OPTOMETRIC CLINICAL

PRACTICE GUIDELINE

Care of the
Contact Lens
Patient
 OPTOMETRY:
THE PRIMARY EYE CARE PROFESSION

Doctors of optometry are independent primary health care providers who

examine, diagnose, treat, and manage diseases and disorders of the visual
system, the eye, and associated structures as well as diagnose related
systemic conditions.

Optometrists provide more than two-thirds of the primary eye care

services in the United States. They are more widely distributed
geographically than other eye care providers and are readily accessible
for the delivery of eye and vision care services. There are approximately
32,000 full-time equivalent doctors of optometry currently in practice in
the United States. Optometrists practice in more than 7,000 communities
across the United States, serving as the sole primary eye care provider in
more than 4,300 communities.

The mission of the profession of optometry is to fulfill the vision and eye
care needs of the public through clinical care, research, and education, all
of which enhance the quality of life.
 OPTOMETRIC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE
CARE OF THE CONTACT LENS PATIENT

Reference Guide for Clinicians

Prepared by the American Optometric Association Consensus Panel on

Care of the Contact Lens Patient:

Barry A. Weissman, O.D., Ph.D., Principal Author

Joseph T. Barr, O.D.
Michael G. Harris, O.D., J.D.
Rodger T. Kame, O.D.
Timothy T. McMahon, O.D.
Glenda B. Secor, O.D.

Reviewed by the AOA Clinical Guidelines Coordinating

Committee:

John F. Amos, O.D., M.S., Chair

Thomas L. Lewis, O.D., Ph.D.
Stephen C. Miller, O.D.

Approved by the AOA Board of Trustees April 26, 2000

© American Optometric Association, 2000

243 N. Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63141-7881

Printed in U.S.A
NOTE: Clinicians should not rely on the Clinical Guideline
alone for patient care and management. Refer to the
listed references and other sources for a more
detailed analysis and discussion of research and
patient care information. The information in the
Guideline is current as of the date of publication. It
will be reviewed periodically and revised as needed.
 Contact Lens iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
A. History and Epidemiology of the Use of Contact Lenses
B. General Considerations

II. CARE PROCESS

A. Pre-Fitting Considerations
1. Indications
a. Optical Factors
b. Presbyopia
c. Therapeutic Potential
d. Cosmetic Effect
2. Cautions
a. Ocular Considerations
b. Systemic Considerations
c. Noncompliant Patients
3. Types of Contact Lenses
a. Hydrogel Lenses
b. Rigid Lenses
c. Hybrid and Silicone Lenses
B. Contact Lens Examination and Fitting
1. Fitting Different Types of Contact Lenses
a. Spherical Hydrogel Lenses
b. Toric Hydrogel Lenses
c. Spherical Rigid Lenses
d. Toric Rigid Lenses
2. Determination of Optical Power
3. Special Design Features
a. Lenticular Edge Modification
b. Prism and Truncation
c. Fenestrations
d. Blending
4. Special Concerns
a. Presbyopia
b. Dry Eye
c. Extended Wear
iv Contact Lens

C. Dispensing Lenses and Patient Education

D. Progress Evaluations
E. Management of Complications Associated with Contact Lens
Wear
1. General Considerations
2. Noninfectious Complications
a. Solution Reactions
b. Hypoxia
c. Three O’clock and Nine O’clock Staining
d. Corneal Abrasion
e. Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis
3. Infectious Complications
a. Bacterial Infections
b. Acanthamoeba Infections
c. Fungal Infections
d. Viral Infections

CONCLUSION

III. REFERENCES

IV. APPENDIX
Figure 1: Corneal Stain
Figure 2: Corneal Infiltrates
Figure 3: Conjunctival Injection (Conjunctivitis)
Figure 4: Contact Lens Induced Corneal Hypoxia
Figure 5: "3/9" or Juxtaposition Corneal Stain
Figure 6: Corneal Abrasion
Figure 7: Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis
Abbreviations of Commonly Used Terms
Glossary
 Introduction 1

INTRODUCTION

Optometrists, through their clinical education, training, experience, and

broad geographic distribution, have the means to provide primary eye
and vision care services for a significant portion of the American public
and are often the first health care practitioners to examine and diagnose
patients with conjunctivitis.

This Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline for the Care of the Contact
Lens Patient describes appropriate examination and treatment procedures
for patients wearing contact lenses (CLs). It contains recommendations
for timely diagnosis and treatment, and, when needed, referral for
consultation with or treatment by another health care provider. This
Guideline will assist optometrists in achieving the following goals:

• Identify patients who might benefit from contact lens wear

• Evaluate patients who wear, or who desire to wear, contact lenses
• Maintain and improve the care of patients wearing contact lenses
• Manage complications encountered during contact lens wear
• Inform and educate other health care practitioners as well as the lay
public about contact lens care
• Assist in the professional care of patients wearing contact lenses.
2 Contact Lens

I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A. History and Epidemiology of the Use of Contact Lenses

The most common reason patients seek ophthalmic care is to optimize

visual acuity. Estimates suggest that about 50 percent of the population
utilize some form of refractive correction,1 and the natural history of
presbyopia indicates that virtually everyone, who lives long enough, will
benefit from optical correction.

Contact lenses (CLs) have been used primarily to neutralize refractive

errors for over 100 years, but they have achieved reasonable clinical
success only in the last several decades. The original CLs were almost
exclusively of large scleral or haptic design, and all were made from
glass. Feinbloom made a scleral CL with glass optics and a plastic
carrier in the late 1930s, but the first practical plastic (polymethyl
methacrylate or PMMA) corneal CL was developed by Tuohy in the late
1940s. Hydrogel CLs were invented by Wichterle in Czechoslovakia in
the late 1950s. In the 1970s, after recognition of the role of corneal
oxygenation in achieving physiological tolerance, hydrogel CLs with
enhanced oxygen transmissibility and rigid gas permeable (RGP) CLs
became available. These advances and other improvements in both
materials and designs have resulted in CLs that are applicable for most
forms of refractive error and are both safe and effective for most
patients.2

Of the approximately 30 million Americans -- perhaps 75 million people

worldwide -- who use CLs, the vast majority (about 80 percent) wear
hydrogel CLs. Consumers’ costs for CLs and associated professional
care are incurred in addition to other eye care costs (e.g., comprehensive
eye examinations, spectacles, sunglasses). The solutions used to care for
the eyes and lenses represent additional cost as well.3

B. General Considerations

The majority of complications encountered with daily wear CLs are

manageable by discontinuing their use. Inconvenience, minor
physiological and allergic problems, and interruptions in wear are
 Statement of the Problem 3

commonplace. More severe (i.e., vision-threatening) complications are

less common and include corneal microbial infection4 and extreme forms
of corneal neovascularization (NV),5 which can lead to scarring of the
cornea in the area of the visual axis. The incidence of corneal microbial
infection is about 1 case per 1,000 wearers per year.6,7 Extending CL
wear through one or more sleep cycles appears to increase both the
prevalence and severity of all complications.8,9
4 Contact Lens

II. CARE PROCESS

A. Pre-Fitting Considerations

Many factors help determine whether a patient is a good candidate for

CLs. Primary among these is motivation to be a successful CL wearer.
Unfortunately, there is no individual test or battery of tests that can
predict success in wearing CLs.

1. Indications
Some factors that suggest whether a patient is a good candidate for CL
wear involve optical, physiologic, and cosmetic considerations. The
following indications should be considered in the evaluation of a
patient’s potential for successful CL use. (Table 1)

a. Optical Factors
Contact lenses improve visual function by neutralizing ametropia, or
minimizing distortion, especially when the patient suffers from more
than a modest spherical refractive error or astigmatism, regular or
irregular. Myopic patients benefit from the increased magnification
provided by CLs, compared with their spectacle corrections. The reverse
is true for both hyperopic and aphakic patients; however, such patients
benefit from enhanced fields of vision with CLs.10 For anisometropic
patients, aniseikonia and prismatic effects may be reduced or eliminated
with CL wear.

b. Presbyopia
Although many patients with presbyopia wear CLs, presbyopia is not
specifically an indication for CL correction. Presbyopic patients may
wear distance CLs and use additional reading spectacles of various types
to address their presbyopia. Alternatively, presbyopes (especially
emerging presbyopes) often successfully use what has been termed
“monovision” correction in which one eye wears a CL to correct for
distance vision and the other wears a CL to correct for near vision.
Various bifocal CLs are available in either RGP or hydrogel materials.
 The Care Process 5

c. Therapeutic Potential
Contact lenses have been used to manage both aphakia and binocular
vision problems, especially accommodative esotropia and convergence
excess.11,12 Contact lenses, particularly rigid CLs, can optically smooth
an anterior corneal surface made irregular by disease (e.g., keratoconus
or corneal microbial infection), trauma, or surgery (e.g., penetrating
keratoplasty or ineffective refractive surgery). Hydrogel lenses are used
as ophthalmic bandages13 following corneal trauma or refractive corneal
surgery. Rigid CLs also have been used to manage14 or reduce15 myopia.
Both clear and tinted rigid and soft contact lenses have been used for
treatment by occlusion in cases of diplopia and amblyopia.16

d. Cosmetic Effect
Correcting ametropia by placing a lens directly on the corneal surface
improves cosmesis by eliminating the need for a spectacle frame and
often unattractive corrective ophthalmic lenses. Some patients elect to
wear colored CLs simply to change the appearance of their eye color.
Opaque contact lenses also may be used for their prosthetic effect (e.g.,
masking an unattractive corneal scar or damaged iris or providing an
artificial pupil in the treatment of aniridia).17

Insert Table 1

2. Cautions
Any patient whose clinical situation suggests increased risk of ocular
infection or inflammation, but who insists on cosmetic CL fitting, should
give formal informed consent before the clinician provides CLs.18
Several factors could limit a patient’s suitability for CL wear, as
discussed below. (Table 2)

a. Ocular Considerations
Cosmetic CL wear should be approached cautiously with patients who
present with any active anterior segment disease, especially ocular (or
adnexal) inflammation, infection, or severe dry eye conditions, because
of the possible increased risk of complications, especially corneal NV or
infection. Such diseases include acne rosacea, Sjögren syndrome, atopic
6 Contact Lens

dermatitis, corneal exposure, severe blepharitis, conjunctival cicatrizing

disorders, neurotrophic keratitis, dacryocystitis, and patent filtering
blebs. Therapeutic CLs are occasionally used as bandages, however, in
these and other disease states.

Placing the lens directly in the precorneal tear film increases the risk of
tissue compromise. CL use should therefore be approached cautiously
for either the monocular patient (because of risk to the patient’s only
useful eye) or for the patient who is engaged in an avocation or vocation
with exposure to a particularly dirty or dry environment. Such
individuals may be advised to wear protective spectacles.

A mildly abnormal tear layer, whether insufficient in volume or of poor

quality, decreases the likelihood of successful and asymptomatic CL
wear, but CLs should be considered in the context of patient motivation
and other relevant indications. Some forms of abnormal tear layers can
be treated with supplemental artificial tear drops or ointments and
mechanical or thermal occlusion of the nasolacrimal punctae (See
Section IIB4b).

b. Systemic Considerations
Other indications for caution include the patient’s inability to manipulate
and care for CLs appropriately or to return for appropriate professional
supervision. Contact lens wear should be approached cautiously with the
patient who has immunosuppressive disease (e.g., AIDS), rheumatoid
arthritis, or diabetes, which may lead to insufficient lacrimation or
increased risk for corneal NV and infections.19,20

c. Noncompliant Patients
Clinicians should exercise caution, and occasionally exercise restraint,
when considering CL fitting for patients known or suspected to be so
noncompliant with appropriate CL care and general hygiene as to place
themselves at increased risk for severe complications (See Section IIE1).

Insert Table 2
 The Care Process 7

3. Types of Contact Lenses

The majority of CLs fall into one of two main categories: hydrogel or
rigid. These CLs are available in a wide variety of parameters for both
spherical and spherocylindrical corrections. There are also several
“hybrid” CL designs and materials.

a. Hydrogel Lenses
Spherical hydrogel CLs are indicated for the correction of myopia and
hyperopia when astigmatism is limited to less than 1.00 diopter (D)21,22
and tears are sufficient. Stock optical powers are commonly available
between +6.00 D and -20.00 D; higher custom powers are also available
(e.g., for cases of aphakia). Some hydrogel CLs, depending upon their
power and thickness profiles, may be difficult for some patients to insert
and remove.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has classified all
hydrogel materials into four groups,23 which are believed to behave the
same chemically (Table 3). Oxygen permeability (Dk) of the hydrogel
materials in all groups increases with water content (WC).24 Oxygen
transmissibility (Dk/t) is lens specific, thus directly dependent on both
the WC (hence Dk) of the CL’s material and the reciprocal of its
individual thickness (t) profile.25-28 Another class of hydrogel CL
materials, in which silicone (for enhanced Dk) is blended with hydrogel
materials (for comfort), is also available.29

Insert Table 3

Toric hydrogel lenses30-32 are indicated for patients who are otherwise
good candidates for hydrogel CLs and who wish to use CLs for cosmetic
correction of refractive error, including visually significant astigmatism
(usually greater than 0.75 D). Standard designs frequently correct
astigmatism up to about 2.00 D; some custom hydrogel CL designs are
available to correct up to about 8.00 D. Toric hydrogel lenses are more
expensive than the spherical designs, and may not provide universally
stable visual results.33

Variable optical results and comfort levels may occur in patients who
have insufficient tears with all types of hydrogel CLs, especially toric
8 Contact Lens

lenses. On the other hand, severe previous limbal desiccation at the 3

o'clock and 9 o’clock positions (“3/9” staining) from the use of rigid
CLs, with or without subsequent superficial NV, is an indication for
fitting both spherical and toric hydrogel CLs in the patient with adequate
tears.34

b. Rigid Lenses
Rigid corneal CLs usually provide better visual results than do hydrogel
CLs in situations of either regular or irregular astigmatism of the corneal
surface. Insufficient tears usually will not affect the optics of rigid CLs,
but this condition does increase the prevalence of both intolerance and
some physiological complications. Rigid gas permeable CL materials
(Table 4) are available in a wide range of optical powers, oxygen
permeability,35 plastic "hardness," wettability, and specific gravity, all of
which affect lens design and positioning.36 Usually, the more oxygen
permeable the plastic, the more fragile the finished CL. PMMA CLs are
occasionally useful, although the clinician must recognize that this
material has virtually no oxygen permeability and that corneal
metabolism is totally dependent on tear exchange when CLs made of this
material are worn. Concern about hypoxia in patients with corneal grafts
or previous superficial pannus, possibly from the use of hydrogel CLs of
optical powers in excess of -10.00 D,37 is an indication for the use of
RGPs. Clinicians should note that the use of rigid CLs may be less
successful in dusty environments.

Scleral or haptic high-Dk RGP (or even PMMA) CLs can be used in the
management of keratoconus or other therapeutic cases such as ocular
cicatricial pemphigoid or Stevens-Johnson Syndrome.

Insert Table 4

c. Hybrid and Silicone Lenses

Among several CL materials or designs that combine aspects of both
rigid and flexible lenses are piggyback systems (wherein a rigid CL is
worn over a hydrogel CL on one eye),38,39 non-hydrogel flexible
materials (e.g., Silsoft™),40 and Softperm™.41 Though not in common
 The Care Process 9

use, such lenses are extremely helpful in rare cases of regular or irregular
corneal astigmatism (including keratoconus) or aphakia.

B. Contact Lens Examination and Fitting

The initial procedures in determining a CL prescription include a

comprehensive eye examination to arrive at optimum refractive
correction and the elimination of concerns for concurrent ocular and
systemic disease.** The clinician should obtain a baseline quantification
of corneal curvature (“K” values come from keratometry or
videokeratography/topography measurements, and "on K" refers to the
value of the flat corneal meridian). The anterior segment and tear layer
should be carefully evaluated, and all pre-fitting abnormalities of the
ocular and lid surfaces (e.g., corneal scars and NV, blepharitis or
meibomian gland dysfunction, and palpebral conjunctival follicles or
papillae) should be documented, considered, and treated, when
appropriate.

1. Fitting Different Types of Contact Lenses

The clinician's goal is to design a CL from a physiologically adequate
material that will have minimal mechanical impact on the corneal surface
while providing the required optical correction.

Although not all clinicians always use a diagnostic evaluation of trial

lenses prior to ordering the CL, such a process, while both somewhat
labor-and time-intensive, allows clinicians and patients to gain a better
perspective on the anticipated performance, including both optical and
physical/physiological tolerance, of the CLs ordered. Some clinicians
employ topical corneal anesthesia to ease initial RGP fitting in the
office.42 Carefully applied, this technique may be useful during the
initial fitting or instruction phase of CL care without giving the patient a
false sense of tolerance. To avoid complications of abuse,43 topical
anesthetics should not be prescribed or dispensed to a patient.

*
Refer to the Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline for the Comprehensive Adult Eye
and Vision Examination.
10 Contact Lens

a. Spherical Hydrogel Lenses

Manufacturers commonly supply spherical hydrogel CLs in one to three
"base curves" or posterior curvature radii (also called back central optical
radius or BCOR) and one or two total diameters (TD), both of which are
usually measured in millimeters. The appropriate base curve and
diameter of a lens for a patient is determined by clinical observation of a
diagnostic lens on the eye. The initial selection of a diagnostic lens can
be guided by the recommended parameters from the manufacturer’s
fitting guide. Alternatively, most patients can be fitted with a lens
having a BCOR about 1 mm flatter than the mean keratometry value and
a TD of about 14.0 mm.44-47

A steeper or flatter than normal corneal curvature or a larger or smaller

than normal horizontal visible iris diameter (HVID) should alert the
clinician to observe more carefully the in situ mechanics of a diagnostic
CL to rule out the need for alternative parameters. The ideal hydrogel
CL rides concentric with the limbus and freely glides over the corneal
surface with some displacement by means of blinking or gentle
manipulation of the lid margins. Perfect centration is not necessary,
however, as long as full corneal coverage (to avoid corneal desiccation or
edge chafing) is achieved.48 Observations should occur after a minimum
of 5-15 minutes’ wear for "equilibration" of the lens material to the
specific patient's ocular environment.

Regardless of the theoretical BCOR/K relationship, when adequate

mechanical fit is not achievable with the lens supplied by one
manufacturer, an alternative with different parameters may be
considered. Several generic CL parameter guides, all updated quarterly
or semi-annually, are available to keep the clinician abreast of the
options. A change in BCOR usually does not affect the optical power of
a thin low-minus hydrogel, provided the back surface still drapes the
anterior eye, but such a change might decrease the effective power of a
plus-powered hydrogel lens.49-51

b. Toric Hydrogel Lenses

Toric hydrogel lenses are available in both stock (limited parameters)
and custom prescriptions from many manufacturers. The clinician
should first achieve a good physical fit by selection of the appropriate
 The Care Process 11

base curve and total diameter. The refractive astigmatic axis is stabilized
by prism, truncation, superior/inferior thin zones, or a combination of
methods.30-32 The astigmatic axis of the contact lens cylinder should be
prescribed as close as possible to the patient’s astigmatic axis, after
accounting for the estimated rotation of the lens on the eye;52 the optical
power of the patient’s astigmatism can often be undercorrected without
compromise to visual acuity, which may result in less visual disturbance
caused by any alignment variability or misrotation.32

c. Spherical Rigid Lenses

Non-gas permeable PMMA rigid CLs are seldom provided to new
wearers because of the overwhelming scientific documentation
supporting the physiological need of the cornea for anterior surface
oxygenation.53-57 Instead, rigid gas permeable CLs are provided in either
custom or stock designs. Clinicians usually use sodium fluorescein dye
to fit a RGP BCOR to show alignment with the corneal surface58 at a TD
that will either position the CL under the upper lid ("lid attachment" fit)59
or cause it to ride within the palpebral aperture ("interpalpebral" fit).
Such positioning is thought to minimize 3/9 corneal staining34 and lens
flexure,58 while enhancing tolerance and allowing the optical benefits of
a large optical zone.

When selecting the initial diagnostic RGP lens BCOR, the clinician
should begin with the previously measured corneal curvature values as
an initial guide. For many patients, in achieving a physically aligned fit,
the more spherical the Ks, the more likely that the optimum RGP CL
BCOR will be slightly flatter than the flat K. The more astigmatic the
Ks, the more likely it is that the appropriate base curve will be close to
the mean K. Some clinicians alternatively elect to achieve slight apical
vault by selection of BCOR/TD. Changes in the BCOR of RGP CLs will
directly affect the optical power of the CL/eye system and will require
direct optical power compensation.

In general, the flatter, more myopic, or more astigmatic the cornea, the
larger the TD that is required to achieve an optimum CL/cornea
relationship and vice-versa. A TD of approximately 9.0 mm is a good
starting point for most modern RGP CL designs, but clinicians
effectively prescribe RGPs with TDs ranging from less than 8.0 to
12 Contact Lens

greater than 11.0 mm. An optic zone that approximates the same value
as the BCOR (about 1.2 mm smaller than the TD) is common.

RGPs that ride low on the patient's cornea and move minimally should be
avoided. Adequate CL position and movement encourage the exchange
of tears, which pumps fresh oxygen from the air under the lens and
washes out debris and metabolic waste. Appropriate position and
adequate movement of the CL also minimize lens binding (in which
adherence to the underlying corneal surface leaves a physical impression
of the lens edge in the tissue). Lens binding may lead to 3/9 corneal
desiccation staining, which in turn can result in peripheral corneal
epithelial hypertrophy, vascularization, dellen, or even microbial
infection.34,60-64

The posterior peripheral curve system should be designed to lift the edge
of the CL gently off the corneal surface to provide a reservoir of tears for
exchange that maintains CL movement. This prevents chafing, due to
low edge lift, or drying of the peripheral cornea, due to high edge lift.65
The edge should also be well shaped and smooth.

d. Toric Rigid Lenses

Toric RGP CL designs are also available, but their application often
requires more experience and expertise. Bitoric RGPs of either spherical
or cylindrical power effect design are extremely useful in optimizing
vision and mechanical fit primarily in cases of regular or occasionally
irregular corneal astigmatism.66,67

Front-surface toric (spherical base curve) RGPs are also occasionally

prescribed for residual astigmatism but clinically have a more limited
role. BCOR/TD/peripheral curve systems should be chosen for proper
mechanical fit. Optics should be prescribed with the astigmatic axis
stabilized by the use of prism and/or truncation(s). The prescription of
back-surface toric designs may also occasionally be appropriate. Many
manufacturing laboratories offer consultation in fitting more complicated
cases such as these.
 The Care Process 13

2. Determination of Optical Power

Over-refraction of diagnostic or initial RGP or hydrogel CLs in situ, as
well as consideration of binocular vision requirements, allows the
clinician to optimize CL optical power. Vertex distance must be
considered if the over-refraction suggests the need for change greater
than +/-4.00 D. Caution should be exercised in prescribing CLs for
prepresbyopic myopic patients because the change in vertex distance
results in a need for increased accommodation and convergence for near
vision, often resulting in symptoms of blurred vision or ocular
discomfort. The opposite effect (i.e., decreased need for accommodation
and convergence) may be anticipated in fitting prepresbyopic hyperopic
patients with CLs.10 Contact lens power may also be calculated without
an over-refraction by taking into account both the vertex distance of the
manifest refraction and potential lacrimal lens power.

3. Special Design Features

The following additional design features may be required to optimize
contact lens fit.

a. Lenticular Edge Modification

When RGP optical power exceeds approximately +1.00 or -6.00 D,
lenticular design of the anterior CL surface may improve edge profile,
decrease lens thickness and weight, and thereby improve tolerance and
centration.68 Occasionally, patients requiring very low plus or low minus
power RGP lenses will also benefit from a lenticular design (or
construction). Manufacturers routinely, however, provide lenticular
construction hydrogel CLs because of their large total diameters.

b. Prism and Truncation

Prescribed in CLs primarily for orientation, prism is very rarely used to
address problems of binocular vision (such as vertical phoria). Only
vertical, base-down prism can be used in CLs. Base-down prism is used
to help orient some bifocal and front-surface toric CL designs, both rigid
and hydrogel. Prism also can be used successfully to assist in lens
positioning.69,70

A truncation is a zone of the circumference of a previously circular CL

that has been flattened by removal of material. The effect of truncation
 14 Contact Lens

is similar to that of prism in decreasing CL rotation, which is most often

helpful with application of bifocal or front-surface toric CLs.

c. Fenestrations
Small holes drilled through a CL are called fenestrations. They are
intended to improve oxygenation either directly or by encouraging tear
exchange.71

d. Blending
Smoothing or blending of the junctions between curvatures on the
posterior surface of RGP lenses may enhance comfort and reduces
corneal chafing or trauma.

4. Special Concerns
Some areas of CL application deserve additional discussion, especially
presbyopic correction, the use of CLs when eyes are “dry,” and extended
wear.

a. Presbyopia
Bifocal CLs for presbyopia are optically complex. Successful use is
subject to many patient-specific factors and the doctor's experience, skill,
and willingness to persist through fitting challenges. Thus, despite recent
improvements in both RGP and hydrogel designs, they still have limited
utility.

Two design philosophies guide distance and near correction with bifocal
contact lenses. “Simultaneous vision” bifocal (or multifocal) CLs
typically require consistent optimal positioning over the patient’s pupils.
In contrast, “alternating vision” lenses are intended to optimize distance
vision while the patient’s eyes are in the primary position, then reliably
move on the corneal surface so that a large portion of the near vision
optical zone covers the pupil in downgaze.

Perhaps the most successful form of CL correction for presbyopia is

"monovision," in which one eye is optimally corrected for distance acuity
and the other is corrected for near vision.72 Use of the monovision
technique has some limitations but is most effective in cases of emerging
presbyopia (usually adds of +1.75 D or less) in which patients
 The Care Process 15

demonstrate adequate distance visual acuities in both eyes. There are

many ways to decide which eye should be corrected in which manner,
but the most common is selection of the dominant eye for distance
correction. When difficulties are encountered, the distance/near CL fit
can be reversed.

Although monovision has been shown to have very little effect on

binocular fusion and visual fields, it can cause subjective visual
difficulties; specifically, both stereopsis and contrast sensitivity are
decreased, the latter especially with higher adds.73 Over-spectacles are
often prescribed to optimize binocular vision for critical tasks, such as
operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle.72-74 Some practitioners
believe that patients should provide formal informed consent for the
prescription of monovision CLs, indicating their full awareness of the
risks, benefits, and visual limitations of this form of correction.75

b. Dry Eye
Many patients with mild dry eyes may be helped to tolerate CLs.76 Both
systemic and ocular aspects of the dry eye condition should be managed
prior to and during contact lens wear. Instruction in lid hygiene and the
prescription of artificial tear drops, particularly unpreserved unit doses,
are two often helpful treatments. There is some evidence that contact
lens wear can cause or aggravate dry eye,77-79 increasing the importance
of such care.

The choice of CL material may also be important. Some clinicians

believe that RGP CLs are often tolerated better over the long term than
hydrogel lenses. This tolerance is primarily attributable to RGPs’ better
maintenance of optics and fit, compared with hydrogel lenses, especially
toric hydrogel lenses, which can undergo physical changes with
dehydration. Other clinicians believe that hydrogel CLs, especially those
of thicker design such as toric CLs, are associated with fewer signs and
symptoms of dry eye.

Mechanical or thermal occlusion of the nasolacrimal punctae may

provide significant improvement for many patients suffering from
clinically significant mild dry eye.80
16 Contact Lens

c. Extended Wear
CLs have been provided for use on extended- or continuous-wear
schedules for many years. Both the prevalence and severity of all
complications, especially microbial infection,6-9 are increased when CL
wear is extended through one or more sleep cycles, as discussed in the
next section. Current FDA guidelines limit extended wear of approved
lenses to no more than six nights in succession.81 Because of increased
risk of complications, patients who elect extended CL wear should give
formal informed consent.

C. Dispensing Lenses and Patient Education

Contact lenses should be free from defects such as scratches, chips, or

tears. Prior to initial dispensing of CLs, the clinician should verify that
all parameters of the lenses are as ordered and that they meet established
standards, such as those of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). When appropriate, the clinician or staff should also confirm the
performance of the CLs on the patient’s eyes, optically, mechanically,
and physiologically.

The patient, or a parent or guardian, should be trained in lens care,

maintenance, and handling. The importance of proper hygiene,
compliance with CL care techniques, and appropriate followup under
professional supervision should be stressed. Warnings, precautions, and
directions for use of a contact lens are found in the patient information
booklet available upon request from the lens manufacturer. Information
directed to the eye care practitioner is found in the package insert or in
the professional fitting guide. Other extensive literature on the proper
care of CLs is available.

The patient should be taught to perform the following steps in the care
and handling of a CL:
• Wash hands.
• Clean each CL by gently rubbing and thoroughly rinsing with an
appropriate solution.
• Store and disinfect CLs in fresh appropriate solution for an
appropriate time interval in a clean case until reinsertion in the
eyes.
 The Care Process 17

• Reclean and resoak CLs periodically and again preceding wear if

there is an interruption in CL wear for any reason.

Discussion of these procedures and warnings should be provided in

writing and documented in the patient’s record. Professional followup
care should be scheduled.

D. Progress Evaluations

Followup visits are important for proper management of the patient with
CLs. Planned evaluation should occur during the initial weeks and
months of CL wear to allow any necessary mechanical or optical
refinements in lens prescription(s), to monitor adaptation and minimize
ocular complications, and to reinforce appropriate CL care. Subsequent
evaluations are usually indicated at 6-to-12 month intervals for healthy
patients wearing cosmetic CLs.82,83 It is advisable to see patients who
may be at additional risk for ocular compromise during CL wear more
often than every 6 months, perhaps every 3 or 4 months or even more
frequently. Such patients include those using CLs for extended wear,
those wearing CLs for treatment of eye disease (e.g., keratoconus), or
following corneal trauma or surgery, and children wearing CLs for the
prevention or treatment of myopia14 or for correction of aphakia,84 for
example.

The clinician should recommend additional visits whenever the CL

patient experiences an unexpected problem in vision or ocular condition.
Emergency services should be available 24 hours a day, every day of the
year, through the practitioner’s practice or through eye care, health care,
or emergency room facilities.

Progress evaluations, planned or unplanned, should follow the “SOAP”

format. The clinician should begin by obtaining a Subjective history of
both CL wear and other concerns. The clinician should then evaluate
Objective clinical findings, such as visual acuities and over-refraction
results. Appropriate confrontation tests and gross observation of the eyes
and adnexa should be performed at this time, followed by
biomicroscopic evaluation of the lenses on the eyes and of the patient's
anterior ocular segments, often with the assistance of diagnostic dyes.
18 Contact Lens

The clinician should periodically evaluate the corneal surface by

keratometry or videokeratography/topography. Additional examinations
and investigations may also be indicated. For example, a CL-wearing
patient who complains of a sudden onset of "floaters" in one eye should
be seen immediately to evaluate for possible retinal detachment. In cases
of reduced vision that cannot be attributed to lens power or CL optical
quality, ocular media and retinal assessments are indicated. The clinician
can then effectively Assess the situation and Plan appropriate
management steps. The clinician should monitor refraction and general
ophthalmic health at whatever normal schedule is appropriate for the
patient's situation.

During progress evaluations of RGP wearers, the prescribed parameters

of the CLs should be periodically verified and the lenses reconditioned
(polished) to reduce both soilage and scratches when necessary. When
CLs are found to have been damaged or changed during use (e.g., any
cracks or edge chips, and/or warpage or flattening/steepening of BCORs
greater than 0.1 mm85), replacement of the CL is advised.

E. Management of Complications Associated with Contact Lens

Wear

Fortunately, CL wearers rarely experience vision-threatening

complications directly associated with wearing CLs. Because full
discussion of the complications that have been associated with wearing
CLs is beyond the scope of this Guideline, standard textbooks should be
consulted for more in-depth information.86,87

The first step in proper management of the CL wearer who experiences

complications is correct diagnosis. The second step is clinical grading of
the severity of an observed complication or response to CL use.88 After
accurate diagnosis and grading (Table 5), appropriate management and
clinical supervision can be provided.
__________
Insert Table 5
 The Care Process 19

1. General Considerations
The most effective way to address the complications of CL wear is to
prevent them from occurring. One method of precluding many
complications is to maintain CL care and hygiene, consistent with both
common sense and FDA-approved manufacturers’ guidelines.
Achieving and maintaining total patient compliance with recommended
CL care, however, is often difficult.89-92

CL soilage or solution reactions, and their secondary complications, can

be avoided by use of “disposable” CLs.93 These hydrogel lenses are
manufactured through molding technology which maintains high-quality
design standards and has reduced the cost of lenses to the extent that
daily replacement of lenses has become a practical option for some
patients. Prescribing disposable CLs has the advantage of maximizing
patient convenience while minimizing the possibility of solution
reactions. RGP CLs can usually be reconditioned by polishing and
cleaning, but they sometimes become warped, scratched, or soiled to an
extent that is beyond office rehabilitation.

Most complications of CL wear increase in both prevalence and severity

when patients wear them on an extended or continuous basis.6-9
Therefore, restricting CL use to daily wear whenever possible is a means
of minimizing the occurrence of these complications.

Many of the complications of CL wear are also accompanied, and in

some cases at least partially caused, by lid diseases such as blepharitis,
meibomian gland dysfunction, and dry eye. Treatment of underlying lid
disease and dry eye by improving lid hygiene, the use of artificial tear
drops (often in unpreserved unit doses), punctal occlusion, and
appropriate antibiotic treatment, either locally or systemically, is helpful
in minimizing many of the complications of CL wear.94

Many of the complications of CL wear can be treated effectively by

temporary discontinuation of CL wear. Reversal of inflammatory lid and
conjunctival reactions and solution sensitivities, collapse of mild forms
of corneal NV, and healing of corneal epitheliopathies often occur
without additional treatment. The use of adjunctive medical therapy,
consisting of artificial tears, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
20 Contact Lens

(NSAIDs), mast cell stabilizers, antibiotics, and occasionally even

steroid drops, should be considered.

Special precautions should be taken to avoid the spread of infection from

one patient to another in the practitioner’s office. These measures should
include appropriate cleaning and the disinfection of diagnostic CLs and
adjunctive equipment, especially tonometers. Disinfection must be
performed by a method approved by the U.S. Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC).

2. Noninfectious Complications
By far, the most prevalent complications of CL wear are associated with
lens care and solutions and CL spoilage, particularly in the case of
hydrogel lenses (Table 6).95-99
__________
Insert Table 6

Another common complication of CL wear is hypoxia, which induces

changes at all corneal layers. These changes include microcysts and
microcystic edema (MCE); central circular clouding (CCC);
pseudodendritic edematous corneal formations (ECF); decreased
epithelial mitosis, sensitivity and adhesion;100-106 changes in stromal
thickness, acidosis, and striae;56,107-110 and endothelial blebs and
polymegethism.111-113 In a postulated corneal exhaustion syndrome
(CES), previously successful long-term CL wearers suddenly become
intolerant of additional CL wear.114

Superficial corneal pannus is associated with either chronic hypoxia37,115

or chronic 3/9 epithelial desiccation (rigid CLs).62,63 Secondary
intracorneal hemorrhages can occur.116 Deep stromal NV is a very rare
complication.5

CL wear can lead to distortion and warpage of the corneal surface,117-121

which results in “spectacle blur” or a reversible loss of good spectacle
acuity immediately following CL wear. Clinicians also often observe
“dimple veil” epithelial depressions from bubbles of air trapped between
CLs and the ocular surface.
 The Care Process 21

True epithelial “staining” represents some epithelial cell layer disruption,

which can progress to occasional erosions48,122-125 and even
abrasions.126,127 Etiological factors may be obvious -- chemical trauma
(e.g., solution reactions), mechanical trauma (e.g., damaged CLs, foreign
bodies trapped between the CL and the eye), or superior epithelial
arcuate lesion123 (SEAL or “epithelial splitting”) -- or obscure. Some
brands of CLs cause distinctive staining patterns without progressing.
Clinicians should consider either keratoconus127 or Cogan’s
microcystic-map-dot-fingerprint dystrophy in any patient who presents
with an abrasion without a clear-cut historical etiology (See Appendix
Figure 1).

Corneal infiltrates, both round and dendritic, may be signs of solution

sensitivity, true corneal microbial infection,128 or even unrelated
complications.6,7,129-132 The clinician should always be alert to the
possibility of herpetic or Acanthamoeba infection masquerading as a
more benign CL complication (See Appendix Figure 2).

Documented lid reactions include allergic responses such as giant

papillary conjunctivitis (GPC)133,134 or ptosis.135-139 The conjunctiva is
also subject to many types of toxic and allergic reactions, some totally
and others partially, due to the use of CLs and their care
solutions.129-131,140-145 The clinician should always be careful to consider
masquerade syndromes (e.g., drug abuse or herpetic disease).43,131,132

The clinical challenge is often to maintain CL wear in the face of five

specific types of noninfectious complications, as discussed in the
following paragraphs.

a. Solution Reactions
The majority of these problems are cell-mediated (Gell-Coombs type IV)
reactions to preservatives,130 but the anterior segment signs are often
nonspecific. Solution reactions often present with both fine corneal
staining, with or without infiltrates, and conjunctival injection and/or
edema. When the clinician suspects such a reaction, CL wear should be
discontinued, and appropriate treatment and professional observation
should be initiated. After reversal of the reaction, the clinician may
initially try substituting one product or class of product for another.
22 Contact Lens

When this measure fails, hydrogel CL wearers may be fitted with daily
disposable CLs to eliminate all solution issues. RGP wearers can use
aerosol-packaged nonpreserved saline to rinse their lenses copiously
prior to insertion. For fear of an Acanthamoeba infection, the use of tap
water or fresh water rinses is discouraged. If water is utilized for rinsing
RGPs, an additional rinse with sterile saline or conditioning solution is
recommended (See Appendix Figure 3).

b. Hypoxia
In the mid-1970s, all rigid CLs were made of non-oxygen-permeable
PMMA, and early hydrogel lenses all had modest oxygen
transmissibility. Hypoxia was a common complication. Most of the
RGP and hydrogel CLs now available, however, generally do not cause
corneal hypoxia under daily wear conditions. When there is clear
evidence of hypoxic corneal changes (e.g., epithelial or stromal edema,
corneal pannus37 greater than approximately 2 mm unrelated to 3/9
stain), conjunctival146 changes, or suspected CES,114 the clinician should
adjust the CL wear schedule or change the CL material or design to
enhance the availability of oxygen to the anterior corneal surface (See
Appendix Figure 4).

c. Three O’clock and Nine O’clock Staining

Perhaps the most common complication of RGP wear is 3/9 staining.
Even moderate to severe 3/9 staining deserves attention to decrease the
potential for this complication to advance to infection, dellen, or
pseudopterygium/vascularized limbal keratitis (VLK). The principal
cause of 3/9 staining is low-riding RGP CLs. Therefore, an effort should
be made to optimize the position of the CL by increasing its TD and/or
flattening its BCOR. For cases of substantial corneal astigmatism,
bitoric RGP designs may be considered. When the CL centers well, the
clinician should consider modifying the edge lift associated with the
peripheral curve design, the edge thickness, and/or the TD.147 The
clinician should also consider whether CL binding is playing a role in the
development of this corneal epitheliopathy.

The condition of the patient’s lids/meibomian glands and tear layers

often contributes to 3/9 staining and should also be addressed (as
discussed previously). Lens position and wearing time should be
 The Care Process 23

managed. When all attempts to solve the problem with RGPs are
unsuccessful, and when there are no contraindications, the prescription of
hydrogel CLs may also be considered34 (See Appendix Figure 5).

d. Corneal Abrasion
Corneal epithelial abrasion is a common occurrence among CL wearers.
The clinician can expect to spend approximately one percent of CL-
related office visits treating abrasions; more in practices where
keratoconic patients are numerous.127 Treatment consists of first ruling
out infection and temporarily discontinuing CL wear. Some clinicians
believe in prophylactic antibiotic treatment, while others prefer to
withhold antibiotics unless infection is suspected or proven. To decrease
the risk of precipitating or enhancing a microbial corneal infection, the
clinician should neither patch nor use topical steroids to treat a CL-
associated abrasion (See Section IIE3a). Close professional supervision
is prudent until the epithelial defect has closed and the etiology of the
abrasion should be considered before CL wear is resumed. For example,
when the cause of the abrasion appears to be the patient’s failure to insert
or remove the CLs properly, reinstruction in these procedures should
precede CL redispensing. Management of the patient with repeated
apical corneal abrasions,148 in particular the patient with keratoconus,
may require refitting of the CLs with steeper BCORs or the use of
piggyback CL systems39 (See Appendix Figure 6).

e. Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis

Giant papillary conjunctivitis has been shown to be a Gell-Coombs type I
hypersensitivity reaction. Type I reactions imply that conjunctival mast
cells, presensitized by immunoglobulin E (IgE) generated by a previous
encounter, are activated by a second antigen presentation. The GPC
antigen has never been identified but is understood to be related to either
biological debris adherent to the surface of a CL or perhaps to
mechanical conjunctival irritation from the edge of the CL itself.

If at all possible, the patient diagnosed with GPC should first discontinue
CL wear until he or she is symptom (itching) free and the signs (mucus,
inflammatory tarsal conjunctival papillae) are subsiding. CL wear may
then be resumed cautiously, with improved CL cleaning (e.g., more
frequent, increased use of enzyme cleaner). The use of peroxide
24 Contact Lens

disinfection or daily-disposable CLs is helpful for hydrogel wearers.

Often it is also helpful to change the CL design from hydrogel to RGP or
vice-versa, or at least the edge design. Finally, topical mast cell-
stabilizing agents, NSAIDs, antihistamines, and occasionally steroids
(with caution to minimize the risk of secondary ocular infection,
glaucoma, or cataract) may be prescribed adjunctively for those patients
who on maximal nonmedical treatment still show signs or symptoms and
for whom CL wear cannot be discontinued (e.g., those with
keratoconus)149-153 (See Appendix Figure 7).

3. Infectious Complications
Corneal microbial infection, which has an incidence of about 21 of every
10,000 people using CLs for extended-wear and about 4 per 10,000
people using CLs for daily-wear per year,6,7 is probably the
CL-associated complication of most concern to both patients and
practitioners. Microbial corneal infections are identified by the
symptoms of ocular pain and photophobia and by the observation of
clinical signs such as corneal epithelial defects in association with
underlying inflammatory infiltration, often accompanied by anterior
chamber reaction (including hypopyon in some cases), conjunctival
discharge, lid swelling, and conjunctival injection.99,132

Corneal infection is a potentially blinding disease, but fortunately, it is

rarely encountered when the use of CLs is restricted to daily wear with
good care and hygiene. When suspected or diagnosed, such lesions
deserve immediate aggressive treatment and management. Whenever
any of the signs or symptoms of corneal infection occur, contact lens
wear should be discontinued in both eyes to decrease the potential for
bilateral disease.

a. Bacterial Infections
Corneal infections associated with CL wear are usually bacterial,
primarily attributable to the Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
but also commonly due to Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and
Staphylococcus epidermidis.4,6,7,20,132,154-158 Other bacteria are also
occasionally cultured from such lesions. Bacterial corneal infection has
been primarily associated with wearing CLs through one or more sleep
cycles (extended or continuous wear).
 The Care Process 25

Poor compliance with appropriate CL care procedures also appears to be

a major risk factor for microbial infection (especially Acanthamoeba,159
as discussed in the next section).

Traditional management of corneal ulcers and severe infections begins

with the acquisition of cultures on blood and chocolate agars, on
Sabouraud’s medium (for fungi), or on thioglycolate medium (for
anaerobes), with Gram-staining of smears for microscopic evaluation. A
sterilized Kimura spatula is used to acquire material for these laboratory
investigations by scraping the leading edge of the corneal ulcer.
Aggressive topical treatment should begin with dual therapy: specially
prepared fortified topical aminoglycosides (e.g., gentamicin, tobramycin,
amikacin) to attack Gram-negative bacteria and cephalosporins (e.g.,
cefazolin) or vancomycin to destroy Gram-positive bacteria.160
Treatment may be modified by observation of the patient’s clinical
course and the laboratory identification of likely microorganisms and
their antibiotic sensitivities.161 Adjunctive patching and early steroid
treatment are usually contraindicated.162

Topical fluoroquinolone antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin) were

introduced into ophthalmic care in the early 1990s163 and initiated
treatment evolution. Several studies discussed the clinically successful
use of 0.3% commercial-strength topical fluoroquinolone antibiotics as
monotherapy for suspected bacterial corneal infections without cultures,
especially when the lesions were relatively small (< 2 mm), and neither
central nor deep.163,164 Many clinicians found fluoroquinolone
monotherapy to be as effective as fortified dual therapy, and initial
cultures were believed unnecessary in many cases.165-169

Emerging resistance to the fluoroquinolone antibiotics has been a

theoretical concern, however, and recently was reported.170 Some
clinicians are now discussing a new form of dual therapy, utilizing both
fluoroquinolone and cephalosporin agents, for example.171 Treatment of
bacterial corneal infection therefore remains an area of some controversy
and of evolving strategies, and clinicians are advised to maintain
vigilance.
26 Contact Lens

b. Acanthamoeba Infections
The clinician should always consider the possibility of Acanthamoeba
species infections in any CL-related keratitis, especially in cases of
chronic disease with initially negative culture results and failure to
respond to antibiotic therapy. Clinical suspicion should be increased
when the patient reports extreme ocular pain and/or a history of exposing
the CLs to nonsterile water, or when an unusual epitheliopathy
(reminiscent of herpetic epithelial disease) or peripheral corneal radial
neuropathy is observed.159,172-174 Special culture techniques are available
for Acanthamoeba infections, but tissue biopsy is often necessary.

Combinations of the following four types of pharmacological agents

have been used successfully for medical treatment of Acanthamoeba
keratitis:

• Antibiotic/aminoglycoside: paromomycin, neomycin

• Antifungal: clotrimazole, ketoconazole, itraconazole, miconozole,
fluconazole
• Antiparasitic/aromatic diamidine: propamidine isethionate,
hydroxystibamidine, hexamidine di-isethionate
• Biocide/cationic antiseptic: polyhexamethylene biguanide,
chlorhexidine gluconate, povidone-iodine.175,176

Misdiagnosis and medical failures in the treatment of Acanthamoeba

infections are common.

c. Fungal Infections
Fungal corneal infections are extremely rare among cosmetic CL
wearers. Most cases reported in the literature have involved the use of
bandage CLs or chronic treatment with topical steroids in patients
suffering from concurrent ocular disease (e.g., neurotrophic epithelial
defects, diabetes, trauma).177,178 Antifungal pharmaceutical agents (both
commercial and custom-made) are available, but medical treatment is
often quite difficult and prone to failure. It is important to note that
atypical mycobacterium and Acanthamoeba infections often mimic
fungal corneal ulcers and vice-versa.
 The Care Process 27

d. Viral Infections
Concomitant viral corneal infections, of which adenovirus and herpes
simplex virus are of principal concern, can occur during CL wear. No
causative association has been uncovered for such viral infections, but
CL wear should be discontinued during viral infections unless the CL is
being used in a treatment protocol. Adenovirus infection is usually
successfully managed by supportive therapy such as tear supplements
and topical decongestants or by steroid therapy, as the clinical condition
indicates. Effective antiviral agents are available for the treatment of
herpetic eye disease. The clinician who observes an apparent herpetic
keratitis in association with use of CLs, however, should always consider
the possibility of Acanthamoeba as an alternative infectious agent.

It is prudent to consider discarding CLs that have been worn during the
period of viral infection and dispense new CLs once the infection has
resolved. Otherwise,, some effort should be made to disinfect CLs,
perhaps by soaking them in an appropriate disinfecting solution (e.g.,
CL-grade 3% hydrogen peroxide) for 10-15 minutes.

More aggressive medical treatment, including subconjunctival injections

and/or systemic antibiotic treatment, hospitalization, and perhaps corneal
transplantation, may be necessary, especially in cases of indolent,
refractory, or non-bacterial corneal infections. The referral of patients
with severe inflammatory or infectious ocular disease to a specialist in
corneal and external eye diseases is prudent.
28 Contact Lens

CONCLUSION

Individuals with refractive error seek improved visual acuity to enhance

their perception and enjoyment of the world. Alternatives for vision
correction include spectacles, contact lenses, and refractive surgery.
Enhanced materials and designs have made CLs a practical option for the
majority of patients who are motivated to use them. Because these
lenses float within the tear layer, in intimate contact with the anterior
ocular surface, great care should be taken in the prescription and
application of CLs, and in the supervision of patients who wear them.

Complications that can threaten vision and persist after CL removal, such
as active microbial keratitis and deep stromal NV, are rare. Limiting the
use of prescribed CLs to daily wear, with adequate professional
supervision, and patient compliance with both the principles of good
personal hygiene and the published advice of the manufacturers of CLs
and solutions, results in CL wear that is safe for the vast majority of
patients.
 References 29

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40 Contact Lens

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42 Contact Lens

137. Epstein G, Putterman AM. Acquired blepharoptosis secondary to

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144. Bernstein DI, Gallagher JS, Goam M, et al. Local ocular

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 References 43

147. Schnider CM, Terry RL, Holden BA. Effect of lens design on
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148. Korb DR, Finnemore VM, Herman JP. Apical changes and
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149. Meisler DM, Berzins UJ, Krachmer JH, et al. Cromolyn treatment
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150. Korb DR, Greiner JV, Fennemore VM, Allansmith MR.

Treatment of contact lenses with papain. Increase in wearing time
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152. Bucci FA, Lopatynsky MO, Jenkins PL, et al. Comparison of the
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154. Dixon JM, Young CA, Baldone JA, et al. Complications

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44 Contact Lens

156. Wilson LA, Schlitzer RL, Ahearn DG. Pseudomonas corneal

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157. Weissman BA, Mondino BJ, Pettit TH, et al. Corneal ulcers
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158. Mondino BJ, Weissman BA, Farb MD, et al. Corneal ulcers
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159. Moore MB, McCulley JP, Luckenbach M, et al. Acanthamoeba

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160. Baum JL, Jones DB. Initial therapy of suspected microbial corneal
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163. Leibowitz H, ed. The role of ciprofloxacin in the antibacterial

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165. O’Brien TP, Maguire MG, Fink NE, Alfonso E, et al. Efficacy of
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 References 45

166. McLeod SD, Kolahdouz-Isfahani A, Rostamian K, et al. The role

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169. Hyndiuk RA, Eiferman RA, Caldwell DR, et al. Comparison of

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171. Bower KS, Kowalski RP, Gordon YJ. Fluoroquinolones in the

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172. Koenig SB, Solomon JM, Hyndiuk RA, et al. Acanthamoeba

keratitis associated with gas permeable contact lens wear. Am J
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173. Moore MB, McCulley JP, Newton C, et al. Acanthamoeba

keratitis. A growing problem in soft and hard contact lens wearers.
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46 Contact Lens

175. Berger ST, Mondino BJ, Hoft RH, et al. Successful medical
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176. D’Aversa G, Stern GA, Driebe WT. Diagnosis and successful

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177. Wilson LA, Ahearn DG. Association of fungi with extended wear
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178. Kent HD, Cohen EJ, Laibson PR, et al. Microbial keratitis and
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 Appendix 47

Figure 8
ICD-9-CM CODES

Degenerations of iris and ciliary body 364.5

Essential or progressive iris atrophy 364.51

Pigmentary iris degeneration 364.53

Acquired heterchromia of iris
Pigment dispersion syndrome of iris
Translucency of iris

Degeneration of pupillary margin 364.54

Atrophy of sphincter of iris
Ectropion of pigment epithelium of iris

Other iris atrophy 364.59

Iris atrophy (generalized) (sector shaped)

Disorders of refraction and accommodation 367

Hypermetropia 367.0
Far-sightedness Hyperopia

Myopia 367.1
Near-sightedness

Astigmatism 367.2

Astigmatism, unspecified 367.20

Regular astigmatism 367.21

Irregular astigmatism 367.22

48 Contact Lens

Anisometropia and aniseikonia 367.3

Anisometropia 367.31

Aniseikonia 367.32

Presbyopia 367.4

Visual disturbances 368

Amblyopia ex anopsia 368.0

Amblyopia, unspecified 368.00

Strabismic amblyopia 368.01

Suppression amblyopia

Deprivation amblyopia 368.02

Refractive amblyopia 368.03

Corneal opacity and other disorders of cornea 371

Corneal scars and opacities 371.0

Excludes: that due to vitamin A deficiency (264.6)

Corneal opacity, unspecified 371.00

Corneal scar NOS

Minor opacity of cornea 371.01

Corneal nebula

Peripheral opacity of cornea 371.02

Corneal macula not interfering with central vision
 Appendix 49

Central opacity of cornea 371.03

Corneal:
leucoma interfering with central vision
macula interfering with central vision

Adherent leucoma 371.04

Phthisical cornea 371.05

Code first underlying tuberculosis (017.3)

Keratoconus 371.6

Keratoconus, unspecified 371.60

Keratoconus, stable condition 371.61

Keratoconus, acute hydrops 371.62

Other corneal deformities 371.7

Corneal deformity, unspecified 371.70

Corneal ectasia 371.71

Descemetocele 371.72

Corneal staphyloma 371.73

Unspecified corneal disorder 371.9

Aphakia and other disorders of lens 379.3

Excludes: after-cataract (366.50-366.53)

Aphakia 379.31
50 Contact Lens

Nystagmus and other irregular eye movements 379.5

Nystagmus, unspecified 379.50

Congenital nystagmus 379.51

Superficial injury of eye and adnexa 918

Excludes: burn (940.0-940.9)
Foreign body on external eye (930.0-930.9)

Cornea 918.1
Corneal abrasion
Superficial laceration

Excludes: corneal injury due to contact lens (371.82)

 Appendix 51

Abbreviations of Commonly Used Terms

AEL Axial edge lift

ANSI American National Standards Institute

BCOR Back central optical radius

CCC Central circular clouding; also central corneal clouding

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CES Corneal exhaustion syndrome

CL(s) Contact lens(es)

D Diffusion coefficient or Diopter of optical power

Dk Oxygen permeability

Dk/t Oxygen transmissibility

ECF Edematous corneal formation

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration

FST Front surface toric lens

GPC Giant papillary conjunctivitis

HEMA Hydroxyethylmethacrylate

HSK Herpes simplex keratitis

HVID Horizontal visible iris diameter

52 Contact Lens

IgE Immunoglobulin E

K Quantification value of corneal curvature, by

keratometry or videotopography

MCE Microcystic edema

NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drops

NV Neovascularization

On K Flat keratometry measurement

PKP Penetrating keratoplasty

PMMA "Hard" polymethyl methacrylate

REL Radial edge lift

RGP Rigid gas permeable

SEAL Superior epithelial arcuate lesion

SOAP Subjective, objective, assess, plan

t Thickness of individual CL, often at the center

TD Total diameter

VLK Vascularized limbal keratitis

WC Water content
 Appendix 53

GLOSSARY

Abrasion A defect in the corneal epithelium, usually accompanied by

subjective pain or foreign body symptoms, but not infiltrates.

Acne rosacea A chronic inflammatory skin condition of the face,

involving mild to persistent erythema and extensive hyperplasia of the
sebaceous glands (with deep papules and pustules) accompanied by
telangiectasia.

Aphakia Absence, usually postsurgical, of the crystalline lens of the

eye.

Artificial tears Lubricating drops prepared to supplement the normal

tear layer, often containing chemicals to adjust pH, viscosity and other
nutritional constituents to mimic the normal tear layer. Can be
nonpreserved (sterility achieved by the use of unit dosage) or preserved
with a variety of agents.

Aspheric Nonspherical surface, usually symmetrical about its axis of

rotation and derived from conic sections (therefore having both apical
radius and eccentricity); possibly front, back, or peripheral surfaces of a
contact lens.

Astigmatism Refractive anomaly due to unequal refraction of light in

different meridians of the eye, generally caused by a toroidal anterior
surface of the cornea.

Atopic dermatitis Allergic inflammation of the skin.

Back optical diameter (or zone) The central optical posterior surface
of the contact lens.

Back toric lens A contact lens which has a back surface cylinder and
spherical front surface for toric cornea fitting.
54 Contact Lens

Base curve, or back central optic radius (r or BCOR) The radius of

curvature of the posterior central optical portion, in the area
corresponding to the optical zone, of a contact lens, usually measured in
millimeters.

Bifocal Pertaining to a lens system having two focal lengths.

Binding A condition in which contact lenses (particularly rigid CLs

which position inferiorally) occasionally cease to move and become
adherent to the underlying cornea; removal of the CLs reveals areas
where the back surface (optic zone and edge) of the contact lens has
become compressed into the underlying tissues, leaving a mold of its
shape.

Bitoric lens A rigid contact lens with astigmatic (toric or cylindrical)

anterior and posterior surfaces.

Blepharitis An inflammatory process affecting the lid margins, the lash

follicles, or the openings of the meibomian glands.

Carrier A radially symmetrical portion of a lenticular design contact

lens, peripheral to the optical cap. The carrier may be negative (edge
thickness greater than the junction thickness), positive (edge thickness
less than that of the junction), or parallel in cross-section.

Central circular clouding (CCC) A superficial diffuse edema of the

cornea, usually circular, and associated with the wearing of contact
lenses which either bear on the central epithelium or entrap tear fluid in
this area; central corneal clouding.

CN bevel Slanted thinning of a contact lens edge on its anterior surface,

to reduce edge thickness.

Contact lens (CL) A small, shell-like, bowl-shaped glass or plastic lens

that rests directly on the eye, in contact with the cornea or the sclera or
both, serving as a new anterior surface of the eye and/or as a retainer for
fluid between the cornea and the contact lens, ordinarily to correct for
refractive errors of the eyes.
 Appendix 55

Continuous wear Wearing a contact lens constantly, only removing it

when a complication is encountered.

Corneal CL A contact lens worn on the cornea, typically 7.5 to 11.5

mm in total diameter.

Corneal exhaustion syndrome (CES) An acute intolerance to contact

lens wear in previously successful wearers, usually believed to be
associated with corneal swelling (edema), changes in endothelial cell
morphology, and visual difficulties.

D Diffusion coefficient from the engineering literature (see Dk and

Dk/t); also diopter, a unit of optical power.

Daily wear lens A contact lens requiring daily or more frequent removal
for cleaning and other purposes.

Dellen Transient ellipsoid depressions in the cornea caused by localized

severe dehydration, usually involving acute shrinkage of the stroma
without any loss of epithelium.

Dendrite A branch-like formation in the corneal epithelium, usually

seen with the aid of sodium fluorescein solution; the hallmark sign of
herpetic keratitis.

Dimple veil stain Depressions in corneal epithelial surface from bubbles

trapped between a contact lens and the corneal surface; usually
associated with a somewhat “tight” or “steep” RGP or HCL, or to a
related corneal depression (e.g., in keratoconus, or associated with a
scarred cornea).

Edematous corneal formation (ECF) Epithelial dendritic figure related

to rigid (especially PMMA) contact lens-generated edema of the corneal
epithelium.

Edge lift The distance between an extension of the BCOR and the
absolute edge of the lens; when measured parallel to the optical axis,
56 Contact Lens

axial edge lift (AEL); when measured along the radius, radial edge lift
(REL).

Equilibration A time period during which a contact lens comes into a

form of steady state with the properties of the patient’s tear layer,
relating to its tonicity, pH, etc.

Extended wear lens A contact lens designed of such oxygen

permeability, thickness, and periodic cleaning requirements and
prescribed for a person of compatible physiological characteristics as to
permit continuous wear for more than a day.

Fenestration A perforation to allow transfer of air and/or tears between

the contact lens and cornea.

Filtering bleb A conjunctival vesicle with a scleral channel allowing

direct communication of fluid from the inside of the eye, either planned
(e.g., for treatment of glaucoma) or unplanned, (e.g., following cataract
extraction).

Follicle Conjunctival nodule of lymphatic origin, lacking a central

vascular core; seen in viral, chlyamdial, allergic conjunctivitis.

Front optic diameter (or zone) The anterior optical surface of a contact
lens.

Front surface toric lens (FST) Contact lens with toric optics on only its
front surface and a spherical base curve , intended to correct residual
astigmatism.

Giant papillary conjunctivitis (GPC) Type I atopic response in the

palpebral conjunctiva, in which the breakdown of septae between many
small papillae create giant (>1 mm) papillae.

Haptic CL Any contact lens having a section designed to rest on the

sclera.
 Appendix 57

Horizontal visible iris diameter (HVID) The diameter of the cornea as

measured across the visible limbus horizontally, usually measured in
millimeters.

Hydrogel Any of a family of water-absorbing (hydrophilic) plastics

used for contact lenses; also called soft lenses.

Hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA) The first plastic used for a

hydrogel lens, invented by Otto Wichterle.

Hypermetropia (hyperopia) A refractive condition in which the light

entering the nonaccommodated eye is focused behind the retina;
farsightedness.

Infiltrates White or gray material in the normally transparent cornea,

usually composed of either inflammatory leukocytes or invading
microorganisms, or both.

K Symbol for the central corneal curvature of longest radius, as

measured by a keratometer.

k Solubility (of oxygen) in a material (e.g., plastic), from the

engineering literature (see Dk and Dk/t).

Keratoconus A developmental or dystrophic deformity of the cornea in

which it becomes cone-shaped, due to a thinning and stretching of the
tissue in its central area. It usually manifests itself during puberty and is
usually bilateral but asymetric.

Keratometry Measurement of the anterior curve of the cornea.

Lenticular design A (contact) lens design with a front optic diameter

smaller than the lens total diameter, creating an optical “cap” and a
peripheral carrier portion.

Microcystic edema (MCE) Very small fluid cysts in the corneal

epithelium.
58 Contact Lens

Monovision A technique for the optical correction of presbyopia, by

which a binocular patient is deliberately provided with one contact lens
prescribed for distance vision and the other for near vision.

Myopia Refractive condition in which the light entering the

nonaccommodated eye is focused in front of the retina; nearsightedness.

Neovascularization (NV) Growth of abnormal new blood vessels.

Neurotrophic keratitis Corneal epitheliopathy due to damaged

innervation.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) Any of several classes

of pharmaceutical agents, excluding steroids, that act to suppress the
inflammatory response.

Ocular rosacea Acne rosacea involving the eye or its adnexa, that may
include any or all of these chronic eye signs: blepharitis, meibomitis,
telangiectasia of the lids; insufficient tears; bulbar and corneal
epitheliopathies, corneal scarring and melting.

Optic cap See lenticular design.

Orthokeratology The science or program of therapeutic application of

contact lenses to alter the curvature of the cornea, especially to reduce
myopia.

Pannus An abnormal, superficial vascularization of the cornea

associated with a membranouslike infiltration of granulation tissue.

Papilla Allergically induced conjunctival nodule with a central vascular

core; collection of mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils, and subsequent
other inflammatory cells; see giant papillary conjunctivitis.

Penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) A surgical procedure in which a

section of the entire thickness of an opaque cornea is removed and
replaced by transparent cornea.
 Appendix 59

Permeability Oxygen permeability of a plastic, called “Dk” from the

engineering literature.

Peripheral curves Nonoptical curves on both anterior and posterior

peripheral surfaces of contact lenses, of set chord lengths and curvatures.

Piggyback A contact lens system in which a soft CL is used underneath

a rigid CL on the same eye.

Polymegethism Marked pleomorphism (cell size variation) in the

corneal endothelial layer.

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) A lightweight, transparent,

essentially non-oxygen-permeable thermoplastic used in the manufacture
of contact lenses; lucite or plexiglas.

Posterior apical radius of curvature (PAR) The radius of curvature

over a small area surrounding the apex of the posterior surface of an
aspheric contact lens.

Presbyopia A reduction in accommodative ability that occurs normally

with age and necessitates a plus lens addition for satisfactory near vision.

Prism A triangular refracting body that optically deflects light toward

its base while separating wavelengths; due to its shape, one side is
therefore of greater thickness and mass than the other.

Prosthetic device Artificial body part.

Pseudodendrite Epithelial branch-like formation not associated with

herpetic keratitis; usually a contact lens solution related hypersensitivity
or hypoxic response.

Pterygium A horizontal, triangular growth of the bulbar conjunctiva

occupying the intrapalpebral fissue, with the apex extending onto the
cornea.

Ptosis Drooping of the upper eyelid below its normal position.

60 Contact Lens

Rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens Any of a family of rigid oxygen-

permeable plastics that retain their form without support, under normal
conditions; these plastics have been prepared for the contact lens industry
to allow oxygen diffusion at clinically significant levels; also called hard
gas permeable (HGP) and “semi-soft lens.”

Scleral (or haptic) contact lens A large contact lens, covering most of
the front of the eye, including the bulbar conjunctiva as well as the
cornea.

Soft lenses A contact lens made of a water-absorbing substance which,

when worn, is soft and flexible.

Spherical Round; nonastigmatic; nonaspheric.

Stromal striae Fine parallel lines seen in the deep stroma during corneal
swelling from contact lens-associated hypoxia, early Fuchs dystrophy, or
keratoconus. (Deeper frank folds in Descemet’s membrane usually are
not related to contact lens wear and are called “striate keratopathy”).

Superior epithelial arcuate lesion (SEAL) Lesion of unknown

etiology that occurs occasionally during hydrogel contact lens wear; also
called “epithelial splitting.” The eye is asymptomatic, or mildly
symptomatic, and an arc of corneal epithelial disruption approximately 1
mm below and parallel to the superior limbus is evident.

Thickness (t) Thickness of a contact lens, usually in millimeters and

usually measured at the center of the lens.

Toric lens A lens which has one surface with two meridians of
curvature, least and greatest curvatures, located at right angles to each
other; astigmatism.

Total diameter (TD) The chord diameter of a contact lens, measured

from one absolute edge to the other in millimeters.
 Appendix 61

Transmissibility The ability of a contact lens material to diffuse

oxygen; oxygen permeability divided by thickness, expressed as “Dk/t.”

Truncation Deliberate removal and polishing of a portion of a circular

contact lens circumference, to affect lens rotation and positioning.

Vascularized limbal keratitis (VLK) Inflammation at the lateral

borders of the cornea, initiated by desiccation from rigid contact lens
wear resulting in a pseudopterygium.

Water content (WC) Percentage of water in a hydrogel material.

“3/9” staining Corneal epithelial erosions at the lateral borders of the

cornea, initiated by desiccation from rigid contact lens wear, close to the
positions occupied by 3 o’clock and 9 o’clock on an analog watch dial.

__________________________________________________________

Sources:

Cline D, Hoffstetter HW, Griffin JR. Dictionary of visual science, 4th

ed. PA: Chilton, 1989.

Mandell RB. Contact lens practice, 3rd ed. Thomas: Springfield,

1981:349.

Silbert JA, ed. Anterior segment complications of contact lens wear.

Churchill-Livingston: New York, 1994:1-509.

Tomlinson A, ed. Complications of contact lens wear. Mosby Year

Book: St Louis, 1992:3-274.
 Table 1

Indications for Prescribing Contact Lenses

__________________________________________________________

Cosmetic
Refractive error: anisometropia, myopia, hyperopia, regular
astigmatism
Prosthetic use

Therapeutic
Myopia management
Reduction (i.e., orthokeratology)
Maintenance
Aphakia
Keratoconus
Corneal irregularity secondary to trauma, disease, surgery
Bandage
Occlusion
Treatment of accommodative esotropia or convergence excess

__________________________________________________________
 Table 2

Reasons for Caution with Contact Lenses

__________________________________________________________

Ocular (local)
Active anterior segment disease, especially infection (e.g., severe
blepharitis or dacryocystitis)
Dry eye* possibly associated with Sjögren syndrome secondary to
rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, thryroid disease
Acne rosacea
Atopic dermatitis
Active filtering blebs
Decreased corneal sensitivity (e.g., neurotrophic)

Systemic
The presence of only one visually useful eye
Diabetes
Immunosuppression
Inability to care for CLs or to present periodically for
professional care
__________________________________________________________

* Mild dry eye is a relative contraindication, which appears to increase

the risk of CL failure or intolerance, but severe dry eye increases risk
of secondary tissue compromise such as infection or NV.
 Table 3
Hydrogel Material Groupings
(example materials shown in columns)

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

Low Water Content High Water Content Low Water Content High Water Content
Nonionic Nonionic Ionic Ionic

Crofilcon Alphafilcon A Balafilcon A Bufilcon A

Dimefilcon A Altrafilcon Bufilcon A Etafilcon A
Genfilcon A Ofilcon A Deltafilcon A Focofilcon A
Hefilcon A & B Omafilcon A Droxifilcon A Methafilcon A, B
Hioxifilcon B Scafilcon A Etafilcon A Ocufilcon B
Iotrafilcon A Surfilcon A Ocufilcon A Ocufilcon C
Isofilcon Vasurfilcon A Phemfilcon A Ocufilcon D
Mafilcon Xylofilcon A Ocufilcon E
Polymacon Perfilcon A
Tefilcon Phemfilcon A
Tetrafilcon A Tetrafilcon B
Vifilcon A

Source:
1999 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Four Lens Groups. In:
Thompson, TT. Tyler’s Quarterly Soft Contact Lens Parameter Guide
1999; 16:first index page.
 Table 4

Some Examples of RGP Material Properties

Material Optical Index Specific gravity Oxygen Dk*

Advent 1.39 1.60 78

Airlens 1.54 0.99 20
Boston ES 1.443 1.22 31
Boston RXD 1.44 1.27 39
Boston 7 1.428 1.22 73
Boston II 1.47 1.13 20
CAB** 1.48 1.20 8
Equalens 1.44 1.19 48
Fluoroperm 30 1.46 1.12 28
Fluoroperm 151 1.442 1.10 151
Menicon SF-P 1.436 1.12 126
Menicon Z 1.437 1.20 189
PMMA 1.49 1.18 N/A
Polycon II 1.49 1.14 10
SGP II 1.47 1.10 40

Data compiled from various sources.

* In x10 E-11 cm2mlO2/sec ml mm Hg

** CAB: Cellulose acetate butyrate
 Table 5

Clinical Grading of Response to CL Wear:

Proposed Interpretation and Clinical Approach

Grade* Interpretation Clinical Approach Advised

0 Normal: no tissue changes No action required; routine

observed clinical progress evaluation
suggested.
1 Trace: minimal if any Minimal, if any, change in CL
(minimal) tissue changes wear/care suggested; observation
encouraged.
2 Definite tissue changes Initiate clinical measures to
(mild) observed address complication; observe
clinical response.
3 Modest tissue changes Decrease or discontinue CL wear
(moderate) observed; ocular damage and treat complication; restart CL
possible wear with appropriate changes in
wear/care when complication
successfully reversed. Provide
professional supervision.
4 Ocular damage probable Discontinue CL wear and treat
(severe) complication appropriately;
consider risk/benefit ratio of
restarting CL wear in the future.

Based on:

Efron N. Grading scales for contact lens complications. Ophthal Physiol

Opt 1998; 18:182-6.

Note: this is an ordinal and not integer scale.

* Ordinal scaling implies that a Grade 3 response is greater than a Grade

2; however, the interval between Grades 1 and 2 may not be the same as
the interval between Grades 2 and 3.
 Table 6

Noninfectious Complications of Contact Lens Wear*

Tissue Complication Comments

Lids Toxicity Usually a solution reaction

Allergy Usually a solution reaction (type

IV Gell-Coombs hypersensitivity)

GPC: Type I Gell-Coombs

hypersensitivity, related to CL
deposits/edge.

Ptosis Associated with GPC or RGP

wear.

Blepharitis/ Lid inflammation, related to

meibomian gland bacterial or noninfectious etiology;
dysfunction not CL-caused but can complicate
care and lead to dry eye symptoms,
soiled CLs, lid and eye infections.

Bulbar conjunctiva Injection Usually a solution reaction;

toxicity or allergy; possibly CL
hypoxia, dry eye.

Edema Usually a solution reaction;

toxicity or allergy.

Staining From lens edge, desiccation.

Corneal epithelium 3/9 stain Primarily associated with low-
riding RGPs; also evaluate edge
lift, shape, position, tears, and lids;
possibly leads to dellen, NV, VLK-
pseudopterygium.

Pancorneal stain Medicamentosa, dirty CL, solution

toxicity or sensitivity; consider
viral infection.

Superior epithelial Always in association with

arcuate lesion hydrogel CLs; possibly dirty or
(SEAL) tight CL (also called epithelial
splitting).

Inferior arcuate Dehydration through hydrogel lens.

stain
Foreign body track Foreign body between CL and
cornea or under upper lid.

Cluster overwear Central corneal hypoxia and

stain secondary stain from nonpermeable
HCL wear.

Inferior band stain Corneal exposure or blepharitis

(non-CL wear).

Abrasion Deep or coalesced epithelial defect,

usually with symptoms (pain,
foreign body sensation) but without
infiltrate.

Dimple veil Saucer-shaped depressions in

epithelium from bubbles trapped
between CL and cornea.

Infiltration First consider infection; also

consider solution sensitivity,
herpes simplex keratitis (HSK),
Thygeson disease, etc.
 Edema CL hypoxia causing CCC, ECF,
microcysts, microcystic edema.

Corneal stroma Edema Deep stromal striae, similar to

keratoconus; Vogt’s striae at ~4-
6% swelling; striae keratopathy at
Descemet’s membrane at ~10%
swelling; also consider endothelial
cell dysfunction (e.g., Fuchs
corneal dystrophy) or glaucoma.

Neovascularization Pseudopterygium at 3/9 stain

(NV) (associated with RGP wear);
pannus (associated with hypoxia
from hydrogel wear); possibly deep
stromal NV.

Infiltration First consider bacterial, amoebic,

or fungal infection; rule out
solution reaction, HSK, adenoviris,
Chlamydia, Epstein-Barr virus,
Lyme disease, etc.

Corneal Blebs Deformation in endothelial cells

endothelium associated with acute hypoxia.

Polymegethism Change in endothelial cell size or

shape associated with chronic
hypoxia.

* Always consider masquerade syndromes