Creating Learning Experiences: The Role of Instructional Theory and Research

by Bruce R. Joyce and Emily F. Calhoun Retrieved on Sep. 20, 2003 from the eb!ite of ASCD Publicarions

Chapter 2. The Families of Teaching Models

At first, when people create or find a new model of teaching that works for some purpose, they're so thrilled they try to use it for everything. ur !ob is to provide some order"finding out what each model can do and building categories to help folks find the tools they need. "#ruce $oyce, Again and Again in Staff %eetings from &'() to the Present %y colleagues and * have been searching for promising approaches to teaching since the late &')+s. ,he hunt has many facets. -e visit schools ./+ last year0 and classrooms .1++ last year02 interview teachers2 study research on teaching and learning2 and observe people in teaching roles outside schools, such as therapists and trainers in industrial, military, and athletic settings. -e found models of teaching in abundance. ,hese models range from simple procedures that students can easily respond to, to comple3 strategies that students gradually ac4uire through patient and skillful instruction. Some models aim at specific ob!ectives2 others have a broader usefulness. Some are 4uite formal2 others are casual and emergent. All address a variety of ob!ectives in the personal, social, and academic domains and encompass our ma!or responsibilities as teachers. 5rom the late &')+s until the mid6&'7+s, research sponsored by foundations, the federal government, and school districts refined long6standing teaching models and developed new ones to a degree not seen before or since. Some research concentrated on specific curriculum areas, particularly language arts, social studies, science, and mathematics. During the same period, research on effective teachers and schools shed light on teacher practices. ver the last 1+ years, research on mnemonics and cooperative learning has redeveloped and refined models in those areas, and research on training has clarified how people ac4uire skills and apply .transfer0 them to solve
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problems. 8ecent work on how students construct knowledge is enriching the models, as is research on how students develop the 9metacognitions9 that enable them to consciously improve their strategies for learning. *ndividual teachers and school faculties can use these models of teaching as instructional strategies and guides when planning lessons, units, courses, and curriculums and when designing classroom activities and instructional materials. ,o bring order into the study of the growing storehouse of models, we grouped them into four families: information6processing, social, personal, and behavioral systems. ;ach family is characteri<ed by the types of learning its models promote and its orientation toward people and how people learn. ,he models we selected for each family are based on practicability criteria2 that is, the models have considerable utility in instructional settings. ,hus, they have long histories of practice behind them: ;3perience has refined them so that they can be used comfortably and efficiently in classrooms and other educational settings. ,hey are adaptable: ,hey can be ad!usted to the learning styles of students and to the re4uirements of sub!ect matter. ,hey have lifetime utility, becoming learning tools for life: %ost are useful across the elementary and secondary grades, as well as at the university level. And finally, evidence shows that they work in enhancing students' ability to learn: All are backed by formal research that tests their theories and abilities to effect learning.

The Information !rocessing Family

*nformation6processing models emphasi<e ways of enhancing a human being's drive to make sense of the world by ac4uiring and organi<ing data, sensing problems and generating solutions to them, and developing concepts and language for conveying the solutions. Some of the models provide the learner with information and concepts .e.g., concept attainment02 some emphasi<e concept formation and hypothesis testing .e.g., inductive thinking02 and others generate creative thinking .e.g., synectics0. A few are designed to enhance general intellectual ability. %any information6 processing models are useful for studying the self and society, and thus for achieving the personal and social goals of education. ,he 8eferences and #ibliography sections of the book include the primary works of the developers.

*nformation6processing models, as the name implies, are to help students learn to process information. *n addition, while the students are collecting and operating on information, they ac4uire knowledge, usually in the form of observations or data from books and other sources. =igher6order knowledge is then constructed, beginning with simple classifications and ranging up the scale to the structures of knowledge in academic fields and finally to theoretical knowledge, including the alternative ways that theories are developed. 5or e3ample, processing that begins with discriminating the letter " from the letter B can eventually be elaborated into the linguistic theories that attempt to e3plain how language learning reflects and enhances cognitive processes and whether there are cognitive differences between cultures. All the information6processing models are designed to help students develop a conscious awareness of strategies for learning and use those strategies to in4uire into and reflect upon their world. ,hus, these models have much in common, which is why they are grouped together. ,hey all share the purpose of developing in4uiring learners. ,heir structures and purposes, however, are distinctive through what they emphasi<e6the tools for learning and the aspects of content that they enable learners to e3plore. 5igure 1.& .see p. &+0 lists the information processing models, identifies their developers, and briefly e3plores the kinds of learning they emphasi<e.

Figure 2.". Information !rocessing Models

Model #e$eloper %Rede$eloper& *nductive ,hinking .Classification0 =ilda ,aba .#ruce $oyce0 >earning how to classify is fundamental2 conse4uently, students learn information and concepts through the activity of classifying. ,hey also learn how to build conceptual understanding of content areas and how to build and test hypotheses based on classifications. *nductive thinking is a generic model, partly because classification is believed to be the basic higher6order thinking skill
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and further, because the model is applicable to knowledge from phonics to physics. Concept Attainment $erome #runer, Directly helps students learn specific concepts and 5red >ighthall, study strategies for attaining them. ;3tensions lead .#ruce $oyce0 students in the same direction as the inductive thinking model, gaining control over areas of content, learning to build hypotheses, and studying thinking. Scientific *n4uiry $oseph Schwab #rings students into the community of academic and many others in4uirers. =elps them learn the modes of in4uiry of the disciplines and in the process learn the knowledge base and ma!or concepts of the disciplines. Develops conceptual thinking, hypothetical reasoning, and critical capacity. *n4uiry ,raining 8ichard Suchman A program to 9train9 students to reason causally. ,hus, learning to collect data, build concepts, and

.=oward $ones0 develop and test hypotheses are central to its purposes. Cognitive ?rowth $ean Piaget, *rving Sigel, Constance ?enerating increased general intellectual growth is the ma!or ob!ective. *n advanced applications, this model helps students understand the nature of

@amii, ;dmund cognitive growth and how they can facilitate their Sullivan Advance rgani<er David Ausubel .many others0 own development. *ncreases ability to absorb information and organi<e it, especially when learning from lectures and readings.

%nemonics

%ichael Pressley, $oel >evin .and associated scholars0

=elps students develop strategies for ac4uiring information, concepts, and comple3 structures of concepts .e.g., the ,able of Chemical ;lements0. >eads students toward metacognitive control"the conscious understanding of learning strategies and when and how to use them.

Synectics

#ill ?ordon

>eads students to in4uire into metaphoric thinking through the use of analogies.

The 'ocial Family: (uilding a Learning Community

-hen we work together, we generate collective energy called synergy. ,he social models of teaching are constructed to take advantage of this phenomenon by building learning communities .see 5igure 1.1 on pp. &/6&A0. ;ssentially, classroom management involves developing cooperative relationships in a classroom. Creating a positive school culture is a process of developing integrative and productive ways of interacting and norms that support vigorous learning activity. Social models are alike in that they share the ob!ectives of increasing social skill and synergy and ultimately imbuing students with social commitment and the tools to participate in the highest forms of democratic process. All the models encourage respect for others and the development of strong personal values. All help students learn to construct knowledge through collective in4uiry. ,he social models, however, are distinguished from each other in the aspects of social interaction they foster and in the breadth of social goals they address. Sometimes it is not recogni<ed that all these models help students learn information, concepts, and advanced academic skills. ,heir genre, however, is characteri<ed by the overriding importance of the social goals and processes for achieving them.

Figure 2.2. 'ocial Models

Model #e$eloper %Rede$eloper& !urpose

?roup *nvestigation

$ohn Dewey, Schlomo Sharan, 8achel =ert<6 >a<arowit<, =erbert ,helen

Some would contend that this model can reach virtually any educational goal. #ecause many other models can be nested in it, it does, in fact, embrace a wide range of purposes. -hile preparing students for democratic life, it also helps them learn the modes of in4uiry of the disciplines, teaches them to reflect on their own selves and values, and induces their commitment to the improvement of society.

Social *n4uiry

#yron %assialas, #en!amin Co3

Bnites students in the study of social problems and provides them with strategies for doing so. ;nhances social skills and fosters social commitment and logical thinking.

$urisprudential *n4uiry

$ames Shaver, Donald liver

=elps students learn strategies for analy<ing public issues with a !urisprudential framework. *ncreases students' awareness of social and personal values and skills for participating in democratic in4uiry.

>aboratory %ethod

Cational ,raining >earning about group dynamics and developing >aboratory .many strong, sensitive social skills is the forte of the contributors0 laboratory method. Develops problem6solving skills, including some powerful strategies for resolving conflicts integratively and fairly.

8ole6Playing

5annie Shaftel, ?eorge Shaftel

*n4uiring into social and personal values is central. *n addition, role6playing helps students develop strategies for understanding and resolving social problems ranging from conflict in small groups to conflicts in large communities.

Positive *nterdependence

David $ohnson, 8oger $ohnson, ;li<abeth Cohen

riented toward helping students learn interdependent strategies for social interaction, including the understanding of self6other relationships and emotions.

Structured Social *n4uiry

8obert Slavin and Directly helps students learn to cooperate in colleagues academic in4uiry. *n the process, fosters interpersonal skills, self6understanding, and commitment to e3cellence.

The !ersonal Family

Bltimately, human reality resides in our individual consciousnesses. -e develop uni4ue personalities and see the world from perspectives that are the products of our particular e3periences and positions. Common understandings result from the negotiation of individuals who must live and work and create families and communities together. ,he personal models of learning begin from the perspective of an individual's selfhood .see 5igure 1./ on p. &)0. ,hey attempt to shape education so that we can understand ourselves better2 take responsibility for our education2 and learn to reach beyond our current development to become stronger, more sensitive, and more creative in our search for high64uality lives.

Figure 2.). !ersonal Models

Model #e$eloper %Rede$eloper& Condirective ,eaching Carl 8ogers #uilding capacity for self6development is the focus. *n the process, the model helps students understand themselves better, learn how to build their sense of self and self6worth, and strive for a high 4uality of life. Awareness ,raining 5rit< Perls Self6understanding and the capacity for e3ploration to enhance personal growth are the ma!or purposes.
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*ncreased empathy and interpersonal sensitivity are also important. %aking common cause for the development of all is fostered. Classroom %eeting -illiam ?lasser *ncreases self6understanding and responsibility to self and others as inseparable sides of the developmental coin. Self6Actuali<ation Abraham %aslow 5ocuses on the development of self6understanding and increasing the capacity for personal development. *n interpersonal settings, empathy and responsibility for others are corollary goals. Conceptual Systems David =unt *ncreases personal fle3ibility and comple3ity both in interacting with others and in the processing of information. ,he family of personal models pays great attention to the individual perspective and seeks to encourage productive independence, so that people become increasingly self6aware and responsible for their own destinies. Personal models center on the development of self6actuali<ing individuals who understand themselves and can take charge of their future. As in the other families of models of teaching, the personal models differ in the specific aspects of personal development that they focus on.

The (eha$ioral 'ystems Family

A common theoretical base"usually called social learning theory, but also known as behavior modification, behavior therapy, and cybernetics"guides the design of this family's models .see 5igure 1.A on p. &70. ,he belief is that human beings are self6correcting communication systems that modify behavior in response to information about how successfully they navigate tasks. 5or e3ample, imagine a person climbing an unfamiliar staircase in the dark .the task0. ,he first few
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steps are tentative, as a foot reaches for the treads. *f the stride is too high, feedback is received as the foot encounters air and has to descend to make contact with the surface. *f a step is too low, feedback results as the foot hits the riser. ?radually, the person ad!usts behavior in accordance with the feedback until progress up the stairs is relatively comfortable.

Figure 2.*. (eha$ioral 'ystems Models

Model #e$eloper %Rede$eloper& Social >earning Albert #andura, =elps students learn to study their behavior and Carl ,horesen, -es #ecker, #ill %ahoney its conse4uences and to try to develop more adaptive behavior by making changes and in4uiring into their effects. Specific goals can be to reduce phobic and other dysfunctional patterns. >earning self6assessment and developing control are central purposes. %astery >earning #en!amin #loom, $ames #lock ,he focus is to help students master academic content in all areas. ,he development of self6 esteem and confidence through success is an important corollary purpose. Programmed >earning #.5. Skinner 5ostering the mastery of academic knowledge and skills is the purpose. =elping students assess growth and modify learning strategies is a corollary. Simulation %any developers. Carl Smith and %ary 5olt< =elps students learn comple3 concepts and skills and assess development. !urpose

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Smith provide guide through &'(+s when design had matured. Direct ,eaching ,homas ?ood, $ere #rophy, -es #ecker, Siegfried ;nglemann, Carl #ereiter An3iety 8eduction David 8inn, $oseph -olpe, $ohn %asters >earning to develop control over aversive emotional reactions is the central purpose. ,eaches people self6treatment of avoidance and dysfunctional patterns of response. Capitali<ing on knowledge about how people respond to tasks and feedback, psychologists .see especially Skinner &')/0 learned how to organi<e task and feedback structures to make it easy for human beings' self6correcting capability to function. 8esults include programs for reducing phobias2 learning to read and compute2 developing social and athletic skills2 replacing an3iety with rela3ation2 and learning the comple3ities of intellectual, social, and physical skills necessary to pilot an airplane or a space shuttle. #ecause these models concentrate on observable behavior, clearly defined tasks, and methods for communicating progress to students, this family has a large foundation of research. #ehavioral techni4ues are amenable to learners of all ages and to an impressive range of educational goals. #ehavioral systems models have shifted throughout the years from the development of 9teaching systems9 toward the development of environments where students learn how to learn. ,hus, whereas )+ years ago, students might have been presented with a simulator designed to 9teach9 a
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%astering academic knowledge and skills is the central purpose. Can also be used to develop strategies for learning in a wide variety of content areas.

group of comple3 skills, they are now taken to a simulation environment in which a person can, by responding productively to tasks and feedback, teach himself concepts and skills. Self6teaching capability is a ma!or goal of all the behavioral systems models. >earning to assess performance, comprehend and respond to feedback, and ad!ust behavior to increase performance are subpurposes. ,he environments designed by the various behavioral models, however, differ considerably, and the emphasis they put on particular types of behaviors distinguish them from one another.

Com+ining ,pproaches across Families

,hese families of models are by no means antithetical or mutually e3clusive, although each represents a distinctive approach to teaching. -hereas debates about educational method seem to imply that schools and teachers should choose one approach or another or no approach at all, students need growth in all areas. 5or e3ample, to tend the personal but not the social, or the informational but not the personal, does not make sense in the life of a growing student.

-sing the Teaching Repertoire: , Firm .et #elicate /and

*n studying the four families, we try to build a mental picture of what each model is designed to accomplish and whether, under certain conditions, one is likely to have a larger effect than another. As we consider when and how to use various combinations of models and, therefore, which learning strategies will get priority for particular units, lessons, and groups of students, we consider the types and pace of learning that are likely to be promoted. ,o estimate a model's productivity, we draw on the research to help determine the types and e3tent of each model's effects. Sometimes, decision making is relatively easy because one model stands out as though crafted for a given purpose. 5or e3ample, the !urisprudential in4uiry model teaches students how to analy<e public issues. ,herefore, it is most appropriate at the high school level and inappropriate with young children"young children don't study comple3 national and international political and economic issues either. A high school course that includes analy<ing public issues as a primary ob!ective can give ma!or attention to the model, which can be used to design all or part of a course. ,he !urisprudential in4uiry model also serves secondary ob!ectives. 5or e3ample, while studying issues, students learn information, concepts, and cooperative skills.

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,he decision is more complicated when several models can achieve the same ob!ective. 5or e3ample, information can be ac4uired through inductive in4uiry or from readings and lectures developed around advance organi<ers. r, the two models can be blended. Although a full discussion of how to coordinate models with ob!ectives when designing curriculums, courses, and activities cannot be thoroughly addressed until the four families are studied, we need to keep in mind as we study each model that it eventually becomes part of a repertoire for designing programs of learning for our students. ;ffective education re4uires combinations of personal, social, and academic learning that can best be achieved by using several appropriate models. Spaulding's .&'7+0 work illustrates the importance of combining models in an educational program to pyramid their effects and achieve multiple ob!ectives. Spaulding developed a program for economically poor, socially disruptive, low6achieving children, which used social learning theory techni4ues based on knowledge from developmental psychology and inductive teaching models. ,he program succeeded in improving students' social skills and cooperative learning behavior, induced students to take more responsibility for their education, substantially increased student learning of basic skills and knowledge, and even improved performances on tests of intelligence. Placement as well as blending of models in a program of study is important. Consider a program to teach students a new language. ne early task is to develop an initial vocabulary. #ecause the link6 word method has been dramatically successful in initial vocabulary ac4uisition, in some cases helping students ac4uire and retain words twice as fast as normal .Pressley, >evin, and Delaney &'D10, it's a good choice for use early in the program. Students need to ac4uire skills in reading, writing, and conversation, which are enhanced by an e3panded vocabulary. ,hen, other models that generate practice and synthesis can be used. ,o make matters even more complicated, we need to acknowledge, thankfully, that students are not identical. -hat helps one person learn a given thing more efficiently may not help another as much. 5ortunately, there are few known cases showing that an educational treatment that helps one student a great deal has serious, damaging effects on another. #ut differences in positive effects can be substantial and need to be taken into account when designing educational environments. ,hus, we pay attention to the 9learning history9 of students: how they have progressed academically and how
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they feel about themselves, their cognitive and personality development, and their social skills and attitudes. Students change as their repertoire of learning strategies increases. And as they become a more powerful learning community, they can accomplish more types of learning more effectively. *ncreasing aptitude to learn is the fundamental purpose of teaching models.

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