Basic Outlining

An outline presents a picture of the main ideas and the subsidiary ideas of any subject. Some typical uses of outlining are: a class reading assignment, an essay, a term paper, a book review or a speech. For any of these, an outline will show a basic overview and important details. Some professors will require an outline in sentence form, or require the main points to be in chronological order, or have other specific requirements. A students first responsibility, of course, is to follow the requirements of the particular assignment. What follows illustrates only the basics of outlining. The library presents it as a quick reminder because students often ask about outlining, and the information is not easy to find quickly in various reference books.

BASIC OUTLINE FORM Below is a synopsis of the outline form. The main ideas take roman numerals. Sub-points under each main idea take capital letters and are indented. Sub-points under the capital letters, if any, take italic numbers and are further indented. I. MAIN IDEA A. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I B. Subsidiary idea or supporting idea to I 1. Subsidiary idea to B 2. Subsidiary idea to B a) Subsidiary idea to 2 b) Subsidiary idea to 2 II. MAIN IDEA A. Subsidiary or supporting idea to II B. Subsidiary idea to II C. Subsidiary idea to II III. MAIN IDEA It is up to the writer to decide on how many main ideas and supporting ideas adequately describe the subject. However, if there is a I in the outline, there has to be a II; if there is an A, there has to be a B; if there is a 1, there has to be a 2, and so forth.

OUTLINING EXAMPLE Suppose you are outlining a speech on AIDS, and these are some of the ideas you feel should be included: AZT, Transmittal, AIDS babies, Teenagers, Safe sex, Epidemic numbers, Research. To put these ideas into outline form, decide first on the main encompassing ideas. These might be: I. Transmittal, II. Societal Consequences, III. Research.

Next, decide where the rest of the important ideas fit in. Are they part of AIDS transmittal or AIDS societal consequences or AIDS research solutions? The complete outline might look like this: Major Aspects of Aids I. Transmittal of AIDS A. Transfusions B. Body fluids 1. Sexual 2. Non-sexual II. Societal Consequences of AIDS A. Epidemic disease pattern 1. Teenagers 2. Women 3. Homosexuals B. AIDS babies C. Increased homophobia D. Overburdened health care III. Research Solutions to AIDS A. AZT B. HIV virus C. Other viruses It is only possible to make an outline if you have familiarity with the subject. Not only in the initial outline, but during the course of the research, the writer may find it necessary to add, subtract or change the position of various ideas. This is acceptable as long as the logical relationship among ideas is preserved.

The Golden Rules for a Good Plot Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email Share on print More Sharing Services 31 Follow these rules to ensure you have a good plot In a computer generated graphic of a golden man sitting on a bench, the man is holding an oversized pencil in the upright position, writing a good plot. Writing a novel can be a daunting task. Here are some helpful tips to ensure you write a good plot. Download Free Tip Sheet Is it your dream to become a best-selling author? Have you spent countless afternoons daydreaming about selling a million copies? If so, you probably have the motivation it takes to write a great novel. However, every great novel has a good plot, full of suspense and endless ups and downs. If you want to hit the big time with your novel, you will need to focus on your plot structure. While we can't provide a formula for a guaranteed best-seller, we can offer a few basic plot rules that can ease your journey down that road toward a good plot. Plot Rule 1: Create a plot skeleton A plot outline will help you choose a complication and the steps to resolve it. This is the plot. Your character must want or need something and be prevented from getting it. This is the complication. How do they get it? This is the story. Once your character figures out how to get what they want, well, theres your plot. Remember, outlining your plot in advance wont limit your creativity, but rather ensures a good plotone that doesnt stray too far off topic. Plot Rule 2: Flesh out your plot Fleshing out your plot with colorful characters and a vivid setting will enhance your novel and grab your readers attention. Be sure to spend time on the little details and stay focused; nothing is worse than a good plot idea that grows ever more chaotic as the novel progresses. Stories are about change; each scene should have a turning point, with the character moving from one value to another. Does the character start out sad? They should end up angry, or happy, or downright ebullient. Each scene should push the story toward a final turning point: the resolution. Plot Rule 3: Bring your plot to a powerful resolution Have you used each scene and story event to guide readers to a plot resolution? Now dont let them down. This is your final turning point; how has your character changed from the beginning of the story? Readers dont want to spend an entire day, or even a week, reading a novel just to have the ending fall flat. Be sure to tie up loose ends. Even if youre writing a book series with an overarching plot, you still have to end the mini-plots within each book. Plot Rule 4: End your story at a natural stopping place After the climax, wrap up the story as quickly as possible. Don't be tempted to drag it out; your readers wont like it and your plot and characters will suffer. Remember, the end of the story will be the freshest thing in readers minds once they put the book down.

Plot Rule 5: Make sure your characters resolve conflicts on their own Don't rely on an act of nature or an unknown hero to clean things up at the last minute. Your audience wants to see your characters solve their own problems. Your readers have grown attached to your characters; a good plot will show how these characters have been transformed by the obstacles theyve faced. A final note on creating a good plot Creating a good plot isn't as easy as it sounds. It's like telling a cat that racing through the mud, leaping over a fence, pulling off a three-quarter corkscrew, and catching the Frisbee in mid-flightall to a racy samba tunewill finally gain this feline the respect of the dogs in the park. While this accomplishment will likely set some tails wagging, it will take a long time, and many sessions of trial and error, for the cat to learn such a feat. The same is true when crafting a good plot. Your first attempt might not be perfect; it will take time and practice to come up with a great storylineand once you've got it, you still have the hurdles of character and setting to overcome. Add a unique writing style to the mix, and you just might have a great novel. However, if you have a good, solid structure for your plot, you can put it in the hands of characters in any setting and it wont let you down. Remember, our editors are always available to provide a manuscript critique, paying attention to plot structure, story progression, prose style, and grammar.

Gerunds and Infinitives: Their Noun Roles # Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which means they can do just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than people or objects. Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives (and one additional non-noun use, the adjective complement, that we throw in here, free of charge). 1 Gerunds and infintives can both function as the subject of a sentence: Playing basketball takes up too much of her time. To play basketball for UConn is her favorite fantasy. 2 It is not impossible for an infinitive to appear at the beginning of a sentence as the subject (as in Ib), but it is more common for an infinitive to appear as a Subject Complement: Her favorite fantasy is to play basketball for UConn. The gerund can also play this role: Her favorite fantasy is playing basketball for UConn. 3 Both of these verbal forms can further identify a noun when they play the role of Noun Complement and Appositive: Her desire to play basketball for UConn became an obsession. I could never understand her desire to play basketball for UConn. Her one burning desire in life, playing basketball for UConn, seemed a goal within reach. The infinitive is often a complement used to help define an abstract noun. Here is a very partial list of abstract nouns, enough to suggest their nature. Try following these adjectives with an infinitive phrase (their desire to play in the championship game, a motivation to pass all their courses, her permission to stay up late, a gentle reminder to do your work) to see how the phrase modifies and focuses the noun.

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition. Gerund as subject: Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.) The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as direct object:

They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.) They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed) Gerund as subject complement: My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.) My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition: The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.) The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.) A gerund phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as: The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents. jabbering away to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. Points to remember: A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words: Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases: Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Do not mix forms.

Example 1 Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Example 2 Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner. Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

Example 3 Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low. Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism. Example 1 Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. or

Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eattoo much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Example 2 Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting,that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, andthat questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive) Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting,that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, andthat prospective buyers would ask him questions.

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form. Example 1 Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings,pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs. Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings,pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

Proofreading Strategies to Try:

Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel. If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel. Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

Writing Transitions
Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous paragraphs, writers can develop important points for their readers. It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off. (Instances where this is especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph. Example: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits. Another important thing to note is that the corporation had expanded its international influence. Revision: Overall, Management Systems International has logged increased sales in every sector, leading to a significant rise in third-quarter profits. These impressive profits are largely due to the corporation's expanded international influence. Example: Fearing for the loss of Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War. But then something else significant happened. The Swedish intervention began. Revision: Fearing for the loss of more Danish lands, Christian IV signed the Treaty of Lubeck, effectively ending the Danish phase of the 30 Years War. Shortly after Danish forces withdrew, the Swedish intervention began. Example: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the bestseller list. There are other things to note about Tan as well. Amy Tan also participates in the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders with Stephen King and Dave Barry.

Revision: Amy Tan became a famous author after her novel, The Joy Luck Club, skyrocketed up the bestseller list. Though her fiction is well known, her work with the satirical garage band the Rock Bottom Remainders receives far less publicity.

Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept. Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.

"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier. The following sentence has an incorrect usage: Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.

Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.

Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this: Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late). 2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:

Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this: Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling." 3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.

Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:

INCORRECT: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing. REVISED: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing. INCORRECT: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax. REVISED: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home. INCORRECT: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully. REVISED: They failed the experiment, not having stu

Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms)

Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a particle), and these two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from verbs with helpers. The particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways:

drop off - decline gradually The hill dropped off near the river

drop off(2) - fall asleep While doing his homework, he dropped off.

drop off(3) - stop and give something to someone Would you drop this off at the post office?

drop out - cease to participate After two laps, the runner dropped out.

Some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun or pronoun can be inserted, and some particles can't be separated from the verb. In addition, some phrases are intransitive, meaning they cannot take a direct object.

Separable add up (meaning: to add) Correct: She added up the total on her calculator. Correct: She added it up on her calculator.

Inseparable get around (meaning: to evade) Correct: She always gets around the rules. Incorrect: She always gets the rules around (This construction makes no sense in English.)

Intransitive catch on (meaning: to understand) Correct: After I explained the math problem, she began to catch on. Incorrect: She began to catch on the math problem. (catch on cannot take a direct object in this meaning.) Correct: She began to catch on to the math problem. (the word to makes the math problem an indirect object, which is acceptable in this meaning.)

Unfortunately, there is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is separable, inseparable, or intransitive. In most cases the phrases must simply be memorized. Below is a partial list of each kind of phrase.

Parts of Speech
Nouns
A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what. Example: The dog ran after the ball.

In the sentence above, there are two nouns, dog and ball. A noun may be concrete (something you can touch, see, etc.), like the nouns in the example above, or a noun may be abstract, as in the sentences below. Example 1: She possesses integrity. Example 2: He was searching for love.

The abstract concepts of integrity and love in the sentences above are both nouns. Nouns may also be proper. Example 1: She visited Chicago every year. Example 2: Thanksgiving is in November.

Chicago, Thanksgiving, and November are all proper nouns, and they should be capitalized. (For more information on proper nouns and when to capitalize words, see our handout onCapital Letters.) You may also visit our handout on Count and Noncount Nouns. Learn how to spot verbs that act as nouns. Visit our handout on Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence. Example: She decided to go to a movie.

In the sentence above, she is the pronoun. Like nouns, pronouns may be used either as subjects or as objects in a sentence. Example: She planned to ask him for an interview.

In the example above, both she and him are pronouns; she is the subject of the sentence while him is the object. Every subject pronoun has a corresponding object form, as shown in the table below. Subject and Object Pronouns Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns I We You She He It They Me Us You Her Him It Them

For more information on pronouns, go to our handout on Pronouns. To find out what part of speech are that, which, and whom? Visit our handout on Relative Pronouns.

Articles
Articles include a, an, and the. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence. Example 1: They wanted a house with a big porch. Example 2: He bought the blue sweater on sale.

In example 1, the article a precedes the noun house, and a also precedes the noun phrasebig porch, which consists of an adjective (big) and the noun it describes (porch). In example 2, the article the precedes the noun phrase blue sweater, in which sweater is the noun andblue the adjective. For more information, go to our handouts on Articles: A vs. An and How to Use Articles (a/an/the).

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns, or they may appear after a form of the reflexive verb to be (am, are, is, was, etc.). Example 1: We live in the red brick house. Example 2: She is tall for her age.

In example 1, two consecutive adjectives, red and brick, both describe the noun house. In example 2, the adjective tall appears after the reflexive verb is and describes the subject,she. For more on adjectives, go to our handouts Adjective or Adverb and How to Use Adjectives and Adverbs.

Verbs
A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of being, in a sentence. Example 1: Beth rides the bus every day. Example 2: Paul was an avid reader.

In example 1, rides is the verb; it describes what the subject, Beth, does. In example 2,was describes Pauls state of being and is therefore the verb. There may be multiple verbs in a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a helping verb.

Example 1: She turned the key and opened the door. Example 2: Jackson was studying when I saw him last.

In example 1, the subject she performs two actions in the sentence, turned and opened. In example 2, the verb phrase is was studying. Some words in a sentence may look like verbs but act as something else, like a noun; these are called verbals. For more information on verbs that masquerade as other parts of speech, go to our handout on Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and Infinitives. To learn more about conjugating verbs, visit our handouts on Verb Tenses, Irregular Verbs, and TwoPart (Phrasal) Verbs (Idioms).

Adverbs
Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives. (Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.) Example 1: He waved wildly to get her attention. Example 2: The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright.

In the first example, the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved. In the second example, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective bright, which describes the noun shirt. While nouns answer the questions who and what, adverbs answer the questions how, when,why, and where. For a more detailed discussion of adverbs, visit our handout Adjective or Adverb and become an expert.

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together. Example 1: Ellen wanted to take a drive into the city, but the cost of gasoline was too high. Example 2: Richard planned to study abroad in Japan, so he decided to learn the language.

In the examples above, both but and so are conjunctions. They join two complete sentences with the help of a comma. And, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet can all act as conjunctions.

Prepositions

Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional meaning. Example 1: Ivy climbed up the brick wall of the house.

There are two prepositional phrases in the example above: up the brick wall and of the house. The first prepositional phrase is an adverbial phrase, since it modifies the verb by describing where the ivy climbed. The second phrase further modifies the noun wall (the object of the first prepositional phrase) and describes which wall the ivy climbs. For a more detailed discussion on this part of speech and its functions, click onPrepositions. Below is a list of prepositions in the English language: Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

Pronouns
More Grammar Rules:

Definition:
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, Object, or Possessive.

Rule 1
Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence. Example: ______ did the job. I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2
Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such asis, are, was, were, am, and will be. Examples: It is he. This is she speaking. It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize. NOTE: In spoken English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns. Many English teachers support (or at least have given in to) this distinction between written and spoken English. Example: It could have been them. Better: It could have been they. Example: It is just me at the door. Better: It is just I at the door.

Rule 3
Object pronouns are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. Examples: Jean talked to him. Are you talking to me? To be able to choose pronouns correctly, you must learn to identify clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a verb and subject.

Rule 4a
A strong clause can stand on its own. Examples: She is hungry. I am feeling well today.

Rule 4b
A weak clause begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry... If she is hungry... Since I am feeling well...

Rule 4c
If a sentence contains more than one clause, isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct. Examples:

Weak [Although she is hungry,] [Although this gift is for him,]

Strong [she will give him some of her food.] [I would like you to have it too.]

Rule 5
To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence. Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her. If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say, "Tranh is as smart as she is." Therefore, she is the correct answer. Zoe is taller than I/me. Mentally completing the sentence, we have, "Zoe is taller than I am." Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me. We can mentally complete this sentence in two ways: "Daniel would rather talk to her than to me." OR "Daniel would rather talk to her than I would." As you can see, the meaning will change depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 6
Possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes. Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs NOTE: The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. Examples: It's a cold morning. The thermometer reached its highest reading.

Rule 7
Reflexive pronouns - myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves - should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence. Correct: I worked myself to the bone. Incorrect: My brother and myself did it. The word myself does not refer back to another word. Correct: My brother and I did it. Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself. Correct: Please give it to John or me.

Pronouns Definition Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like They say that eating beef is bad for you. They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Cows? whom do they represent? Sloppy use of pronouns is unfair. Not all pronouns will refer to an antecedent, however. Everyone here earns over a thousand dollars a day. The word "everyone" has no antecedent.

The problem of agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent and between a pronoun and its verb is treated in another section on Pronoun-Antecedent Consistency. The quizzes on pronoun usage are also listed at the end of that section. This section will list and briefly describe the several kinds of pronouns. PRONOUNS KINDS OF PRONOUNS: Personal || Demonstrative || Indefinite || Relative || Reflexive || Intensive || Interrogative || Reciprocal Personal Pronouns Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That's my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns. Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) ("I" for singular, "we" for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to ("you" for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about ("he," "she," and "it" for singular, "they" for plural). The person of a pronoun is also demonstrated in the chart Cases of the Personal Pronouns. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, "I" becomes "me" when used as an object ("She left me") and "my" when used in its possessive role (That's my car"); "they" becomes "them" in object form ("I like them") and "their" in possessive ("That's just their way"). When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, its case does not change. We would write "I am taking a course in Asian history"; if Talitha is also taking that course, we would write "Talitha and I are taking a course in Asian history." (Notice that Talitha gets listed before "I" does. This is one of the few ways in which English is a "polite" language.) The same is true when the object form is called for: "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to me"; if Talitha also received some books, we'd write "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to Talitha and me." For more on this, see cases of pronouns. If one is interested in the uses of one as a numerical and impersonal pronoun, one should click the enter button. ENTER When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there. We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch. The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation. With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you": "You students are demanding too much." "We expect you students to behave like adults."

Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs. Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful. This new car is mine. Mine is newer than yours. Demonstrative Pronouns The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners. As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns. That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw) I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience) Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made) As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners: These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious. Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better. This [book in my hand] is well written; that [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash. A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns: You're going to wear these? This is the best you can do? Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence. When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons. This is my father. That is my book. In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write "Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill" (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what "those" refers to). But we would not write "The principal suspended those for two days"; instead, we would have to use "those" as a determiner and write "The principal suspended those students for two days." Relative Pronouns The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion's article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use "which" to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be

removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a "which clause" is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. "That clauses," on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section. The expanded form of the relative pronouns whoever, whomever, whatever are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite": The coach will select whomever he pleases. He seemed to say whatever came to mind. Whoever crosses this line first will win the race. What is often an indefinite relative pronoun: She will tell you what you need to know. Indefinite Pronouns The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/none/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if any is left.) One of the chief difficulties we have with the indefinite pronouns lies in the fact that "everybody" feels as though it refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. (Everybody is accounted for.) If you think of this word as meaning "every single body," the confusion usually disappears. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural (meaning "not any") except when something else in the sentence makes us regard it as a singular (meaning "not one"), as in "None of the food is fresh." Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or noncountable. Refer to the section on Pronoun Consistency for help on determining the number of the indefinite pronouns (and the number [singular/plural] of the verbs that accompany them). There is a separate section on the uses of the pronoun one. There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners: enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some Few will be chosen; fewer will finish. Little is expected. See the section on Pronoun Consistency for help in determining the number (singular/plural) characteristics of these pronouns. Intensive Pronouns The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don't know the answer.) It is possible (but

rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don't believe a word he says.) Reflexive Pronouns The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can "reflect." In other words, the sentence "Please hand that book to myself" would be incorrect because there is no "I" in that sentence for the "myself" to reflect to (and we would use "me" instead of "myself"). A sentence such as "I gave that book to myself for Christmas" might be silly, but it would be correct. Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. "Myself" tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol' me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn't belong. Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision. These decisions will be made by myself me. If you have any questions, please contact myself me or Bob Jones. When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle. or, when there is no first person, the second person: You and Carlos have deceived yourselves. The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form ("One must have faith in oneself."), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction. No one here can blame himself or herself. The people here cannot blame themselves. Interrogative Pronouns The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we're taking a quiz and I ask "Which questions give you the most trouble?", I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask "What questions give you most trouble"? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble. The interrogative pronouns also act as Determiners: It doesn't matter which beer you buy. He doesn't know whose car he hit. In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives. Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:

We know who is guilty of this crime. I already told the detective what I know about it. Reciprocal Pronouns The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other). My mother and I give each other a hard time. If more than two people are involved (let's say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It's quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making "each other" just as appropriate as "one another." Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms: They borrowed each other's ideas. The scientists in this lab often use one another's equipment.

Using Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something Plural: both, few, many, others, several Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs or singular personal pronouns. Correct: Each of the members has one vote. (The subject, each, is singular. Use has.) Incorrect: One of the girls gave up their seat. Correct: One of the girls gave up her seat. (Her refers to one, which is singular.) Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs or plural personal pronouns. Correct: A few of the justices were voicing their opposition. (Few is plural, so are were and their.) For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to. Correct: All of the people clapped their hands. (All refers to people, which is plural.)

Correct: All of the newspaper was soaked. (Here all refers to newspaper, which is singular.) A Gender-Sensitive Case

The pronouns ending with -body or -one such as anybody, somebody, no one, or anyone are singular. So are pronouns like each and every. Words like all or some may be singular. That means that a possessive pronoun referring to these singular words must also be singular. In standard written English the possessive pronoun his is used to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun unless the group referred to is known to be all female. Incorrect: Is everyone happy with their gift? Correct: Is everyone happy with his gift? (Is and everyone are singular. The possessive pronoun must be singular, too) Most languages, including English, observe the standard of using the masculine pronoun in situations like this. However, in some circles today the idea of choosing the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. If this usage bothers you, or if you think it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to work around this and still use standard English. 1. Use the phrase his or her. It is a little awkward, but OK. Correct: Is everyone happy with his or her gift? 2. Rewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. Plural personal pronouns in English no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine. Correct: Are all the people happy with their gifts?

Indefinite Pronouns Sentence Agreement Introduction Collective Nouns Indefinite Pronouns Walk This Way Agree to Disagree Indefinite pronouns, like collective nouns, can be singular or plural, depending on how they are used in a sentence. Singular indefinite pronouns take a singular verb; plural indefinite pronouns take a plural verb. Here are some guidelines to follow: Indefinite pronouns that end in -one are always singular. These words include anyone, everyone, someone, and one. Indefinite pronouns that end in -body are always singular. These words include anybody, somebody, nobody. The indefinite pronouns both, few, many, others, and several are always plural.

You Could Look It Up Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, objects, or things without pointing to a specific one. See Parts of Speech for a complete description of indefinite pronouns. The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some can be singular or plural, depending on how they are used. Flag this chart for ready reference. Indefinite Pronouns Singular another anyone each everyone everybody everything much nobody nothing other someone anybody anything either little neither no one one somebody something

Plural both few many others several

Singular or Plural all any more most none some

Danger, Will Robinson The indefinite pronoun many a is always singular, as in Many a person is sick and tired of eating sauted antelope on melba toast. Check out these examples: One of the Elvis impersonators is missing. The singular subject one requires the singular verb is. Both of the Elvis impersonators are missing, thank goodness. Danger, Will Robinson British English follows the same rules of agreement, but there are subtle differences in usage. For example, our neighbors across the pond consider the words company and government plural rather than singular nouns. The plural subject both requires the plural verb are. All the sauted rattlesnake was devoured. The singular subject all requires the singular verb was. All the seats were occupied.

The plural subject all requires the plural verb were. The Pause That Refreshes Circle the correct verb in each sentence. Economics (depends/depend) heavily on mathematics. The light at the end of the tunnel (are/is) the headlight of an approaching train. News of a layoff (causes/cause) many people to get worried. Millions of Americans watched the high-speed chase and most (was/were) mesmerized by the event. Some people believe that TV rots your brain; others, in contrast, (believes/believe) that TV can teach us important social lessons. Both of those cities (were/was) on my vacation route. The commuters wait at the bus stop. A few (sleep/sleeps) standing up. One of our satellites (is/are) lost in space. The supply of beta-endorphins in the brain (is/are) increased during exercise. Too many onions in a stew often (causes/cause) an upset stomach. Answers 1. depends 6. were 2. is 7. sleep 3. causes 8. is 4. were 9.is 5. believe 10.cause

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

I. SUBJECT The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that does, causes, or receives the action of the verb. It has gender, number, and person. II. OBJECT The direct object of a sentence recieves the action of the verb. A. DIRECT OBJECT - A direct object answers the question who or what of the verb. It must come directly after the verb. (i.e. I guarded a Sefer Torah. Sefer Torah is the direct object.) B. INDIRECT OBJECT - An indirect object feceives the action of the verb indirectly. (ex Shimon gave the book to me. To me is the indirect object.) C. OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION - A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a noun or pronoun, with or without adjectives. The noun or pronoun is the object of the preposition. (ex. Moshe placed the book on the table. Shimon learned in Yeshiva. Table and Yeshiva are objects of the preposition.) III. PREDICATE The predicate is the portion of the sentence containing the verb. A predicate says something about the subject of the sentence

Subject and Predicate Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces ({}), while the subject is highlighted. Judy {runs}. Judy and her dog {run on the beach every morning}. To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject. The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn. The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn." Unusual Sentences Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed. Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.") Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow. There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning. If you ask who? or what? before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject. Simple Subject and Simple Predicate Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example: A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger. The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject. Likewise, a predicate has at its center a simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence. A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples: Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.

Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there. The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").

A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in distinctive ways. Though there are hundreds of figures of speech (many of them included in our Tool Kit for Rhetorical Analysis), here we'll focus on just 20 of the most common figures. You will probably remember many of these terms from your English classes. Figurative language is often associated with literature--and with poetry in particular. But the fact is, whether we're conscious of it or not, we use figures of speech every day in our own writing and conversations. For example, common expressions such as "falling in love," "racking our brains," "hitting a sales target," and "climbing the ladder of success" are all metaphors--the most pervasive figure of all. Likewise, we rely on similes when making explicit comparisons ("light as a feather") and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!"). Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh, unexpected ways. Figures can help our readers understand and stay interested in what we have to say. For advice on creating figures of speech, see Using Similes and Metaphors to Enrich Our Writing. The Top 20 Figures Alliteration The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

Anaphora The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses. (Contrast with epiphora and epistrophe.)

Antithesis The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.

Apostrophe Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character.

Assonance Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.

Chiasmus

A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed.

Euphemism The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.

Hyperbole An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.

Irony The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. A statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

Litotes A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite.

Metaphor An implied comparison between two unlike things that actually have something important in common.

Metonymy A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it.

Onomatopoeia The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.

Oxymoron A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.

Paradox A statement that appears to contradict itself.

Personification A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities.

Pun A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.

Simile A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common.

Synecdoche A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966").

Understatement A figure of speech in which a writer or a speaker deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is.

The formal theme refers to a formal written composition either in narrative form, expository form or descriptive form depending upon the type of an essay that a teacher wants for his students. It is broad in scope as to the application of write up that concerns the life of anyone or the things that surround him. This theme focuses on formal written aspect that entails using the first person, second person or third person. The words, phrases, or sentences are formal with emphasis on correct usage and grammar. On the other hand, informal theme concerns only the different reinforcements, tasks, exercises or activities that are being copied or written by anyone, especially the students from the textbook. It entails instructions and answers at the same time.