Marcel Zentner1 & John E. Bates2
This article provides a review and synthesis of concepts, research programs, and measures in the infant and child temperament area. First, the authors present an overview of ve classical approaches to the study of child temperament that continue to stimulate research today. Subsequently, the authors carve out key denitional criteria for temperament (i.e., inclusion criteria) and the traits that qualify as temperamental according to the overview and dened criteria. The article then reviews leading programs of research that are concerned with the ways in which early childhood temperament aects psychosocial development, both normal and abnormal. After touching on measurement issues and tools, the authors conclude with an outlook on child temperament research. Keywords: infant and child temperament, emotionality, personality, development, childhood
Although modern research on infant and child temperament has its origins in the 1950s, it was not until the 1980s that it became one of the central themes of todays developmental psychology and child psychiatry. In a landmark roundtable article (Goldsmith et al., 1987), the participants displayed considerable disagreement about what temperament is. It was obvious that, within the young temperament field, various schools of research were about to emerge. Twenty years later, the most important division in the field of child temperament is between an inductive approach to temperament, which favors the gathering of facts over broad concepts (Kagan & Fox, 2006) and a deductive one, which is more theory driven (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). The current review first describes and then integrates threads from several approaches to child temperament. We seek to identify common ground for definitional and substantive issues in the child temperament area. We also comment on measurement issues and conclude with some future directions. Because brevity of exposition was an important aim, the current review presents essentials rather than extensive treatments of concepts and findings.
European Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
M. Zentner & J.E. Bates
Approaches to Child Temperament

The Child Psychiatric Approach of Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess
Thomas and Chesss contribution to research on child temperament is best introduced by looking at reasons that motivated the illustrious couple to devote their professional lives to the study of child temperament: While recognizing the vital contribution that the childs environment made to the course of psychological development, we could not nd in our clinical cases or the research literature the direct correlations between such environmental factors and individual dierences in patterns of development that environmentalist views demanded. This dissatisfaction with the prevalent theories of the time was a major reason in our decision to investigate the active role played by the childs own characteristics, and specically his temperament, through the initiation of the NYLS (Chess & Thomas, 1984, pp. 14-15). The New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) began in 1956 and followed 133 individuals from 84 families, predominantly educated New York families, from 3 months of age to adulthood. The NYLS approach to identifying the basic temperament dimensions is crucial to an understanding of Thomas and Chesss empirical approach. As described by Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzig, and Korn (1963), A content analysis was performed on the interview protocols of the rst twenty-two children studied. In the course of this analysis the protocol data were distributed against a wide variety of formal behavioral attributes. It was found that nine categories of functioning could be scored continuously throughout the protocols. Further, the distributions of scores in each of these categories were suciently wide to permit dierentiation among individuals within each category. Although various amounts of data were available for additional categories of functioning, their distribution failed to satisfy either the requirement of ubiquitousness (being scorable and present in all protocols), or of sucient variability to permit interindividual comparison (p. 40). The nine resulting temperamental dimensions were (a) activity level, (b) rhythmicity (regularity), (c) approach/withdrawal, (d) adaptability, (e) sensory threshold, (f) intensity of reaction, (g) quality of mood, (h) distractibility, and (i) attention span/persistence. According to Thomas and Chess (1977), what most clearly distinguishes these dimensions from personality traits is their formal or stylistic nature: Temperament can be equated with the term behavioral style. Each refers to the how rather than the what (abilities or content) or the why (motivation) of behavior (p. 9). Although the NYLS list of dimensions has been seminal, factor analytic work by various research teams (e.g., Martin, Wiesenbaker, & Huttunen, 1994) has shown a certain redundancy between the dimensions. Thus, few psychologists use the full list anymore.
Child Temperament Review
In addition to the nine dimensions, Thomas and Chess also introduced a typology of child temperamentsthe dicult, the slow-to-warm, and the easythat resulted from a combination of factorial analyses and the intent to identify the clinically most signicant congurations of temperament traits. However, Thomas and Chess recognized that behaviors that lead to a child being classied as easy or dicult can vary based on parental and cultural values, attitudes and practices (see p. 24). Hence, they emphasized interactionism in terms of goodness-of-t. Psychological development is not only inuenced by the childs temperament, but, to an equally important extent, also by the adequacy (i.e. t) of parental responses to this temperament. Finally, Thomas and Chesss emphasis on applications of temperament concepts in prevention and intervention proved particularly inuential (e.g., Carey & McDevitt, 1994; McClowry et al., 2008).
Buss and Plomins Criterial Approach to Temperament
Buss and Plomin (1975, 1984) dened traits as temperament if they fullled certain criteriathus the designation of their approach as criterial. They chose criteria on the basis of comparative psychology, in particular the work of S. Diamond (1957). Diamond thought that observations of adult human behavior, no matter how sophisticated in either a statistical or a clinical sense, have the common failing that they are unable to distinguish between the essential foundations of individuality and its cultural elaboration (pp. 3-4). To identify these essential foundations of individuality, Diamond argued, one had to look at the animal world. He concluded that four temperamental traits are shared by primates: fearfulness, aggressiveness, aliativeness, and impulsiveness. In Diamonds view, only those dimensions that are useful to describe behavioral dierences in primates should be relevant for the study of human temperaments. Buss and Plomin (1975) both endorsed and expanded Diamonds phylogenetic approach to dening temperament. They required that temperament traits show early appearance in ontogenesis, preferably infancy (the rst two years of life) (Buss & Plomin, 1984, p.84). Thinking of temperament as the constitutional part of personality, they also proposed a third criterion, heritability. The more heritable a given trait, the more likely it is to be a temperament. This view implied that temperament traits are those presenting particularly strong links to physiological and biological processes. Their nal criterion was continuity. More specically, Buss and Plomin (1984) said, [W]e are more interested in traits that are predictive of later development, that is, traits that show some continuity or at least have residuals for later personality (p. 85). Originally, the authors thought that four traits fullled these criteria, namely, emotionality, activity, sociability, and impulsivity. Emotionality is a predisposition to get easily distressed and upset. The total activity level refers to the total energy output (Buss & Plomin, 1975, p. 32-33). Sociability is the tendency to prefer the presence of others to being alone (Buss & Plomin, 1984, p. 63). Sociability is not the same as shyness, because shy people may desire the presence of others, but they avoid it because they tend to be tense and anxious when surrounded by other people, especially unfamiliar people. ImEuropean Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
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pulsivity was originally included (Buss & Plomin, 1975) but later dropped because factor analyses had shown that the trait seems to be composed of various subcomponents, only some of which replicated. More important, Buss and Plomin (1984) concluded that impulsivity does not emerge until school age, a view that contradicted their criterion of a very early appearance in development. The authors developed two questionnaire measures, The Colorado Child Temperament Inventory (Rowe & Plomin, 1977)an amalgamation of the Thomas-Chess dimensions and their early Emotionality Activity, Sociability, and Impulsivity (EASI) inventory; and the EAS Survey for Children (Buss & Plomin, 1984), tapping Emotionality, Activity, and Sociability.
Temperament as Variability in Developing Emotion Systems: The Approach of Goldsmith and Campos
Goldsmith and Campos (1982; see also Goldsmith 1993) refer to temperament primarily as individual dierences in the emotional domain: We simply dene temperament as early developing in tendencies to experience and express emotions, including their regulatory aspects (Goldsmith, Lemery, Aksan, & Buss, 2000, p. 2). Whereas the term emotionality in the temperament area often refers to individual dierences in negative emotions, Goldsmith and Campos look at temperament as individual dierences in the primary emotions, including positive emotions (i.e., joy, interest, sadness, anger, fear). Individual dierences in these emotional predispositions are expressed in intensive and temporal aspects of behavior, including vocal, facial, and motor expressions. Together with Rothbart, Goldsmith developed an extensive laboratory assessment battery, the Lab-TAB (Goldsmith & Rothbart, 1996), and a multidimensional inventory to gather caretaker ratings of infant and child temperament, the TBAQ (Goldsmith, 1996). These instruments were originally devised to measure ve emotional temperamental components (motor activity, anger, fearfulness, pleasure/joy, interest/ persistence), but newer versions of these tools can be used to assess a larger number of temperament dimensions (TBAQ-R, Goldsmith, 2000). Although the seminal article by Goldsmith and Campos did not emphasize heritability in dening temperament, Goldsmith and his colleagues have extensively studied heritability of temperament (Goldsmith, Reilly, Lemery, Longley, & Prescott, 1999; Ruf et al., 2008). As implied by the preceding denition, the current approach views not only emotion, but also emotion regulation as a component of temperament. The concept of emotion regulation, which is similar to eortful control (see p. 11), is one of the most complex temperamental constructs. It has been dened as consisting of the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensive and temporal features to accomplish ones goals (Thompson, 1994, pp. 27-28). An important discussion of the emotion regulation concept in general, and of the distinctions between the concepts of emotion and emotion regulation, can be found in a special issue on emotion regulation that appeared in Child Development (2004, Vol. 72, Issue 2). Emotion regulation
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is commonly spoken of as a distinct event or process that occurs after an emotion event, such as when a child is blocked in pursuit of a goal, feels angry, but then avoids expressing anger. However, Campos, Frankel, and Camras (2004) argued that emotion and emotion regulation may be inseparable. Emotions and emotion regulation happen at the same time, and emotional responses depend on preexisting regulatory processes, such as cortical inhibition or ones interpretations of an event. Cole et al. (2004) in contrast, were more convinced that there could be an empirical distinction between the two concepts, as can be found, for example, in measures of the dynamic time course of emotions. Nevertheless, they also agreed with Campos et al. that emotions are inherently regulatory (p. 319). If stretched in time, the relationship between emotion and emotion regulation becomes a question about how regulatory processes aect the expression of emotionality over longer periods of time. Longitudinal work by Eisenberg and coworkers (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000) has provided important insights into this question.
The Neurobiological Developmental Approach of Rothbart
The relationships between emotion and emotion regulation are also central to the approach of Rothbart, though with a stronger emphasis on attentional and neurobiological mechanisms. Specically, Rothbart denes temperament as constitutional dierences in reactivity and self-regulation. The concept of reactivity refers to biological arousability, which includes arousal in neuroendocrine, autonomic, and aective systems. Individual dierences in reactivity may be measured by threshold of reactivity, latency of responding, intensity of a given reaction, and rise and recovery time. Selfregulation, in contrast, refers to processes that increase, decrease, maintain, and restructure the patterning of reactivity in either an anticipating or correctional manner (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981, pp. 51-52). Behavioral processes related to self-regulation include approach, avoidance, inhibition, and attentional self-regulation. Rothbart and colleagues have identied three broad dimensions of temperament, each of which includes a series of narrower dimensions: (a) surgency-extraversion, composed of scales such as positive anticipation, activity level, and sensation seeking; (b) negative aectivity, including fear, anger-frustration, and social discomfort; and (c) eortful control, which includes facets such as inhibitory control, attentional focusing, and perceptual sensitivity (Posner & Rothbart, 2007; Rothbart & Bates, 2006). An important assumption in this model is that both reactive and self-regulatory behaviors are intimately linked to neurobiological processes. A case in point is eortful control, dened as the capacity to inhibit a dominant response in favor of a subdominant one (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). This capacity, which is related to persistence, emerges around the rst birthday and strongly improves between the second and the third birthday. Individual dierences in eortful control result from the eciency of networks controlling attention, in particular those relating to executive control of attention. As we shall see in more detail later (pp. 20-21), these networks
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are linked to specic neurotransmitters and anatomical brain areas. For example, the executive (or anterior) attention network is related to the anterior cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the lateral prefrontal cortex. Preliminary evidence suggests that neuromodulation of this system may involve dopamine. Laboratory measures of temperament include a series of structured tasksbest exemplied by Goldsmiths Lab-TABand more recently, computer-based tests for the assessment of individual dierences in attentional processes, such as the spatial conict task and the Child Attention Network Test (Posner & Rothbart, 2007). Questionnaire measures of temperament have been developed for each age period from infancy to adulthood.
Kagans Biotypological Approach to Temperament
Unlike Rothbarts theory-driven approach, Kagans approach to the study of child temperament is more inductive. In contrast to scientists who begin with a theoretical view of the human temperaments and devise measures of them, he aligns himself with a smaller group that allows the data to guide the invention of temperamental categories (Kagan & Fox, 2006, p. 183). Despite this preference for induction over deduction, his work is not merely a compilation of tiny facts. Rather, addressing manifold issues in the study of temperament (Kagan, 1994; Kagan & Snidman, 2004), his work occupies a central place among current approaches to temperament. Kagan and colleagues studied behavioral inhibition to unfamiliarity and its counterpart, an uninhibited style, with an emphasis on the longitudinal study of behavioral and physiological manifestations from early infancy onward. A rst longitudinal study revealed that 2-year-olds who show consistent avoidance or distress to unfamiliar people, procedures, and situations preserved some of these tendencies until 7 years of age, along with greater sympathetic tone in the cardiovascular system. Twoyear-olds showing minimal avoidance or distress in the same situations also tended to preserve these behavioral dispositions, along with greater parasympathetic tone (Kagan, Reznik, & Snidman, 1988). This work was followed by a new large-scale longitudinal study in which infants were examined in the laboratory from 4 months of age, and the spectrum of physiological measures was considerably extended. On the assumption that early forms of behavioral reactivity to unfamiliarity would be linked to a dierential threshold of excitability in the amygdala, Kagan focused on motor unrest and crying as potential markers of amygdalar hyperreactivity. In the new study, about 20% of healthy Caucasian 4-month-old infants showed frequent motor activity and crying at the unexpected appearance of unfamiliar visual, auditory, or olfactory stimuli. These infants were called high-reactive. About 40% of the infants reacted with minimum motor activity and minimal crying to the same events and were called low-reactive (Kagan & Snidman, 2004). Compared with low-reactive infants, high-reactive infants were 3 times more likely to have developed anxiety symptoms by the age of 7 years (Kagan, SnidEuropean Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
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man, Zentner, & Peterson, 1999). High-reactive infants in adolescence reported, in an interview, more frequent bouts of sadness, and showed frequent heart rate changes, sweating of palms, muscle tension, facial ushing, and breathing diculty, with high systolic blood pressure as well as distinct EEG and ERP waveforms at 11 and 15 years of age (Kagan & Snidman, 2004; Kagan, Snidman, Kahn, & Towsley, 2007). Kagan refers to high- and low-reactive infants as distinctive categories produced by dierent biological factors rather than as children who fall on a continuum of reactivity. In his view, emergent phenomena cannot often be accounted for by adding quantities. Furthermore, he interprets the biological literature as implying that distinctly dierent phenotypes often originate in distinct genomes (Kagan, 2008). Finally, Kagan acknowledges that a great variety of dierent personalities may emerge from a high-reactive temperament, depending on encountered environments, such as social class, culture, family, and historical era. Even so, Kagan regards temperament as imposing a certain restraint on possible outcomes: A low-reactive infant might become a trial lawyer, investment banker, navy pilot, or criminal, but it is unlikely that he will become a frightened recluse (Kagan & Snidman, 2004, p. 3).
Adaptations of Adult Temperament Theories to Childhood: Gray, Cloninger, and Strelau
The approaches just described are all developmental, based on extensive studies of infants and children. There are also well-known theories focusing on adult temperament, whose possible connections to child temperament are being explored. For example, Grays (1991) well-known neural theory of the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Approach System (BAS) has exerted considerable inuence over theory building in the child temperament area. It has been adapted, for example, by Martin (1999) in the revised Temperament Assessment Battery for Children (TABCR), which measures negative emotionality, activity, and persistence (based on NYLS concepts), as well as inhibition and impulsivity, which derive from the BIS and BAS. Cloninger (1987) is best known for his bold vision of an intimate connection between temperamental characteristics and neurotransmitter systems. Specically, he sees novelty seeking, the tendency to seek out novel stimulation, as inuenced by the dopaminergic system; harm avoidance, the tendency to avoid aversive stimulation and show behavioral inhibition, as inuenced by the serotonergic system; and reward dependence, the tendency to seek out and strongly respond to social rewards, as an expression of the neuroadrenergic system. Persistence, the tendency to be persevering and industrious, has not (yet) been attributed to a specic neurotransmitter system. Recent studies suggest that the four temperament components can be assessed as early as preschool age (Constantino, Cloninger, Clarke et al., 2002; Goth, 2008). Integrating temperament concepts from work in the Soviet temperament tradition and that in Western research, Strelaus (1989) Regulative Theory of Temperament emphasizes how individuals dier in reactivity or arousability and how their characteristic patterns of activity serve to maintain their preferred levels of arousal. Although researchers in the Pavlovian tradition derived their
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theories from work on adults, they were among the rst to apply temperament concepts to developmental and educational contexts (Merlin, 1955; see Strelau 1983).
The Nature of Infant and Child Temperament: An Integrative Perspective
Denitions
Against the background of the preceding overview of child temperament concepts, we would like to propose an integrative perspective. As will be shown, integration is possible within the boundaries of denitional criteria and fundamental temperament components emerging in childhood. Most current temperament researchers would agree with Buss and Plomins (1984) notion that early ontogenetic appearance, moderate stability, and distinctive biological manifestations are key ingredients of a denition of temperament. As we shall see in the next section, there is now evidence that a select number of traits fulll these criteria; that is, relatively enduring emotional-behavioral traits that appear in infancy or toddlerhood along with a distinct biological prole. The idea of temperament is further supported by animal research showing that some of the most basic human behavioral traits (activity, timidity, emotionality) can also be observed in primates and certain social mammals such as in dogs (Jonas & Gosling, 2005). In contrast to the aforementioned criteria of early appearance, animal counterparts, proximity to biological mechanisms, and stability or predictiveness, heritability has not been established as a useful inclusion criterion for temperament over the last two decades. This failure is not because temperament traits are not heritablethey are. However, heritability is not a distinctive feature, because almost any psychological characteristic is partly heritable and many characteristics are equally or more heritable than temperamental characteristics. Thus, a perhaps more interesting question that behavior genetics research can answer is what phenotypes are more or less susceptible to environmental inuence. For example, in a number of studies, positive emotionality traits were found to have a bigger shared environment component than were other temperament dimensions (e.g., Goldsmith, Lemery, Buss, & Campos, 1999; Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Even though heritability may not currently be a useful dening feature of a temperament, molecular genetics and more sophisticated behavior genetic research might alter this picture. Temperament variables as typically dened, whether by behavior in standardized situations or by caregiver or teacher ratings, are broad phenotypes. Research, however, might identify phenotypes closer to the basic processes, closer to the direct products of genetic variations. In other words, research might nd that endophenotypes (Gottesman & Gould, 2003), such as attentional responses to novelty, relate to specic genes, such as those that inuence availability of the neurotransmitter dopamine. The specic aspect of the response may be just one compoEuropean Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
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nent of the naturalistic behavior pattern that would dene a temperament trait, such as impulsivity. Based on current trends, knowledge about temperament substrates in neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and psychophysiological mechanisms may be possible, along with their associations with specic genes, such as the association of impulsivity with the dopaminergic and other genes (Dick, 2007).
Table 1. Inclusion Criteria for Child Temperament. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Individual dierences in normal behaviors pertaining to the domains of aect, activity, attention, and sensory sensitivity Typically expressed in formal characteristics such response intensities, latencies, durations, thresholds, and recovery times Appearance in the rst few years of life (partial appearance in infancy, full expression by preschool age) Counterpart exists in primates as well certain social mammals (e.g., Canis familiaris) Closely, if complexly linked to biological mechanisms (e.g., neurochemical, neuroanatomical, genetic) Relatively enduring and predictive of conceptually coherent outcomes (e.g., early inhibition predicting internalizing, early dicultness externalizing disorders)
Having identied some key criteria for temperament (see Table 1 for a summary), we should touch on the meaning of temperament compared with personality. The literature is replete with dierent denitions of personality and temperament; thus psychology students (and not only students!) typically struggle with this distinction. This situation is aggravated by recent research that examines the Big Five dimensions in early childhood, concluding that the Big Five, or derivatives thereof, can be measured at preschool age. To make matters even more confusing, these purported rudimentary forms of the Big Five personality factors are similar to several temperament dimensions. One reason for this confusion relates to personality being dened in two dierent ways. In one sense, personality refers to goals, coping styles, defensive styles, motives, self-views, life stories, and identities (McAdams & Pals, 2006). In another, very dierent, sense, authors use the term personality to refer to a handful of basic personality traits. Within the latter sense, one tradition of research proposes three big traits consisting of extraversion (surgency), neuroticism (negative aectivity), and constraint (Eysenck, 1992; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000; Tellegen, in press), whereas a second, lexical tradition of research advocates the existence of ve major personality traits, the so-called Big Five (extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness). Although historically, the major aim of research on the basic personality traits was to identify the fundamental respects in which individuals dier from each other, more recently, the emphasis of this research is on identifying the biological, evolutionary, and ontogenetic foundations of the big personality dimensions.
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Indeed, todays main foci of research on the fundamental personality traits read like the current inclusion criteria for temperament: biological, genetic foundations (e.g., Canli, 2006), presence in primates and social mammals (e.g., Jones & Gosling, 2005), temporal stability or predictiveness (e.g., Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldbert, 2007), and, of increasing interest, appearance in the earliest stages of life (e.g., Measelle, John, Ablow, Cowan, & Cowan, 2005). Thus, the recent study of fundamental personality traits is, de facto, a study of temperament (Zuckerman, 1991). Much confusion could be averted by calling the Big Threeand, to an extent, the Big Five personality factors (see Nettle, 2006)temperament, while reserving the term personality to a much more comprehensive set of attributes characterizing the whole person (McAdams & Pals). Many would prefer to continue to use the word personality to describe Big Five-type traits. However, if this is done, it will be important to clarify whether the term is being used to describe the basic traits or the late-emerging, complex traits.
Basic Temperament Traits
In this section, we describe a number of temperament components that fulll most of the preceding criteria, are seen as temperamental by most current temperament researchers, and have been studied relatively extensively (Caspi & Shiner, 2006; Rothbart & Bates, 2006). For each of the components, we provide a description of the characteristic, touch on biological mechanisms, discuss ndings related to temporal stability and give examples for their measurement. Due to space limitations, we cannot dwell on animal counterparts to the human attributes. However, the temperament characteristics to be described next have been found and studied in animals, most particularly the rst four (Gosling, 2001; Jones & Gosling, 2005). As a caveat, it is important to keep in mind that the temperament credentials of the following attributes dier from case to case; they are relatively strong for behavioral inhibition, but more modest for sensory sensitivity. Furthermore, sometimes important dierentiations occur within a given category. Thus, concepts such as positive emotionality or activity level are best seen as families of temperament characteristics rather than as highly specic dispositions, with some family members more closely related than others. Behavioral inhibition (fear). Many lists of temperament traits include a general negative emotionality dimension. Such a dimension has support from both factor analytic studies of questionnaires and more basic research on neural systems. Nevertheless, there are likely to be important distinctions in sub-dimensions of negative emotionality (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). One subdimension is behavioral inhibition. Although behavioral inhibition is often mentioned in the same breath as shyness, it is a relatively broad construct encompassing (a) inhibition in front of unfamiliar same-age children, (b) inhibition in front of unfamiliar adults, (c) avoidance of physical risks, (d) inhibition in evaluative situations as when performing in front
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of others, (e) inhibition in situations of separation, and (f) inhibition in unfamiliar situations and surroundings (Bishop, Spence, & McDonald, 2003). Furthermore, it is also important to distinguish behavioral inhibition from inhibitory control. The former is reactive and results from relatively automatic fear or distress responses in novel situations. The latter, in contrast, involves the regulatory use of executive attention (see below, section on attention/persistence) and expresses itself in behaviors such as resisting temptation or delaying gratication. Although there is evidence for a close connection between behavioral inhibition and fear, Kagan sees the core feature of inhibition as an intolerance of uncertainty rather than a proneness to fear (Kagan & Snidman, 2004). This view is consistent with recent evidence suggesting that the amygdala may be more typically involved in the processing of novel, unfamiliar, or ambiguous stimuli than in the processing of fear signals as such. For example, Schwartz and colleagues (Schwartz, Wright, Shin, Kagan, & Rauch, 2003) found that adults who had been categorized as inhibited in the second year of life, compared with those previously categorized as uninhibited, had a greater response within the amygdala to novel versus familiar faces (see Henderson & Wachs, 2007, for a recent review of evidence for other biological correlates of inhibition such as frontal EEG asymmetry). In early infancy, individual dierences in this trait tend to be expressed by the degree of tenseness, motor activity, and crying shown in response to the unexpected appearance of unfamiliar visual, auditory, or olfactory stimuli (Kagan & Snidman, 2004; Pulver, 1959), and these patterns of reactivity have been shown to be moderately stable between infancy and adolescence (Kagan et al., 2007; Meili & Meili-Dworetzki, 1972). These authors also introduced a vast array of laboratory, Q-sort and questionnaire measures to assess behavioral inhibition from infancy to adolescence. Irritability/frustration. Broadly, irritability refers to some infants being more easily upset by minor discomforts than others. Individual dierences in irritability may be related to dierences in the neural circuits involved in responses to unconditioned punishers, .g., Grays (1991) ght-ight system. Panic and defensive aggression would be extreme examples of this system. One of the most frequently used measures of neonatal irritability is the Neonatal Brazelton Assessment Scale (NBAS; Brazelton & Nugent, 1995). Although not a test of temperament per se, clusters of items pertaining to subfacets of the NBAS (e.g., irritability, rapidity to build-up, and peak of excitement) are seen as temperamental in nature (Worobey, 1986). Individual dierences in neonatal irritability have been found to relate to signicant outcomes, such as later temperamental diculty and social anxieties (e.g., Riese, 1987; Zentner, 2004). Irritability is perhaps one of the key elements of the construct of dicult temperament measured by the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ; Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979), which was dened by a factor including frequent and intense negative aect and the degree of diculty the infant presents caregivers. Part of what is experienced by caregivers as dicult may be, in addition to the infants sensitivity to aversive stimuli, the demanding way in which this sensitivity is expressed.
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Compared with temperamentally easy infants, temperamentally dicult infants showed higher levels of irritation and demandingness in cries recorded at a time when they were hungry, both as rated by unrelated mothers and as seen in objectively measured dierences in sound spectrographs of their cries (Lounsbury & Bates, 1982). Dicultness exhibits relatively high levels of stability from early infancy onward (Lee & Bates, 1985; Lemery, Goldsmith, Klinnert, & Mrazek, 1999). In the Fullerton Longitudinal Study (Guerin, Gottfried, Oliver, & Thomas, 2003), dicult temperament in late infancy turned out to be a signicant predictor of conceptually related temperament dimensions in adolescence, such as poor task orientation and high activity level (see also Caspi 2000; Chess & Thomas, 1984). Another, qualitatively dierent kind of irritability is seen in individual dierences in frustration. Frustration may be dened as negative aect in reaction to interruption of ongoing tasks or blocking of behaviors related to approach and goal attainment. Frustration can be assessed, for example, by infants responses to toys that are out of reach or behind a Plexiglas barrier (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Hershey, 2000). Dierences in aggression and irritation in response to frustration become increasingly evident in the later months of the rst year, as infants become more active in their explorations and more capable of expressing particular wishes. Individual dierences on this subdimension may pertain in part to the same neural circuits involved in the response to unconditioned punishers (Panksepp, 1998). Infants level of frustration, as measured in the laboratory at 6.5 and 10 months of age, was found to predict parent-reported anger-frustration (but not fear) when the child was 7 years old (Rothbart Derryberry, & Hershey, 2000). However, dierences on this subdimension also appear to involve the same dopaminergic circuits involved in Grays (1991) BAS. Indeed, infants with short latencies to reach for an object turned out to be not only higher in positive anticipation, but also in aggression and frustration at school age (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Hershey, 2000). One possible explanation is that, compared with low approach tendencies, high approach tendencies inevitably lead to a higher probability of encountering obstacles, thereby inducing anger and frustration (Posner & Rothbart, 2007). Bates et al. (1998) suggest that their dimension of resistance to control, which is a factor independent of dicult temperament, and which involves the toddler ignoring prohibitions and getting upset when blocked, also involves strong approach tendencies, along with low levels of eortful control. Positive emotionality. One of the most important behavior systems involves the processing of information about potential rewards, such as food and the many other things we nd interesting and useful for our survival. Individual dierences in these systems are, in one way or another, linked to frequencies and intensity of positive emotions, such as interest, eagerness, and associated behaviors such as approach and investigation. The variations in positive emotionality are captured by subcomponents, such as positive anticipation, sensation or novelty seeking, smiling and laughter, and, possibly, activity level (see next section). The neurobiological underpinnings of these emotions and behaviors
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are not fully understood, but evidence suggests that they are linked to a number of neural circuits, such as midbrain dopamine systems projecting from the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area, as well as systems controlling locomotion such as the nucleus accumbens (Posner & Rothbart, 2007; see also Gray, 1991; Panksepp, 1998). This appetitive positive aect system is sided by a consummatory positive aect system, which is implicated in processing sensory pleasure such as hedonic touch or taste and which involves the opiate and GABA system in the ventral striatum and orbital frontal cortex (Burgdorf & Pamksepp, 2006). It seems likely that individual dierences in positive emotionality traits are due to individual dierences in these neural circuits. It is important to recognize that dierences in positive emotionality are not simply the inverse of negative emotionality, but are to a substantial degree independent. In infancy, individual dierences in this trait are expressed, for instance, by the total amount of smiling, laughing, and (non-fussy) motor acts, such as clapping hands and reaching when in a playful situation, such as in response to a pop-up bunny (Kochanska, Coy, Tjebkes, & Husarek, 1998). Behaviors expressive of positive emotionality across early childhood are included in temperament scales such as Smiling and Laughter, Positive Anticipation, and High-Intensity Pleasure (Putnam, Garstein, & Rothbart, 2006; Rothbart, Chew, & Gartstein, 2001). Findings suggest that components of positive emotionality tend to be quite stable across the early childhood period, regardless of whether they are measured by laboratory observation (Putnam & Stifter, 2005; Rothbart, Derryberry, & Hershey, 2000) or via parental reports (Lemery et al., 1999; Putnam et al., 2006). Activity level. Activity level is traditionally considered an important component of childrens temperament (e.g., Buss & Plomin, 1975; Fagot & Brian, 1994; Henderson & Wachs, 2007; Thomas & Chess, 1977). According to a classical denition, level of activity refers to total energy output, which is most clearly expressed in amount of movement (Buss & Plomin, 1984, pp. 31-32; see also Wachs, 1990). It is sometimes argued that activity level, rather than being a basic or independent dimension of temperament, may be a derivative of positive emotionality, especially when the latter is seen as an expression of a general behavioral facilitation or activation system (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). However, because briskness, tempo, and vigor of movement appear to be present in positive, as well as in negative and in neutral behavior, and neural circuits implicated in positive aect are separate from those regulating locomotion, it seems reasonable to look at both traits separately. In their revised theory of temperament, Buss and Plomin provided a number of specic operationalizations. Thus, frequency of activity per time unit (rate) is indicated by walking speed, talking speed, and tendency to hurry. Duration is expressed in time spent in high-energy activities and in the continuation of energetic activity after most other children have stopped. Activity level could also be gauged from childrens reactions to enforced idleness, which cause much more restlessness in high-active than in low-active children (Buss & Plomin, 1984, p. 94).
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Almost every questionnaire measure of infant and child temperament includes an activity level scale. Activity level can also be assessed through direct observations of a childs behavior (Eaton, Enns, & Presse, 1987) or by means of so-called actigraphs (or actometers). The latter, which can be worn on the ankle, wrist, or trunk, record the cumulative intensity and frequency of movement during specied time intervals (Saudino & Eaton, 1991; Wood, Saudino, Rogers, Asherson, & Kuntsi, 2007). Activity level is relatively stable between the toddler and school age periods, regardless of whether it is measured by actometers (Buss, Block, & Block, 1980) or by parent report (Guerin et al., 2003). However, likely due to changes between early and late infancy in the psychological signicance of activity, other studies have provided ambiguous results (Lemery et al., 1999). Attention/persistence. Attention span, as well as persistence, is viewed as a temperamental characteristic by most temperament researchers. Rothbart, in particular, has introduced an overarching construct, called eortful control, which is the ability to inhibit a dominant response and/or activate a subdominant response, to plan, and to detect errors (Rothbart & Bates, 2006, p. 129). This ability can be dierentiated into two major subcomponents: attentional control (the capacity to maintain attention on tasks as well as to shift attention when desired) and inhibitory control (the capacity to plan and to suppress inappropriate action). Infants and children dier greatly along these dimensions. Recent neuroimaging data suggest that these dierences are associated with three biologically based attentional networks, or systems: the alerting attentional system, the orienting attention system, and the executive attention system (Posner & Rothbart, 2007; Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Developmentally, the rst attention system to appear is the alerting attention system, which is involved in achieving and maintaining a state of alertness. Evidence suggests that, anatomically, this system is supported by the locus coeruleus, the right frontal cortex, and the parietal cortex, with norepinephrine as the principal neuromodulator. The second system, the orienting system, is involved in the selection of information from sensory input. This system is associated with posterior brain areas, including the superior parietal lobe, the temporal parietal junction, and the frontal eye eld area, and is believed to be primarily regulated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Finally, the third network, called the executive network, is involved in maintaining continuity of behavior in accordance with goals in the presence of possible distractions. Starting to develop toward the end of the rst year of life, the executive system allows executive, self-directed attentional focusingeortful control (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Anatomically, the executive network is related to the anterior cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the lateral prefrontal cortex, with dopamine as its prime neuromodulator (Posner & Rothbart, 2007). In early infancy, attention is typically expressed in orienting and xation to novel visual stimuli. At this early age, attention tends to be more reactive than self-regulatory; that is, it primarily involves orienting to exogenous stimulation (Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, some evidence suggests that ability to control distress via attenEuropean Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
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tion may be traced to early infancy (e.g., Harman, Rothbart, & Posner, 1997; Strauss & Rourke, 1978). Laucht, Becker, and Schmidt (2006) found that infants attention problems at the age of 3 months were related to novelty seeking in adolescence. Kochanska, Murray, and Harlan (2000) found that focused attention at 9 months predicted effortful control during toddlerhood. Rothbart and coworkers have developed various questionnaire measures for assessing temperamental dispositions related to eortful control and its subcomponents (see Table 3). Kochanska et al. (2000) developed a battery of laboratory-based tasks to measure eortful control between 22 months and 5 years. Individual dierences in eortful control proved moderately enduring across this time. Preschool delay of gratication, which is a phenomenon related to eortful control, has been shown to predict cognitive and self-regulatory competencies in adolescence (Shoda, Mischel, & Peake, 1990). Computerized tests based on reaction times, such as the Attention Network Test (ANT), are also being used to examine individual dierences in the eciency of the brain systems related to alerting, orienting, and executive attention. Child versions of this test have been successfully used with preschoolers (Rueda et al., 2004) and toddlers (Gerardi-Caulton, 2000). Sensory sensitivity. Compared with the preceding characteristics, sensory sensitivitys status as a distinct temperament dimension is less established by research. However, we nd this characteristic to be intriguing enough that we provisionally list it as a basic dimension. Sensory sensitivity includes two separate, though possibly related facets, namely a) sensitivity to aversive stimuli such as loud noises or scratchy clothes, which are captured in the sensory discomfort construct (Kochanska et al., 1998; Rothbart et al., 2001), and b) the ability to react to sensory stimuli of low stimulative value, captured by the notion of perceptual sensitivity (Goldsmith, 1996; Rothbart et al., 2001). Related constructs such as threshold (Martin et al., 1994), sensory defensiveness (Goldsmith, Van Hulle, Arneson, Schreiber, & Gernsbacher, 2006) or high sensitivity (Aron, 2002) probably represent mixtures of both aspects of sensitivity. Infants and children vary greatly in their responses to sensory stimuli. Some notice even very subtle changes in sound or sight whereas others remain unaware of them. Some avoid certain kinds of sensory experience, whereas others are sensation seekers. Questionnaire measures of sensory sensitivity in infants and children have become increasingly sophisticated and well standardized, typically dierentiating between visual, auditory, and tactile sensitivity (Goldsmith et al., 2006). Kochanska et al. (1998) devised an experimental procedure for assessing individual dierences in this domain. The researchers found a wide range of individual dierences in the reaction of 9-month-old infants to taste (lemon juice), loud noises (produced by a blender), or touch (gently spraying water over the infants face). Dierent parameters of aect responses to such stimuli, such as latency to rst expression, behavioral acts of approach or avoidance, and average and peak intensity of emotion expressed in multiple channels (vocal, facial, bodily) tended to form coherent clusters. Coherence in responses across modalities, though modest, was also observed (Kochanska et al., 1998). More
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recent studies with older children provide further evidence that individual dierences in sensory sensitivity may be meaningfully related across modalities. For example, Liem, Westerbeek, Wolterwink, Kok, and de Graaf (2004) provided evidence that childrens sensitivity to sour taste is related to sensitivity for bright colors. Furthermore, an instrument specically devised to measure sensory sensitivity in children, the Short Sensory Prole, has a coherent factor structure and high internal reliability (Dunn, 1999). Sensitivity has been found to be moderately stable in parental reports between the toddler and middle childhood periods (Guerin et al., 2003).
Other Temperament Characteristics and Interrelationships Among Characteristics
The primary goal of the previous section was to describe early-appearing families of characteristics that respond to criteria for temperament and that are widely acknowledged and studied as infant and child temperament traits. Table 2 provides a summary of these characteristics along with capsule denitions. Additional information about these components can be found elsewhere (for gender dierences, see Else-Quest, et al., 2006; for their signicance in school, see Keogh, 2003). Some researchers will nd our list overinclusive, given the current state of evidence, whereas others will nd that additional temperament traits have not been suciently considered. It is clear that not all (candidate) temperament traits have been studied and measured equally well. Thus, it is possible that our list could change as research proceeds.
Table 2. Summary and Capsule Denitions of Basic Child Temperament Dimensions. Dimension Behavioral inhibition /fear Irritability/ frustration Positive emotionality Activity level Attention/ persistence Sensory sensitivity Capsule denitions Inhibition of behavior in response to novel unfamiliar people and situations Aggressive or irritated behavior in response to painful and/or frustrating input Propensity to experience positive emotions, typically those associated with approach behaviors (e.g., positive anticipation, investigation, eagerness) Related dimensions Harm avoidance, shyness Dicultness, distress to limitations, anger proneness Playfulness, novelty seeking*
Frequency, speed and vigor of gross motor movement Briskness, energy and locomotion; intolerance toward enforced idleness Capacity for attentional focusing and control as basis for Eortful control, voluntary behavior including persistence distractibility, novelty seeking* Ability to react to sensory stimuli (e.g., visual, auditory Threshold, sensory or tactile) of low stimulative value; proneness to sensory defensiveness discomfort
* Rather than unitary dimensions, novelty seeking and impulsivity may be the result of a combination of high levels of positive emotionality not contained by adequate levels of attentional or inhibitory control (see p. 23).
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Dimensions. We think that impulsivity, for example, might also qualify as a temperament characteristic. However, it is at present unclear whether impulsivity is anything more (or less) than the reverse of eortful control, including its subcomponents attention and persistence, perhaps along with a component of positive emotionality. Indeed, one way to look at impulsivity is as an accelerator (positive emotionality) that is not contained in an appropriate breaking system (behavioral inhibition or inhibitory control). From this perspective, impulsivity would be rather a type (below) or a result of a temperament X temperament interaction (see p. 25) than a unitary dimension. Furthermore, in the current review, we wanted to prioritize those temperamental characteristics that are at least partially expressed in the rst months of life. Early infancy signs of impulsivity seem to be behaviors related to attention regulation decits (e.g., Laucht et al., 2006)behaviors that belong to components already listed. A similar argument could be made for sociability/afliativeness. Although evidence suggests that there could be temperament underpinnings to individual dierences in social bonding and cooperativeness (Rothbart & Bates, 2006), other ndings indicate that these dispositions are later emerging qualities, possibly resulting from a combination of the dimensions described earlier (such as lack of anger; see Rothbart, et al., 2000). It should also be noted that, as inclusive as the preceding list may seem at rst glance, a wealth of child characteristics would not meet the inclusion criteria for temperament (e.g., abilities, intelligence, psychopathology, interests; also personality traits such as sense of humor, charm, imaginativeness, honesty, manipulativeness). Some authors have dened certain temperament dimensions as fundamental and others as derivative or subordinate. As will be remembered, Rothbart and colleagues see only three factors as truly fundamental and independent temperament dimensions. Even if there is evidence to support such a triadic structure of temperament (Rothbart & Bates, 2006), most evidence for a threefold basic structure of temperament rests on factor-analytic elaboration of verbal reports. Whether analyses of behavioral observations would lead to a similar model and whether the subcomponents of the phenotypic factors would relate in parallel ways to theoretically important biological substrates remains open at present. Types. There is also a second, person-centered or typological approach to the organization of temperament dimensions. Types are categories of people who share a similar conguration of characteristics. Recall that Thomas and Chesss threefold temperament typology distinguished between dicult, slow-to-warm, and easy children. More recently, a related triadic scheme has identied under-controlled (similar to the dicult category), over-controlled (similar to slow to warm), and resilient children (similar to easy) (e.g., Asendorpf & van Aken, 1999; Caspi & Silva, 1995; Hart et al., 2005). Because the post Thomas and Chess studies were based on children of preschool or later ages, the status of the types as temperaments is not fully established. On the basis of these studies, the three types can be described with the following distinctive attributes. Undercontrolled child: willful, restless, inattentive, impulsive Overcontrolled child: shy, obedient, self-critical, liked by adults Resilient child: self-condent, able to concentrate, self-reliant and open
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Temperamental Diversity: Where From and What for?
Increasing interest is being directed to the evolutionary processes that may account for the appearance of temperament traits across species and for individual dierences in temperament (Nettle, 2006). According to one point of view, natural selection operates toward maximizing the best stu. Thus, characteristics that are linked to reproductive tness should cease to exist as an individual dierences trait because no variability within the species would be tolerated by natural selection. This kind of natural selection is usually referred to as directional selection (Buss & Plomin, 1984). Sometimes, however, what the best stu ultimately turns out to be depends on uctuations in environmental context. More specically, at any time and in any geographical location, an optimum value exists for a trait from a tness perspective, but this value may vary rapidly by time and location. Species must preserve diversity to survive such uctuationsa selection mechanism sometimes referred to as uctuating selection (Nettle, 2006). Temperamental diversity probably evolved as a result of uctuating selection. Indeed, animal evidence suggests that both physical and behavioral traits tend to be associated with tness costs as well as tness benets, depending on environmental circumstances. This trade-o account of diversity can also be applied to variation in temperament and personality. Apart from advantages and disadvantages associated with each of the Big Five factors in adults (Nettle, 2006), studies also show that the same child temperament characteristics tend to be associated with positive or negative outcomes depending on a temperament-culture match (e.g., Chen et al., 1998; Super et al., 2008). Associations between temperament and outcomes also depend on other aspects of the environment, as will be discussed at the end of the following section.
Programs of Longitudinal Research on Temperament and Development
In this section, we review programs of longitudinal research that address the consequences of early childhood temperament. Though such a review could start at the prenatal stage, the present collection already features a separate review article about prenatal predictors of temperament (Huizink, 2008). Thus, here we look at ways in which early childhood temperament aects social development, both normal and abnormal. Because this eect can happen in many dierent ways, we organize the literature according to three broad developmental mechanisms: dierential linkage, temperament by temperament moderation, and temperament by environment moderation.
Dierential Linkage
As noted by Bates in his longitudinal research (1989) and generally supported in a number of other studies (reviewed in Rothbart & Bates, 2006), a particular pattern of conceptually homologous links occurs between key dimensions of temperament and
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later dimensions of adjustment. The specic kinds of behavior problems in later childhood appear to embody the specic temperament characteristics of early childhood. The two major dimensions of maladjustment or psychopathology are externalizing problems, such as aggression and rule-breaking problems, and internalizing problems, such as anxiety and depression. These outcomes are predicted by temperament dimensions that are conceptual analogs of the later, adjustment dimensions. The dierential linkage pattern shows, in general, that (a) temperamental tendencies to be unmanageable in the early years, which could have elements of either strong approach (positive emotionality) tendencies or weak eortful control, or both, tend to predict later externalizing problems more strongly than they predict internalizing problems; (b) temperamental fearfulness or inhibition tends to predict later internalizing problems more strongly than it predicts externalizing problems; and (c) temperamental negative emotionality or irritability tends to predict both internalizing and externalizing problems. The element of irritability or negative emotionality seems to provide an account of the commonly observed comorbidity of internalizing and externalizing problems (Keiley, Lofthouse, Bates, Dodge, & Pettit, 2003). The temperament-adjustment linkage pattern is found even when the adjustment and temperament concepts are assessed with adjustment-like items discarded from measures of temperament and vice versa (Lemery, Essex, & Smider, 2002). The pattern has been found in multiple longitudinal studies, including the Bloomington Longitudinal Study (Bates & Bayles, 1984), the Child Development Project (Keiley et al., 2003), the Dunedin study (Caspi, Henry, McGee, Mott, & Silva, 1995), and a number of others (reviewed in Rothbart & Bates, 2006).
Temperament X Temperament Moderation
Theoretically, the implications of a given temperament trait should depend, at least partly, on the other traits in an individuals temperament prole. Compared with the rich array of patterns that might be possible, there has been relatively little empirical exploration of how one temperament trait moderates the link between another temperament trait and psychosocial adjustment. The main exception is the nding that temperamental eortful control matters more in the development of well-regulated and prosocial behavior for children who are high in negative emotionality than it does for children who are low in negative emotionality. This eect has been demonstrated most extensively in longitudinal studies by Eisenberg and her colleagues (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 2000), but it has also been shown by several other research teams (Rothbart & Bates, 2006).
Temperament X Environment Moderation
Just as the implications of a temperament trait should depend on the context of other temperament traits, the implications of a temperament trait for adjustment should also depend on the environment within which the child is developing (Wachs, 2000). Thomas and Chess (1977) articulated this connection early in the temperament area
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in their notion of goodness of t. In contrast to the relatively sparse empirical instantiation of temperament X temperament moderation, in the past 10 years there has been a remarkable explosion of research showing temperament X environment moderation in childrens psychosocial adjustment. This work has been reviewed in detail in Bates and Pettit (2007) and Rothbart and Bates (2006). In brief, the literature shows substantial patterns of ndings involving at least three kinds of temperament dimensionnegative emotionality/irritability, fearfulness/inhibition, and effortful control/manageabilityand many dierent aspects of the environment, but especially variations in the qualities of parenting that a child experiences. The longitudinal studies of Kochanska have helped lead this entire area of research on moderation eects. Kochanskas research exemplies one major kind of nding in which a childs level of fearfulness becomes either a regulatory advantage or disadvantage, depending on the parenting context. Children who were high in fearfulness developed internalized self-controls best in the context of mothers who controlled the child in a gentle versus a harsh way, whereas children who were fearless developed best with mothers who were warm and fun (e.g., Kochanska, 1997, see also Kochanska, Aksan, & Joy, 2007). Another kind of temperament X environment moderator eect is that children with an adverse temperament are less likely to develop adjustment problems if in an environment that appropriately challenges their temperamentally based tendencies. For example, Arcus (2001), working in the Kagan tradition, studied infants who were high in negative emotional responses and who were fundamentally likely to develop behavioral inhibition traits in toddlerhood. She found that such infants whose parents and siblings treated them in more challenging, rather than supportive, ways showed less behavioral inhibition. In a study that implies a similar mechanism, but with a dierent temperament trait and dierent adjustment dimension, Bates et al. (1998) found that children who were temperamentally resistant to control, or unmanageable, and therefore prone to develop later externalizing behavior problems, were less likely to develop such problems if their mothers were highly controlling in response to the minor misbehaviors common in early childhood. Considerable work is being done in the temperament X environment area (see Goodnight et al., 2008). Belsky, Bakermans-Kranenburg, and van IJzendoorn (2007) have highlighted one pattern of ndings in the literature often referred to in terms of dierential susceptibility to environmental inuences. Initially, this concept was introduced to account for the observation that dierences in the quality of the rearing environment have a major impact on only a minority of genetically or temperamentally vulnerable children. However, it now seems that this minority of children not only suers disproportionately from adverse environments; it also benets disproportionately from supporting rearing environments. Other patterns can be seen in the emerging literature, too, and it will be of great theoretical and practical interest to see the further development of this area.
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A Note on Measurement
Assessment of infant and child temperament is typically based on laboratory procedures or parental reports assessed via questionnaires. Table 3 provides an overview of frequently used child temperament questionnaires, listed by age group. Most of these questionnaires have been translated into multiple languages.
Table 3. Overview of Widely Used Questionnaire Measures of Temperament by Age and Conceptual Model. Infancy 0-12 months EITQ: Early Infancy Temperament Questionnaire 76 items (Medo-Cooper, Carey, & McDevitt, 1993) RITQ: Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire 95 items (Carey & McDevitt, 1978) IBQ: Infant Behavior Questionnaire 94 items (Rothbart, 1981) IBQ-R: Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised 184 items (Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003) ICQ: Infant Characteristics Questionnaire 24 items (Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979) Toddlerhood 13-36 months ICQ: Infant Characteristics Questionnaire 32 items (Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979) TTS: Toddler Temperament Scale 97 items (Fullard, McDevitt, & Carey, 1984) CCTI: Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory 30 items (Rowe & Plomin, 1977) EAS: EAS Temperament Survey for Children 20 items (Buss & Plomin, 1984) TBAQ: Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire 108 items (Goldsmith, 1996; 2000) ECBQ: Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire 267 items (Putnam, Gartstein, & Rothbart, 2006) Preschool 3-7 years BSQ: Behavioral Style Questionnaire 100 items (McDevitt & Carey, 1978) DOTS-R: Dimensions of Temperament Survey Revised 54 items (Windle & Lerner, 1986) CCTI: Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory 30 items (Rowe & Plomin, 1977) EAS: EAS Temperament Survey for Children 20 items (Buss & Plomin, 1984) T** CBQ: Childrens Behavior Questionnaire 195 items (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Hershey, 2001) BIQ: Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire 30 items (Bishop, Spence, & McDonald, 2003) T TAB: Temperament Assessment Battery 35 items (Martin, 1999) T JTCI: Junior Temperament and Character Inventory 86 items (Constantino et al., 2002) School age 8-12 years MCTQ: Middle Childhood Temperament Questionnaire - 99 items (Hegvik, McDevitt, & Carey, 1982) STTQ: Shortened Teacher Temperament Questionnaire - 23 items (Keogh, Pullis, & Caldwell 1983) DOTS-R: Dimensions of Temperament Survey Revised - 54 items (Windle & Lerner, 1986) SATI: School-Age Temperament Inventory - 38 items (McClowry, 1995) Conceptual Model* CP CP ND ND other other CP CB CB ES ND CP CP CB CB NB BT BIS/BAS TC
CP CP CP CP
* Initials refer to the conceptual models, from which the instruments were derived. CP = Child Psychiatric approach of Thomas and Chess (pp. 8-9); CB = Criteria Based approach of Buss and Plomin (pp. 9-10); ES = Emotion Systems approach by Goldsmith and Campos (pp. 10-11); ND = Neurobiological Developmental approach of Rothbart (pp. 11-12); BT = Bio-Typological approach of Kagan (pp. 12-13); BIS/BAS = Behavioral Inhibition and Approach Systems theory of Gray; TC = Temperament and Character model of Cloninger (pp. 13-14). ** T stands for the availability of a teacher version; the STTQ is specically devised for teachers.
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Laboratory measures typically consist of situations designed to elicit a temperament-related reaction. One of the most extensive laboratory instruments is the Lab-TAB developed by Rothbart and Goldsmith. The Lab-TAB manual (Goldsmith, Reilly et al., 1999; Goldsmith & Rothbart, 1996) species the type of trials (episodes) that can be used to assess a variety of temperament dimensions (e.g., fearfulness, anger proneness, persistence). For example, toy retraction and gentle arm restraint are situations for assessing frustration/anger, whereas scary masks or an unpredictable mechanical toy represent objects for trials related to fearfulness assessment. The manual also species how childrens responses (e.g., smiling, crying) are to be scored and analyzed, for example, by dening parameters related to response latencies, durations, and intensities. An alternative to the Lab-TAB is the Louisville Temperament Assessment Battery (Matheny, 1991). In addition to these instruments, which are designed to assess a wide range of temperament attributes, there are also laboratory procedures for the in-depth assessment of specic infant and child temperament characteristics, such as behavioral inhibition, along with its precursor, high reactivity (e.g., Kagan, 1994; Kagan & Snidman, 2004) or activity level (Meeks Gardner, Grantham-McGregor, Chang, Himes, & Powell, 1995). These and other experimental procedures may also successfully be used to assess infant temperament in a home context (e.g., Kochanska et al., 1998; Seifer et al., 1994). Laboratory and questionnaire measures have unique advantages and disadvantages, which have been discussed at length (e.g., Kagan & Fox, 2006; Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Suce it to say that one of the thorniest issues in parental reports is a lack of standardized objectivity (Kagan & Fox, 2006; Seifer et al., 2004). In part, this shortcoming is compensated by the economy of reports, the rich coverage of dicult-to-observe situations, and the evidence that reports possess validity (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Laboratory measures of temperament, on the other hand, although highly standardized and objective, may capture only a section of the childs behaviorwhatever turns out to be observable in a laboratory setting. Laboratory assessments are laborious and therefore usually carried out just once at a given point of measurement, thereby restraining reliability. Similarly, although some of the bias inherent in a single parents rating may be mitigated by aggregation with the ratings of other observers (e.g., other family members, friends, other caretakers), in practice, aggregation is seldom employed. Use of measures with limited reliabilities will inevitably yield those modest validity correlations between laboratory and parent assessments that are so often bemoaned in the literature (e.g., Goldsmith & Hewitt, 2003). Once infants grow out of their earliest months of life, they often spend considerable time outside the home, in nursery school, day care, and kindergarten. Thus, a third possibility to assess temperament is to obtain ratings of childrens temperament from aggregation of ratings by multiple early childhood professionals. Such ratings oer three distinct advantages. First and foremost, though every observer in isolation is fallible, aggregation over multiple observers tends to enhance observational accuracy. This improvement is due to the aggregation principle, which states that biases of single observEuropean Journal of Developmental Science [EJDS]. 2008, Vol. 2, No. 1/2, 737 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen 2008, ISSN 1863-3811
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ers tend to cancel each other out (Block, 2008). The power of aggregation is not used as eectively in most temperament studies as it might be. Second, in contrast to most parents, early childhood professionals have the possibility of comparing the behavior of a given child to that of many other children over extended periods of time. Third, professionals are not as emotionally involved with the child as parents are. Thus, the ratings of professionals are less likely to be aected by anxieties and hopes that many parents have for their child (Seifer et al., 2004). This third approach has also its limitations, of course. Thus, the particular context of the daycare or kindergarten may aect the ratings, and not all temperament attributes can be equally well observed in these environments. Still, it is an approach worth to be explored in more depth than it has been so far.
Outlook
Along with other reviews of the child-temperament literature,1 the current one shows how much research has evolved since the topic of temperament made its forceful comeback into developmental psychology about 25 years ago. Although the general picture is one of progress, we also pointed to several issues that remain unresolved. And there are more, to be sure. As may have transpired from these pages, temperament has many faces, including genes, neurobiological substrates, endophenotypes and overt behavior patterns. How do these various layers of temperament relate to each other? And, given increasing evidence that the biological make-up of children can be altered by early and even prenatal experience (Huizink, 2008), should one not consider dierentiating between inherited and acquired components of temperament? These are complex issues that only future work will be able to sort out. Among the most intriguing prospects is that, eventually, discoveries in the area can be used to enhance childrens development. One way in which this can happen is by helping children to overcome temperament-related diculties. For example, it has been shown that preschool children with diculties relating to executive attention benet from training exercises (e.g., A. Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). This nding is remarkable, given that executive attention-related traits, such as self-discipline, are powerful predictors of school achievement, more powerful than IQ (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). However, as documented by several studies in section 3 of this overview, sometimes problems arise not so much because of childrens temperaments, as because of lack of t between the childs temperamental characteristics and the caretakers responses. Thus, another promising area of application, considered by McClowry et al. (2008), consists of new programs designed to train parents and teachers to nd rearing practices that are appropriate for a childs given temperament.
Next to the relevant chapters in the Handbook of Child Psychology (Kagan & Fox, 2006; Rothbart & Bates, 2006) German-speaking readers can nd an extensive overview of the eld, including its history and practical applications, in Zentner (1998).
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Address for correspondence: Marcel Zentner, Department of Psychology, University of York, York YO 10 5DD, UK. Email: [email protected] Marcel Zentner was a post-doctoral fellow at Harvard University and a research professor at the University of Geneva before joining the faculty at the University of York. His main areas of research are in personality, socio-emotional development and music perception. John E. Bates is Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Indiana University-Bloomington. His research considers the development of behavior problems, with special emphasis on the interaction of individual characteristics, such as temperament, and environmental characteristics, such as parenting. Acknowledgements. Preparation of this article was supported in part by Swiss National Science Foundation Grant PP001-110644 to the rst author. We thank Hill Goldsmith, Jerome Kagan, and Theodor Wachs who acted as reviewers on the current article.

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Child Temperament: An Integrative Review of Concepts, Research Programs, and Measures

Marcel Zentner1 & John E. Bates2

M. Zentner & J.E. Bates

Approaches to Child Temperament