8.

04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XV

One-dimensional potentials: potential step

Figure I: Potential step of height V0 . The particle is incident from the left with energy E. We analyze a time independent situation where a current of particles with a welldened energy is incident on the barrier. The time-independent SE is (x) = Eu(x) Hu h 2 d2 u (x) + V (x)u(x) = Eu(x) 2m dx2 d2 u 2m = 2 [E V (x)]u(x) 2 dx h
2 k2 h 2m

(15-1) (15-2) (15-3)

Qualitative features of solutions for regions of constant V1 : If E V1 > 0, the solutions are of the form eik1 x with
2 2

= E V1 , k1 real.

k Interpretation. h is the KE of the particle with total energy E in a region of 2m ikx potential V1 , the e wavefunctions correspond to particles traveling left / right.

Figure II: In a region where the particle energy is greater than the (constant) potential, the solutions of the SE are plane waves eikx , where E V1 = h 2 k 2 /2m is the kinetic energy of the particle in that region.
h 1 If E V1 < 0, the solutions are of the form e1 x with = V1 E , 1 2m real. These are damped exponentials with a decay length constant 1 (decay length h2 1 2 1 1 ), where = V1 E represents the missing kinetic energy of the particle 2m As E V , the decay length 1 1 becomes longer and longer.
2 2

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8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XV

Figure III: In a region where the particle energy is less than the (constant) potential, the solutions of the SE are exponentially growing or decaying functions, ex , where V1 E = h 2 2 /2m is the missing kinetic energy of the particle in that region.

Figure IV: When a light wave experiences total internal reection on a glass-vacuum interface, an evanescent (non-traveling, exponentially decaying wave) builds up inside the vacuum. The closer we are to the critical angle for total internal reection, the longer the decay length of the evanescent wave. This phenomenon is analogous to a particle entering a classically forbidden region with V1 > E . The less forbidden the region, the longer the decay length.

Note. There is a non-zero probability to nd the particle with energy E in a classically forbidden region with E < V1 . The less the region is forbidden (the smaller V1 E ), the further the particle penetrates into the forbidden region (the longer the decay length 1 1 ). The phenomenon is similar to total internal reection inside glass at a glass-vacuum interface. The light eld has non-zero amplitude in the forbidden region. How do we know? Approach with a second prism. The evanescent (decaying) eld existing in the vacuum is converted back into a traveling wave in the second prism. Similarly, a particle can tunnel through a potential barrier even if its energy is insucient to surpass it. Back to potential step Assume E > V0 : dene Massachusetts Institute of Technology XV-2

8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XV

Figure V: The light eld tunneling through the forbidden region can be detected as it emerges on the other side in a second prism.

Figure VI: As a particle tunnels through a barrier and emerges from the other side, the energy E and the Broglie wavelength 2/k remain the same. The amplitude of the emerging wave is smaller than that of the incident wave.

Figure VII: Potential step h 2k2 =E 2m h 2q2 = E V0 2m Massachusetts Institute of Technology (KE in region x < 0) (KE in region x > 0) (15-4) (15-5) XV-3

8.04 Quantum Physics The most general solution is Aeikx + Beikx Ce

Lecture XV

in the region x < 0 in the region x > 0

(15-6) (15-7)

+ De

iqx

If we choose as the initial condition a particle incident from the left (A = 0), then 0), or, as we shall see, partially the particle can be transmitted to the RHS (C = 0). However, if no particle is incident reected by the barrier in spite of E > V0 (B = from the right then D = 0.

Calculate the particle current (or ux)

(15-8) (15-9) (15-10) (15-11)

We dene the reection amplitude r = B 2 . A For x > 0:

and the reection coecient as R = |r|2 =

j> = Continuity of wavefunction at x = 0:

q 2 h |C | m

(15-12)

(x 0) = A + B = (x 0) = C

(15-13)

In spite of the potential step, the derivative of the wavefunction must also be continuous: du du d du = dx (15-14) dx x= dx x= dx dx 2m = 2 dx[E V (x)]u(x) = 0 (15-15) h For future applications, we note that if the potential contains a delta function term (x a), with some magnitude of the delta function , then the same calculation Massachusetts Institute of Technology XV-4

8.04 Quantum Physics gives du dx

Lecture XV

du dx

x==a

2m a+ = 2 dx (x a)u() h a 2m = 2 u(a) h

(15-16) (15-17)

To summarize, we have the following rules: Rule 1. The wavefunction u(x) is always continuous Rule 2. The rst spatial derivative of the wavefunction du is continuous if the podx tential does not contain -function like terms. (It may contain potential steps). Rule 2.1. if the potential contains a term (x a), the the rst derivative du is dx discontinuous at x = a amnd satises the relation du du 2m = 2 u(a) (15-18) dx x=a+ dx x=a h

Figure VIII: A discontinuity in the slope of the wavefunction occurs at a delta function potential. The dierence in wavefunction slopes is proportional to the strength of the potential, and to the value of the wavefunction at the cusp.

Continuity of : Continuity of : Massachusetts Institute of Technology

A+B =C ik (A B ) = iqC

(15-19) (15-20) XV-5

8.04 Quantum Physics Solve for B, C in terms of A k C = A + B = (A B ) q k k A 1 = B 1 + q q qk q+k A = B q q kq B= A k+q 2 kq C =A+B =A+ A= A k+q k+q B kq = A k+q C 2k t= = A k+q 2 2 B kq 2 |r| = = A k+q 2 2 C = 4k |t|2 = A (k + q )2 2 hk hk kq 2 |B | = |A|2 j = m m k+q hq hk 4kq 2 2 j,x>0 = |C |2 = |A| m m (k + q )2 4kq hk hk j< = (|A|2 |B |2 ) = |A|2 m m (k + q )2 4kq hq hk j> = |C |2 = |A|2 2 m m (k + q ) r=

Lecture XV

(15-21) (15-22) (15-23) (15-24) (15-25)

Reection amplitude Transmission amplitude Reection coecient Transmission coecient Reection current Transmission current Net current for x < 0 Net current for x > 0

(15-26) (15-27) (15-28) (15-29) (15-30) (15-31) (15-32) (15-33)

The current obeys the continuity equation (see problem set) j + | |2 = 0 x t (15-34)

Here we are considering stationary states, t | |2 = 0 (no change of probability density in time), = j = const, current is continuous across the potential step,

j< = j > , Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(15-35) XV-6

8.04 Quantum Physics or jinc = j,x<0 = h k 2 |A| = jre + jtrans m = j,x<0 + j,x>0 hk hq |B |2 + |C |2 . = m m

Lecture XV

(15-36) (15-37) (15-38)

Note. |r|2 + |t|2 = 1 because the particle velocity is dierent for x > 0 from that for x < 0.

Discussion of results
In contrast to classical mechanics, there is some reection at the potential step even though the energy of the particle is sucient to surpass it. This is familiar from optics, where a step-like change in the index of refraction (e.g., air-glass interface) leads to partial reection. The particle reection is a consequence of the matching of the wavefunction and its derivative at the boundary. Again, this is similar to optics where the matching of th electromagnetic elds at the boundary results in a reected eld. Note. For a very smooth change of potential (or refractive index in optics) there is not reection. What is smooth? A change over many wavelengths. Changes of the potential over a distance l short compared to a wavelength = 2k result in reection. Slow changes of potential over many do not result in reection if particle energy exceeds barrier height.

Figure IX: A potential that varies smoothly over many de Broglie wavelengths does not produce partial reection if the particle energy is sucient to surpass it.

Intermediate region l : we expect resonance phenomena (non-monotonic changes of reection probability with particle energy). For the potential step, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology XV-7

8.04 Quantum Physics reection probability |r|2 0 |r|2 1 for k q for q 0 (E V1 ), and (E V1 ), as expected.

Lecture XV

(15-39) (15-40) (15-41)

Interestingly, the reection probability can be written as 2 E E V 1 |r|2 = E + E V1

(15-42)

i.e. it does not depend explicitly on h . However, the reection is still inherenetly nonclassical in that the potential needs to change abruptly compared to the particles de Broglie wavelength, that depends on h . Solution for E < V0 : We dene h 2k2 =E 2m h 2 2 = V0 E 2m Most general solution Aeikx + Beikx Cex + Dex for x < 0 for x > 0 (15-45) (15-46) (KE for x < 0) (missing KE to surpass barrier) (15-43) (15-44)

The e+x term is not normalizable, D = 0 We can go through the same procedure as before using the continuity of 1 at x = 0, or use the previous calculation if we set q i (Ceiqx Cex then). Consequently, 2 B k i 2 k 2 + 2 2 = |r| = = =1 (15-47) A k + iq k 2 + 2 2 C 2k 2 4k 2 + 2 2 = |t| = = = (15-48) 0 A k + i k 2 + 2 (15-49) A part of the wave penetrates the barrier, which is why the transmission amplitude does not vanish. Note, however, that there is no associated particle current: Since Cekx does not have a spatially varying phase, the particle current h c.c. j= (15-50) 2im x Massachusetts Institute of Technology XV-8

8.04 Quantum Physics vanishes for x > 0, j< = h k (|A|2 |B |2 ) = 0 m j> = 0

Lecture XV

(15-51) (15-52)

The net current is zer0 in steady-state because all particles are reected. Note. The reected wave has an energy-dependent phase shift r= B k i = A k + i (k i)2 = 2 k + 2 k 2 2 2ik = k 2 + 2 i =e (15-53) (15-54) (15-55) (15-56)

2k with tan = k2 2

The phase shift of the wave is important in 3D scattering problems.

Can we localize the particle in the forbidden region?

Figure X: The wavefunction for E < V0 protrudes into the forbidden region x > 0. Can the particle be observed there? To be sure that we have measured the particle inside the barrier, and not outside, we must measure its position at least with accuracy x 1 . Then according to h Heisenberg uncertainty, a momentum kick exceeding p h will be transx ferred onto the particle. Massachusetts Institute of Technology XV-9

8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XV

How much energy do we transfer?

E = E (p + p) E (p) (p + p)2 p2 = 2m 2m pp (p)2 = + m 2m p=h k

(15-57) (15-58) (15-59) (15-60)

pp can be positive or negative, (p)2 is always positive. the transferred energy is on average (p)2 h 2 h 2 2 E = = = = V0 E (15-61) 2m 2m(x)2 2m According to Heisenberg uncertainty, the measurement that localizes the particle inside the barrier transfers enough energy to allow the particle to be legitimately there. Rule. A positive KE E V1 > 0 corresponds to a spatially oscillating wavefunction eikx with rate constant k (oscillation period = 2k ). A negative (missing) KE E V1 < 0 corresponds to a spatially decaying or growing wavefunction e x with decay rate constant (decay length 1 ). The missing KE is associated with the size of the region (1 ) that the particle occupies in the classically forbidden space.

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