Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

What factors encourage and what factors depress political participation in the United States?
Political participation refers to those activities of citizens that attempt to influence the structure of government, the selection of government officials, or the policies of government

These words of Margaret Conway encapsulate the underlying factors which determine the level of political participation in the United States. Although this definition emphasizes active involvement and the strive towards a political outcome, political participation may be passive; the idea of conformism illustrates this and includes acts such as but not limited to the attendance of ceremonial and supportive governmental activities (e.g. following the coverage of political campaigns by the federal agency). This essay will examine the factors which encourage and depress political participation in the United States, focusing on three variables that contribute to our understanding of who participates in politics, in what ways and to what extent they do so, specifically: the social circumstances of citizens, their psychological political orientations and finally, their political environment.1

In

The Federalist Anxiety, James Madison expresses that political activity is a

distinguishing feature and a necessary support for the democratic system of the United States.2 There are two forms of political participation: conventional and unconventional. The former !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1 2

Conway M, Political Participation in the United States. Washington, D.C., CQ, 2000. P. 166. Madison J., "Federalist, No. 51.", 1787.

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

refers to those activities that are accepted as appropriate by the dominant political culture (e.g. voting and working for a political party.), whilst the latter includes those which are not, even though they may be legal (e.g. protests)3.

Firstly, political participation may be shaped by the social circumstances of citizens, including factors such as ones race, gender, socioeconomic status, and the level of education available. For example, the enactments of 1972 amendments to the Higher Education Act encouraged greater female political participation and outlined nondiscrimination on the basis of gender in scholarships and administration to college and university programs.4 Consequently, career opportunities available to women increased dramatically, allowing for greater social network and family income levels. The act, alongside the declaration of female suffrage in 1920, enhanced the socioeconomic status of women in society; Allesandro Pizzorno advocates the Centrality model which upholds the theory that the higher the social position of an individual, the more he participates in politics.5

Conway argues that socioeconomic status affects stakes in political outcomes and their perceptions of those stakes, and that, therefore, a greater female interest in politics will result in greater female participation. This idea may be illustrated by the increase in percentage value of Voting Age Population (VAP) from the period before the declaration of female suffrage (1920

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3 4 5

Conway, P. 3. Conway, P.16. Maslow A., A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50 (1943), P. 370-396.

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

: 49.2%) , and after its enactment and amendments to the Higher Education Act (1972 : 55.1%).6 However, some scholars argue that in the short run, female suffrage depressed turnout percentages as women lacked electoral experience and were responsible for the falloff in turnout from 1904 to 1916, as well as the continued declined in voting through the 1920s.7 Nonetheless, participation grew slowly as women were socialized into the political system and as the younger generations who had been raised with the expectation of voting entered the electorate. It is interesting to note that in our modern era, womens voter turnout rates have equaled or exceeded those of men in presidential elections since 1980.8

On the other hand, racism exists in American society and is a factor that deters political participation. Even today, Steven Rosenstone reports, decades after the passage of the VRA (Voting Rights Act), discrimination and intimidation continue to make it difficult for blacks and other minorities to register and vote.9 Lawrence Bob suggests that there are persisting social segregation and economic disadvantages; African-American power is limited due to (racial) gerrymandered district lines that dilute black votes exist , whilst black progress and political empowerment is partial and incomplete.10

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6

Between 1828-1928: "Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections: 1828 - 2008", The American Presidency Project. UC Santa Barbara, 2009.
7 8

Kornbluh, P. 106.

Peters G., "Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections: 1828 - 2008". The American Presidency Project. UC Santa Barbara. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
9

DeLuca, The Two Faces of Political Apathy. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1995, P. 164. Mills J., Culture and Politics, in Power, Politics and People, P. 245.

10

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

Furthermore, participation may be influenced by the political environment with respect to the ignorance of citizens and their psychological orientations (beliefs, attitudes and values) towards the political system. Levels of political education differ from one state to another and citizens also differ in the degree of their concern with the issues that are salient to them.11 This undermines the classical democratic theory that citizens in a democratic state are interested and participate in politics, are knowledgeable about the processes of government, and vote in accordance with a set of values of principles.12 Conway argues that voting participation rates are low as only a small proportion of the electorate has knowledge about the structure and functions of government, and the general pubic is often unaware of policies discussed by the federal, state or local governments. In the 21st century, this idea may be reflected in the percentage of Voter turnout (of VAP) in presidential elections which reached its peak in 2012 with a mere 57.5%.13

In order to encourage conventional participation in the electoral system, the government must acquire political trust from its citizens in the belief that the federal state is working in the nations best interest.14 On one hand, positive participation may increase due to the use of mass media (e.g. news broadcasts and programs devoted to debates among candidates) as it raises awareness of the governments political agenda (and their political successes). The media may also expose the political ideologies of differing social movements; this may result in mass mobilization through conventional (or unconventional) means in order to achieve a political !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11 12 13 14

Peele G., Developments in American Politics 4. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002, P. 200-205. Maslow, P. 396. Peters, 2009.

Hetherington M., Why Trust Matters : Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism. United Kingdom: Princeton UP, 2005. 10-13.

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

outcome. 15 For example, a group of farmers in the late 1970s perceived that their interests were not adequately represented and upon formation of the American Agricultural movement, organized an agricultural strike against the government. 16

On the other hand, a sense of political apathy may deter participation. Bachrach views this behavior as a condition of consciousness; when an individual is uninterested in a political motion, one may become apathetic to the political order that continues to serve them.17 Those who do not participate are alienated from the political system , and Ada Finifter describes four ways in which political alienation may be expressed: 1) Political powerlessness , this may result if one is unaware of avenues through which they can express their needs or inchoate anxieties ; 2) Political meaninglessness , the view that political events are unpredictable; 3) normlessness, the feeling that political order has broken down; and 4) Political Isolation, the belief that no legitimate norms governing the political system exist.18

These issues should be taken into account when examining why Americas extensive electoral participation that characterized the 19th century is absent in our modern era. On one hand, a lack of electoral participation may be due to great consensus between governments and citizens (i.e. that public demands are fulfilled). On the other hand, Pluralists place blame on electoral reform and a (general realignment of the party system) , which Richard Cloward !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
15

Conway, P. 89-92.

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17 18

DeLuca, P. 125-30. Conway, P. 70.

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

argued had exclude the lower class from electoral participation. Indeed, those alienated may not withdraw form the political sphere and may, instead, become politically active through political movements and unconventional practices.19

In conclusion , political participation may be influenced by the social circumstances of citizens, their psychological orientations with regards to politics, and the political environment. This essay has explored the developments in recent years which seem to be paradoxical; despite new demands for participation by previously marginalized groups since the civil rights movements of the 1950s and 1960s, as well as an intensification of the pressure on politicians from organized groups both old and new, there has been a general decline in modern American political participation.20The most fundamental factor which contributed to this is the structural reform of the political system ; whereas political parties served as the principal link between American and government during the nineteenth century, administrative bodies were to be independent from legislative control and partisan direction, (insulating government from public involvement).21 Indeed, the transformation of American politics has created a government capable of responding to the demands of modern society. However, the nature of this transformation raises serious questions about the quality of twentieth-century American democracy.22

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19 20 21

Conway, P. 2. Peele, P. 54-57.

Kornbluh M., Why America Stopped Voting: The Decline of Participatory Democracy and the Emergence of Modern American Politics, New York: New York UP, 2000, P. 1-7.
22

Peele, P. 57.

Tara Subba Democratic Political Systems Formative Essay 1497 Words

Bibliography
Between 1828-1928: "Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections: 1828 - 2008". The American Presidency Project. UC Santa Barbara, 2009.

Coway M, Political Participation in the United States. Washington, D.C., CQ, 2000.

DeLuca, The Two Faces of Political Apathy. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1995.

Hetherington M., Why Trust Matters : Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism. United Kingdom: Princeton UP, 2005.

Kornbluh M., Why America Stopped Voting: The Decline of Participatory Democracy and the Emergence of Modern American Politics, New York: New York UP, 2000.

Madison J., "Federalist, No. 51." ,1787.

Maslow A., A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50 (1943).

Mills J., Culture and Politics, in Power, Politics and People.

Peele G., Developments in American Politics 4. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002.

Peters G., "Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections: 1828 - 2008". The American Presidency Project. UC Santa Barbara, 2009.