The Security Problem

Security must consider external environment of the system, and protect the

system resources
Intruders (crackers) attempt to breach security

Chapter 15: Security

Threat is potential security violation Attack is attempt to breach security Attack can be accidental or malicious Easier to protect against accidental than malicious misuse

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Chapter 15: Security

The Security Problem Program Threats System and Network Threats Cryptography as a Security Tool User Authentication Implementing Security Defenses Firewalling to Protect Systems and Networks Computer-Security Classifications An Example: Windows XP Categories

Security Violations
Breach of confidentiality Breach of integrity Breach of availability Theft of service Denial of service Masquerading (breach authentication) Replay attack
Message

Methods

modification

Man-in-the-middle attack Session hijacking

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Objectives
To discuss security threats and attacks To explain the fundamentals of encryption, authentication, and hashing To examine the uses of cryptography in computing To describe the various countermeasures to security attacks

Standard Security Attacks

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Security Measure Levels

Security must occur at four levels to be effective:

Layout of Typical Stack Frame

Physical Human
Avoid

social engineering, phishing, dumpster diving

Operating System Network

Security is as week as the weakest chain

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Program Threats

Modified Shell Code

#include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { execvp(\bin\sh,\bin \sh, NULL); return 0; }

Trojan Horse

Code segment that misuses its environment Exploits mechanisms for allowing programs written by users to be executed by other users Spyware, pop-up browser windows, covert channels Specific user identifier or password that circumvents normal security procedures Could be included in a compiler Program that initiates a security incident under certain circumstances Exploits a bug in a program (overflow either the stack or memory buffers)

Trap Door

Logic Bomb

Stack and Buffer Overflow

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C Program with Buffer-overflow Condition

#include <stdio.h> #define BUFFER SIZE 256 int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { char buffer[BUFFER SIZE]; if (argc < 2) return -1; else { strcpy(buffer,argv[1]); return 0; } }

Hypothetical Stack Frame

Before attack
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Program Threats (Cont.)

Viruses

System and Network Threats

Worms use spawn mechanism; standalone program Internet worm

Code fragment embedded in legitimate program Very specific to CPU architecture, operating system, applications Usually borne via email or as a macro
Visual

Exploited UNIX networking features (remote access) and bugs in finger and sendmail programs Grappling hook program uploaded main worm program Automated attempt to connect to a range of ports on one or a range of IP addresses Overload the targeted computer preventing it from doing any useful work Distributed denial-of-service (DDOS) come from multiple sites at once

Basic Macro to reformat hard drive

Sub AutoOpen() Dim oFS Set oFS = CreateObject(Scripting.FileSystemObject) vs = Shell(c:command.com /k format End Sub c:,vbHide)

Port scanning

Denial of Service

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Program Threats (Cont.)

Virus dropper inserts virus onto the system Many categories of viruses, literally many thousands of viruses

The Morris Internet Worm

File Boot Macro Source code Polymorphic Encrypted Stealth Tunneling Multipartite Armored

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A Boot-sector Computer Virus

Cryptography as a Security Tool

Broadest security tool available

Source and destination of messages cannot be trusted without cryptography Means to constrain potential senders (sources) and / or receivers (destinations) of messages

Based on secrets (keys)

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Secure Communication over Insecure Medium

Asymmetric Encryption
Public-key encryption based on each user having two keys:

public key published key used to encrypt data private key key known only to individual user used to decrypt data

Must be an encryption scheme that can be made public without making it

easy to figure out the decryption scheme

Most common is RSA block cipher Efficient algorithm for testing whether or not a number is prime No efficient algorithm is know for finding the prime factors of a number

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Encryption

Asymmetric Encryption (Cont.)

Formally, it is computationally infeasible to derive D(kd , N) from E(ke

Encryption algorithm consists of

Set of K keys Set of M Messages Set of C ciphertexts (encrypted messages) A function E : K (MC). That is, for each k K, E(k) is a function for generating ciphertexts from messages.

, N), and so E(ke , N) need not be kept secret and can be widely disseminated

E(ke , N) (or just ke) is the public key D(kd , N) (or just kd) is the private key N is the product of two large, randomly chosen prime numbers p and q (for example, p and q are 512 bits each) Encryption algorithm is E(ke , N)(m) = mke mod N, where ke satisfies kekd mod (p1)(q 1) = 1 The decryption algorithm is then D(kd , N)(c) = ckd mod N

Both E and E(k) for any k should be efficiently computable functions.

A function D : K (C M). That is, for each k K, D(k) is a function for generating messages from ciphertexts. Both D and D(k) for any k should be efficiently computable functions.

An encryption algorithm must provide this essential property: Given a ciphertext c C, a computer can compute m such that E(k)(m) = c only if it possesses D(k).

Thus, a computer holding D(k) can decrypt ciphertexts to the plaintexts used to produce them, but a computer not holding D(k) cannot decrypt ciphertexts. Since ciphertexts are generally exposed (for example, sent on the network), it is important that it be infeasible to derive D(k) from the ciphertexts

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Symmetric Encryption
Same key used to encrypt and decrypt

Asymmetric Encryption Example

For example. make p = 7and q = 13 We then calculate N = 713 = 91 and (p1)(q1) = 72 We next select ke relatively prime to 72 and< 72, yielding 5 Finally,we calculate kd such that kekd mod 72 = 1, yielding 29 We how have our keys

E(k) can be derived from D(k), and vice versa

DES is most commonly used symmetric block-encryption algorithm (created

by US Govt)

Encrypts a block of data at a time

Triple-DES considered more secure Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), twofish up and coming RC4 is most common symmetric stream cipher, but known to have

Public key, ke, N = 5, 91 Private key, kd , N = 29, 91

vulnerabilities

Encrypting the message 69 with the public key results in the cyphertext 62

Encrypts/decrypts a stream of bytes (i.e wireless transmission) Key is a input to psuedo-random-bit generator
Generates

Cyphertext can be decoded with the private key

Public key can be distributed in cleartext to anyone who wants to communicate with holder of public key

an infinite keystream

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Encryption and Decryption using RSA Asymmetric Cryptography

Authentication (Cont.)
For a message m, a computer can generate an authenticator a A such

that V(k)(m, a) = true only if it possesses S(k)

Thus, computer holding S(k) can generate authenticators on messages so

that any other computer possessing V(k) can verify them

Computer not holding S(k) cannot generate authenticators on messages

that can be verified using V(k)

Since authenticators are generally exposed (for example, they are sent on

the network with the messages themselves), it must not be feasible to derive S(k) from the authenticators

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Cryptography (Cont.)
Note symmetric cryptography based on transformations, asymmetric based

Authentication Hash Functions

Basis of authentication Creates small, fixed-size block of data (message digest, hash value) from

on mathematical functions

Asymmetric much more compute intensive Typically not used for bulk data encryption

m
Hash Function H must be collision resistant on m

Must be infeasible to find an m m such that H(m) = H(m) The message has not been modified

If H(m) = H(m), then m = m

Common message-digest functions include MD5, which produces a 128-bit

hash, and SHA-1, which outputs a 160-bit hash

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Authentication

Authentication - MAC
Symmetric encryption used in message-authentication code (MAC)

Constraining set of potential senders of a message

Complementary and sometimes redundant to encryption Also can prove message unmodified A set K of keys A set M of messages A set A of authenticators A function S : K (M A)

authentication algorithm
Simple example:

Algorithm components

MAC defines S(k)(m) = f (k, H(m))

Where

f is a function that is one-way on its first argument

k cannot be derived from f (k, H(m))

Because

That is, for each k K, S(k) is a function for generating authenticators from messages Both S and S(k) for any k should be efficiently computable functions

of the collision resistance in the hash function, reasonably assured no other message could create the same MAC A suitable verification algorithm is V(k)(m, a) ( f (k,m) = a) that k is needed to compute both S(k) and V(k), so anyone able to compute one can compute the other

Note

A function V : K (M A {true, false}). That is, for each k K, V(k) is a function for verifying authenticators on messages

Both V and V(k) for any k should be efficiently computable functions

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Authentication Digital Signature

Man-in-the-middle Attack on Asymmetric Cryptography

Based on asymmetric keys and digital signature algorithm Authenticators produced are digital signatures In a digital-signature algorithm, computationally infeasible to derive S(ks ) from V(kv)

V is a one-way function Thus, kv is the public key and ks is the private key Similar to the RSA encryption algorithm, but the key use is reversed Digital signature of message S(ks )(m) = H(m)ks mod N The key ks again is a pair d, N, where N is the product of two large, randomly chosen prime numbers p and q Verification algorithm is V(kv)(m, a) (akv mod N = H(m))

Consider the RSA digital-signature algorithm

Where kv satisfies kvks mod (p 1)(q 1) = 1

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Authentication (Cont.)
Why authentication if a subset of encryption?

Digital Certificates
Proof of who or what owns a public key Public key digitally signed a trusted party Trusted party receives proof of identification from entity and certifies that

Fewer computations (except for RSA digital signatures) Authenticator usually shorter than message Sometimes want authentication but not confidentiality
Signed

public key belongs to entity

Certificate authority are trusted party their public keys included with web

patches et al

Can be basis for non-repudiation

browser distributions

They vouch for other authorities via digitally signing their keys, and so on

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Key Distribution
Delivery of symmetric key is huge challenge

Encryption Example - SSL

Insertion of cryptography at one layer of the ISO network model (the

Sometimes done out-of-band Even asymmetric key distribution needs care man-in-the-middle attack

transport layer)

Asymmetric keys can proliferate stored on key ring

SSL Secure Socket Layer (also called TLS) Cryptographic protocol that limits two computers to only exchange

messages with each other

Very complicated, with many variations

Used between web servers and browsers for secure communication (credit

card numbers) server

The server is verified with a certificate assuring client is talking to correct Asymmetric cryptography used to establish a secure session key

(symmetric encryption) for bulk of communication during session cryptography

Communication between each computer theb uses symmetric key

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User Authentication
Crucial to identify user correctly, as protection systems depend on user ID User identity most often established through passwords, can be considered

Network Security Through Domain Separation Via Firewall

a special case of either keys or capabilities

Also can include something user has and /or a user attribute Frequent change of passwords Use of non-guessable passwords Log all invalid access attempts

Passwords must be kept secret

Passwords may also either be encrypted or allowed to be used only once

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Implementing Security Defenses

Defense in depth is most common security theory multiple layers of

Computer Security Classifications

U.S. Department of Defense outlines four divisions of computer security: A,

security Security policy describes what is being secured to security policy

B, C, and D.
D Minimal security. C Provides discretionary protection through auditing. Divided into C1 and

Vulnerability assessment compares real state of system / network compared Intrusion detection endeavors to detect attempted or successful intrusions

C2. C1 identifies cooperating users with the same level of protection. C2 allows user-level access control.
B All the properties of C, however each object may have unique sensitivity

Signature-based detection spots known bad patterns Anomaly detection spots differences from normal behavior
Can

labels. Divided into B1, B2, and B3.

A Uses formal design and verification techniques to ensure security.

detect zero-day attacks

False-positives and false-negatives a problem

Virus protection Auditing, accounting, and logging of all or specific system or network

activities

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Firewalling to Protect Systems and Networks

A network firewall is placed between trusted and untrusted hosts

Example: Windows XP
Security is based on user accounts

The firewall limits network access between these two security domains Can be tunneled or spoofed

Each user has unique security ID Login to ID creates security access token
Includes Every

Tunneling allows disallowed protocol to travel within allowed protocol (i.e. telnet inside of HTTP) Firewall rules typically based on host name or IP address which can be spoofed Can monitor / limit traffic to and from the host

security ID for user, for users groups, and special privileges process gets copy of token checks token to determine if access allowed or denied

Personal firewall is software layer on given host

System

Uses a subject model to ensure access security. A subject tracks and

Application proxy firewall understands application protocol and can

manages permissions for each program that a user runs

Each object in Windows XP has a security attribute defined by a

control them (i.e. SMTP)

System-call firewall monitors all important system calls and apply rules to

them (i.e. this program can execute that system call)

security descriptor

For example, a file has a security descriptor that indicates the access permissions for all users

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End of Chapter 15

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