THE REBEL

Albert Camus An Essay on Man in Revolt A revised and complete translation of LHOMME RVOLT by Anthony Bower

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And openly I pledged my heart to the grave and suffering land and often in the !onse!rated night I promised to love her faithfully until death unafraid "ith her heavy #urden of fatality and never to despise a single one of her enigmas$ Thus did I %oin myself to her "ith a mortal !ord$

H&L'ERLI() The Death of Empedocles

INTRODUCTION

There are !rimes of passion and !rimes of logi!$ The #oundary #et"een them is not !learly defined$ *ut the +enal ,ode ma-es the !onvenient distin!tion of premeditation$ .e are living in the era of premeditation and the perfe!t !rime$ Our !riminals are no longer helpless !hildren "ho !ould plead love as their e/!use$ On the !ontrary they are adults

and they have a perfe!t ali#i) philosophy "hi!h !an #e used for any purpose 0 even for transforming murderers into %udges$ Heath!liff in style122Wuthering style122Heights "ould -ill every#ody on earth in order to possess ,athy #ut it "ould never o!!ur to him to say that murder is reasona#le or theoreti!ally defensi#le$ He "ould !ommit it and there his !onvi!tions end$ This implies the po"er of love and also strength of !hara!ter$ 3in!e intense love is rare murder remains an e/!eption and preserves its aspe!t of infra!tion$ *ut as soon as a man through la!- of !hara!ter ta-es refuge in do!trine as soon as !rime reasons a#out itself it multiplies li-e reason itself and assumes all the aspe!ts of the syllogism$ On!e !rime "as as solitary as a !ry of protest4 no" it is as universal as s!ien!e$ 5esterday it "as put on trial4 today it determines the la"$ This is not the pla!e for indignation$ The purpose of this essay is on!e again to fa!e the reality of the present "hi!h is logi!al !rime and to e/amine meti!ulously the arguments #y "hi!h it is %ustified4 it is an attempt to understand the times in "hi!h "e live$ One might thinthat a period "hi!h in a spa!e of fifty years uproots enslaves or -ills seventy million human #eings should #e !ondemned out of hand$ *ut its !ulpa#ility must still #e understood$ In more ingenuous times "hen the tyrant ra6ed !ities for his o"n greater glory "hen the slave !hained to the !on7uerors !hariot "as dragged through the re%oi!ing streets "hen enemies "ere thro"n to the "ild #easts in front of the assem#led people the mind did not reel #efore su!h una#ashed !rimes and %udgement remained un!louded$ *ut slave !amps under

the flag of freedom massa!res %ustified #y philanthropy or #y a taste for the superhuman in one sense !ripple %udgement$ On the day "hen !rime dons the apparel of inno!en!e 0 through a !urious transposition pe!uliar to our times 0 it is inno!en!e that is !alled upon to %ustify itself$ The am#ition of this essay is to a!!ept and e/amine this strange !hallenge$ Our purpose is to find out "hether inno!en!e the moment it #e!omes involved in a!tion !an avoid !ommitting murder$ .e !an only a!t in terms of our o"n time among the people "ho surround us$ .e shall -no" nothing until "e -no" "hether "e have the right to -ill our fello" men or the right to let them #e -illed$ In that every a!tion today leads to murder dire!t or indire!t "e !annot a!t until "e -no" "hether or "hy "e have the right to -ill$ The important thing therefore is not as yet to go to the root of things #ut the "orld #eing "hat it is to -no" ho" to live in it$ In the age of negation it "as of some avail to e/amine ones position !on!erning sui!ide$ In the age of ideologies "e must e/amine our position in relation to murder$ If murder has rational foundations then are period and "e ourselves are rationally !onse7uent$ If it has no rational foundations then "e are insane and there is no alternative #ut to find some %ustifi!ation or to avert our fa!es$ It is in!um#ent upon us at all events to give a definite ans"er to the 7uestion impli!it in the #lood and strife of this !entury th 89: !entury;$ <or "e are #eing put to the ra!-$ Thirty years ago #efore rea!hing a de!ision to -ill people denied many things to the point of denying themselves

#y sui!ide$ =od is de!eitful4 the "hole "orld >myself in!luded? is de!eitful4 therefore I !hoose to die) sui!ide "as the pro#lem then$ Ideology today is !on!erned only "ith the denial of other human #eings "ho alone #ear the responsi#ility of de!eit$ It is then that "e -ill$ Ea!h day at da"n assassins in %udges ro#es slip into some !ell) murder is the pro#lem today$ The t"o arguments are ine/tri!a#ly #ound together$ Or rather they #ind us and so firmly that "e !an no longer !hoose our o"n pro#lems$ They !hoose us one after another and "e have no alternative #ut to a!!ept their !hoi!e$ This essay proposes in the fa!e of murder and re#ellion to pursue a train of thought "hi!h #egan "ith sui!ide and the idea of the a#surd$ *ut for the moment this train of thought yields only one !on!ept) that of the a#surd$ And the !on!ept of the a#surd leads only to a !ontradi!tion as far as the pro#lem of murder is !on!erned$ A"areness of the a#surd "hen "e first !laim to dedu!e a rule of #ehaviour from it ma-es murder seem a matter of indifferen!e to say the least and hen!e possi#le$ If "e #elieve in nothing if nothing has any meaning and if "e !an affirm no values "hatsoever then everything is possi#le and nothing has any importan!e$ There is no pro or !on) the murderer is neither right nor "rong$ .e are free to sto-e the !rematory fires or to devote ourselves to the !are of lepers$ Evil and virtue are mere !han!e or !apri!e$ .e shall then de!ide not to a!t at all "hi!h amounts to at least a!!epting the murder of others "ith perhaps

!ertain mild reservations a#out the imperfe!tion of the human ra!e$ Again "e may de!ide to su#stitute tragi! dilettantism for a!tion and in this !ase human lives #e!ome !ounters in a game$ <inally "e may propose to em#ar- on some !ourse of a!tion "hi!h is not entirely gratuitous$ In the latter !ase in that "e have no higher values to guide our #ehaviour our aim "ill #e immediate effi!a!y$ 3in!e nothing is either true or false good or #ad our guiding prin!iple "ill #e to demonstrate that "e are the most effi!ient 0 in other "ords the strongest$ Then the "orld "ill no longer #e divided into the %ust and the un%ust #ut into masters and slaves$ Thus "hi!hever "ay "e turn in our a#yss of negation and nihilism murder has its privileged position$ Hen!e if "e !laim to adopt the a#surdist attitude "e must prepare ourselves to !ommit murder thus admitting that logi! is more important than s!ruples that "e !onsider illusory$ Of !ourse "e must have some predisposition to murder$ *ut on the "hole less than might #e supposed to %udge from e/perien!e$ Moreover it is al"ays possi#le as "e !an so often o#serve to delegate murder$ Everything "ould then #e made to !onform to logi! 0 if logi! !ould really #e satisfied in this "ay$ *ut logi! !annot #e satisfied #y an attitude "hi!h first demonstrates that murder is possi#le and then that it is impossi#le$ <or after having proved that the a!t of murder is at least a matter of indifferen!e a#surdist analysis in its most important dedu!tion finally !ondemns murder$ The final !on!lusion of a#surdist reasoning is in fa!t the repudiation of sui!ide and the

a!!eptan!e of the desperate en!ounter #et"een human in7uiry and the silen!e of the universe$ 3ui!ide "ould mean the end of this en!ounter and a#surdist reasoning !onsiders that it !ould not !onsent to this "ithout negating its o"n premises$ A!!ording to a#surdist reasoning su!h a solution "ould #e the e7uivalent of flight or deliveran!e$ *ut it is o#vious that a#surdism here#y admits that human life is the only ne!essary good sin!e it is pre!isely life that ma-es this en!ounter possi#le and sin!e "ithout life the a#surdist "ager "ould have no #asis$ To say that life is a#surd the !ons!ien!e must #e alive$ Ho" is it possi#le "ithout ma-ing remar-a#le !on!essions to ones desire for !omfort to preserve e/!lusively for oneself the #enefits of su!h a pro!ess of reasoning@ <rom the moment that life is re!ogni6ed as good it #e!omes good for all men$ Murder !annot #e made !oherent "hen sui!ide is not !onsidered !oherent$ A mind im#ued "ith the idea of the a#surd "ill undou#tedly a!!ept fatalisti! murder4 #ut it "ould never a!!ept !al!ulated murder$ In terms of the en!ounter #et"een human in7uiry and the silen!e of the universe murder and sui!ide are one and the same thing and must #e a!!epted or re%e!ted together$ E7ually a#solute nihilism "hi!h a!!epts sui!ide as legitimate leads even more easily to logi!al murder$ If our age admits "ith e7uanimity that murder has its %ustifi!ations it is #e!ause of this indifferen!e to life "hi!h is the mar- of nihilism$ Of !ourse there have #een periods of history in "hi!h the passion for life "as so strong that it #urst forth in !riminal e/!esses$ *ut these e/!esses "ere li-e the searing flame of a terri#le delight$ They "ere not this monotonous order of things

esta#lished #y an impoverished logi! in "hose eyes everything is e7ual$ This logi! has !arried the values of sui!ide on "hi!h our age has #een nurtured to their e/treme logi!al !onse7uen!e "hi!h is legali6ed murder$ It !ulminates at the same time in mass sui!ide$ The most stri-ing demonstration of this "as provided #y the Hitlerian apo!alypse of ABCD$ 3elfE destru!tion meant nothing to those madmen in their #om#Eshelters "ho "ere preparing for their o"n death and apotheosis$ All that mattered "as not to destroy oneself alone and to drag a "hole "orld "ith one$ In a "ay the man "ho -ills himself in solitude still preserves !ertain values sin!e he apparently !laims no rights over the lives of others$ The proof of this is that he never ma-es use in order to dominate others of the enormous po"er and freedom of a!tion "hi!h his de!ision to die gives him$ Every solitary sui!ide "hen it is not an a!t of resentment is in some "ay either generous or !ontemptuous$ *ut one feels !ontemptuous in the name of something$ If the "orld is a matter of indifferen!e to the man "ho !ommits sui!ide it is #e!ause he has an idea of something that is not or !ould not #e indifferent to him$ He #elieves that he is destroying everything or ta-ing everything "ith him4 #ut from this a!t of selfE destru!tion itself a value arises "hi!h perhaps might have made it "orth "hile to live$ A#solute negation is therefore not !onsummated #y sui!ide$ It !an only #e !onsummated #y a#solute destru!tion of oneself and of others$ Or at least it !an only #e lived #y striving to"ard that dele!ta#le goal$ Here sui!ide and murder are t"o aspe!ts of a single system the system of a misguided intelligen!e that prefers to the suffering

imposed #y a limited situation the dar- vi!tory in "hi!h heaven and earth are annihilated$ *y the same to-en if "e deny that there are reasons for sui!ide "e !annot !laim that there are grounds for murder$ There are no halfEmeasures a#out nihilism$ A#surdist reasoning !annot defend the !ontinued e/isten!e of its spo-esman and simultaneously a!!ept the sa!rifi!e of others lives$ The moment that "e re!ogni6e the impossi#ility of a#solute negation 0 and merely to #e alive is to re!ogni6e this 0 the very first thing that !annot #e denied is the right of others to live$ This the same idea "hi!h allo"ed us to #elieve that murder "as a matter of indifferen!e no" pro!eeds to deprive it of any %ustifi!ation4 and "e return to the untena#le position from "hi!h "e "ere trying to es!ape$ In a!tual fa!t this form of reasoning assures us at the same time that "e !an -ill and that "e !annot -ill$ It a#andons us in this !ontradi!tion "ith no grounds either for preventing or for %ustifying murder mena!ing and mena!ed s"ept along "ith a "hole generation into/i!ated #y nihilism and yet lost in loneliness "ith "eapons in our hands and a lump in our throats$ This #asi! !ontradi!tion ho"ever !annot fail to #e a!!ompanied #y a host of others from the moment that "e !laim to remain firmly in the a#surdist position and ignore the real nature of the a#surd "hi!h is that it is an e/perien!e to #e lived through a point of departure the e7uivalent in e/isten!e of 'es!artess methodi!al dou#t$ The a#surd is in itself !ontradi!tion$

It is !ontradi!tory in its !ontent #e!ause in "anting to uphold life it e/!ludes all value %udgements "hen to live is in itself a value %udgement$ To #reathe is to %udge$ +erhaps it is untrue to say that life is a perpetual !hoi!e$ *ut it is true that it is impossi#le to imagine a life deprived of all !hoi!e$ <rom this simplified point of vie" the a#surdist position translated into a!tion is in!on!eiva#le$ It is e7ually in!on!eiva#le "hen translated into e/pression$ 3imply #y #eing e/pressed it gives a minimum of !oheren!e to in!oheren!e and introdu!es !onse7uen!e "here a!!ording to its o"n tenets there is none$ 3pea-ing itself is restorative$ The only !oherent attitude #ased on nonEsignifi!ation "ould #e silen!e 0 if silen!e in its turn "ere not signifi!ant$ The a#surd in its purest form attempts to remain dum#$ If it finds its voi!e it is #e!ause it has #e!ome !ompla!ent or as "e shall see #e!ause it !onsiders itself provisional$ This !ompla!en!y is an e/!ellent indi!ation of the profound am#iguity of the a#surdist position$ In a !ertain "ay the a#surd "hi!h !laims to e/press man in his solitude really ma-es him live in front of a mirror$ And then the initial anguish runs the ris- of turning to !omfort$ The "ound that is s!rat!hed "ith su!h soli!itude ends #y giving pleasure$ =reat e/plorers in the realm of a#surdity have not #een la!-ing$ *ut in the last analysis their greatness is measured #y the e/tent to "hi!h they have re%e!ted the !ompla!en!ies of a#surdism in order to a!!ept its e/igen!ies$ They destroy as mu!h not at little as they !an$ FMy enemies G says (iet6s!he Fare those "ho "ant to destroy "ithout !reating their o"n selves$G He himself destroys #ut in order to try to !reate$ He e/tols

integrity and !astigates the FhogEfa!edG pleasureE see-ers$ To es!ape !ompla!en!y a#surdist reasoning then dis!overs renun!iation$ It refuses to #e sidetra!-ed and emerges into a position of ar#itrary #arrenness 0 a determination to #e silent 0 "hi!h is e/pressed in the strange as!eti!ism of re#ellion$ Rim#aud "ho e/tols F!rime pulling prettily in the mud of the streets G runs a"ay to Harrar only to !omplain a#out having to live there "ithout his family$ Life for him "as Fa far!e for the "hole "orld to perform$G *ut on the day of his death he !ries out to his sister) FI shall lie #eneath the ground #ut you you "ill "al- in sunHG The a#surd !onsidered as a rule of life is therefore !ontradi!tory$ .hat is astonishing a#out the fa!t that it does not provide us "ith values "hi!h "ill ena#le us to de!ide "hether murder is legitimate or not@ Moreover it is o#viously impossi#le to formulate an attitude on the #asis of a spe!ially sele!ted emotion$ The per!eption of the a#surd is one per!eption among many$ That it has !oloured so many thoughts and a!tions #et"een the t"o "ars only proves its po"er and its validity$ *ut the intensity of a per!eption does not ne!essarily mean that it is universal$ The error of a "hole period of history has #een to enun!iate 0 or to suppose already enun!iated 0 general rules of a!tion founded on emotions of despair "hose inevita#le !ourse in that they are emotions is !ontinually to e/!eed themselves$ =reat suffering and great happiness may #e found at the #eginning of any pro!ess of reasoning$ *ut it is impossi#le to redis!over or sustain them throughout the entire pro!ess$ Therefore if it "as legitimate to ta-e a#surdist

sensi#ility into a!!ount to ma-e a diagnosis of a malady to #e found in ourselves and in others it is nevertheless impossi#le to see in this sensi#ility and in the nihilism it presupposes anything #ut a point of departure a !riti!ism #rought to life 0 the e7uivalent in the plane of e/isten!e of systemati! dou#t$ After this the mirror "ith its fi/ed stare must #e #ro-en and "e are perfor!e !aught up in the irresisti#le movement #y "hi!h the a#surd e/!eeds itself$ On!e the mirror is #ro-en nothing remains "hi!h !an help us to ans"er the 7uestions of our time$ A#surdism li-e methodi!al thought has "iped the slate !lean$ It leaves us in a #lind alley$ *ut li-e methodi!al dou#t it !an #y returning upon itself open up a ne" field of investigation and the pro!ess of reasoning then pursues the same !ourse$ I pro!laim that I #elieve in nothing and that everything is a#surd #ut I !annot dou#t the validity of my pro!lamation and I must at least #elieve in my protest$ The first and only eviden!e that is supplied to me "ithin the terms of the a#surdist e/perien!e is re#ellion$ 'eprived of all -no"ledge in!ited to murder or to !onsent to murder all I have at my disposal is this single pie!e of eviden!e "hi!h is only reaffirmed #y the anguish I suffer$ Re#ellion is #orn of the spe!ta!le of irrationality !onfronted "ith an un%ust and in!omprehensi#le !ondition$ *ut its #lind impulse is to demand order in the midst of !haos and unity in the very heart of the ephemeral$ It protests it demands it insists that the outrage #e #rought to an end and that "hat has up to no" #een #uilt upon shifting sands should hen!eforth #e founded on ro!-$ Its preo!!upation is to transform$ *ut to transform is to a!t

and to a!t "ill #e tomorro" to -ill and it still does not -no" "hether murder is legitimate$ Re#ellion engenders e/a!tly the a!tions it is as-ed to legitimate$ Therefore it is a#solutely ne!essary that re#ellion find its reasons "ithin itself sin!e it !annot find them else"here$ It must !onsent to e/amine itself in order to learn ho" to a!t$ T"o !enturies of re#ellion either metaphysi!al or histori!al present themselves for our !onsideration$ Only a historian !ould underta-e to set forth in detail the do!trines and movements that have follo"ed one another during this period$ *ut at least it should #e possi#le to find a guiding prin!iple$ The pages that follo" only attempt to present !ertain histori!al data and a "or-ing hypothesis$ This hypothesis is not the only one possi#le4 moreover it is far from e/plaining everything$ *ut it partly e/plains the dire!tion in "hi!h our times are heading and almost entirely e/plains the e/!esses of the age$ The astonish history evo-ed here is the history of European pride$ In any event the reasons for re#ellion !annot #e e/plained e/!ept in terms of an in7uiry into its attitudes pretensions and !on7uests$ +erhaps "e may dis!over it its a!hievements the rule of a!tion that the a#surd has not #een a#le to give us4 an indi!ation at least a#out the right or the duty to -ill and finally hope for ne" !reation$ Man is the only !reature "ho refuses to #e "hat he is$ The pro#lem is to -no" "hether this refusal !an only lead to the destru!tion of himself and of others "hether all re#ellion must end in the %ustifi!ation of universal murder or "hether on the !ontrary "ithout

laying !laim to an inno!en!e that is impossi#le it !an dis!over the prin!iple of reasona#le !ulpa#ility$

Part One The Rebel

.hat is a re#el@ A man "ho says no #ut "hose refusal does not imply a renun!iation$

He is also a man "ho says yes from the moment he ma-es his first gesture of re#ellion$ A slave "ho has ta-en orders all his life suddenly de!ides that he !annot o#ey some ne" !ommand$ .hat does he mean #y saying FnoG@ He means for e/ample that Fthis has #een going on too long G Fup to this point yes #eyond it no G Fyou are going too far G or again Fthere is a limit #eyond "hi!h you shall not go$G In other "ords his no affirms the e/isten!e of a #orderline$ The same !on!ept is to #e found in the re#els feeling that the other person Fis e/aggerating G that he is e/erting his authority #eyond a limit "here he #egins to infringe on the rights of others$ Thus the movement of re#ellion is founded simultaneously on the !ategori!al re%e!tion of an intrusion that is !onsidered intolera#le and on the !onfused !onvi!tion of an a#solute right "hi!h in the re#els mind is more pre!isely the impression that he Fhas the right to IG Re#ellion !annot e/ist "ithout the feeling that some"here and someho" one is right$ It is in this "ay that the re#el slave says yes and no simultaneously$ He affirms that there are limits and also that he suspe!ts 0 and "ishes to preserve 0 the e/isten!e of !ertain things on this side of the #orderline$ He demonstrates "ith o#stina!y that there is something in him "hi!h Fis "orth"hile IG and "hi!h must #e ta-en into !onsideration$ In a !ertain "ay he !onfronts an order of things "hi!h oppresses him "ith the insisten!e on a -ind of right not to #e oppressed #eyond the limit that he !an tolerate$

In every a!t of re#ellion the re#ellion simultaneously e/perien!es a feeling of revulsion at the infringement of his rights and a !omplete and spontaneous loyalty to !ertain aspe!ts of himself$ Thus he impli!itly #rings into play a standard of values so far from #eing gratuitous that he is prepared to support it no matter "hat he ris-s$ Jp to this point he has at least remained silent and has a#andoned himself to the form of despair in "hi!h a !ondition is a!!epted even though it is !onsidered un%ust$ To remain silent is to give the impression that one has no opinions that one "ants nothing and in !ertain !ases it really amounts to "anting nothing$ 'espair li-e the a#surd has opinions and desires a#out everything in general and nothing in parti!ular$ 3ilen!e e/presses this attitude very "ell$ *ut from the moment that the re#el finds his voi!e 0 even though he says nothing #ut FnoG 0 he #egins to desire and to %udge$ The re#el in the etymologi!al sense does a !omplete turna#out$ He a!ted under the lash of his masters "hip$ 3uddenly he turns and fa!es him$ He opposes "hat is prefera#le to "hat is not$ (ot every value entails re#ellion #ut every a!t of re#ellion ta!itly invo-es a value$ Or is it really a 7uestion of values@ A"areness no matter ho" !onfused it may #e develops from every a!t of re#ellion) the sudden da66ling per!eption that there is something in man "ith "hi!h he !an identify himself even if only for a moment$ Jp to no" this identifi!ation "as never really e/perien!ed$ *efore he re#elled the slave a!!epted all the demands made upon him$ Very often he even tooorders "ithout rea!ting against them "hi!h "ere far more !ondu!ive to insurre!tion than the one at "hi!h he

#al-s$ He a!!epted them patiently though he may have protested in"ardly #ut in that he remained silent he "as more !on!erned "ith his o"n immediate interests than as yet a"are of his o"n rights$ *ut "ith loss of patien!e 0 "ith impatien!e E a rea!tion #egins "hi!h !an e/tend to everything that he previously a!!epted and "hi!h is almost al"ays retroa!tive$ The very moment the slave refuses to o#ey the humiliating orders of his master he simultaneously re%e!ts the !ondition of slavery$ The a!t of re#ellion !arries him far #eyond the point he had rea!hed #y simply refusing$ He e/!eeds the #ounds that he fi/ed for his antagonist and no" demands to #e treated as an e7ual$ .hat "as at first the mans o#stinate resistan!e no" #e!omes the "hole man "ho is identified "ith and summed up in this resistan!e$ The part of himself that he "anted to #e respe!ted he pro!eeds to pla!e a#ove everything else and pro!laims it prefera#le to everything even to life itself$ It #e!omes for him the supreme good$ Having up to no" #een "illing to !ompromise the slave suddenly adopts >F#e!ause this is ho" it must #e IG? an attitude of All or (othing$ .ith re#ellion a"areness is #orn$ *ut "e !an see that the -no"ledge gained is at the same time of an FallG that is still rather o#s!ure and of a FnothingG that pro!laims the possi#ility of sa!rifi!ing the re#el to this FAllG$ The re#el himself "ants to #e FallG 0 to identify himself !ompletely "ith this good of "hi!h he has suddenly #e!ome a"are and #y "hi!h he "ants to #e personally re!ogni6ed and a!-no"ledged 0 or FnothingG4 in other "ords to #e !ompletely destroyed #y the for!e that dominates him$ As a last resort he is "illing to a!!ept the final defeat "hi!h is death rather

than #e deprived of the personal sa!rament that he "ould !all for e/ample freedom$ *etter to die on ones feet than to live on ones -nees$ Values a!!ording to good authorities Fmost often represent a transition from fats to rights from "hat is desired to "hat is desira#le >usually through the intermediary of "hat is generally !onsidered desira#le?$ 8Lalande) Vocabulaire philosophique$; The transition from fa!ts to rights is manifest as "e have seen in re#ellion$ 3o is the transition from Fthis must #eG to Fthis is ho" I should li-e things to #e G and even more so perhaps the idea of the su#limation of the individual in a hen!eforth universal good$ The sudden appearan!e of the !on!ept of FAll or (othingG demonstrates that re#ellion !ontrary to !urrent opinion and though it springs from everything that is most stri!tly individualisti! in man 7uestions the very idea of the individual$ If the individual in fa!t a!!epts death and happens to die as a !onse7uen!e of his a!t of re#ellion he demonstrates #y doing so that he is "illing to sa!rifi!e himself for the sa-e of a !ommon good "hi!h he !onsiders more important than his o"n destiny$ If he prefers the ris- of death to the negation of the rights that he defends it is #e!ause he !onsiders these rights more important than himself$ Therefore he is a!ting in the name of !ertain values "hi!h are still indeterminate #ut "hi!h he feels are !ommon to himself and to all men$ .e see that the affirmation impli!it in every a!t of re#ellion is e/tended to something that trans!ends the individual insofar as it "ithdra"s him from his supposed solitude and provides him "ith a reason to a!t$ *ut it is already "orth noting that this !on!ept of

values as preEe/istent to any -ind of a!tion !ontradi!ts the purely histori!al philosophies in "hi!h values are a!7uired >if they are ever a!7uired? after the a!tion has #een !ompleted$ Analysis of re#ellion least at least to the suspi!ion that !ontrary to the postulates of !ontemporary thought a human nature does e/ist as the =ree-s #elieved$ .hy re#el if there is nothing permanent in oneself "orth preserving@ It is for the sa-e of everyone in the "orld that the slave asserts himself "hen he !omes to the !on!lusion that a !ommand has infringed on something in him "hi!h does not #elong to him alone #ut "hi!h is !ommon ground "here all men 0 even the man "ho insults and oppresses him 0 have a natural !ommunity$ 8The !ommunity of vi!tims is the same as that "hi!h unites vi!tim and e/e!utioner$ *ut the e/e!utioner does not -no" this$; T"o o#servations "ill support this argument$ <irst "e !an see that an a!t of re#ellion is not essentially an egoisti! a!t$ Of !ourse it !an have egoisti! motives$ *ut one !an re#el e7ually "ell against lies as against oppression$ Moreover the re#el 0 on!e he has a!!epted the motives and at the moment of his greatest impetus 0 preserves nothing in that he ris-s everything$ He demands respe!t for himself of !ourse #ut only insofar as he identifies himself "ith a natural !ommunity$ Then "e note that re#ellion does not arise only and ne!essarily among the oppressed #ut that it !an also #e !aused #y the mere spe!ta!le of oppression of "hi!h someone else is the vi!tim$ In su!h !ases there is a feeling of identifi!ation "ith another individual$ And it must #e pointed out that this is not a 7uestion of psy!hologi!al identifi!ation 0 a mere su#terfuge #y

"hi!h the individual imagines that it is himself "ho has #een offended$ On the !ontrary it !an often happen that "e !annot #ear to see offen!es done to others "hi!h "e ourselves have a!!epted "ithout re#elling$ The sui!ides of the Russian terrorists in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423i#eria as a protest against their !omrades #eing "hipped is a !ase in point$ (ot is it a 7uestion of the feeling of a !ommunity of interests$ In%usti!es done to men "hom "e !onsider enemies !an a!tually #e profoundly repugnant to us$ There is only identifi!ation of ones destiny "hat that of others and a !hoi!e of sides$ Therefore the individual is not in himself alone the em#odiment of the values he "ishes to defend$ It needs all humanity at least to !omprise them$ .hen he re#els a man identifies himself "ith other men and so surpasses himself and from this point of vie" human solidarity is metaphysi!al$ *ut for the moment "e are only tal-ing of the -ind of solidarity that is #orn in !hains$ It "ould #e possi#le for us to define the positive aspe!ts of the values impli!it in every a!t of re#ellion #y !omparing them "ith a !ompletely negative !on!ept li-e that of resentment as defined #y 3!heler$ Re#ellion is in fa!t mu!h more than pursuit of a !laim in the strongest sense of the "ord$ Resentment is very "ell defined #y 3!heler as an autointo/i!ation 0 the evil se!retion in a sealed vessel of prolonged impoten!e$ Re#ellion on the !ontrary #rea-s the seal and allo"s the "hole #eing to !ome into play$ It li#erates stagnant "aters and turns them into a raging torrent$ 3!heler himself emphasi6es the passive aspe!t of resentment and

remar-s on the prominent pla!e it o!!upies in the psy!hology of "omen "ho are dedi!ated to desire and possession$ The fountainhead of re#ellion on the !ontrary is the prin!iple of supera#undant a!tivity and energy$ 3!heler is also right in saying that resentment is al"ays highly !oloured #y envy$ *ut one envies "hat one does not have "hile the re#els aim is to defend "hat he is$ He does not merely !laim some good that he does not possess or of "hi!h he "as deprived$ His aim is to !laim re!ognition for something "hi!h he has and "hi!h has already #een re!ogni6ed #y him in almost every !ase as more important than anything of "hi!h he !ould #e envious$ Re#ellion is not realisti!$ A!!ording to 3!heler resentment al"ays turns into either uns!rupulous am#ition or #itterness depending on "hether it is implanted in a strong person or a "eaone$ *ut in #oth !ases it is a 7uestion of "anting to #e something other than "hat one is$ Resentment is al"ays resentment against oneself$ The re#el on the !ontrary from his very first step refuses to allo" anyone to tou!h "hat he is$ He is fighting for the integrity of one part of his #eing$ He does not try primarily to !on7uer #ut simply to impose$ <inally it "ould seem that resentment ta-es delight in advan!e in the pain that it "ould li-e the o#%e!t of its envy to feel$ (iet6s!he and 3!heler are right in seeing an e/!ellent e/ample of this in the passage "here Tertullian informs his readers that one of the greatest sour!es of happiness among the #lessed "ill #e the spe!ta!le of the Roman emperors !onsumed in the fires of hell$ This -ind of happiness is also e/perien!ed #y the de!ent people "ho go to "at!h e/e!utions$ The

re#el on the !ontrary limits himself as a matter of prin!iple to refusing to #e humiliated "ithout as-ing that others should #e$ He "ill even a!!ept pain provided his integrity is respe!ted$ It is therefore hard to understand "hy 3!heler !ompletely identifies the spirit of re#ellion "ith resentment$ His !riti!ism of the resentment to #e found in humanitarianism >"hi!h he treats as the nonE,hristian form of love for man-ind? !ould perhaps #e applied to !ertain indeterminate forms of humanitarian idealism or to the te!hni7ues of terror$ *ut it rings false in relation to mans re#ellion against his !ondition 0 the movement that enlists the individual in the defen!e of a dignity !ommon to all men$ 3!heler "ants to demonstrate that humanitarian feelings are al"ays a!!ompanied #y a hatred of the "orld$ Humanity is loved in general in order to avoid having to love any#ody in parti!ular$ This is !orre!t in some !ases and it is easier to understand 3!heler "hen "e reali6e that for him humanitarianism is represented #y *entham and Rousseau$ *ut mans love for man !an #e #orn of other things than a mathemati!al !al!ulation of the resultant re"ards or a theoreti!al !onfiden!e in human nature$ In fa!e of the utilitarians and of miles pre!eptor there is for e/ample the -ind of logi! em#odied #y 'ostoievs-y in Ivan Karama6ov "hi!h progresses from an a!t of re#ellion to metaphysi!al insurre!tion$ 3!heler is a"are of this and sums up the !on!ept in the follo"ing manner) FThere is not enough love in the "orld to s7uander it on anything #ut human #eings$G Even if this proposition "ere true the appalling despair that it implies "ould merit anything #ut !ontempt$ In

fa!t it misunderstands the tortured !hara!ter of Karama6ovs re#ellion$ Ivans drama on the !ontrary arises from the fa!t that there is too mu!h love "ithout an o#%e!t$ This love finding no outlet and =od #eing denied it is then de!ided to lavish it on human #eings as a generous a!t of !ompli!ity$ (evertheless in the a!t of re#ellion as "e have envisaged it up to no" an a#stra!t ideal is not !hosen through la!- of feeling and in pursuit of a sterile demand$ .e insist that the part of man "hi!h !annot #e redu!ed to mere ideas should #e ta-en into !onsideration 0 the passionate side of his nature that serves no other purpose than to #e part of the a!t of living$ 'oes this imply that no re#ellion is motivated #y resentment@ (o and "e -no" it only too "ell in this age of mali!e$ *ut "e must !onsider the idea of re#ellion in its "idest sense on pain of #etraying it4 and in its "idest sense re#ellion goes far #eyond resentment$ .hen Heath!liff in style122Wuthering style122Heights says that he puts his love a#ove =od and "ould "illingly go to hell in order to #e reunited "ith the "oman he loves he is prompted not only #y youth and humiliation #ut #y the !onsuming e/perien!e of a "hole lifetime$ The same emotion !auses E!-hart in a surprising fit of heresy to say that he prefers hell "ith Lesus to heaven "ithout Him$ This is the very essen!e of love$ ,ontrary to 3!heler it "ould therefore #e impossi#le to overemphasi6e the passionate affirmation that underlies the a!t of re#ellion and distinguishes it from resentment$ Re#ellion though apparently negative sin!e it !reates nothing is profoundly positive in that it reveals the part of man "hi!h must al"ays #e defended$

*ut to sum up are not re#ellion and the values that it implies relative@ Reasons for re#ellion do seem to !hange in fa!t "ith periods and !ivili6ations$ It is o#vious that a Hindu pariah an In!a "arrior a primitive native of !entral style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Afri!a and a mem#er of one of the first ,hristian !ommunities had not at all the same ideas a#out re#ellion$ .e !ould even assert "ith !onsidera#le assuran!e that the idea of re#ellion has no meaning in these parti!ular !ases$ Ho"ever a =ree- slave a serf a condottiere of the Renaissan!e a +arisian #ourgeois during the Regen!y a Russina intelle!tual at the #eginning of the t"entieth !entury and a !ontemporary "or-er "ould undou#tedly agree that re#ellion is legitimate even if they differed a#out the reasons for it$ In other "ords the pro#lem of re#ellion seems to assume a pre!ise meaning only "ithin the !onfines of .estern thought$ It is possi#le to #e even more e/pli!it #y remar-ing li-e 3!heler that the spirit of re#ellion finds fe" means of e/pression in so!ieties "here ine7ualities are very great >the Hindu !aste system? or again in those "here there is a#solute e7uality >!ertain primitive so!ieties?$ The spirit of re#ellion !an e/ist only in a so!iety "here a theoreti!al e7uality !on!eals great fa!tual ine7ualities$ The pro#lem of re#ellion therefore has no meaning e/!ept "ithin our o"n .estern so!iety$ One might #e tempted to affirm that it is relative to the development of individualism if the pre!eding remar-s had not put us on our guard against this !on!lusion$ On the #asis of the eviden!e the only !on!lusion that !an #e dra"n from 3!helers remar- is that than-s

to the theory of politi!al freedom there is in the very heart of our so!iety an in!reasing a"areness in man of the idea of man and than-s to the appli!ation of this theory of freedom a !orresponding dissatisfa!tion$ A!tual freedom has not in!reased in proportion to mans a"areness of it$ .e !an only dedu!e from this o#servation that re#ellion is the a!t of an edu!ated man "ho is a"are of his o"n rights$ *ut there is nothing "hi!h %ustifies us in saying that it is only a 7uestion of individual rights$ *e!ause of the sense of solidarity "e have already pointed out it "ould rather seem that "hat is at sta-e is humanitys gradually in!reasing selfE a"areness as it pursues its !ourse$ In fa!t for the In!a and the pariah the pro#lem never arises #e!ause for them it had #een solved #y a tradition even #efore they had had time to raise it 0 the ans"er #eing that tradition is sa!red$ If in a "orld "here things are held sa!red the pro#lem of re#ellion does not arise it is #e!ause no real pro#lems are to #e found in su!h a "orld all the ans"ers having #een given simultaneously$ Metaphysi!s is repla!ed #y myth$ There are no more 7uestions only eternal ans"ers and !ommentaries "hi!h may #e metaphysi!al$ *ut #efore man a!!epts the sa!red "orld and in order that he should #e a#le to a!!ept it 0 or #efore he es!apes from it 0 there is al"ays a period of soulEsear!hing and re#ellion$ The re#el is a man "ho is on the point of a!!epting or re%e!ting the sa!red and determined on laying !laim to a human situation in "hi!h all the ans"ers are human 0 in other "ords formulated in reasona#le terms$ <rom this moment every 7uestion every "ord is an a!t of re#ellion "hile in the sa!red "orld every "ord is an a!t of gra!e$ It "ould #e possi#le to demonstrate in this

manner that only t"o possi#le "orlds !an e/ist for the human mind) the sa!red >or to spea- in ,hristian terms the "orld of gra!e 8There is of !ourse an a!t of metaphysi!al re#ellion at the #eginning of ,hristianity #ut the resurre!tion of ,hrist and the annun!iation of the -ingdom of heaven interpreted as a promise of eternal life are the ans"ers that render it futile$;? and the "orld of re#ellion$ The disappearan!e of one is e7uivalent to the appearan!e of the other despite the fa!t that this appearan!e !an ta-e pla!e in dis!on!erting forms$ There again "e redis!over the All or othing$ The present interest of the pro#lem of re#ellion only springs from the fa!t that no"adays "hole so!ieties have "anted to dis!ard the sa!red$ .e live in an unsa!rosan!t moment in history$ Insurre!tion is !ertainly not the sum total of human e/perien!e$ *ut history today "ith all its storm and strife !ompels us to say that re#ellion is one of the essential dimensions of man$ It is our histori! reality$ Jnless "e !hoose to ignore reality "e must find our values in it$ Is it possi#le to find a rule of !ondu!t outside the realm of religion and its a#solute values@ That is the 7uestion raised #y the re#ellion$ .e have already noted the !onfused values that are !alled into play #y in!ipient re#ellion$ (o" "e must in7uire if these values are to #e found again in !ontemporary forms of re#ellious thought and a!tion and if they are "e must spe!ify their !ontent$ *ut #efore going any farther let us note that the #asis of these values is re#ellion itself$ Mans solidarity is founded upon re#ellion and re#ellion in its turn !an only find its %ustifi!ation in this solidarity$ .e have

then the right to say that any re#ellion "hi!h !laims the right to deny or destroy this solidarity loses simultaneously its right to #e !alled re#ellion and #e!omes in reality an a!7uies!en!e in murder$ In the same "ay this solidarity e/!ept insofar as religion is !on!erned !omes to life only on the level of re#ellion$ And so the real drama of revolutionary thought is announ!ed$ In order to e/ist man must re#el #ut re#ellion must respe!t the limit it dis!overs in itself 0 a limit "here minds meet and in meeting #egin to e/ist$ Re#ellious thought therefore !annot dispense "ith memory) it is a perpetual state of tension$ In studying its a!tions and its results "e shall have to say ea!h time "hether it remains faithful to its first no#le promise or if through indolen!e or folly it forgets its original purpose and plunges into a mire of tyranny or servitude$ Mean"hile "e !an sum up the initial progress that the spirit of re#ellion provo-es in a mind that is originally im#ued "ith the a#surdity and apparent sterility of the "orld$ In a#surdist e/perien!e suffering is individual$ *ut from the moment "hen a movement of re#ellion #egins suffering is seen as a !olle!tive e/perien!e$ Therefore the first progressive step for a mind over"helmed #y the strangeness of things is to reali6e that this feeling of strangeness is shared "ith all men and that human reality in its entirety suffers from the distan!e "hi!h separates it from the rest of the universe$ The malady e/perien!ed #y a single man #e!omes a mass plague$ In our daily trials re#ellion plays the same role as does the Fcogito! in the realm of thought) it is the first pie!e of eviden!e$ *ut this

eviden!e lures the individual from his solitude$ It founds its first value on the "hole human ra!e$ I re#el 0 therefore "e e/ist$

"art Two

Metaphysical Rebellion
Metaphysi!al re#ellion is the movement #y "hi!h man protests against his !ondition and against the "hole of !reation$ It is metaphysi!al #e!ause it !ontests the ends of man and of !reation$ The slave protests against the !ondition in "hi!h he finds himself "ithin his state of slavery4 the metaphysi!al re#el protests against the !ondition in "hi!h he finds himself as a man$ The re#el slave affirms that there is something in him that "ill not tolerate the manner in "hi!h his master treats him4 the metaphysi!al re#el de!lares that he is frustrated #y the universe$ <or #oth of them it is not only a 7uestion of pure and simple negation$ In #oth

!ases in fa!t "e find a value %udgement in the name of "hi!h the re#el refuses to approve the !ondition in "hi!h he finds himself$ The slave "ho opposes his master is not !on!erned let us note "ith repudiating his master as a human #eing$ He repudiates him as a master$ He denies that he has the right to deny him a slave on grounds of ne!essity$ The master is dis!redited to the e/a!t e/tent that he fails to respond to a demand "hi!h he ignores$ If men !annot refer to a !ommon value re!ogni6ed #y all as e/isting in ea!h one then man is in!omprehensi#le to man$ The re#el demands that this value should #e !learly re!ogni6ed in himself #e!ause he -no"s or suspe!ts that "ithout this prin!iple !rime and disorder "ould reign throughout the "orld$ An a!t of re#ellion on his part seems li-e a demand for !larity and unity$ The most elementary form of re#ellion parado/i!ally e/presses an aspiration to order$ This des!ription !an #e applied "ord for "ord to the metaphysi!al re#el$ He atta!-s a shattered "orld in order to demand unity from it$ He opposes the prin!iple of %usti!e "hi!h he finds in himself to the prin!iple of in%usti!e "hi!h he sees #eing applied in the "orld$ Thus all he "ants originally is to resolve this !ontradi!tion and esta#lish the unitarian reign of %usti!e if he !an or of in%usti!e if he is driven to e/tremes$ Mean"hile he denoun!es the !ontradi!tion$ Metaphysi!al re#ellion is a !laim motivated #y the !on!ept of a !omplete unity against the suffering of life and death and a protest

against the human !ondition #oth for its in!ompleteness than-s to death and its "astefulness than-s to evil$ If a mass death senten!e defines the human !ondition then re#ellion in one sense is its !ontemporary$ At the same time that he re%e!ts his mortality the re#el refuses to re!ogni6e the po"er that !ompels him to live in this !ondition$ The metaphysi!al re#el is therefore not definitely an atheist as one might thin- him #ut he is inevita#ly a #lasphemer$ Muite simply he #lasphemes primarily in the name of order denoun!ing =od as the father of death and as the supreme outrage$ The re#el slave "ill help us to thro" light on this point$ He esta#lished #y his protest the e/isten!e of the master against "hom he re#elled$ *ut at the same time he demonstrated that his masters po"er "as dependent on his o"n su#ordination and he affirmed his o"n po"er) the po"er of !ontinually 7uestioning the superiority of his master$ In this respe!t master and slave are really in the same #oat) the temporary s"ay of the former is as relative as the su#mission of the latter$ The t"o for!es assert themselves alternately at the moment of re#ellion until they !onfront ea!h other for a fight to the death and one or the other temporarily disappears$ In the same "ay if the metaphysi!al re#el ranges himself against a po"er "hose e/isten!e he simultaneously affirms he only admits the e/isten!e of this po"er at the very instant that he !alls it into 7uestion$ Then he involves this supreme #eing in the same humiliating adventure as man-inds its ineffe!tual po"er #eing the e7uivalent of our ineffe!tual !ondition$ He su#%e!ts it to our po"er of refusal #ends it to the

un#ending part of human nature for!i#ly integrates it into an e/isten!e that "e render a#surd and finally drags it from its refuge outside time and involves it in history very far from the eternal sta#ility that it !an find only in the unanimous su#mission of all men$ Thus re#ellion affirms that on its o"n level any !on!ept of superior e/isten!e is !ontradi!tory to say the least$ And so the history of metaphysi!al re#ellion !annot #e !onfused "ith that of atheism$ <rom a !ertain point of vie" it is even !onfused "ith the !ontemporary history of religious sentiment$ The re#el defies more than he denies$ Originally at least he does not suppress =od4 he merely tal-s to Him as an e7ual$ *ut it is not a polite dialogue$ It is a polemi! animated #y the desire to !on7uer$ The slave #egins #y demanding %usti!e and ends #y "anting to "ear a !ro"n$ He must dominate in his turn$ His insurre!tion against his !ondition #e!omes an unlimited !ampaign against the heavens for the purpose of #ringing #a!- a !aptive -ing "ho "ill first #e dethroned and finally !ondemned to death$ Human re#ellion ends in metaphysi!al revolution$ It progresses from appearan!es to a!ts from the dandy to the revolutionary$ .hen the throne of =od is overturned the re#el reali6es that it is no" his o"n responsi#ility to !reate the %usti!e order and unity that he sought in vain "ithin his o"n !ondition and in this "ay to %ustify the fall of =od$ Then #egins the desperate effort to !reate at the pri!e of !rime and murder if ne!essary the dominion of man$ This "ill not !ome a#out "ithout terri#le !onse7uen!es of "hi!h "e are so far only a"are of a fe"$ *ut these !onse7uen!es are in no "ay due to re#ellion itself or at least they only o!!ur to the e/tent

that the re#el forgets his original purpose tires of the tremendous tension !reated #y refusing to give a positive or negative ans"er and finally a#andons himself to !omplete negation or total su#mission$ Metaphysi!al insurre!tion in its first stages offers us the same positive !ontent as the slaves re#ellion$ Our tas- "ill #e to e/amine "hat #e!omes of this positive !ontent of re#ellion in the a!tions that !laim to originate from it and to e/plain "here the fidelity or infidelity of the re#el to the origins of his revolt finally leads him$

The #ons of $ain %

Metaphysi!al re#ellion in the real sense of the term does not appear in !oherent form in the history of ideas until the end of the eighteenth !entury 0 "hen modern times #egin to the a!!ompaniment of the !rash of falling ramparts$ *ut from then on its !onse7uen!es develop uninterruptedly and it is no e/aggeration to say that they have shaped the history of our times$ 'oes this mean that metaphysi!al re#ellion had no signifi!an!e previous to this date@ In any event its origins must #elong to the remote past in that "e li-e to #elieve that "e live in

+romethean times$ +romethean age@

*ut is this really a

The first mythologies des!ri#e +rometheus as an eternal martyr !hained to a pillar at the ends of the earth !ondemned forever #e!ause he refuses to asforgiveness$ Ns!hylus adds still further to his stature endo"s him "ith lu!idity >Fno misfortune !an fall upon me that I have not myself already foreseenG? ma-es him !ry out his hatred of all the gods and plunging him into Fa stormy sea of mortal despair G finally a#andons him to thunder and lightning) FAhH see the in%usti!e I endureHG It !annot #e said therefore that the an!ients "ere una"are of metaphysi!al re#ellion$ Long #efore 3atan they !reated a tou!hing and no#le image of the Re#el and gave us the most perfe!t myth of the intelligen!e in revolt$ The ine/hausti#le genius of the =ree-s "hi!h gave su!h a prominent pla!e to myths of unity and simpli!ity "as still a#le to formulate the !on!ept of insurre!tion$ *eyond a dou#t !ertain !hara!teristi!s of the +romethean myth still survive in the history of re#ellion as "e are living it) the fight against death >FI have delivered men from #eing o#sessed #y deathG? Messianism >FI have instilled #lind hopes into mens mindsG? philanthropy >FEnemy of Oeus I for having loved man-ind too mu!hG?$ *ut "e must not forget that "rometheus the &irebringer the last drama of Ns!hylus trilogy pro!laimed the reign of the pardoned re#el$ The =ree-s are never vindi!tive$ In their most auda!ious flights they al"ays remain faithful to the idea of moderation a !on!ept they deified$ Their re#el does not range himself

against all !reation #ut against Oeus "ho is never anything more than one god among many and "ho himself "as mortal$ +rometheus himself is a demigod$ It is a 7uestion of settling a parti!ular a!!ount of a dispute a#out "hat is good and not of a universal struggle #et"een good and evil$ The an!ients even though they #elieved in destiny #elieved primarily in nature in "hi!h they parti!ipated "holeheartedly$ To re#el against nature amounted to re#elling against oneself$ It "as #utting ones head against a "all$ Therefore the only !oherent a!t of re#ellion "as to !ommit sui!ide$ 'estiny for the =ree-s "as a #lind for!e to "hi!h one su#mitted %ust as one su#mitted to the for!es of nature$ The a!me of e/!ess to the =ree- mind "as to #eat the sea "ith rods 0 an a!t of insanity "orthy only of #ar#arians$ Of !ourse the =ree-s des!ri#ed e/!ess sin!e it e/ists #ut they gave it its proper pla!e and #y doing so also defined its limits$ A!hilles defian!e after the death of +atro!lus the impre!ations of the =ree- tragi! heroes !ursing their fate do not imply !omplete !ondemnation$ Pdipus -no"s that he is not inno!ent$ He is guilty in spite of himself4 he is also part of destiny$ He !omplains #ut he says nothing irrepara#le$ Antigone re#els #ut she does so in the name of tradition in order that her #rothers may find rest in the tom# and that the appropriate rites may #e o#served$ In her !ase re#ellion is in one sense rea!tionary$ The =ree- mind has t"o aspe!ts and in its meditations almost al"ays reEe!hoes as !ounterpoint to its most tragi! melodies the eternal "ords of Pdipus "ho #lind and desperate re!ogni6es that all is for the #est$ Affirmation !ounter#alan!es negation$ Even "hen

+lato anti!ipates "ith ,alli!les the most !ommon type of (iet6s!hean even "hen the latter e/!laims) F*ut "hen a man appears "ho has the ne!essary !hara!ter I he "ill es!ape he "ill trample on our formulas our magi! spells our in!antations and the la"s "hi!h are all "ithout e/!eption !ontrary to nature$ Our slave has re#elled and has sho"n himself to #e the masterG 0 even then though he re%e!ts la" he spea-s in the name of nature$ Metaphysi!al re#ellion presupposes a simplified vie" of !reation 0 "hi!h "as in!on!eiva#le to the =ree-s$ In their minds there "ere not gods on one side and men on the other #ut a series of stages leading from one to the other$ The idea of inno!en!e opposed to guilt the !on!ept of all of history summed up in the struggle #et"een good and evil "as foreign to them$ In their universe there "ere more mista-es than !rimes and the only definitive !rime "as e/!ess$ In a "orld entirely dominated #y history "hi!h ours threatens to #e!ome there are no longer any mista-es #ut only !rimes of "hi!h the greatest is moderation$ This e/plains the !urious mi/ture of fero!ity and for#earan!e "hi!h "e find in =ree- mythology$ The =ree-s never made the human mind into an armed !amp and in this respe!t "e are inferior to them$ Re#ellion after all !an only #e imagined in terms of opposition to someone$ The only thing that gives meaning to human protest is the idea of a personal god "ho has !reated and is therefore responsi#le for everything$ And so "e !an say "ithout #eing parado/i!al that in the .estern .orld the history of re#ellion is insepara#le from the history of ,hristianity$ .e have to "ait in fa!t until the very last

moments of =ree- thought to see re#ellion #egin to find e/pression among transitional thin-ers 0 no"here more profoundly than in the "or-s of Epi!urus and Lu!retius$ The appalling sadness of Epi!urus already stri-es a ne" note$ It has its roots no dou#t in the fear of death "ith "hi!h the =ree- mind "as not unfamiliar$ *ut the pathos "ith "hi!h this fear is e/pressed is very revealing$ F.e !an ta-e pre!autions against all sorts of things4 #ut so far as death is !on!erned "e all of us live li-e the inha#itants of a defen!eless !itadel$G Lu!retius is more e/pli!it) FThe su#stan!e of this vast "orld is !ondemned to death and ruin$G Therefore "hy postpone en%oyment@ F.e spend our lives G "rites Epi!urus Fin "aiting and "e are all !ondemned to die$G Therefore "e must all en%oy ourselves$ *ut "hat a strange form of en%oymentH It !onsists in sealing up the "alls of the !itadel of ma-ing sure of a supply of #read and "ater and of living in dar-ness and silen!e$ 'eath hovers over us therefore "e must prove that death is of no importan!e$ Li-e Epi!tetus and Mar!us Aurelius Epi!urus #anishes death from human e/isten!e$ F'eath has no meaning for us for "hat is indefina#le is in!apa#le of feeling and "hat is in!apa#le of feeling has no meaning for us$G Is this the e7uivalent of nothingness@ (o for everything in this parti!ular universe is matter and death only means a return to ones element$ E/isten!e is epitomi6ed in a stone$ The strange sensual pleasure of "hi!h Epi!urus spea-s !onsists a#ove all in an a#sen!e of pain4 it is the pleasure of a stone$ *y an admira#le manoeuvre 0 "hi!h "e shall find again in the great <ren!h !lassi!ists 0 Epi!urus in order to es!ape from destiny destroys

sensi#ility having first destroyed its primary manifestation) hope$ .hat this =ree- philosopher says a#out the gods !annot #e interpreted other"ise$ All the unhappiness of human #eings springs from the hope that tempts them from the silen!e of the !itadel and e/poses them on the ramparts in e/pe!tation of salvation$ Jnreasona#le aspirations have no other effe!t than to reopen !arefully #andaged "ounds$ That is "hy Epi!urus does not deny the gods4 he #anishes them and so pre!ipitately that man has no alternative #ut to retreat on!e more into the !itadel$ FThe happy and immortal #eing has no preo!!upations of his o"n and no !on!ern "ith the affairs of others$G Lu!retius goes even farther) FIt is in!ontesta#le that the gods #y their very nature en%oy their immortality in perfe!t pea!e !ompletely una"are of our affairs from "hi!h they are utterly deta!hed$G Therefore let us forget the gods let us never even thin- a#out them and Fneither your thoughts during the day nor your dreams at night "ill #e trou#led$G Later "e shall redis!over this eternal theme of re#ellion #ut "ith important modifi!ations$ A god "ho does not re"ard or punish a god "ho turns a deaf ear is the re#els only religious !on!eption$ *ut "hile Vigny "ill !urse the silen!e of his divinity Epi!urus !onsiders that as death is inevita#le silen!e on the part of man is a #etter preparation for this fate than divine "ords$ This strange mind "ears itself out in a sustained attempt to #uild ramparts around man-ind to fortify the !itadel to stifle the irrepressi#le !ry of human hope$ Only "hen this strategi! retreat has #een a!!omplished does Epi!urus li-e a god among men !ele#rate his vi!tory

"ith a song that !learly denotes the defensive aspe!t of his re#ellion$ FI have es!aped your am#ush O destiny I have !losed all paths #y "hi!h you might assail me$ .e shall not #e !on7uered either #y you or #y any other evil po"er$ And "hen the inevita#le hour of departure stri-es our s!orn for those "ho vainly !ling to e/isten!e "ill #urst forth in this proud song) QAh "ith "hat dignity "e have lived$G Alone among his !ontemporaries Lu!retius !arries this logi! mu!h farther and finally #rings it to the !entral pro#lem of modern philosophy$ He adds nothing fundamental to Epi!urus$ He too refuses to a!!ept any e/planatory prin!iple that !annot #e tested #y the senses$ The atom is only a last refuge "here man redu!ed to his primary elements pursues a -ind of #lind and deaf immortality 0 an immortal death 0 "hi!h for Lu!retius represents as it does for Epi!urus the only possi#le form of happiness$ He has to admit ho"ever that atoms do not aggregate of their o"n a!!ord and rather than #elieve in a superior la" and finally in the destiny he "ishes to deny he a!!epts the !on!ept of a purely fortuitous mutation the !linamen in "hi!h the atoms meet and group themselves together$ Already as "e !an see the great pro#lem of modern times arises) the dis!overy that to res!ue man from destiny is to deliver him to !han!e$ That is "hy the !ontemporary mind is trying so desperately hard to restore destiny to man 0 a histori!al destiny this time$ Lu!retius has not rea!hed this point$ His hatred of destiny and death is assuaged #y this #lind universe "here atoms a!!identally form human #eings and "here human #eings a!!identally return to atoms$ *ut his vo!a#ulary

#ears "itness to a ne" -ind of sensi#ility$ The "alled !itadel #e!omes an armed !amp$ '(nia mundi the ramparts of the "orld is one of the -ey e/pressions of Lu!retius rhetori!$ The main preo!!upation in this armed !amp is of !ourse to silen!e hope$ *ut Epi!urus methodi!al renun!iation is transformed into a 7uivering as!eti!ism "hi!h is sometimes !ro"ned "ith e/e!rations$ +iety for Lu!retius undou#tedly !onsists in F#eing a#le to !ontemplate everything "ith an untrou#led mind$G *ut nevertheless his mind reels at the in%usti!es done to man$ 3purred on #y indignation he "eaves ne" !on!epts of !rime inno!en!e !ulpa#ility and punishment into his great poem on the nature of things$ In it he spea-s of Freligions first !rime G Iphigenias martyred inno!en!e and of the tenden!y of the divinity to Foften ignore the guilty and to mete out undeserved punishment #y slaughtering the inno!ent$G If Lu!retius s!offs at the fear of punishment in the ne/t "orld it is not as a gesture of defensive re#ellion in the manner of Epi!urus #ut as a pro!ess of aggressive reasoning) "hy should evil #e punished "hen "e !an easily see here on earth that goodness is not re"arded@ In Lu!retius epi! poem Epi!urus himself #e!omes the proud re#el he never a!tually "as$ F.hen in the eyes of all man-ind humanity "as leading an a#%e!t e/isten!e on earth !rushed #eneath the "eight of a religion "hose hideous aspe!t peered do"n from the heights of the !elestial regions the first to dare a =reea man raised his mortal eyes and !hallenged the godsI$ In this "ay religion in its turn "as overthro"n and trampled underfoot and this vi!tory elevates us to the

heavens$G Here "e !an sense the differen!e #et"een this ne" type of #lasphemy and the an!ient maledi!tion$ The =ree- heroes !ould aspire to #e!ome gods #ut simultaneously "ith the gods "ho already e/isted$ At that time it "as simply a matter of promotion$ Lu!retius hero on the other hand em#ar-s on a revolution$ *y repudiating the un"orthy and !riminal gods he ta-es their pla!e himself$ He sallies forth from the armed !amp and opens the first atta!- on divinity in the name of human suffering$ In the an!ient "orld murder is #oth ine/pli!a#le and ine/pia#le$ Already "ith Lu!retius murder #y man is only an ans"er to murder #y the gods$ It is not pure !oin!iden!e that Lu!retius poems ends "ith a prodigious image of the san!tuaries of the gods s"ollen "ith the a!!using !orpses of plague vi!tims$ This ne" language is in!omprehensi#le "ithout the !on!ept of a personal god "hi!h is slo"ly #eginning to form in the minds of Lu!retius and Epi!urus !ontemporaries$ Only a personal god !an #e as-ed #y the re#el for a personal a!!ounting$ .hen the personal god #egins his reign re#ellion assumes its most resolutely fero!ious aspe!t and pronoun!es a definitive no$ .ith ,ain the first a!t of re#ellion !oin!ides "ith the first !rime$ The history of re#ellion as "e are e/perien!ing it today has far more to do "ith the !hildren of ,ain than "ith the dis!iples of +rometheus$ In this sense it is the =od of the Old Testament "ho is primarily responsi#le for mo#ili6ing the for!es of re#ellion$ Inversely one must su#mit to the =od of A#raham Isaa! and La!o# "hen li-e +as!al one has

run the full !ourse of intelle!tual re#ellion$ The mind most prone to dou#t al"ays aspires to the greatest degree of Lansenism$ <rom this point of vie" the (e" Testament !an #e !onsidered as an attempt to ans"er in advan!e every ,ain in the "orld #y painting the figure of =od in softer !olours and #y !reating an inter!essor #et"een =od and man$ ,hrist !ame to solve t"o ma%or pro#lems evil and death "hi!h are pre!isely the pro#lems that preo!!upy the re#el$ His solution !onsisted first in e/perien!ing them$ The manEgod suffers too 0 "ith patien!e$ Evil and death !an no longer #e entirely imputed to Him sin!e He suffers and dies$ The night on style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=olgotha is so important in the history of man only #e!ause in its shado" the divinity a#andoned its traditional privileges and dran- to the last drop despair in!luded the agony of death$ This is the e/planation of the )ama sabactani and the heartrending dou#t of ,hrist in agony$ The agony "ould have #een mild if it had #een alleviated #y hopes of eternity$ <or =od to #e a man he must despair$ =nosti!ism "hi!h is the fruit of =re!oE,hristian !olla#oration has tried for t"o !enturies in rea!tion against Ludai! thought to promote this !on!ept$ .e -no" for e/ample the vast num#er of inter!essors invented #y Valentinus$ *ut the Rons of this parti!ular metaphysi!al s-irmish are the e7uivalent of the intermediary truths to #e found in Hellenism$ Their aim is to diminish the a#surdity of an intimate relationship #et"een suffering humanity and an impla!a#le god$ This is the spe!ial role of Mar!ions !ruel and #elli!ose se!ond god$ This demiurge is responsi#le for the

!reation of a finite "orld and of death$ Our duty is to hate him and at the same time to deny everything that he has !reated #y means of as!eti!ism to the point of destroying #y se/ual a#stinen!e all !reation$ This form of as!eti!ism is therefore #oth proud and re#ellious$ Mar!ion simply alters the !ourse of re#ellion and dire!ts it to"ard an inferior god so as to #e #etter a#le to e/alt the superior god$ =nosis o"ing to its =ree- origins remains !on!iliatory and tends to destroy the Ludai! heritage in ,hristianity$ It also "anted to avoid Augustinism #y anti!ipating it in that Augustinism provides arguments for every form of re#ellion$ To *asilides for e/ample the martyrs "ere sinners and so "as ,hrist #e!ause they suffered$ A strange !on!eption #ut "hose aim is to remove the element of in%usti!e from suffering$ The =nosti!s only "anted to su#stitute the =ree- idea of initiation "hi!h allo"s man-ind every possi#le !han!e for the !on!ept of an allEpo"erful and ar#itrary forgiveness$ The enormous num#er of se!ts among the se!ondEgeneration =nosti!s indi!ates ho" desperate and diversified "as the attempt on the part of =ree- thought to ma-e the ,hristian universe more a!!essi#le and to remove the motives for a re#ellion that Hellenism !onsidered the "orst of all evils$ *ut the ,hur!h !ondemned this attempt and #y !ondemning it s"elled the ran-s of the re#els$ In that the !hildren of ,ain have triumphed in!reasingly throughout the !enturies the =od of the Old Testament !an #e said to have #een in!redi#ly su!!essful$ +arado/i!ally the #lasphemers have in%e!ted ne" life into the %ealous =od "hom ,hristianity "ished to #anish from history$ One of their most

profoundly auda!ious a!ts "as to re!ruit ,hrist into their !amp #y ma-ing His story end on the ,ross and on the #itter note of the !ry that pre!edes His agony$ *y this means it "as possi#le to preserve the impla!a#le fa!e of a =od of hate 0 "hi!h !oin!ided far #etter "ith !reation as the re#els !on!eived it$ Jntil 'ostoievs-y and (iet6s!he re#ellion is dire!ted only against a !ruel and !apri!ious divinity 0 a divinity "ho prefers "ithout any !onvin!ing motive A#els sa!rifi!e to ,ains and #y so doing provo-es the first murder$ 'ostoievs-y in the realm of imagination and (iet6s!he in the realm of fa!t enormously in!rease the field of re#ellious thought and demand an a!!ounting from the =od of love Himself$ (iet6s!he #elieves that =od is dead in the souls of his !ontemporaries$ Therefore he atta!-s li-e his prede!essor 3tirner the illusion of =od that lingers under the guise of morality in the thought of his times$ *ut until they appear upon the s!ene the freethin-ers for e/ample "ere !ontent to deny the truth of the history of ,hrist >Fthat dull story G in 3ades "ords? and to maintain #y their denials the tradition of an avenging god$ On the other hand for as long as the .estern .orld has #een ,hristian the =ospels have #een the interpreter #et"een heaven and earth$ Ea!h time a solitary !ry of re#ellion "as uttered the ans"er !ame in the form of an even more terri#le suffering$ In that ,hrist had suffered and had suffered voluntarily suffering "as no longer un%ust and all pain "as ne!essary$ In one sense ,hristianitys #itter intuition and legitimate pessimism !on!erning human #ehaviour is #ased on the assumption that overEall in%usti!e is as satisfying to man as total

%usti!e$ Only the sa!rifi!e of an inno!ent god !ould %ustify the endless and universal torture of inno!en!e$ Only the most a#%e!t suffering #y =od !ould assuage mans agony$ If everything "ithout e/!eption in heaven and earth is doomed to pain and suffering then a strange form of happiness is possi#le$ *ut from the moment "hen ,hristianity emerging from its period of triumph found itself su#mitted to the !riti!al eye of reason 0 to the point "here the divinity of ,hrist "as denied 0 suffering on!e more #e!ame the lot of man$ Lesus profaned is no more than %ust one more inno!ent man "hom the representatives of the =od of A#raham tortured in a spe!ta!ular manner$ The a#yss that separates the master from the slaves opens again and the !ry of revolt falls on the deaf ears of a %ealous =od$ The freethin-ers have prepared the "ay for this ne" di!hotomy #y atta!-ing "ith all the usual pre!autions the morality and divinity of ,hrist$ ,allots universe sums up 7uite satisfa!torily this "orld of hallu!ination and "ret!hedness "hose inha#itants #egin #y sniggering up their sleeves and end 0 "ith MoliSres 'on Luan 0 #y laughing to high heaven$ 'uring the t"o !enturies "hi!h prepare the "ay for the upheavals #oth revolutionary and sa!rilegious of the eighteenth !entury all the efforts of the freethin-ers are #ent on ma-ing ,hrist an inno!ent or a simpleton so as to anne/ Him to the "orld of man endo"ed "ith all the no#le or derisory 7ualities of man$ Thus the ground "ill #e prepared for the great offensive against a hostile heaven$

Absolute egation %
Histori!ally spea-ing the first !oherent offensive is that of 3ade "ho musters into one vast "ar ma!hine the arguments of the freethin-ers up the <ather Meslier and Voltaire$ His negation of !ourse is also the most e/treme$ <rom re#ellion 3ade !an only dedu!e an a#solute negative$ T"entyEseven years in prison do not in fa!t produ!e a very !on!iliatory form of intelligen!e$ 3u!h a long period of !onfinement produ!es either "ea-lings or -illers and sometimes a !om#ination of #oth$ If the mind is strong enough to !onstru!t in a prison !ell a moral philosophy that is not one of su#mission it "ill generally #e one of domination$ Every ethi! #ased on solitude implies the e/er!ise of po"er$ In this respe!t 3ade is the ar!hetype for insofar as so!iety treated him atro!iously he responded in an atro!ious manner$ The "riter despite a fe" happy phrases and the thoughtless praises of our !ontemporaries is se!ondary$ He is admired today "ith so mu!h ingenuity for reasons "hi!h have nothing to do "ith literature$ He is e/alted as the philosopher in !hains and the first theoreti!ian of a#solute re#ellion$ He might "ell have #een$ In prison dreams have no limits and reality is no !ur#$ Intelligen!e in !hains loses in lu!idity "ith it gains in intensity$ The only logi! -no"n to 3ade "as

the logi! of his feelings$ He did not !reate a philosophy #ut pursued a monstrous dream of revenge$ Only the dream turned out to #e propheti!$ His desperate demand for freedom led 3ade into the -ingdom of servitude4 his inordinate thirst for a form of life he !ould never attain "as assuaged in the su!!essive fren6ies of a dream of universal destru!tion$ In this "ay at least 3ade is our !ontemporary$ Let us follo" his su!!essive negations$

A 'an of )etters Is 3ade an atheist@ He says so and "e #elieve him #efore going to prison in his Dialogue between a "riest and a Dying 'an4 and from then on "e are dum#founded #y his passion for sa!rilege$ One of his !ruellest !hara!ters 3aintE<ond does not in any sense deny =od$ He is !ontent to develop a gnosti! theory of a "i!-ed demiurge and to dra" the proper !on!lusions from it$ 3aintE<ond it is said is not 3ade$ (o of !ourse not$ A !hara!ter is never the author "ho !reated him$ It is 7uite li-ely ho"ever that an author may #e all his !hara!ters simultaneously$ (o" all 3ades atheists suppose in prin!iple the nonEe/isten!e of =od for the o#vious reason that His e/isten!e "ould imply that He "as indifferent "i!-ed or !ruel$ 3ades greatest "or- ends "ith a demonstration of the stupidity and spite of the divinity$ The inno!ent Lustine runs through the storm and the "i!-ed (oir!euil s"ears that he "ill #e !onverted if divine retri#ution !onsents to spare his life$ Lustine is stru!- #y lightning (oir!euil

triumphs and human !rime !ontinues to #e mans ans"er to the +as!alian "ager$ The idea of =od "hi!h 3ade !on!eives for himself is therefore of a !riminal divinity "ho oppresses and denies man-ind$ That murder is an attri#ute of the divinity is 7uite evident a!!ording to 3ade from the history of religions$ .hy then should man #e virtuous@ 3ades first step as a prisoner is to %ump to the most e/treme !on!lusions$ If =od -ills and repudiates man-ind there is nothing to stop one from -illing and repudiating ones fello" men$ This irrita#le !hallenge in no "ay resem#les the tran7uil negation that is still to #e found in the Dialogue of ATU9$ The man "ho e/!laims) FI have nothing I give nothing G and "ho !on!ludes) FVirtue and vi!e are indistinguisha#le in the tom# G is neither happy nor tran7uil$ The !on!ept of =od is the only thing a!!ording to him F"hi!h he !annot forgive man$G The "ord forgive is already rather strange in the mouth of this e/pert in torture$ *ut it is himself "hom he !annot forgive for an idea that his desperate vie" of the "orld and his !ondition as a prisoner !ompletely refute$ A dou#le re#ellion 0 against the order of the universe and against himself 0 is hen!eforth going to #e the guiding prin!iple of 3ades reasoning$ In that these t"o forms of re#ellion are !ontradi!tory e/!ept in the distur#ed mind of a vi!tim of perse!ution his reason is al"ays either am#iguous or legitimate a!!ording to "hether it is !onsidered in the light of logi! or in an attempt at !ompassion$ He therefore denies man and his morality #e!ause =od denies them$ *ut he denies =od even though He has served as his a!!ompli!e and guarantor up to no"$

<or "hat reason@ *e!ause of the strongest instin!t to #e found in one "ho is !ondemned #y the hatred of man-ind to live #ehind prison "alls) the se/ual instin!t$ .hat is this instin!t@ On the one hand it is the ultimate e/pression of nature 83ades great !riminals e/!use their !rimes on the ground that they "ere #orn "ith un!ontrolla#le se/ual appetites a#out "hi!h they !ould do nothing$; On the one hand it is the ultimate e/pression of nature and on the other the #lind for!e that demands the total su#%e!tion of human #eings even at the pri!e of their destru!tion$ 3ade denies =od in the name of nature 0 the ideologi!al !on!epts of his time presented it in me!hanisti! form 0 and he ma-es nature a po"er #ent on destru!tion$ <or him nature is se/4 his logi! leads him to a la"less universe "here the only master is the inordinate energy of desire$ This is his delirious -ingdom in "hi!h he finds his finest means of e/pression) F.hat are all the !reatures of the earth in !omparison "ith a single one of our desiresHG The long arguments #y "hi!h 3ades heroes demonstrate that nature has need of !rime that it must destroy in order to !reate and that "e help nature !reate from the moment "e destroy it ourselves are only aimed at esta#lishing a#solute freedom for the prisoner 3ade "ho is too un%ustly punished not to long for the e/plosion that "ill #lo" everything to pie!es$ In this respe!t he goes against his times) the freedom he demands is not one of prin!iples #ut of instin!ts$ 3ade dreamed no dou#t of a universal repu#li! "hose s!heme he reveals through his "ise reformer OamV$ He sho"s us #y this means that one of the purposes of re#ellion is to li#erate the "hole "orld in

that as the movement a!!elerates re#ellion is less and less "illing to a!!ept limitations$ *ut everything a#out him !ontradi!ts this pious dream$ He is no friend of humanity he hates philanthropists$ The e7uality of "hi!h he sometimes spea-s is a mathemati!al !on!ept) the e7uivalen!e of the o#%e!ts that !omprise the human ra!e the a#%e!t e7uality of the vi!tims$ Real fulfilment for the man "ho allo"s a#solutely free rein to his desires and "ho must dominate everything lies in hatred$ 3ades repu#li! is not founded on li#erty #ut on li#ertinism$ FLusti!e G this pe!uliar demo!rat "rites Fhas no real e/isten!e$ It is the divinity of all the passions$G (othing is more revealing in this respe!t than the famous lampoon read #y 'olman!V in the "hilosophie du Boudoir "hi!h has the !urious title) "eople of style122&rance* one more effort if you want to be republicans$ +ierre Klosso"s-i 83ade mon prochain$; is right in atta!hing so mu!h importan!e to it for this lampoon demonstrates to the revolutionaries that their repu#li! is founded on the murder of the King 0 "ho "as King #y divine right 0 and that #y guillotining =od on Lanuary 9A ATBW they deprived themselves forever of the right to outla" !rime or to !ensure malevolent instin!ts$ The monar!hy supported the !on!ept of a =od "ho in !on%un!tion "ith itself !reated all la"s$ As for the Repu#li! it stands alone and morality "as supposed to e/ist "ithout #enefit of the ,ommandments$ It is dou#tful ho"ever that 3ade as Klosso"s-i maintains had a profound sense of sa!rilege and that an almost religious horror led him to the !on!lusions that he e/presses$ It is mu!h more li-ely that he !ame to these

!on!lusions first and after"ards per!eived the !orre!t arguments to %ustify the a#solute moral li!ense that he "anted the government of his time to san!tion$ Logi! founded on passions reverses the traditional se7uen!e of reasoning and pla!es the !on!lusions #efore the premises$ To #e !onvin!ed of this "e only have to appraise the admira#le se7uen!e of sophisms #y "hi!h 3ade in this passage %ustifies !alumny theft and murder and demands that they #e tolerated under the ne" dispensation$ It is then ho"ever that his thoughts are most profound$ He re%e!ts "ith e/!eptional perspi!a!ity for his times the presumptuous allian!e of freedom "ith virtue$ <reedom parti!ularly "hen it is a prisoners dream !annot endure limitations$ It must san!tion !rime or it is no longer freedom$ On this essential point 3ade never varies$ The man "ho never prea!hed anything #ut !ontradi!tions only a!hieves !oheren!e 0 and of a most !omplete -ind 0 "hen he tal-s of !apital punishment$ An addi!t of refined "ays of e/e!ution a theoreti!ian of se/ual !rime he "as never a#le to tolerate legal !rime$ FMy imprisonment #y the 3tate "ith the guillotine under my very eyes "as far more horri#le to me than all the *astilles imagina#le$G <rom this feeling of horror he dre" the strength to #e moderate pu#li!ly during the Terror and to intervene generously on #ehalf of his motherEinEla" despite the fa!t that she had had him imprisoned$ A fe" years later (odier summed up perhaps "ithout -no"ing it the position o#stinately defended #y 3ade) FTo -ill a man in a paro/ysm of passion is understanda#le$ To have him -illed #y someone else after !alm and serious meditation

and on the prete/t of duty honoura#ly dis!harged is in!omprehensi#le$G Here "e find the germ of an idea "hi!h again "ill #e developed #y 3ade) he "ho -ills must pay "ith his o"n life$ 3ade is more moral "e see than our !ontemporaries$ *ut his hatred for the death penalty is at first no more than a hatred for men "ho are suffi!iently !onvin!ed of their o"n virtue to dare to infli!t !apital punishment "hen they themselves are !riminals$ 5ou !annot simultaneously !hoose !rime for yourself and punishment for others$ 5ou must open the prison gates or give an impossi#le proof of your o"n inno!en!e$ <rom the moment you a!!ept murder even if only on!e you must allo" it universally$ The !riminal "ho a!ts a!!ording to nature !annot "ithout #etraying his offi!e range himself on the side of the la"$ FOne more effort if you "ant to #e repu#li!ansG means) FA!!ept the freedom of !rime the only reasona#le attitude and enter forever into a state of insurre!tion as you enter into a state of gra!e$G Thus total su#mission to evil leads to an appalling peniten!e "hi!h !annot fail to horrify the Repu#li! of enlightenment and of natural goodness$ *y a signifi!ant !oin!iden!e the manus!ript of +ne Hundred and Twenty Days of #odom "as #urned during the first riot of the Repu#li! "hi!h !ould hardly fail to denoun!e 3ades hereti!al theories of freedom and to thro" so !ompromising a supporter into prison one more$ *y so doing it gave him the regretta#le opportunity of developing his re#ellious logi! still further$ The universal repu#li! !ould #e a dream for 3ade #ut never a temptation$ In politi!s his real position "as

!yni!ism$ In his #ociety of the &riends of $rime he de!lares himself ostensi#ly in favour of the government and its la"s "hi!h he mean"hile has every intention of violating$ It is the same impulse that ma-es the lo"est form of !riminal vote for !onservative !andidates$ The plan that 3ade had in mind assures the #enevolent neutrality of the authorities$ The repu#li! of !rime !annot for the moment at least #e universal$ It must pretend to o#ey the la"$ In a "orld that -no"s no other rule than murder #eneath a !riminal heaven and in the name of a !riminal nature ho"ever 3ade in reality o#eys no other la" than that of ine/hausti#le desire$ *ut to desire "ithout limit is the e7uivalent of #eing desired "ithout limit$ Li!ense to destroy supposes that you yourself !an #e destroyed$ Therefore you must struggle and dominate$ The la" of this "orld is nothing #ut the la" of for!e4 its driving for!e the "ill to po"er$ The advo!ate of !rime really only respe!ts t"o -inds of po"er) one "hi!h he finds among his o"n !lass founded on the a!!ident of #irth and the other #y "hi!h thought sheer villainy an underdog raises himself to the level of the li#ertines of no#le #irth "hom 3ade ma-es his heroes$ This po"erful little group of initiates -no"s that it has all the rights$ Anyone "ho dou#ts even for a se!ond these formida#le privileges is immediately driven from the flo!- and on!e more #e!omes a vi!tim$ Thus a sort of aristo!rati! morality is !reated through "hi!h a little group of men and "omen manage to entren!h themselves a#ove a !aste of slaves #e!ause they possess the se!ret of a strange -no"ledge$ The only pro#lem for them !onsists in organi6ing themselves

so as to #e a#le to e/er!ise fully their rights "hi!h have the terrifying s!ope of desire$ They !annot hope to dominate the entire universe until the la" of !rime has #een a!!epted #y the universe$ 3ade never #elieved that his fello" !ountrymen "ould #e !apa#le of the additional effort needed to ma-e it Frepu#li!anG$ *ut if !rime and desire are not the la" of the entire universe if they do not reign at least over a spe!ified territory they are no longer unifying prin!iples #ut ferments of !onfli!t$ They are no longer the la" and man returns to !haos and !onfusion$ Thus it is ne!essary to !reate from all these fragments a "orld that e/a!tly !oin!ides "ith the ne" la"$ The need for unity "hi!h ,reation leaves unsatisfied is fulfilled at all !osts in a mi!ro!osm$ The la" of po"er never had the patien!e to a"ait !omplete !ontrol of the "orld$ It must fi/ the #oundaries "ithout delay of the territory "here it holds s"ay even if it means surrounding it "ith #ar#ed "ire and o#servation to"ers$ <or 3ade the la" of po"er implies #arred gates !astles "ith seven !ir!umvallations from "hi!h it is impossi#le to es!ape and "here a so!iety founded on desire and !rime fun!tions unimpeded a!!ording to the rules of an impla!a#le system$ The most un#ridled re#ellion insisten!e on !omplete freedom lead to the total su#%e!tion of the ma%ority$ <or 3ade mans eman!ipation is !onsummated in these strongholds of de#au!hery "here a -ind of #ureau!ra!y of vi!e rules over the life and death of the men and "omen "ho have !ommitted themselves forever to the hell of their desires$ His "or-s a#ound "ith des!riptions of these

privileged pla!es "here feudal li#ertines to demonstrate to their assem#led vi!tims their a#solute impoten!e and servitude al"ays repeat the 'u! de *langiss spee!h to the !ommon people of the +ne Hundred and Twenty Days of #odom) F5ou are already dead to the "orld$G 3ade himself also inha#ited the to"er of <reedom #ut in the *astille$ A#solute re#ellion too- refuge "ith him in a sordid fortress from "hi!h no one either perse!uted or perse!utors !ould ever es!ape$ To esta#lish his freedom he had to !reate a#solute ne!essity$ Jnlimited freedom of desire implies the negation of others and the suppression of pity$ The heart that F"ea- spot of the intelle!t G must #e e/terminated4 the lo!-ed room and the system "ill see to that$ The system "hi!h plays a role of !apital importan!e in 3ades fa#ulous !astles perpetuates a universe of mistrust$ It helps to anti!ipate everything so that no une/pe!ted tenderness or pity o!!ur to upset the plans for !omplete en%oyment$ It is a !urious -ind of pleasure no dou#t "hi!h o#eys the !ommandment) F.e shall rise every morning at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42ten o!lo!-GH *ut en%oyment must #e prevented from degenerating into atta!hment it must #e put in parentheses and toughened$ O#%e!ts of en%oyment must also never #e allo"ed to appear as persons$ If man is Fan a#solutely material spe!ies of plant G he !an only #e treated as an o#%e!t and as an o#%e!t for e/periment$ In 3ades fortress repu#li! there are only ma!hines and me!hani!s$ The system "hi!h di!tates the method of employing the ma!hines puts everything in its right pla!e$ His infamous !onverts have their rule 0 signifi!antly !opied from that of religious !ommunities$

Thus the li#ertine indulges in pu#li! !onfession$ *ut the pro!ess is !hanged) FIf his !ondu!t is pure he is !ensured$G 3ade as "as the !ustom of his period !onstru!ted ideal so!ieties$ *ut !ontrary to the !ustom of his period he !odifies the natural "i!-edness of man-ind$ He meti!ulously !onstru!ts a !itadel of for!e and hatred pioneer that he is even to the point of !al!ulating mathemati!ally the amount of the freedom he su!!eeded in destroying$ He sums up his philosophy "ith an unemotional a!!ounting of !rimes$ FMassa!red #efore the first of Mar!h) A:$ After the first of Mar!h) 9:$ To !ome) AX$ Total) CX$G A pioneer no dou#t #ut a limited one as "e !an see$ If that "ere all 3ade "ould #e "orthy only of the interest that atta!hes to all misunderstood pioneers$ *ut on!e the dra"#ridge is up life in the !astle must go on$ (o matter ho" meti!ulous the system it !annot foresee every eventuality$ It !an destroy #ut it !annot !reate$ The masters of these tortured !ommunities do not find the satisfa!tion they so desperately desire$ 3ade often evo-es the Fpleasant ha#it of !rime$G (othing here ho"ever seems very pleasant 0 more li-e the fury of a man in !hains$ The point in fa!t is to en%oy oneself and the ma/imum of en%oyment !oin!ides "ith the ma/imum of destru!tion$ To possess "hat one is going to -ill to !opulate "ith suffering 0 those are the moments of freedom to"ard "hi!h the entire organi6ation of 3ades !astles is dire!ted$ *ut from the moment "hen se/ual !rime destroys the o#%e!t of desire it also destroys desire "hi!h e/ists only at the pre!ise moment of destru!tion$ Then another o#%e!t must #e

#rought under su#%e!tion and -illed again and then another and so on to an infinity of all possi#le o#%e!ts$ This leads to that dreary a!!umulation of eroti! and !riminal s!enes in 3ades novels "hi!h parado/i!ally leaves the reader "ith the impression of a hideous !hastity$ .hat part in this universe !ould pleasure play or the e/7uisite %oy of a!7uies!ent and a!!ompli!e #odies@ In it "e find an impossi#le 7uest for es!ape from despair 0 a 7uest that finishes nevertheless in a desperate ra!e from servitude to servitude and from prison to prison$ If only nature is real and if in nature only desire and destru!tion are legitimate then in that all humanity does not suffi!e to assuage the thirst for #lood the path of destru!tion must lead to universal annihilation$ .e must #e!ome a!!ording to 3ades formula natures e/e!utioner$ *ut even that position is not a!hieved too easily$ .hen the a!!ounts are !losed "hen all the vi!tims are massa!red the e/e!utioners are left fa!e to fa!e in the deserted !astle$ 3omething is still missing$ The tortured #odies return in their elements to nature and "ill #e #orn again$ Even murder !annot #e fully !onsummated) FMurder only deprives the vi!tim of his first life4 a means must #e found of depriving him of his se!ondI$G 3ade !ontemplates an atta!- on !reation) FI a#hor natureI$ I should li-e to upset its plans to th"art its progress to halt the stars in their !ourses to overturn the floating spheres of spa!e to destroy "hat serves nature and to su!!our all that harms it4 in a "ord to insult it in all its "or-s and I !annot su!!eed in doing so$G It is in vain that he dreams of a te!hni!ian "ho !an pulveri6e the universe) he -no"s that in the dust of the

spheres life "ill !ontinue$ The atta!- against !reation is doomed to failure$ It is impossi#le to destroy everything there is al"ays a remainder$ FI !annot su!!eed in doing so IG the i!y and impla!a#le universe suddenly relents at the appalling melan!holy #y "hi!h 3ade in the end and 7uite un"illingly al"ays moves us$ F.e !ould perhaps atta!- the sun deprive the universe of it or use it to set fire to the "orld 0 those "ould #e real !rimesI$G ,rimes yes #ut not the definitive !rime$ It is ne!essary to go farther$ The e/e!utioners eye ea!h other "ith suspi!ion$ They are alone and one la" alone governs them) the la" of po"er$ As they a!!epted it "hen they "ere masters they !annot re%e!t it if it turns against them$ All po"er tends to #e uni7ue and solitary$ Murder must #e repeated) in their turn the masters "ill tear one another to pie!es$ 3ade a!!epts this !onse7uen!e and does not flin!h$ A !urious -ind of stoi!ism derived from vi!e sheds a little light in the dar- pla!es of his re#ellious soul$ He "ill not try to live again in the "orld of affe!tion and !ompromise$ The dra"#ridge "ill not #e lo"ered4 he "ill a!!ept personal annihilation$ The un#ridled for!e of his refusal a!hieves at its !lima/ an un!onditional a!!eptan!e that is not "ithout no#ility$ The master !onsents to #e the slave in his turn and even perhaps "ishes to #e$ FThe s!affold "ould #e for me the throne of voluptuousness$G Thus the greatest degree of destru!tion !oin!ides "ith the greatest degree of affirmation$ The masters thro" themselves on one another and 3ades "ordedi!ated to the glory of li#ertinism ends #y #eing Fstre"n "ith !orpses of li#ertines stru!- do"n at the

height of their po"ers$G 8Mauri!e *lan!hot) )autr,amont et #ade-; The most po"erful the one "ho "ill survive is the solitary the Jni7ue "hose glorifi!ation 3ade has underta-en 0 in other "ords himself$ At last he reigns supreme master and =od$ *ut at the moment of his greatest vi!tory the dream vanishes$ The Jni7ue turns #a!- to"ard the prisoner "hose un#ounded imagination gave #irth to him and they #e!ome one$ He is in fa!t alone imprisoned in a #loodstained *astille entirely !onstru!ted around a still unsatisfied and hen!eforth undire!ted desire for pleasure$ He has only triumphed in a dream and those ten volumes !rammed "ith philosophy and atro!ities re!apitulate an unhappy form of as!eti!ism an illusory advan!e from the total no to the a#solute yes an a!7uies!en!e in death at last "hi!h transfigures the assassination of everything and everyone into a !olle!tive sui!ide$ 3ade "as e/e!uted in effigy4 he too only -illed in his imagination$ +rometheus ends in Onan$ 3ade is still a prisoner "hen he dies #ut this time in a lunati! asylum a!ting plays on an improvised stage "ith other lunati!s$ A derisory e7uivalent of the satisfa!tion that the order of the "orld failed to give him "as provided for him #y dreams and #y !reative a!tivity$ The "riter of !ourse has no need to refuse him anything$ <or him at least #oundaries disappear and desire !an #e allo"ed free rein$ In this respe!t 3ade is the perfe!t man of letters$ He !reated a fa#le in order to give himself the illusion of e/isting$ He put Fthe moral !rime that one !ommits #y "ritingG a#ove everything else$ His merit "hi!h is in!ontesta#le lies in having immediately

demonstrated "ith the unhappy perspi!a!ity of a!!umulated rage the e/treme !onse7uen!es of re#ellious logi! 0 at least "hen it forgets the truth to #e found in its origins$ These !onse7uen!es are a !omplete totalitarianism universal !rime an aristo!ra!y of !yni!ism and the desire for an apo!alypse$ They "ill #e found again many years after his death$ *ut having tasted them he "as !aught it seems on the thorns of his o"n dilemma and !ould only es!ape the dilemma in literature$ 3trangely enough it is 3ade "ho sets re#ellion on the path of literature do"n "hi!h it "ill #e led still farther #y the romanti!s$ He himself is one of those "riters of "hom he says) Ftheir !orruption is so dangerous so a!tive that they have no other aim in printing their monstrous "or-s than to e/tend #eyond their o"n lives the sum total of their !rimes4 they !an !ommit no more #ut their a!!ursed "ritings "ill lead others to do so and this !omforting thought "hi!h they !arry "ith them to the tom# !onsoles them for the o#ligation that death imposes on them of renoun!ing this life$G Thus his re#ellious "ritings #ear "itness to his desire for survival$ Even if the immortality he longs for is the immortality of ,ain at least he longs for it and despite himself #ears "itness to "hat is most true in metaphysi!al re#ellion$ Moreover even his follo"ers !ompel us to do him homage$ His heirs are not all "riters$ Of !ourse there is %ustifi!ation for saying that he suffered and died to stimulate the imagination of the intelligentsia in literary !afVs$ *ut that is not all$ 3ades su!!ess in our day is e/plained #y the dream that he had in !ommon "ith !ontemporary thought) the demand for total freedom

and dehumani6ation !oldly planned #y the intelligen!e$ The redu!tion of man to an o#%e!t of e/periment the rule that spe!ifies the relation #et"een the "ill to po"er and man as an o#%e!t the sealed la#oratory that is the s!ene of this monstrous e/periment are lessons "hi!h the theoreti!ians of po"er "ill dis!over again "hen they !ome to organi6ing the age of slavery$ T"o !enturies ahead of time and on a redu!ed s!ale 3ade e/tolled totalitarian so!ieties in the name of un#ridled freedom 0 "hi!h in reality re#ellion does not demand$ The history and the tragedy of our times really #egin "ith him$ He only #elieved that a so!iety founded on freedom of !rime must !oin!ide "ith freedom of morals as though servitude has its limits$ Our times have limited themselves to #lending in a !urious manner his dream of a universal repu#li! and his te!hni7ue of degradation$ <inally "hat he hated most legal murder has availed itself of the dis!overies that he "anted to put to the servi!e of instin!tive murder$ ,rime "hi!h he "anted he "anted to #e the e/oti! and deli!ious fruit of un#ridled vi!e is no more today than the dismal ha#it of a poli!eE!ontrolled morality$ 3u!h are the surprises of literature$

The Dandies. /ebellion Even after 3ades time men of letters still !ontinue to dominate the s!ene$ Romanti!ism Lu!iferEli-e in its re#ellion is really only useful for adventures of the imagination$ Li-e 3ade romanti!ism is separated from

earlier forms of re#ellion #y its preferen!e for evil and the individual$ *y putting emphasis on its po"ers of defian!e and refusal re#ellion at this stage forgets its positive !ontent$ 3in!e =od !laims all that is good in man it is ne!essary to deride "hat is good and !hoose "hat is evil$ Hatred of death and of in%usti!e "ill lead therefore if not to the e/er!ise at least to the vindi!ation of evil and murder$ The struggle #et"een 3atan and death in "aradise )ost the favourite poem of the romanti!s sym#oli6es this drama4 all the more profoundly in that death >"ith of !ourse sin? is the !hild of 3atan$ In order to !om#at evil the re#el renoun!es good #e!ause he !onsiders himself inno!ent and on!e again gives #irth to evil$ The romanti! hero first of all #rings a#out the profound and so to spea- religious #lending of good and evil$ 8A dominant theme in .illiam *la-e for e/ample$; This type of hero is FfatalG #e!ause fate !onfounds good and evil "ithout man #eing a#le to prevent it$ <ate does not allo" %udgements of value$ It repla!es them #y the statement that FIt is soG 0 "hi!h e/!uses everything "ith the e/!eption of the ,reator "ho alone is responsi#le for this s!andalous state of affairs$ The romanti! hero is also FfatalG #e!ause to the e/tent that he in!reases in po"er and genius the po"er of evil in!reases in him$ Every manifestation of po"er every e/!ess is thus !overed #y this FIt is so$G That the artist parti!ularly the poet should #e demonia! is a very an!ient idea "hi!h is formulated provo!atively in the "or- of the romanti!s$ At this period there is even an imperialism of evil "hose aim is to anne/ everything even the most orthodo/ geniuses$ F.hat made

style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Milton "rite "ith !onstraint G *la-e

o#serves F"hen he spo-e of angels and of =od and "ith auda!ity "hen he spo-e of demons and of hell is that he "as a real poet and on the side of the demons "ithout -no"ing it$G The poet the genius man himself in his most e/alted image therefore !ry out simultaneously "ith 3atan) F3o fare"ell hope and "ith hope fare"ell fear fare"ell remorseI$ Evil #e thou my good$G It is the !ry of outraged inno!en!e$ The romanti! hero therefore !onsiders himself !ompelled to do evil #y his nostalgia for an unreali6a#le good$ 3atan rises against his ,reator #e!ause the latter employed for!e to su#%ugate him$ F.hom reason hath e7uald G says style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Miltons 3atan Ffor!e hath made supreme a#ove his e7uals$G 'ivine violen!e is thus e/pli!itly !ondemned$ The re#el flees from this aggressive and un"orthy =od F<arthest from him is #est G and reigns over all the for!es hostile to the divine order$ The +rin!e of 'ar-ness has only !hosen this path #e!ause good is a notion defined and utili6ed #y =od for un%ust purposes$ Even inno!en!e irritates the Re#el insofar as it implies #eing duped$ This Fdarspirit of evil "ho is enraged #y inno!en!eG !reates a human in%usti!e parallel to divine in%usti!e$ 3in!e violen!e is the root of all !reation deli#erate violen!e shall #e its ans"er$ The fa!t that there is an e/!ess of despair adds to the !auses of despair and #rings re#ellion to that state of indignant frustration "hi!h follo"s the long e/perien!e of in%usti!e and "here the distin!tion #et"een good and evil finally disappears$ Vignys 3atan !an

I no longer find in good or evil

any pleasure nor of the sorro" that he !auses ta-e the measure$ This defines nihilism and authori6es murder$ Murder in fa!t is on the "ay to #e!oming a!!epta#le$ It is enough to !ompare the Lu!ifer of the painters of the Middle Ages "ith the 3atan of the romanti!s$ An adoles!ent Fyoung sad !harmingG >Vigny? repla!es the horned #east$ F*eautiful "ith a #eauty un-no"n on this earthG >Lermontov? solitary and po"erful unhappy and s!ornful he is offhand even in oppression$ *ut his e/!use is sorro"$ F.ho here G says style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Miltons 3atan F"ill envy him the highest pla!e I !ondemns to greatest share of endless pain$G 3o many in%usti!es suffered a sorro" so unrelieved %ustify every e/!ess$ The re#el therefore allo"s himself !ertain advantages$ Murder of !ourse is not re!ommended for its o"n sa-e$ *ut it is impli!it in the value 0 supreme for the romanti! E atta!hed to fren6y$ <ren6y is the reverse of #oredom) Loren6a!!io dreams of Han of I!eland$ E/7uisite sensi#ilities evo-e the elementary furies of the #east$ The *yroni! hero in!apa#le of love or !apa#le only of an impossi#le love suffers endlessly$ He is solitary languid his !ondition e/hausts

him$ If he "ants to feel alive it must #e in the terri#le e/altation of a #rief and destru!tive a!tion$ To love someone "hom one "ill never see again is to give a !ry of e/ultation as one perishes in the flames of passion$ One lives only in and for the moment in order to a!hieve Fthe #rief and vivid union of a tempestuous heart united to the tempestG >LERMO(TOV?$ The threat of mortality "hi!h hangs over us ma-es everything a#ortive$ Only the !ry of anguish !an #ring us to life4 e/altation ta-es the pla!e of truth$ To this e/tent the apo!alypse #e!omes an a#solute value in "hi!h everything is !onfounded 0 love and death !ons!ien!e and !ulpa#ility$ In a !haoti! universe no other life e/ists #ut that of the a#yss "here a!!ording to Alfred Le +oittevin human #eings !ome Ftrem#ling "ith rage and e/ulting in their !rimesG to !urse the ,reator$ The into/i!ation of fren6y and ultimately some suita#le !rime reveal in a moment the "hole meaning of a life$ .ithout e/a!tly advo!ating !rime the romanti!s insist on paying homage to a #asi! system of privileges "hi!h they illustrate "ith the !onventional images of the outla" the !riminal "ith the heart of gold and the -ind #rigand$ Their "or-s are #athed in #lood and shrouded in mystery$ The soul is delivered at a minimum e/penditure of its most hideous desires 0 desires that a later generation "ill assuage in e/termination !amps$ Of !ourse these "or-s are also a !hallenge to the so!iety

of the times$ *ut romanti!ism at the sour!e of its inspiration is !hiefly !on!erned "ith defying moral and divine la"$ That is "hy its most original !reation is not primarily the revolutionary #ut logi!ally enough the dandy$ Logi!ally #e!ause this o#stinate persisten!e in 3atanism !an only #e %ustified #y the endless affirmation of in%usti!e and to a !ertain e/tent #y its !onsolidation$ +ain at this stage is a!!epta#le only on !ondition that it is in!ura#le$ The re#el !hooses the metaphysi! of inevita#le evil "hi!h is e/pressed in the literature of damnation from "hi!h "e have not yet es!aped$ FI "as !ons!ious of my po"er and I "as !ons!ious of my !hainsG >+etrus *orel?$ *ut these !hains are valua#le o#%e!ts$ .ithout them it "ould #e ne!essary to prove or to e/er!ise this po"er "hi!h after all one is not very sure of having$ It is only too easy to end up #y #e!oming a government employee in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Algiers and +rometheus li-e the a#oveEmentioned *orel "ill devote the rest of his days to !losing the !a#arets and reforming morals in the !olonies$ All the same every poet to #e re!eived into the fold must #e damned$ 8<ren!h literature still feels the effe!ts of this$ F+oets are no longer damned G says Malrau/$ There are fe"er$ *ut the others all suffer from #ad !ons!ien!es$; ,harles Lassailly the same "ho planned a philosophi! novel /obespierre and 0esus $hrist never "ent to #ed "ithout uttering several fervent #lasphemies to give himself !ourage$ Re#ellion puts on mourning and e/hi#its itself for pu#li! admiration$ Mu!h more than the !ult of the individual romanti!ism inaugurates the

!ult of the F!hara!ter$G It is at this point that it is logi!al$ (o longer hoping for the rule or the unity of =od determined to ta-e up arms against an antagonisti! destiny an/ious to preserve everything of "hi!h the living are still !apa#le in a "orld dedi!ated to death romanti! re#ellion loo-ed for a solution in the attitude that it itself assumed$ The attitude assem#led in Rstheti! unity all man-ind "ho "ere in the hands of fate and a#out to #e destroyed #y divine violen!e$ The human #eing "ho is !ondemned to death is at least magnifi!ent #efore he disappears and his magnifi!en!e is his %ustifi!ation$ It is an esta#lished fa!t the only one that !an #e thro"n in the petrified fa!e of the =od of hate$ The impassive re#el does not flin!h #efore the eyes of =od$ F(othing G says style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Milton F"ill !hange this determined mind this high disdain #orn of an offended !ons!ien!e$G Everything is dra"n or rushes to"ard the void #ut even though man is humiliated he is o#stinate and at least preserves his pride$ A #aro7ue romanti! dis!overed #y Raymond Mueneau !laims that the aim of all intelle!tual life is to #e!ome =od$ This romanti! is really a little ahead of his time$ The aim at that time "as only to e7ual =od and remain on His level$ He is not destroyed #ut #y in!essant effort He is refused any a!t of su#mission$ 'andyism is a degraded form of as!eti!ism$ The dandy !reates his o"n unity #y Rstheti! means$ *ut it is an Rstheti! of singularity and of negation$ FTo live and die #efore a mirrorG) that a!!ording to *audelaire "as the dandys slogan$ It is indeed a !oherent slogan$ The dandy is #y o!!upation al"ays in

opposition$ He !an only e/ist #y defian!e$ Jp to no" man derived his !oheren!e from his ,reator$ *ut from the moment that he !onse!rates his rupture "ith Him he finds himself delivered over to the fleeting moment to the passing days and to "asted sensi#ility$ Therefore he must ta-e himself in hand$ The dandy rallies his for!es and !reates a unity for himself #y the very violen!e of his refusal$ +rofligate li-e all people "ithout a rule of life he is !oherent as an a!tor$ *ut an a!tor implies a pu#li!4 the dandy !an only play a part #y setting himself up in opposition$ He !an only #e sure of his o"n e/isten!e #y finding it in the e/pression of others fa!es$ Other people are his mirror$ A mirror that 7ui!-ly #e!omes !louded it is true sin!e human !apa!ity for attention is limited$ It must #e !easelessly stimulated spurred on #y provo!ation$ The dandy therefore is al"ays !ompelled to astonish$ 3ingularity is his vo!ation e/!ess his "ay to perfe!tion$ +erpetually in!omplete al"ays on the fringe of things he !ompels others to !reate him "hile denying their values$ He plays at life #e!ause he is una#le to live it$ He plays at it until he dies e/!ept for the moments "hen he is alone and "ithout a mirror$ <or the dandy to #e alone is not to e/ist$ The romanti!s tal-ed so grandly a#out solitude only #e!ause it "as their real horror the one thing they !ould not #ear$ Their re#ellion thrusts its roots deep #ut from the A##V +rVvosts $leveland up to the time of the 'adaists 0 in!luding the freneti!s of AUW: and *audelaire and the de!adents of AUU: 0 more than a !entury of re#ellion "as !ompletely glutted #y the auda!ities of Fe!!entri!ityG$ If they "ere all a#le to tal- of unhappiness it is #e!ause they despaired of ever #eing a#le to !on7uer it e/!ept in futile parodies and

#e!ause they instin!tively felt that it remained their sole e/!use and their real !laim to no#ility$ That is "hy the heritage of romanti!ism "as not !laimed #y Vi!tor Hugo the epitome of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e #ut #y *audelaire and La!enaire the poets of !rime$ FEverything in this "orld e/udes !rime G says *audelaire Fthe ne"spaper the "alls and the fa!e of man$G (evertheless !rime "hi!h is the la" of nature singularly fails to appear distinguished$ La!enaire the first of the gentleman !riminals e/ploits it effe!tively4 *audelaire displays less tena!ity #ut is a genius$ He !reates the garden of evil "here !rime figures only as one of the rarer spe!ies$ Terror itself #e!omes an e/7uisite sensation and a !olle!tors item$ F(ot only "ould I #e happy to #e a vi!tim #ut I "ould not even hate #eing an e/e!utioner in order to feel the revolution from #oth sides$G Even *audelaires !onformity has the odour of !rime$ If he !hooses Maistre as his master it is to the e/tent that this !onservative goes to e/tremes and !entres his do!trine on death and on the e/e!utioner$ FThe real saint G *audelaire pretends to thin- Fis he "ho flogs and -ills people for their o"n good$G His argument "ill #e heard$ A ra!e of real saints is #eginning to spread over the earth for the purposes of !onfirming these !urious !on!lusions a#out re#ellion$ *ut *audelaire despite his satani! arsenal his taste for 3ade his #lasphemies remains too mu!h of a theologian to #e a proper re#el$ His real drama "hi!h made him the greatest poet of his time "as something else$ *audelaire !an #e mentioned here only to the e/tent that he "as the most profound theoreti!ian of dandyism and

gave definite form to one of the !on!lusions of romanti! revolt$ Romanti!ism demonstrates in fa!t that re#ellion is part and par!el of dandyism) one of its o#%e!tives is appearan!es$ In its !onventional forms dandyism admits a nostalgia for ethi!s$ It is only honour degraded as a point of honour$ *ut at the same time it inaugurates an Rstheti! of solitary !reators "ho are o#stinate rivals of a =od they !ondemn$ <rom romanti!ism on"ard the artists tas- "ill not only #e to !reate a "orld or to e/alt #eauty for its o"n sa-e #ut also to define an attitude$ Thus the artist #e!omes a model and offers himself as an e/ample) art is his ethi!$ .ith him #egins the age of the dire!tors of !ons!ien!e$ .hen the dandies fail to !ommit sui!ide or do not go mad they ma-e a !areer and pursue prosperity$ Even "hen li-e Vigny they e/!laim that they are going to retire into silen!e their silen!e is pier!ing$ *ut at the very heart of romanti!ism the sterility of this attitude #e!omes apparent to a fe" re#els "ho provide a transitional type #et"een the e!!entri!s >or the In!redi#le? and our revolutionary adventurers$ *et"een the times of the eighteenthE!entury *yron and 3helley are already fighting though only ostensi#ly for freedom$ They also e/pose themselves #ut in another "ay$ Re#ellion gradually leaves the "orld of appearan!es for the "orld of a!tion "here it "ill !ompletely !ommit itself$ The <ren!h students in AUW: and the Russian 'e!em#rists "ill then appear as the purest in!arnations of a re#ellion "hi!h is at first solitary and "hi!h then tries through sa!rifi!e to find the path of solidarity$ *ut inversely the taste for the

apo!alypse and a life of fren6y "ill reappear among presentEday revolutionaries$ The endless series of treason trials the terri#le game played out #et"een the %udge and the a!!used the ela#orate staging of !rossE e/aminations sometimes lead us to #elieve that there is a tragi! resem#lan!e to the old su#terfuge #y "hi!h the romanti! re#el in refusing to #e "hat he "as provisionally !ondemned himself to a ma-eE#elieve "orld in the desperate hope of a!hieving a more profound e/isten!e$

The /e1ection of #alvation

%
If the romanti! re#el e/tols evil and the individual this does not mean that he sides "ith man-ind$ 'andyism of "hatever -ind is al"ays dandyism in relation to =od$ The individual insofar as he is a !reated #eing !an oppose himself only to the ,reator$ He has need of =od "hen "hom he !arries on a -ind of gloomy flirtation$ Armand Hoog 8)es "etits /omantiques; rightly says that despite its (iet6s!hean atmosphere =od is not yet dead even in romanti! literature$ 'amnation so !lamorously demanded is only a !lever

tri!- played on =od$ *ut "ith 'ostoievs-y the de!eption of re#ellion goes a step farther$ Ivan Karama6ov sides "ith man-ind and stresses human inno!en!e$ He affirms that the death senten!e "hi!h hangs over them is un%ust$ <ar from ma-ing a plea for evil his first impulse at least is to plead for %usti!e "hi!h he ran-s a#ove the divinity$ Thus he does not a#solutely deny the e/isten!e of =od$ He refutes Him in the name of a moral value$ The romanti! re#els am#ition "as to tal- to =od as one e7ual to another$ Evil "as the ans"er to evil pride the ans"er to !ruelty$ Vignys ideal for e/ample is to ans"er silen!e "ith silen!e$ O#viously the point is to raise oneself to the level of =od "hi!h already is #lasphemy$ *ut there is no thought of disputing the po"er or position of the deity$ The #lasphemy is reverent sin!e every #lasphemy is ultimately a parti!ipation in holiness$ .ith Ivan ho"ever the tone !hanges$ =od in His turn is put on trial$ If evil is essential to divine !reation then !reation is una!!epta#le$ Ivan "ill no longer have re!ourse to this mysterious =od #ut to a higher prin!iple 0 namely %usti!e$ He laun!hes the essential underta-ing of re#ellion "hi!h is that of repla!ing the reign of gra!e #y the reign of %usti!e$ He simultaneously #egins the atta!- on ,hristianity$ The romanti! re#el #ro-e "ith =od Himself on the prin!iple of hatred =od on the prin!iple of love$ Only love !an ma-e us !onsent to the in%usti!e done to Martha to the

e/ploitation of "or-ers and finally to the death of inno!ent !hildren$

FIf the suffering of !hildren G says Ivan Fserves to

!omplete the sum of suffering ne!essary for the a!7uisition of truth I affirm from no" on"ard that truth is not "orth su!h a pri!e$G Ivan re%e!ts the #asi! interdependen!e introdu!ed #y ,hristianity #et"een suffering and truth$ Ivans must profound utteran!e the one "hi!h opens the deepest !hasms #eneath the re#els feet is his even if) FI "ould persist in my indignation even if I "ere "rong$G .hi!h means that even if =od e/isted even if the mystery !loa-ed a truth even if the starets Oosime "ere right Ivan "ould not admit that truth should #e paid for #y evil suffering and the death of inno!ents$ Ivan in!arnates the refusal of salvation$ <aith leads to immortal life$ *ut faith presumes the a!!eptan!e of the mystery and of evil and resignation to in%usti!e$ The man "ho is prevented #y the suffering of !hildren from a!!epting faith "ill !ertainly not a!!ept eternal life$ Jnder these !onditions even if eternal life e/isted Ivan "ould refuse it$ He re%e!ts this #argain$ He "ould a!!ept gra!e only un!onditionally and that is "hy he ma-es his o"n !onditions$ Re#ellion "ants all or nothing$ FAll the -no"ledge in the "orld is not "orth a !hilds tears$G Ivan does not say that there is no truth$ He says that if truth does e/ist it !an only #e una!!epta#le$ .hy@ *e!ause it is un%ust$ The struggle #et"een truth and %usti!e is #egun here for the first time4 and it "ill never end$ Ivan #y nature a solitary and therefore a moralist "ill satisfy himself "ith a -ind of metaphysi!al 'on Mui/otism$ *ut a fe" de!ades more

and an immense politi!al !onspira!y "ill attempt to prove that %usti!e is truth$ In addition Ivan is the in!arnation of the refusal to #e the only one saved$ He thro"s in his lot "ith the damned and for their sa-e re%e!ts eternity$ If he had faith he !ould in fa!t #e saved #ut others "ould #e damned and suffering "ould !ontinue$ There is no possi#le salvation for the man "ho feels real !ompassion$ Ivan "ill !ontinue to put =od in the "rong #y dou#ly re%e!ting faith as he "ould re%e!t in%usti!e and privilege$ One step more and from All or othing "e arrive at Everyone or o +neThis e/treme determination and the attitude that it implies "ould have suffi!ed for the romanti!s$ *ut Ivan 8It is "orth noting that Ivan is in a !ertain "ay 'ostoievs-y "ho is more at ease in this role than in the role of Aliosha$; even though he also gives "ay to dandyism really lives his pro#lems torn #et"een the negative and the affirmative$ <rom this moment on"ard he a!!epts the !onse7uen!es$ If he re%e!ts immortality "hat remains for him@ Life in its most elementary form$ .hen the meaning of life has #een suppressed there still remains life$ FI live G says Ivan Fin spite of logi!$G And again) FIf I no longer had any faith in life if I dou#ted a "oman I loved or the universal order of things if I "ere persuaded on the !ontrary that everything "as only an infernal and a!!ursed !haos 0 even then I "ould "ant to live$G Ivan "ill live then and "ill love as "ell F"ithout -no"ing "hy$G *ut to live is also to a!t$ To a!t in the name of "hat@ If there is no immortality then there is neither re"ard nor punishment$ FI #elieve that there is no virtue

"ithout immortality$G And also) FI only -no" that suffering e/ists that no one is guilty that everything is !onne!ted that everything passes a"ay and e7uals out$G *ut if there is no virtue there is no la") FEverything is permitted$G .ith this Feverything is permittedG the history of !ontemporary nihilism really #egins$ The romanti! re#ellion did not go so far$ It limited itself to saying in short that everything "as not permitted #ut that through insolen!e it allo"ed itself to do "hat "as for#idden$ .ith the Karama6ovs on the !ontrary the logi! of indignation turned re#ellion against itself and !onfronted it "ith a desperate !ontradi!tion$ The essential differen!e is that the romanti!s allo"ed themselves moments of !ompla!en!e "hile Ivan !ompelled himself to do evil so as to #e !oherent$ He "ould not allo" himself to #e good$ (ihilism is not only despair and negation #ut a#ove all the desire to despair and to negate$ The same man "ho so violently too- the part of inno!en!e "ho trem#led at the suffering of a !hild "ho "anted to see F"ith his o"n eyesG the lam# lie do"n "ith the lion the vi!tim em#ra!e his murderer from the moment that he re%e!ts divine !oheren!e and tries to dis!over his o"n rule of life re!ogni6es the legitima!y of murder$ Ivan re#els against a murderous =od4 #ut from the moment that he #egins to rationali6e his re#ellion he dedu!es the la" of murder$ If all is permitted he !an -ill his father or at least allo" him to #e -illed$ Long refle!tion on the !ondition of man-ind as people senten!ed to death only leads to the %ustifi!ation of !rime$ Ivan simultaneously hates the death penalty >des!ri#ing an e/e!ution he says

furiously) FHis head fell in the name of divine gra!eG? and !ondones !rime in prin!iple$ Every indulgen!e is allo"ed the murderer none is allo"ed the e/e!utioner$ This !ontradi!tion "hi!h 3ade s"allo"ed "ith ease !ho-es Ivan Karama6ov$ He pretends to reason in fa!t as though immortality did not e/ist "hile he only goes so far as to say that he "ould refuse it even if it did e/ist$ In order to protest against evil and death he deli#erately !hooses to say that virtue e/ists no more than does immortality and to allo" his father to #e -illed$ He !ons!iously a!!epts his dilemma4 to #e virtuous and illogi!al or logi!al and !riminal$ His prototype the devil is right "hen he "hispers) F5ou are going to !ommit a virtuous a!t and yet you do not #elieve in virtue4 that is "hat angers and torments you$G The 7uestion that Ivan finally poses the 7uestion that !onstitutes the real progress a!hieved #y 'ostoievs-y in the history of re#ellion is the only one in "hi!h "e are interested here) !an one live and stand ones ground in a state of re#ellion@ Ivan allo"s us to guess his ans"er) one !an live in a state of re#ellion only #y pursuing it to the #itter end$ .hat is the #itter end of metaphysi!al re#ellion@ Metaphysi!al revolution$ The master of the "orld after his legitima!y has #een !ontested must #e overthro"n$ Man must o!!upy his pla!e$ FAs =od and immortality do not e/ist the ne" man is permitted to #e!ome =od$G *ut "hat does #e!oming =od mean@ It means in fa!t re!ogni6ing that everything is permitted and refusing to re!ogni6e any other la" #ut ones o"n$ .ithout it #eing ne!essary to develop the intervening arguments "e !an see that to #e!ome =od is to a!!ept !rime >a favourite

ideal of 'ostoievs-ys intelle!tuals?$ Ivans personal pro#lem is then to -no" if he "ill #e faithful to his logi! and if on the grounds of an indignant protest against inno!ent suffering he "ill a!!ept the murder of his father and the indifferen!e of a manEgod$ .e -no" his solution) Ivan allo"s his father to #e -illed$ Too profound to #e satisfied "ith appearan!es to sensitive to perform the deed himself he is !ontent to allo" it to #e done$ *ut he goes mad$ The man "ho !ould not understand ho" one !ould love ones neigh#our !annot understand either ho" one !an -ill him$ ,aught #et"een un%ustifia#le virtue and una!!epta#le !rime !onsumed "ith pity and in!apa#le of love a re!luse deprived of the #enefits of !yni!ism this man of supreme intelligen!e is -illed #y !ontradi!tion$ FMy mind is of this "orld G he said4 F"hat good is it to try to understand "hat is not of this "orld@G *ut he lived only for "hat is not of this "orld and his proud sear!h for the a#solute is pre!isely "hat removed him from the "orld of "hi!h he loved no part$ The fa!t that Ivan "as defeated does not o#viate the fa!t that on!e the pro#lem is posed the !onse7uen!e must follo") re#ellion is hen!eforth on the mar!h to"ard a!tion$ This has already #een demonstrated #y 'ostoievs-y "ith propheti! intensity in his legend of the =rand In7uisitor$ Ivan finally does not distinguish the !reator from his !reation$ FIt is not =od "hom I re%e!t G he says Fit is !reation$G In other "ords it is =od the father indistinguisha#le from "hat He has !reated$ 8Ivan allo"s his father to #e -illed and thus !hooses a dire!t atta!- against nature and pro!reation$ Moreover this parti!ular father is infamous$ The

repugnant figure of old Karama6ov is !ontinually !oming #et"een Ivan and the =od of Aliosha$; His plot to usurp the throne therefore remains !ompletely moral$ He does not "ant to reform anything in !reation$ *ut !reation #eing "hat it is he !laims the right to free himself morally and to free all the rest of man-ind "ith him$ On the other hand from the moment "hen the spirit of re#ellion having a!!epted the !on!ept of Feverything is permittedG and Feveryone or no one G aims at re!onstru!ting !reation in order to assert the sovereignty and divinity of man and from the moment "hen metaphysi!al re#ellion e/tends itself from ethi!s to politi!s a ne" understanding of in!al!ula#le import #egins "hi!h also springs "e must note from the same nihilism$ 'ostoievs-y the prophet of the ne" religion had foreseen and announ!ed it) FIf Aliosha had !ome to the !on!lusion that neither =od nor immortality e/isted he "ould immediately have #e!ome an atheist and a so!ialist$ <or so!ialism is not only a 7uestion of the "or-ing !lasses4 it is a#ove all in its !ontemporary in!arnation a 7uestion of atheism a 7uestion of the to"er of *a#el "hi!h is !onstru!ted "ithout =ods help not to rea!h to the heavens #ut to #ring the heavens do"n to earth$G 8These 7uestions >=od and immortality? are the same 7uestions that so!ialism poses #ut seen from another angle$; After that Aliosha !an in fa!t treat Ivan "ith !ompassion as a Freal simpleton$G The latter only made an attempt at selfE!ontrol and failed$ Others "ill appear "ith more serious intentions "ho on the #asis of the same despairing nihilism "ill insist on ruling the "orld$ These are the =rand In7uisitors "hom imprison

,hrist and !ome to tell Him that His method is not !orre!t that universal happiness !annot #e a!hieved #y the immediate freedom of !hoosing #et"een good and evil #ut #y the domination and unifi!ation of the "orld$ The first step is to !on7uer and rule$ The -ingdom of heaven "ill in fa!t appear on earth #ut it "ill #e ruled over #y men 0 a mere handful to #egin "ith "ho "ill #e the ,Rsars #e!ause they "ere the first to understand 0 and later "ith time #y all men$ The unity of all !reation "ill #e a!hieved #y every possi#le means sin!e everything is permitted$ The =rand In7uisitor is old and tired for the -no"ledge he possesses is #itter$ He -no"s that men are la6y rather than !o"ardly and that they prefer pea!e and death to the li#erty of dis!erning #et"een good and evil$ He has pity a !old pity for the silent prisoner "hom history endlessly de!eives$ He urges him to spea- to re!ogni6e his misdeeds and in one sense to approve the a!tions of the In7uisitors and of the ,Rsars$ *ut the prisoner does not spea-$ The enterprise "ill !ontinue therefore "ithout him4 he "ill #e -illed$ Legitima!y "ill !ome at the end of time "hen the -ingdom of men is assured$ FThe affair as only %ust #egun it is far from #eing terminated and the "orld has many other things to suffer #ut "e shall a!hieve our aim "e shall #e ,Rsar and then "e shall #egin to thin- a#out universal happiness$G *y then the prisoner has #een e/e!uted4 the =rand In7uisitors reign alone listening to Fthe profound spirit the spirit of destru!tion and death$G The =rand In7uisitors proudly refuse freedom and the #read of heaven and offer the #read of this earth "ithout freedom$ F,ome do"n from the !ross and "e "ill

#elieve in you G their poli!e agents are already !rying in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=olgotha$ *ut He did not !ome do"n and even at the most tortured moment of His agony He protested to =od at having #een forsa-en$ There are thus no longer any proofs #ut faith and the mystery that the re#els re%e!t and at "hi!h the =rand In7uisitors s!off$ Everything is permitted and !enturies of !rime are prepared in that !ata!lysmi! moment$ <rom +aul to 3talin the popes "ho have !hosen ,Rsar have prepared the "ay for ,Rsars "ho 7ui!-ly learn to despise popes$ The unity of the "orld "hi!h "as not a!hieved "ith =od "ill hen!eforth #e attempted in defian!e of =od$ *ut "e have not yet rea!hed that point$ <or the moment Ivan offers us only the tortured fa!e of the re#el plunged in the a#yss in!apa#le of a!tion torn #et"een the idea of his o"n inno!en!e and the desire to -ill$ He hates the death penalty #e!ause it is the image of the human !ondition and at the same time he is dra"n to !rime$ *e!ause he has ta-en the side of man-ind solitude is his lot$ .ith him the re#ellion of reason !ulminates in madness$

Absolute Affirmation %

<rom the moment that man su#mits =od to moral %udgement he -ills Him in his o"n heart$ And then "hat is the #asis of morality@ =od is denied in the name of %usti!e #ut !an the idea of %usti!e #e understood "ithout the idea of =od@ At this point are "e not in the realm of a#surdity@ A#surdity is the !on!ept that (iet6s!he meets fa!e to fa!e$ In order to #e a#le to dismiss it he pushes it to e/tremes) morality is the ultimate aspe!t of =od "hi!h must #e destroyed #efore re!onstru!tion !an #egin$ Then =od no longer e/ists and is no longer responsi#le for our e/isten!e4 man must resolve to a!t in order to e/ist$

The 2nique Even #efore (iet6s!he 3tirner "anted to eradi!ate the very idea of =od from mans mind after he had destroyed =od Himself$ *ut unli-e (iet6s!he his nihilism "as gratified$ 3tirner laughs in his #lind alley4 (iet6s!he #eats his head against the "all$ In AUCD the year "hen 'er Ein6iger und sein Eigentum >The Jni7ue and its ,hara!teristi!s? appeared 3tirner #egins to define his position$ 3tirner "ho fre7uented the F3o!iety of <ree MenG "ith the young Hegelians of the left >of "hom Mar/ "as one? had an a!!ount to settle not only "ith =od #ut also "ith

<euer#a!hs Man Hegels 3pirit and its histori!al in!arnation the 3tate$ All these idols to his mind "ere offsprings of the same FmongolismG 0 the #elief in the eternity of ideas$ Thus he "as a#le to "rite) FI have !onstru!ted my !ase on nothing$G 3in is of !ourse a Fmongol s!ourge G #ut it is also the la" of "hi!h "e are prisoners$ =od is the enemy4 3tirner goes as far as he !an in #lasphemy >Fdigest the Host and you are rid of itG?$ *ut =od is only one of the a#errations of the I or more pre!isely of "hat I am$ 3o!rates Lesus 'es!artes Hegel all the prophets and philosophers have done nothing #ut invent ne" methods of deranging "hat I am the I that 3tirner is so intent on distinguishing from the a#solute I of <i!hte #y redu!ing it to its most spe!ifi! and transitory aspe!t$ FIt has no name G it is the Jni7ue$ <or 3tirner the history of the universe up to the time of Lesus is nothing #ut a sustained effort to ideali6e reality$ This effort is in!arnated in the ideas and rites of purifi!ation "hi!h the an!ients employed$ <rom the time of Lesus the goal is rea!hed and another effort is em#ar-ed upon "hi!h !onsists on the !ontrary in attempting to reali6e the ideal$ The passion of the in!arnation ta-es the pla!e of purifi!ation and devastates the "orld to a greater and greater degree as so!ialism the heir of ,hrist e/tends its s"ay$ *ut the history of the universe is nothing #ut a !ontinual offen!e to the uni7ue prin!iple that FI amG 0 a living !on!rete prin!iple a triumphant prin!iple that the "orld has

al"ays "anted to su#%e!t to the yo-e of su!!essive a#stra!tions 0 =od the 3tate so!iety humanity$ <or 3tirner philanthropy is a hoa/$ Atheisti! philosophies "hi!h !ulminate in the !ult of the 3tate and of Man are only Ftheologi!al insurre!tions$G FOur atheists G says 3tirner Fare really pious fol-$G There is only one religion that e/ists throughout all history the #elief in eternity$ This #elief is a de!eption$ The only truth is the Jni7ue the enemy of eternity and of everything in fa!t "hi!h does not further its desire for domination$ .ith 3tirner the !on!ept of negation "hi!h inspires his re#ellion irresisti#ly su#merges every aspe!t of affirmation$ It also s"eeps a"ay the su#stitutes for divinity "ith "hi!h the moral !ons!ien!e is en!um#ered$ FE/ternal eternity is s"ept a"ay G he says F#ut internal eternity has #e!ome the ne" heaven$G Even revolution revolution in parti!ular is repugnant to this re#el$ To #e a revolutionary one must !ontinue to #elieve in something even "here there is nothing in "hi!h to #elieve$ FThe 8<ren!h; Revolution ended in rea!tion and that demonstrates "hat the Revolution "as in reality$G To dedi!ate oneself to humanity is no more "orth"hile than serving =od$ Moreover fraternity is only F,ommunism in its 3unday #est$G 'uring the "ee- the mem#ers of the fraternity #e!ome slaves$ Therefore there is only one form of freedom for 3tirner Fmy po"er G and only one truth Fthe magnifi!ent egotism of the stars$G In this desert everything #egins to flo"er again$ FThe terrifying signifi!an!e of an unpremeditated !ry of %oy !annot #e understood "hile the long night of faith and reason endures$G This night is dra"ing to a !lose

and a da"n "ill #rea- "hi!h is not the da"n of revolution #ut of insurre!tion$ Insurre!tion is in itself an as!eti!ism "hi!h re%e!ts all forms of !onsolation$ The insurgent "ill not #e in agreement "ith other men e/!ept insofar as and as long as their egotism !oin!ides "ith his$ His real life is led in solitude "here he "ill assuage "ithout restraint his appetite for e/isting "hi!h is his only reason for e/isten!e$ In this respe!t individualism rea!hes a !lima/$ It is the negation of everything that denies the individual and the glorifi!ation of everything that e/alts and ministers to the individual$ .hat a!!ording to 3tirner is good@ FEverything of "hi!h I !an ma-e use$G .hat am I legitimately authori6ed to do@ FEverything of "hi!h I am !apa#le$G On!e again re#ellion leads to the %ustifi!ation of !rime$ 3tirner not only has attempted to %ustify !rime >in this respe!t the terrorist forms of anar!hy are dire!tly des!ended from him? #ut is visi#ly into/i!ated #y the perspe!tives that he thus reveals$ FTo #rea- "ith "hat is sa!red or rather to destroy the sa!red !ould #e!ome universal$ It is not a ne" revolution that is approa!hing 0 #ut is not a po"erful proud disrespe!tful shameless !ons!ien!eless !rime s"elling li-e a thunder!loud on the hori6on and !an you not see that the s-y heavy "ith fore#oding is gro"ing dar- and silent@G Here "e !an feel the som#re %oy of those "ho !reate an apo!alypse in a garret$ This #itter and imperious logi! !an no longer #e held in !he!e/!ept #y an I "hi!h is determined to defeat every form of a#stra!tion and "hi!h has itself #e!ome a#stra!t and nameless through #eing isolated and !ut off from its roots$ There are no more !rimes and no more

imperfe!tions and therefore no more sinners$ .e are all perfe!t$ 3in!e every I is in itself fundamentally !riminal in its attitude to"ard the 3tate and the people "e must re!ogni6e that to live is to transgress$ Jnless "e a!!ept death "e must #e "illing to -ill in order to #e uni7ue$ F5ou are not as no#le as a !riminal you "ho do not !reate anything$G Moreover 3tirner still "ithout the !ourage of his !onvi!tions spe!ifies) FKill them do not martyr them$G *ut to de!ree that murder is legitimate is to de!ree mo#ili6ation and "ar for all the Jni7ue$ Thus murder "ill !oin!ide "ith a -ind of !olle!tive sui!ide$ 3tirner "ho either does not admit or does not see this nevertheless does not re!oil at the idea of any form of destru!tion$ The spirit of re#ellion finally dis!overs one of its #itterest satisfa!tions in !haos$ F5ou 8the =erman nation; "ill #e stru!- do"n$ 3oon your sister nations "ill follo" you4 "hen all of them have gone your "ay humanity "ill #e #uried and on its tom# I sole master of myself at last I heir to all the human ra!e "ill shout "ith laughter$G And so among the ruins of the "orld the desolate laughter of the individualE-ing illustrates the last vi!tory of the spirit of re#ellion$ *ut at this e/tremity nothing else is possi#le #ut death or resurre!tion$ 3tirner and "ith him all the nihilist re#els rush to the utmost limits drun- "ith destru!tion$ After "hi!h "hen the desert has #een dis!losed the ne/t step is to learn ho" to live there$ (iet6s!hes e/haustive sear!h then #egins$

iet3sche and ihilism

F.e deny =od "e deny the responsi#ility of =od it

is only thus that "e "ill deliver the "orld$G .ith (iet6s!he nihilism seems to #e!ome propheti!$ *ut "e !an dra" no !on!lusions from (iet6s!he e/!ept the #ase and medio!re !ruelty that he hated "ith all his strength unless "e give first pla!e in his "or- 0 "ell ahead of the prophet 0 to the diagnosti!ian$ The provisional methodi!al 0 in a "ord strategi! 0 !hara!ter of his thought !annot #e dou#ted for a moment$ .ith him nihilism #e!omes !ons!ious for the first time$ 3urgeons have this in !ommon "ith prophets) they thin- and operate in terms of the future$ (iet6s!he never thought e/!ept in terms of an apo!alypse to !ome not only in order to e/tol it for he guessed the sordid and !al!ulating aspe!t that this apo!alypse "ould finally assume #ut in order to avoid it and to transform it into a renaissan!e$ He re!ogni6ed nihilism for "hat it "as and e/amined it li-e a !lini!al fa!t$ He said of himself that he "as the first !omplete nihilist of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe$ (ot #y !hoi!e #ut #y !ondition and #e!ause he "as too great to refuse the heritage of his time$ He diagnosed in himself and in others the ina#ility to #elieve and the disappearan!e of the primitive foundation of all faith 0 namely the #elief in life$ The F!an one live as a re#el@G #e!ame "ith him F!an one live #elieving in nothing@G His reply is affirmative$ 5es if one !reates a system out of a#sen!e of faith if one a!!epts the final !onse7uen!es of nihilism and if on emerging into the desert and putting ones !onfiden!e in "hat is going to !ome one feels "ith the same primitive instin!t #oth pain and %oy$

Instead of methodi!al dou#t he pra!ti!ed methodi!al negation the determined destru!tion of everything that still hides nihilism from itself of the idols that !amouflage =ods death$ FTo raise a ne" san!tuary a san!tuary must #e destroyed that is the la"$G A!!ording to (iet6s!he he "ho "ants to #e a !reator of good or of evil must first of all destroy all values$ FThus the supreme evil #e!omes part of the supreme good #ut the supreme good is !reative$G He "rote in his o"n manner the Discourse de la ',thode of his period "ithout the freedom and e/a!titude of the seventeenthE !entury <ren!h he admired so mu!h #ut "ith the mad lu!idity that !hara!teri6es the t"entieth !entury "hi!h a!!ording to him is the !entury of genius$ .e must return to the e/amination of this system of re#ellion$ 8.e are o#viously !on!erned here "ith (iet6s!hes final philosophi! position #et"een AUU: and his !ollapse$ This !hapter !an #e !onsidered as a !ommentary of Der Wille 3ur 'acht >The Will to "ower?$; (iet6s!hes first step is to a!!ept "hat he -no"s$ Atheism for him goes "ithout saying and is F!onstru!tive and radi!al$G (iet6s!hes supreme vo!ation so he says is to provo-e a -ind of !risis and a final de!ision a#out the pro#lem of atheism$ The "orld !ontinues on its !ourse at random and there is nothing final a#out it$ Thus =od is useless sin!e He "ants nothing in parti!ular$ If He "anted something 0 and here "e re!ogni6e the traditional formulation of the pro#lem of evil 0 He "ould have to assume the responsi#ility for Fa sum total of pain and in!onsisten!y "hi!h "ould de#ase the entire value of #eing #orn$G .e -no" that (iet6s!he "as pu#li!ly envious of 3tendhals

epigram) FThe only e/!use for =od is that he does not e/ist$G 'eprived of the divine "ill the "orld is e7ually deprived of unity of finality$ That is "hy it is impossi#le to pass %udgement on the "orld$ Any attempt to apply a standard of values to the "orld leads finally to a slander of life$ Ludgements are #ased on "hat is "ith referen!e to "hat should #e 0 the -ingdom of heaven eternal !on!epts or moral imperatives$ *ut "hat should #e does not e/ist4 and this "orld !annot #e %udged in the name of nothing$ FThe advantages of our times) nothing is true everything is permitted$G These magnifi!ent or ironi! formulas "hi!h are e!hoed #y thousands of others at least suffi!e to demonstrate that (iet6s!he a!!epts the entire #urden of nihilism and re#ellion$ In his some"hat puerile refle!tions on Ftraining and sele!tionG he even formulated the e/treme logi! of nihilisti! reasoning) F+ro#lem) #y "hat means !ould "e o#tain a stri!t form of !omplete and !ontagious nihilism "hi!h "ould tea!h and pra!tise "ith !omplete s!ientifi! a"areness voluntary death@G *ut (iet6s!he enlists values in the !ause of nihilism "hi!h traditionally have #een !onsidered as restraints on nihilism 0 prin!ipally morality$ Moral !ondu!t as e/emplified #y 3o!rates or as re!ommended #y ,hristianity is in itself a sign of de!aden!e$ It "ants to su#stitute the mere shado" of a man for a man of flesh and #lood$ It !ondemns the universe of passion and emotion in the name of an entirely imaginary "orld of harmony$ If nihilism is the ina#ility to #elieve then its most serious symptom is not found in atheism #ut in the ina#ility to #elieve in "hat is to see "hat is happening and to live life as it is offered$ This infirmity is at the

root of all idealism$ Morality has no faith in the "orld$ <or (iet6s!he real morality !annot #e separated from lu!idity$ He is severe on the F!alumniators of the "orldG #e!ause he dis!erns in the !alumny a shameful taste for evasion$ Traditional morality for him is only a spe!ial type of immorality$ FIt is virtue G he says F"hi!h has need of %ustifi!ation$G And again) FIt is for moral reasons that good one day "ill !ease to #e done$G (iet6s!hes philosophy undou#tedly revolves around the pro#lem of re#ellion$ More pre!isely it #egins #y #eing a re#ellion$ *ut "e sense the !hange of position that (iet6s!he ma-es$ .ith him re#ellion #egins "ith F=od is dead G "hi!h is assumed as an esta#lished fa!t4 then it turns against everything that aims at falsely repla!ing the vanished deity and refle!ts dishonour on a "orld "hi!h dou#tless has no dire!tion #ut "hi!h remains nevertheless the only provingEground of the gods$ ,ontrary to the opinion of !ertain of his ,hristian !riti!s (iet6s!he did not form a pro%e!t to -ill =od$ He found Him dead in the soul of his !ontemporaries$ He "as the first to understand the immense importan!e of the event and to de!ide that this re#ellion on the part of men !ould not lead to a renaissan!e unless it "as !ontrolled and dire!ted$ Any other attitude to"ard it "hether regret or !ompla!en!y must lead to the apo!alypse$ Thus (iet6s!he did not formulate a philosophy of re#ellion #ut !onstru!ted a philosophy on re#ellion$ If he atta!-s ,hristianity in parti!ular it is only insofar as it represents morality$ He al"ays leaves inta!t the person of Lesus on the one hand and on the other the !yni!al aspe!ts of the ,hur!h$ .e -no" that from the

point of vie" of the !onnoisseur he admired the Lesuits$ F*asi!ally G he "rites Fonly the =od of morality is re%e!ted$G ,hrist for (iet6s!he as for Tolstoy is not a re#el$ The essen!e of His do!trine is summed up in total !onsent and in nonEresistan!e to evil$ Thou shalt not -ill even to prevent -illing$ The "orld must #e a!!epted as it is nothing must #e added to its unhappiness #ut you must !onsent to suffer personally from the evil it !ontains$ The -ingdom of heaven is "ithin our immediate rea!h$ It is only an inner in!lination "hi!h allo"s us to ma-e our a!tions !oin!ide "ith these prin!iples and "hi!h !an give us immediate salvation$ (ot faith #ut deeds 0 that a!!ording to (iet6!he is ,hrists message$ <rom then on the history of ,hristianity is nothing #ut a long #etrayal of this message$ The (e" Testament is already !orrupted and from the time of +aul to the ,oun!ils su#servien!e to faith leads to the negle!t of deeds$ .hat is the profoundly !orrupt addition made #y ,hristianity to the message of its Master@ The idea of %udgement !ompletely foreign to the tea!hings of ,hrist and the !orrelative notions of punishment and re"ard$ <rom that moment nature #e!omes history and signifi!ant history e/pressed #y the idea of human totality is #orn$ <rom the Annun!iation until the Last Ludgement humanity has no other tas- #ut to !onform to the stri!tly moral ends of a narrative that has already #een "ritten$ The only differen!e is that the !hara!ters in the epilogue separate themselves into the good and the #ad$ .hile ,hrists sole %udgement !onsists in saying that the sins of nature are unimportant histori!al ,hristianity ma-es nature the sour!e of sin$ F.hat does

,hrist deny@ Everything that at present #ears the name of ,hristian$G ,hristianity #elieves that it is fighting against nihilism #e!ause it gives the "orld a sense of dire!tion "hile it is really nihilist itself insofar as #y imposing an imaginary meaning on life it prevents the dis!overy of its real meaning) FEvery ,hur!h is a stone rolled onto the tom# of the manEgod4 it tries to prevent the resurre!tion #y for!e$G (iet6s!hes parado/i!al #ut signifi!ant !on!lusion is that =od has #een -illed #y ,hristianity in that ,hristianity has se!ulari6ed the sa!red$ Here "e must understand histori!al ,hristianity and Fits profound and !ontempti#le dupli!ity$G The same pro!ess of reasoning leads to (iet6s!hes attitude to"ard so!ialism and all forms of humanitarianism$ 3o!ialism is only a degenerate form of ,hristianity$ In fa!t it preserves a #elief in the finality of history "hi!h #etrays life and nature "hi!h su#stitutes ideal ends for real ends and !ontri#utes to enervating #oth the "ill and the imagination$ 3o!ialism is nihilisti! in the hen!eforth pre!ise sense that (iet6s!he !onfers on the "ord$ A nihilist is not one "ho #elieves in nothing #ut one "ho does not #elieve in "hat e/ists$ In this sense all forms of so!ialism are manifestations degraded on!e again of ,hristian de!aden!e$ <or ,hristianity re"ard and punishment implied the e/isten!e of humanity$ *ut #y ines!apa#le logi! all history ends #y implying punishment and re"ard4 and from this day on !olle!tivist Messianism is #orn$ 3imilarly the e7uality of souls #efore =od leads no" that =od is dead to e7uality pure and simple$ There again (iet6s!he "ages "ar against so!ialist do!trines insofar as they are moral do!trines$ (ihilism

"hether manifested in religion or in so!ialist prea!hings is the logi!al !on!lusion of our soE!alled superior values$ The free mind "ill destroy these values and denoun!e the illusions on "hi!h they are #uilt the #argaining that they imply and the !rime they !ommit in preventing the lu!id intelligen!e from a!!omplishing its mission) to transform passive nihilism into a!tive nihilism$ In this "orld rid of =od and of moral idols man is no" alone and "ithout a master$ (o one has #een less in!lined than (iet6s!he >and in this "ay he distinguishes himself from the romanti!s? to let it #e #elieved that su!h freedom "ould #e easy$ This !omplete li#eration put him among the ran-s of those of "hom he himself said that they suffered a ne" form of anguish and a ne" form of happiness$ *ut at the #eginning it is only anguish that ma-es him !ry out) FAlas grant me madnessI$ Jnless I am a#ove the la" I am the most out!ast of all out!asts$G He "ho !annot maintain his position a#ove the la" must in fa!t find another la" or ta-e refuge in madness$ <rom the moment that man #elieves neither in =od nor in immortal life he #e!omes Fresponsi#le for everything alive for everything that #orn of suffering is !ondemned to suffer from life$G It is he and he alone "ho must dis!over la" and order$ Then the time of e/ile #egins the endless sear!h for %ustifi!ation the aimless nostalgia Fthe most painful the most heart#rea-ing 7uestion that of the heart "hi!h as-s itself) "here !an I feel at home@G *e!ause his mind "as free (iet6s!he -ne" that freedom of the mind is not a !omfort #ut an

a!hievement to "hi!h one aspires and at long last o#tains after an e/hausting struggle$ He -ne" that in "anting to !onsider oneself a#ove the la" there is a great ris- of finding oneself #eneath the la"$ That is "hy he understood that only the mind found its real eman!ipation in the a!!eptan!e of ne" o#ligations$ The essen!e of his dis!overy !onsists in saying that if the eternal la" is not freedom the a#sen!e of la" is still less so$ If nothing is true if the "orld is "ithout order then nothing is for#idden4 to prohi#it an a!tion there must in fa!t #e a standard of values and an aim$ *ut at the same time nothing is authori6ed4 there must also #e values and aims in order to !hoose another !ourse of a!tion$ A#solute domination #y the la" does not represent li#erty #ut no more does a#solute anar!hy$ The sum total of every possi#ility does not amount to li#erty #ut to attempt the impossi#le amounts to slavery$ ,haos is also a form of servitude$ <reedom e/ists only in a "orld "here "hat is possi#le is defined at the same time as "hat is not possi#le$ .ithout la" there is no freedom$ If fate is not guided #y superior values if !han!e is -ing then there is nothing #ut the step in the dar- and the appalling freedom of the #lind$ On the point of a!hieving the most !omplete li#eration (iet6s!he therefore !hooses the most !omplete su#ordination$ FIf "e do not ma-e of =ods death a great renun!iation and a perpetual vi!tory over ourselves "e shall have to pay for that omission$G In other "ords "ith (iet6s!he re#ellion ends in as!eti!ism$ A profounder logi! repla!es the Fif nothing is true everything is permittedG of Karama6ov #y Fif nothing is true nothing is permitted$G To deny that one single thing is for#idden in this "orld amounts to

renoun!ing everything that is permitted$ At the point "here it is no longer possi#le to say "hat is #la!- and "hat is "hite the light is e/tinguished and freedom #e!omes a voluntary prison$ It !an #e said that (iet6s!he "ith a -ind of frightful %oy rushes to"ard the impasse into "hi!h he methodi!ally drives his nihilism$ His avo"ed aim is to render the situation untena#le to his !ontemporaries$ His only hope seems to #e to arrive at the e/tremity of !ontradi!tion$ Then if man does not "ish to perish in the !oils that strangle him he "ill have to !ut them at a single #lo" and !reate his o"n values$ The death of =od a!!omplishes nothing and !an only #e endured in terms of preparing a resurre!tion$ FIf "e fail to find grandeur in =od G says (iet6s!he F"e find it no"here4 it must #e denied or !reated$G To deny it "as the tas- of the "orld around him "hi!h he sa" rushing to"ard sui!ide$ To !reate "as the superhuman tas- for "hi!h he "as "illing to die$ He -ne" in fa!t that !reation is only possi#le in the e/tremity of solitude and that man "ould only !ommit himself to this staggering tas- if in the most e/treme distress of mind he "as !ompelled to underta-e it or perish$ (iet6s!he !ries out to man that the only truth is the "orld to "hi!h he must #e faithful and in "hi!h he must live and find his salvation$ *ut at the same time he tea!hes him that to live in a la"less "orld is impossi#le #e!ause to live e/pli!itly implies a la"$ Ho" !an one live freely and "ithout la"@ To this enigma man must find an ans"er on pain of death$ (iet6s!he at least does not flin!h$ He ans"ers and his ans"er is #old) 'amo!les never dan!ed #etter than #eneath the s"ord$ One must a!!ept the una!!epta#le

and hold to the untena#le$ <rom the moment that it is admitted that the "orld pursues no end (iet6s!he proposes to !on!ede its inno!en!e to affirm that it a!!epts no %udgement sin!e it !annot #e %udged on any intention and !onse7uently to repla!e all %udgements #ased on values #y a#solute assent and #y a !omplete and e/alted allegian!e to this "orld$ Thus from a#solute despair "ill spring infinite %oy from #lind servitude un#ounded freedom$ To #e free is pre!isely to a#olish ends$ The inno!en!e of the !easeless !hange of things as soon as one !onsents to it represents the ma/imum li#erty$ The free mind "illingly a!!epts "hat is ne!essary$ (iet6s!hes most profound !on!ept is that the ne!essity of phenomena if it is a#solute "ithout rifts does not imply any -ind of restraint$ Total a!!eptan!e of total ne!essity is his parado/i!al definition of freedom$ The 7uestion Ffree of "hat@G is thus repla!ed #y Ffree for "hat@G style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Li#erty !oin!ides "ith heroism$ It is the as!eti!ism of the great man Fthe #o" #ent to the #rea-ingEpoint$G This magnifi!ent !onsent #orn of a#undan!e and fullness of spirit is the unreserved affirmation of human imperfe!tion and suffering of evil and murder of all that is pro#lemati! and strange in our e/isten!e$ It is #orn of an arrested "ish to #e "hat one is in a "orld that is "hat it is$ FTo !onsider oneself a fatality not to "ish to #e other than one is IG (iet6s!hean as!eti!ism "hi!h #egins "ith the re!ognition of fatality ends in a deifi!ation of fate$ The more impla!a#le destiny is the more it #e!omes "orthy of adoration$ A moral =od pity and love are enemies of fate to the e/tent that they try to !ounterE#alan!e it$ (iet6s!he "ants no

redemption$ The %oy of selfEreali6ation is the %oy of annihilation$ *ut only the individual is annihilated$ The movement of re#ellion #y "hi!h man demanded his o"n e/isten!e disappears in the individuals a#solute su#mission to the inevita#le$ Amor fati repla!es "hat "as an odium fati$ FEvery individual !olla#orates "ith the entire !osmos "hether "e -no" it or not "hether "e "ant it or not$G The individual is lost in the destiny of the spe!ies and the eternal movement of the spheres$ FEverything that has e/isted is eternal the sea thro"s it #a!- on the shore$G (iet6s!he then turns to the origins of thought 0 to the preE3o!rati!s$ These philosophers suppressed ultimate !auses so as to leave inta!t the eternal values of the prin!iples they upheld$ Only po"er "ithout purpose only Hera!litus F!han!e G is eternal$ (iet6s!hes "hole effort is dire!ted to"ard demonstrating the e/isten!e of the la" that governs the eternal flu/ and of the element of !han!e in the inevita#le) FA !hild is inno!en!e and forgetfulness a ne" #eginning a gam#le a "heel that spins automati!ally a first step the divine gift of #eing a#le to !onsent$G The "orld is divine #e!ause the "orld is in!onse7uential$ That is "hy art alone #y #eing e7ually in!onse7uential is !apa#le of grasping it$ It is impossi#le to give a !lear a!!ount of the "orld #ut art !an tea!h us to reprodu!e it 0 %ust as the "orld reprodu!es itself in the !ourse of its eternal gyrations$ The primordial sea indefatiga#ly repeats the same "ords and !asts up the same astonished #eings on the same seashore$ *ut at least he "ho !onsents to his o"n return

and to the return of all things "ho #e!omes an e!ho and an e/alted e!ho parti!ipates in the divinity of the "orld$ *y this su#terfuge the divinity of man is finally introdu!ed$ The re#el "ho at first denies =od finally aspires to repla!e Him$ *ut (iet6s!hes message is that the re#el !an only #e!ome =od #y renoun!ing every form of re#ellion even the type of re#ellion that produ!es gods to !hastise humanity$ FIf there is a =od ho" !an one tolerate not #eing =od oneself@G There is in fa!t a god 0 namely the "orld$ To parti!ipate in its divinity all that is ne!essary is to !onsent$ F(o longer to pray #ut to give ones #lessing G and the earth "ill a#ound in menEgods$ To say yes to the "orld to reprodu!e it is simultaneously to reE!reate the "orld and oneself to #e!ome the great artist the !reator$ (iet6s!hes message is summed up in the "ord creation "ith the am#iguous meaning it has assumed$ (iet6s!hes sole admiration "as for the egotism and severity proper to all !reators$ The transmutation of values !onsists only in repla!ing !riti!al values #y !reative values4 #y respe!t and admiration for "hat e/ists$ 'ivinity "ithout immortality defines the e/tent of the !reators freedom$ 'ionysos the earthEgod shrie-s eternally as he is torn lim# from lim#$ *ut at the same time he represents the agoni6ed #eauty that !oin!ides "ith suffering$ (iet6s!he thought that to a!!ept this earth and 'ionysos "as to a!!ept his o"n sufferings$ And to a!!ept everything #oth suffering and the supreme !ontradi!tion simultaneously "as to #e -ing of all !reation$ (iet6s!he agreed to pay the pri!e for his -ingdom$ Only the Fsad and sufferingG "orld is true 0 the "orld is the only divinity$ Li-e Empedo!les

"ho thre" himself into the !rater of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mount Etna to find truth in the only pla!e "here it e/ists 0 namely in the #o"els of the earth 0 (iet6s!he proposed that man should allo" himself to #e engulfed in the !osmos in order to redis!over his eternal divinity and to #e!ome 'ionysos$ The Will to "ower ends li-e +as!als "ens,es of "hi!h it so often reminds us "ith a "ager$ Man does not yet o#tain assuran!e #ut only the "ish for assuran!e "hi!h is not at all the same thing$ (iet6s!he too hesitated on this #rin-) FThat is "hat is unforgiva#le in you$ 5ou have the authority and you refuse to sign$G 5et finally he had to sign$ *ut the name of 'ionysos immortali6ed only the notes to Ariadne "hi!h he "rote "hen he "as mad$ In a !ertain sense re#ellion "ith (iet6s!he ends again in the e/altation of evil$ The differen!e is that evil is no longer a revenge$ It is a!!epted as one of the possi#le aspe!ts of good and "ith rather more !onvi!tion as part of destiny$ Thus he !onsiders it as something to #e avoided and also as a sort of remedy$ In (iet6s!hes mind the only pro#lem "as to see that the human spirit #o"ed proudly to the inevita#le$ .e -no" ho"ever his posterity and "hat -ind of politi!s "ere to !laim the authori6ation of the man "ho !laimed to #e the last antipoliti!al =erman$ He dreamed of tyrants "ho "ere artists$ *ut tyranny !omes more naturally than art to medio!re men$ FRather ,esare *orgia than +arsifal G he e/!laimed$ He #egat #oth ,Rsar and *orgia #ut devoid of the distin!tion of feeling "hi!h he attri#uted to the great men of the Renaissan!e$ As a result of his insisten!e that the individual should #o"

#efore the eternity of the spe!ies and should su#merge himself in the great !y!le of time ra!e has #een turned into a spe!ial aspe!t of the spe!ies and the individual has #een made to #o" #efore this sordid god$ The life of "hi!h he spo-e "ith fear and trem#ling has #een degraded to a sort of #iology for domesti! use$ <inally a ra!e of vulgar overlords "ith a #lundering desire for po"er adopted in his name the FantiE3emiti! deformityG on "hi!h he never !eased to pour s!orn$ He #elieved in !ourage !om#ined "ith intelligen!e and that "as "hat he !alled strength$ ,ourage has #een turned in his name against intelligen!e and the virtues that "ere really his have #een transformed into their opposite) #lind violen!e$ He !onfused freedom and solitude as do all proud spirits$ His Fprofound solitude at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42midday and at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42midnightG "as nevertheless lost in the me!hani6ed hordes that finally inundated style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe$ Advo!ate of !lassi! taste of irony of frugal defian!e aristo!rat "ho had the !ourage to say that aristo!ra!y !onsisted in pra!tising virtue "ithout as-ing for a reason and that a man "ho had to have reasons for #eing honest "as not to #e trusted addi!t of integrity >Fintegrity that has #e!ome an instin!t a passionG? stu##orn supporter of the Fsupreme e7uity of the supreme intelligen!e that is the mortal enemy of fanati!ism G he "as set up thirtyEthree years after his death #y his o"n !ountrymen as the master of lies and violen!e and his ideas and virtues made admira#le #y his sa!rifi!e have #een rendered detesta#le$ In the history of the intelligen!e "ith the e/!eption of Mar/ (iet6s!hes adventure has not e7uivalent4 "e shall never

finish ma-ing reparation for the in%usti!e done to him$ Of !ourse history re!ords other philosophies that have #een mis!onstrued and #etrayed$ *ut up to the time of (iet6s!he and (ational 3o!ialism it "as 7uite "ithout parallel that a pro!ess of thought 0 #rilliantly illuminated #y the no#ility and #y the sufferings of an e/!eptional mind 0 should have #een demonstrated to the eyes of the "orld #y a parade of lies and #y the hideous a!!umulation of !orpses in !on!entration !amps$ The do!trine of the superman led to the methodi!al !reation of su#Emen 0 a fa!t that dou#tless should #e denoun!ed #ut "hi!h also demands interpretation$ If the final result of the great movement of re#ellion in the nineteenth and t"entieth !enturies "as to #e this ruthless #ondage then surely re#ellion should #e re%e!ted and (iet6s!hes desperate !ry to his !ontemporaries ta-en up) FMy !ons!ien!e and yours are no longer the same !ons!ien!e$G .e must first of all reali6e that "e !an never !onfuse (iet6s!he "ith style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rosen#erg$ .e must #e the advo!ates of (iet6s!he$ He himself has said so denoun!ing in advan!e his #astard progeny) Fhe "ho has li#erated his mind still has to purify himself$G *ut the 7uestion is to find out if the li#eration of the mind as he !on!eived it does not pre!lude purifi!ation$ The very movement that !omes to a head "ith (iet6s!he and that sustains him has its la"s and its logi! "hi!h perhaps e/plain the #loody travesty of his philosophy$ Is there nothing in his "or- that !an #e used in support of definitive murder@ ,annot the -illers provided they deny the spirit in favour of the letter >and even all that remains in the spirit of the letter? find their prete/t in

(iet6s!he@ The ans"er must #e yes$ <rom the moment that the methodi!al aspe!t of (iet6s!hean thought is negle!ted >and it is not !ertain that he himself al"ays o#served it? his re#ellious logi! -no"s no #ounds$ .e also remar- that it is not in the (iet6s!hean refusal to "orship idols that murder finds its %ustifi!ation #ut in the passionate appro#ation that distinguishes (iet6s!hes "or-$ To say yes to everything supposes that one says yes to murder$ Moreover it e/presses t"o "ays of !onsenting to murder$ If the slave says yes to everything he !onsents to the e/isten!e of a master and to his o"n sufferings) Lesus tea!hes nonEresistan!e$ If the master says yes to everything he !onsents to slavery and to the suffering of others4 and the result is the tyrant and the glorifi!ation of murder$ FIs it not laugha#le that "e #elieve in a sa!red infrangi#le la" 0 thou shalt not lie thou shalt not -ill 0 in an e/isten!e !hara!teri6ed #y perpetual lying and perpetual murder@G A!tually metaphysi!al re#ellion in its initial stages "as only a protest against the lie and the !rime of e/isten!e$ The (iet6s!hean affirmative forgetful of the original negative disavo"s re#ellion at the same time that it disavo"s the ethi! that refuses to a!!ept the "orld as it is$ (iet6s!he !lamoured for a Roman ,Rsar "ith the soul of ,hrist$ To his mind this "as to say yes to #oth slave and master$ *ut in the last analysis to say yes to #oth "as to give ones #lessing to the stronger of the t"o 0 namely the master$ ,Rsar must inevita#ly renoun!e the domination of the mind and !hoose to rule in the realm of fa!t$ FHo" !an one ma-e the #est of !rime@G as-s (iet6s!he as a good professor faithful to his system$ ,Rsar must ans"er) #y

multiplying it$ F.hen the ends are great G (iet6s!he "rote to his o"n detriment Fhumanity employs other standards and no longer %udges !rime as su!h even if it resorts to the most frightful means$G He died in AB:: at the #eginning of the !entury in "hi!h that pretension "as to #e!ome fatal$ It "as in vain that he e/!laimed in his hour of lu!idity FIt is easy to tal- a#out all sorts of immoral a!ts4 #ut "ould one have the !ourage to !arry them through@ <or e/ample I !ould not #ear to #reamy "ord or to -ill4 I should languish and eventually I should die as a result 0 that "ould #e my fate$G <rom the moment that assent "as given to the totality of human e/perien!e the "ay "as open to others "ho far from languishing "ould gather strength from lies and murder$ (iet6s!hes responsi#ility lies in having legitimi6ed for reasons of method 0 and even if only for an instant 0 the opportunity for dishonesty of "hi!h 'ostoievs-y had already said that if one offered it to people one !ould al"ays #e sure of seeing them rushing to sei6e it$ *ut his involuntary responsi#ility goes still farther$ (iet6s!he is e/a!tly "hat he re!ogni6ed himself as #eing) the must a!ute manifestation of nihilisms !ons!ien!e$ The de!isive step that he !ompelled re#ellion to ta-e !onsists in ma-ing it %ump from the negation of the ideal to the se!ulari6ation of the ideal$ 3in!e the salvation of man is not a!hieved in =od it must #e a!hieved on earth$ 3in!e the "orld has no dire!tion man from the moment he a!!epts this must give it one that "ill eventually lead to a superior type of humanity$ (iet6s!he laid !laim to the dire!tion of the future of the human ra!e$ FThe tas- of governing the

"orld is going to fall to our lot$G And else"here) FThe time is approa!hing "hen "e shall have to struggle for the domination of the "orld and this struggle "ill #e fought in the name of philosophi!al prin!iples$G In these "ords he announ!ed the t"entieth !entury$ *ut he "as a#le to announ!e it #e!ause he "as "arned #y the interior logi! of nihilism and -ne" that one of its aims "as as!endan!y4 and thus he prepared the "ay for this as!endan!y$ There is freedom for man "ithout =od as (iet6s!he imagined him4 in other "ords for the solitary man$ There is freedom at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42midday "hen the "heel of the "orld stops spinning and man !onsents to things as they are$ *ut what is #e!omes what will be and the !easeless !hange of things must #e a!!epted$ The light finally gro"s dim the a/is of the day de!lines$ Then history #egins again and freedom must #e sought in history4 history must #e a!!epted$ (iet6s!heism 0 the theory of the individuals "ill to po"er 0 "as !ondemned to support the universal "ill to po"er$ (iet6s!heism "as nothing "ithout "orld domination$ (iet6s!he undou#tedly hated freethin-ers and humanitarians$ He too- the "ords freedom of thought in their most e/treme sense) the divinity of the individual mind$ *ut he !ould not stop the freethin-ers from parta-ing of the same histori!al fa!t as himself 0 the death of =od 0 nor !ould he prevent the !onse7uen!es #eing the same$ (iet6s!he sa" !learly that humanitarianism "as only a form of ,hristianity deprived of superior %ustifi!ation "hi!h preserved final !auses "hile re%e!ting the first !ause$ *ut he failed to per!eive that the do!trines of so!ialist eman!ipation

must #y an inevita#le logi! of nihilism lead to "hat he himself had dreamed of) superhumanity$ +hilosophy se!ulari6es the ideal$ *ut tyrants appear "ho soon se!ulari6e the philosophies that give them the right to do so$ (iet6s!he had already predi!ted this development in dis!ussing Hegel "hose originality a!!ording to him !onsisted in inventing a pantheism in "hi!h evil error and suffering !ould no longer serve as arguments against the divinity$ F*ut the 3tate the po"ers that #e immediately made use of this grandiose initiative$G He himself ho"ever had !on!eived of a system in "hi!h !rime !ould no longer serve as an argument and in "hi!h the only value resided in the divinity of man$ This grandiose initiative also had to #e put to use$ (ational 3o!ialism in this respe!t "as only a transitory heir only the spe!ulative and ra#id out!ome of nihilism$ In all others respe!ts those "ho in !orre!ting (iet6s!he "ith the help of Mar/ "ill !hoose to assent only to history and no longer to all of !reation "ill #e perfe!tly logi!al$ The re#el "hom (iet6s!he set on his -nees #efore the !osmos "ill from no" on -neel #efore history$ .hat is surprising a#out that@ (iet6s!he at least in his theory of superhumanity and Mar/ #efore him "ith his !lassless so!iety #oth repla!e the *eyond #y the Later On$ In that "ay (iet6s!he #etrayed the =ree-s and the tea!hing of Lesus "ho a!!ording to him repla!ed the *eyond #y the Immediate$ Mar/ li-e (iet6s!he thought in strategi! terms and li-e (iet6s!he hated formal virtue$ Their t"o re#ellions #oth of "hi!h finish similarly in adhesion to a !ertain aspe!t of reality end #y merging into Mar/ismE Leninism and #eing in!arnated in that !aste already

mentioned #y (iet6s!he "hi!h "ould Frepla!e the priest the tea!her the do!tor$G The fundamental differen!e is that (iet6s!he in a"aiting the superman proposed to assent to "hat e/ists and Mar/ to "hat is to !ome$ <or Mar/ nature is to #e o#eyed in order to o#ey history4 for (iet6s!he nature is to #e o#eyed in order to su#%ugate history$ It is the differen!e #et"een the ,hristian and the =ree-$ (iet6s!he at least foresa" "hat "as going to happen) F.hat "e desire is "ellE #eingI$ As a result "e mar!h to"ard a spiritual slavery su!h as has never #een seenI$ Intelle!tual ,Rsarism hovers over every a!tivity of the #usinessman and the philosopher$G +la!ed in the !ru!i#le of (iet6s!hean philosophy re#ellion in the into/i!ation of freedom ends in #iologi!al or histori!al ,Rsarism$ The a#solute negative had driven 3tirner to deify !rime simultaneously "ith the individual$ *ut the a#solute affirmative leads to universali6ing murder and man-ind simultaneously$ Mar/ismELeninism has really a!!epted the #urden of (iet6s!hes free "ill #y means of ignoring several (iet6s!hean virtues$ The great re#el thus !reates "ith his o"n hands and for his o"n imprisonment the impla!a#le reign of ne!essity$ On!e he had es!aped from =ods prison his first !are "as to !onstru!t the prison of history and of reason thus putting the finishing tou!h to the !amouflage and !onse!ration of the nihilism "hose !on7uest he !laimed$

The "oet.s /ebellion

%
If metaphysi!al re#ellion refuses to assent and restri!ts itself to a#solute negation it !ondemns itself to passive a!!eptan!e$ If it prostrates itself in adoration of "hat e/ists and renoun!es its right to dispute any part of reality it is sooner or later !ompelled to a!t$ Ivan Karama6ov 0 "ho represents nonE interferen!e #ut in a dolorous aspe!t 0 stands half"ay #et"een the t"o positions$ Re#el poetry at the end of the nineteenth and the #eginning of the t"entieth !entury !onstantly os!illated #et"een these t"o e/tremes) #et"een literature and the "ill to po"er #et"een the irrational and the rational the desperate dream and ruthless a!tion$ The re#el poets 0 a#ove all the surrealists 0 light the "ay that leads from passive a!!eptan!e to a!tion along a spe!ta!ular shortE!ut$
style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Ha"thorne "as a#le to say of

Melville that as an un#eliever he "as e/tremely uneasy in his un#elief$ It !an e7ually #e said of the poets "ho rushed to assault the heavens "ith the intent of turning everything upside do"n that #y so doing they affirmed their desperate nostalgia for order$ As an ultimate !ontradi!tion they "anted to e/tra!t reason from unreason and to systemati6e the irrational$ Their heirs of romanti!ism !laimed to ma-e poetry e/emplary and to find in its most harro"ing aspe!ts the real "ay of

life$ They deified #lasphemy and transformed poetry into e/perien!e and into a means of a!tion$ Jntil their time those "ho !laimed to influen!e men and events at least in the O!!ident did so in the name of rational rules$ On the !ontrary surrealism after Rim#aud "anted to find !onstru!tive rules in insanity and destru!tion$ Rim#aud through his "or- and only through his "or- pointed out the path #ut "ith the #linding momentary illumination of a flash of lightning$ 3urrealism e/!avated this path and !odified its dis!overies$ *y its e/!esses as "ell as its retreats it gave the last and most magnifi!ent e/pression to a pra!ti!al theory of irrational re#ellion at the very same time "hen on another path re#ellious thought "as founding the !ult of a#solute reason$ LautrVamont and Rim#aud 0 its sour!es of inspiration 0 demonstrate #y "hat stages the irrational desire to a!!ept appearan!es !an lead the re#el to adopt !ourses of a!tion !ompletely destru!tive to freedom$

)aut,amont and Banality LautVamont demonstrates that the re#el dissimulates the desire to a!!ept appearan!e #ehind the desire for #anality$ In either !ase "hether he a#ases or vaunts himself the re#el "ants to #e other than he is even "hen he is prepared to #e re!ogni6ed for "hat he really is$ The #lasphemies and the !onformity of LautrVamont illustrate this unfortunate !ontradi!tion "hi!h is resolved in his !ase in the desire to #e nothing at all$

<ar from #eing a re!antation as is generally supposed the same passion for annihilation e/plains Maldorors invo!ation of the primeval night and the la#orious #analities of the "o,sies$ LautrVamont ma-es us understand that re#ellion is adoles!ent$ Our most effe!tive terrorists "hether they are armed "ith #om#s or "ith poetry hardly es!ape from infan!y$ The #ongs of 'aldoror are the "or-s of a highly talented s!hool#oy4 their pathos lies pre!isely in the !ontradi!tions of a !hilds mind ranged against !reation and against itself$ Li-e the Rim#aud of the 4lluminations #eating against the !onfines of the "orld the poet !hooses the apo!alypse and destru!tion rather than a!!ept the impossi#le prin!iples that ma-e him "hat he is in a "orld su!h as it is$
FI offer myself to defend man-ind G says

LautrVamont "ithout "ishing to #e ingenuous$ Is Maldoror then the angel of pity@ In a !ertain sense he is in that he pities himself$ .hy@ That remains to #e seen$ *ut pity de!eived outraged inadmissi#le and unadmitted "ill lead him to strange e/tremities$ Maldoror in his o"n "ords re!eived life li-e a "ound and for#ade sui!ide to heal the s!ar >sic?$ Li-e Rim#aud he is the one "ho suffers and "ho re#elled4 ea!h #eing strangely relu!tant to say that he is re#elling against "hat he is gives the re#els eternal ali#i) love of man-ind$ The man "ho offers himself to defend man-ind at the same time "rites) F3ho" me one man "ho is good$G This perpetual va!illation is part of nihilist re#ellion$ .e re#el against the in%usti!e done to ourselves and to man-ind$ *ut in the moment of lu!idity "hen "e

simultaneously per!eive the legitima!y of this re#ellion and its futility the fren6y of negation is e/tended to the very thing that "e !laimed to #e defending$ (ot #eing a#le to atone for in%usti!e #y the elevation of %usti!e "e !hoose to su#merge it in an even greater in%usti!e "hi!h is finally !onfounded "ith annihilation$ FThe evil you have done me is too great too great the evil I have done you for it to #e involuntary$G In order not to #e over!ome "ith selfEhatred ones inno!en!e must #e pro!laimed an impossi#ly #old step for one man alone for selfE-no"ledge "ill prevent him$ *ut at least one !an de!lare that everyone is inno!ent though they may #e treated as guilty$ =od is then the !riminal$ <rom the romanti!s to LautrVamont there is therefore no real progress e/!ept in style$ LautrVamont resus!itates on!e again "ith a fe" improvements the figure of the =od of A#raham and the image of the Lu!iferian re#el$ He pla!es =od Fon a throne #uilt of e/!rement human and golden G on "hi!h sits F"ith im#e!ile pride his #ody !overed "ith a shroud made of un"ashed sheets he "ho styles himself the ,reator$G FThe horri#le Eternal One "ith the features of a viper G Fthe !rafty #anditG "ho !an #e seen Fsto-ing the fires in "hi!h young and old perish G rolls drun-enly in the gutter or see-s #ase pleasures in the #rothel$ =od is not dead he has fallen$ <a!e to fa!e "ith the fallen deity Maldoror appears as a !onventional !avalier in a #la!!loa-$ He is the A!!ursed$ FEyes must not "itness the hideous aspe!t "hi!h the 3upreme *eing "ith a smile of intense hatred has granted me$G He has fors"orn everything 0 Ffather mother style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42+roviden!e love ideals 0 so as to thin- no longer

of anything else #ut himself$G Ra!-ed "ith pride this hero has all the illusions of the metaphysi!al dandy) FA fa!e that is more than human sad "ith the sadness of the universe #eautiful as an a!t of sui!ide$G Li-e the romanti! re#el Maldoror despairing of divine %usti!e "ill ta-e the side of evil$ To !ause suffering and in !ausing it to suffer that is his lot$ The #ongs are verita#le litanies of evil$ At this point man-ind is no longer even defended$ On the !ontrary Fto atta!- that "ild #east man "ith every possi#le "eapon and to atta!- the !reator IG that is the intention announ!ed #y the #ongs$ Over"helmed at the thought of having =od as an enemy into/i!ated "ith the solitude e/perien!ed #y great !riminals >FI alone against humanityG? Maldoror goes to "ar against !reation and its author$ The #ongs e/alt Fthe san!tity of !rime G announ!e an in!reasing series of Fglorious !rimes G and stan6a 9: of 3ong II even inaugurates a verita#le pedagogy of !rime and violen!e$ 3u!h a #urning ardour is at this period merely !onventional$ It !osts nothing$ LautrVamonts real originality lies else"here$ 8It a!!ounts for the differen!e #et"een 3ong I pu#lished separately "hi!h is *yroni! in a rather #anal "ay and the other 3ongs "hi!h resound "ith a monstrous rhetori!$; The romanti!s maintained "ith the greatest !are the fatal opposition #et"een human solitude and divine indifferen!e 0 the literary e/pressions of this solitude #eing the isolated !astle and the dandy$ It is 7uite apparent that he found this solitude insupporta#le and that ranged against !reation he "ished to destroy its limits$ <ar from "anting to fortify the reign of humanity "ith !renelated

to"ers he "ishes to merge it "ith all other reigns$ He #rought #a!- !reation to the shores of the primeval seas "here morality as "ell as every other pro#lem loses all meaning 0 in!luding the pro#lem "hi!h he !onsiders so terrifying of the immortality of the soul$ He had no desire to !reate a spe!ta!ular image of the re#el or of the dandy opposed to !reation #ut to mingle man-ind and the "orld together in the same general destru!tion$ He atta!-ed the very frontier that separates man-ind from the universe$ Total freedom the freedom of !rime in parti!ular supposes the destru!tion of human frontiers$ It is not enough to !ondemn oneself and all man-ind to e/e!ration$ The reign of man-ind must still #e #rought #a!- to the level of the reign of the instin!t$ .e find in LautrVamont this refusal to re!ogni6e rational !ons!iousness this return to the elementary "hi!h is one of the mar-s of a !ivili6ation in revolt against itself$ It is no longer a 7uestion of re!ogni6ing appearan!es #y ma-ing a determined and !ons!ious effort #ut of no longer e/isting at all on the !ons!ious level$ All the !reatures that appear in the #ongs are amphi#ious #e!ause Maldoror re%e!ts the earth and its limitations$ The flora is !omposed of algae and sea"eed$ Maldorors !astle is #uilt on the "aters$ His native land is the timeless sea$ The sea 0 a dou#le sym#ol 0 is simultaneously the pla!e of annihilation and of re!on!iliation$ It 7uen!hes in its o"n "ay the thirst of souls !ondemned to s!orn themselves and others and the thirst for o#livion$ Thus the #ongs repla!e the 'etamorphoses and the timeless smile is repla!ed #y the laughter of a mouth slashed "ith a ra6or #y the image of a gnashing franti! travesty of humour$ The

#estiary !annot !ontain all the meanings that have #een given to it #ut undou#tedly it dis!loses a desire for annihilation "hi!h has its origins in the very dar-est pla!es of re#ellion$ The Fstultify yourselvesG of +as!al ta-es on a literal sense "ith LautrVamont$ Apparently he !ould not #ear the !old and impla!a#le !larity one must endure in order to live$ FMy su#%e!tivity and one !reator 0 that is too mu!h for one #rain$G And so he !hose to redu!e life and his "or- to the flash of a !uttlefishs fin in the midst of its !loud of in-$ The #eautiful passage "here Maldoror !ouples "ith a female shar- on the high seas Fin a long !haste and frightful !opulationG 0 a#ove all the signifi!ant passage in "hi!h Maldoror transformed into an o!topus atta!-s the ,reator 0 are !lear e/pressions of an es!ape #eyond the frontiers of e/isten!e and of a !onvulsive atta!- on the la"s of nature$ Those "ho see themselves #anished from the harmonious fatherland "here %usti!e and passion finally stri-e an even #alan!e still prefer to solitude the #arren -ingdoms "here "ords have no more meaning and "here for!e and the instin!ts of #lind !reatures reign$ This !hallenge is at the same time a mortifi!ation$ The #attle "ith the angel in 3ong II ends in the defeat and putrefa!tion of the angel$ Heaven and earth are then #rought #a!- and intermingled in the li7uid !hasms of primordial life$ Thus the manEshar- of the #ongs Fonly a!7uired the ne" !hange in the e/tremities of his arms and legs as an e/piatory punishment for some un-no"n !rime$G There is in fa!t a !rime or the illusion of !rime >is it homose/uality@? in Maldorors virtually

un-no"n life$ (o reader of the #ongs !an avoid the idea that this #oo- is in need of a #tavrogin.s $onfession$ *ut there is no !onfession and "e find in the "o,sies a redou#ling of that mysterious desire for e/piation$ The spirit appropriate to !ertain forms of re#ellion "hi!h !onsists as "e shall see in reE esta#lishing reason at the end of the irrational adventure of redis!overing order #y means of disorder and of voluntarily loading oneself do"n "ith !hains still heavier than those from "hi!h release "as sought is des!ri#ed in this #oo- "ith su!h a desire for simplifi!ation and "ith su!h !yni!ism that this !hange of attitude must definitely have a meaning$ The #ongs "hi!h e/alted a#solute negation are follo"ed #y a theory of a#solute assent and un!ompromising re#ellion is su!!eeded #y !omplete !onformity 0 all this "ith total lu!idity$ The "o,sies in fa!t give us the #est e/planation of the #ongs$ F'espair fed #y the pre%udi!es of hallu!ination impertur#a#ly leads literature to the mass a#rogation of la"s #oth so!ial and divine and to theoreti!al and pra!ti!al "i!-edness$G The "o,sies also denoun!e Fthe !ulpa#ility of a "riter "ho rolls on the slopes of the void and pours s!orn on himself "ith !ries of %oy$G *ut they pres!ri#e no other remedy for this evil than metaphysi!al !onformity) F3in!e the poetry of dou#t arrives in this "ay at su!h a point of theoreti!al "i!-edness and mournful despair it is poetry that is radi!ally false4 for the simple reason that it dis!usses prin!iples and prin!iples should not #e dis!ussedG >letter to 'arassV?$ In short his reasoning re!apitulates the morality of a !hoir#oy or of an infantry manual$ *ut !onformity !an #e passionate and there#y

out of the ordinary$ .hen the vi!tory of the malevolent eagle over the dragon hope has #een pro!laimed Maldoror !an still o#stinately repeat that the #urden of his song is nothing #ut hope and !an "rite) F.ith my voi!e and "ith the solemnity of the days of my glory I re!all you O #lessed Hope to my deserted d"ellingG 0 he must still try to !onvin!e$ To !onsole humanity to treat it as a #rother to return to ,onfu!ius *uddha 3o!rates Lesus ,hrist Fmoralists "ho "andered through villages dying of hungerG >"hi!h is of dou#tful histori!al a!!ura!y? are still the pro%e!ts of despair$ Thus virtue and an ordered life have a nostalgi! appeal in the midst of vi!e$ <or LautrVamont refuses to pray and ,hrist for him is only a moralist$ .hat he proposes or rather "hat he proposes to himself is agnosti!ism and the fulfilment of duty$ 3u!h a sound programme unhappily supposes surrender the !alm of evening a heart untou!hed #y #itterness and untrou#led !ontemplation$ LautrVamont re#els "hen he suddenly "rites) FI -no" no other gra!e #ut that of #eing #orn$G *ut one !an sense his !len!hed teeth "hen he adds) FAn impartial mind finds that enough$G *ut no mind is impartial "hen !onfronted "ith life and death$ .ith LautVamont the re#el flees to the desert$ *ut this desert of !onformity is as dreary as Rim#auds Harrar$ The taste for the a#solute and the fren6y of annihilation sterili6e him again$ Lust as Maldoror "anted total re#ellion LautrVamont for the same reasons demands a#solute #anality$ The e/!lamation of a"areness "hi!h he tried to dro"n in the primeval seas to !onfuse "ith the ho"l of the #east "hi!h at another moment he tried to smother in the adoration of mathemati!s he no" "ants to stifle #y applying a dismal !onformity$ The

re#el no" tries to turn a deaf ear to the !all that urges him to"ard the #eing "ho lies at the heart of his re#ellion$ The important thing is to e/ist no longer 0 either #y refusing to #e anything at all or #y a!!epting to #e no matter "hat$ In either !ase it is a purely artifi!ial !onvention$ *anality too is an attitude$ ,onformity is one of the nihilisti! temptations of re#ellion "hi!h dominate a large part of our intelle!tual history$ It demonstrates ho" the re#el "ho ta-es to a!tion is tempted to su!!um# if he forgets his origins to the most a#solute !onformity$ And so it e/plains the t"entieth !entury$ LautrVamont "ho is usually hailed as the #ard of pure re#ellion on the !ontrary pro!laims the advent of the taste for intelle!tual servitude "hi!h flourishes in the !ontemporary "orld$ The "o,sies are only a prefa!e to a Ffuture "or-G of "hi!h "e !an only surmise the !ontents and "hi!h "as to have #een the ideal endEresult of literary re#ellion$ *ut this #oo- is #eing "ritten today despite LautrVamont in millions of !opies #y #ureau!rati! order$ Of !ourse genius !annot #e separated from #anality$ *ut it is not a 7uestion of the #anality of others 0 the #anality that "e vainly try to !apture and "hi!h itself !aptures the !reative "riter "here ne!essary "ith the help of the !ensors$ <or the !reative "riter it is a 7uestion of his o"n form of #anality "hi!h must #e !ompletely !reated$ Every genius is at on!e e/traordinary and #anal$ He is nothing if he is only one or the other$ .e must remem#er this "hen thin-ing of re#ellion$ It has its dandies and its menials #ut it does not re!ogni6e its legitimate sons$

#urrealism and /evolution This is not the pla!e to deal at length "ith Rim#aud$ Everything that !an #e said a#out him 0 and even more unfortunately 0 has already #een said$ It is "orth pointing out ho"ever for it !on!erns our su#%e!t that only in his "or- "as Rim#aud the poet of re#ellion$ His life far from %ustifying the myth it !reated only illustrates >an o#%e!tive perusal of the letters from Harrar suffi!es to prove this? the fa!t that he surrendered to the "orst form of nihilism imagina#le$ Rim#aud has #een deified for renoun!ing his genius as if his renun!iation implied superhuman virtue$ It must #e pointed out ho"ever despite the fa!t that #y doing so "e dis7ualify the ali#is of our !ontemporaries that genius alone 0 and not renun!iation of genius 0 implies virtue$ Rim#auds greatness does not lie in the first poems from ,harleville nor in his trading at Harrar$ It shines forth at the moment "hen in giving the most pe!uliarly appropriate e/pression to re#ellion that it has ever re!eived he simultaneously pro!laims his triumph and his agony his !on!eption of a life #eyond the !onfines of this "orld and the ines!apa#ility of the "orld the yearning for the unattaina#le and reality #rutally determined on restraint the re%e!tion of morality and the irresisti#le !ompulsion to duty$ At the moment "hen he !arries in his #reast #oth illumination and the dar-ness of hell "hen he hails and insults #eauty and !reates from an insolu#le !onfli!t the intri!ate !ounterpoint of an e/7uisite song he is the poet of re#ellion 0 the greatest of all$ The order in "hi!h he "rote his t"o great "or-s is of no importan!e$ In any

!ase there "as very little time #et"een the !on!eption of the t"o #oo-s and any artist -no"s "ith the !ertainty #orn of e/perien!e that Rim#aud simultaneously !arried the seeds of the #eason in Hell >2ne #aison en Enfer? and the 4lluminations "ithin him$ Though he "rote them one after the other there is no dou#t that he e/perien!ed the suffering of #oth of them at the same time$ This !ontradi!tion "hi!h -illed him "as the real sour!e of his genius$ *ut "here then is the virtue of someone "ho refuses to fa!e the !ontradi!tion and #etrays his o"n genius #efore having drun- it to the last #itter drop@ Rim#auds silen!e is not a ne" method of re#elling4 at least "e !an no longer say so after the pu#li!ation of the Harrar letters$ His metamorphosis is undou#tedly mysterious$ *ut there is also a mystery atta!hed to the #anality a!hieved #y #rilliant young girls "hom marriage transforms into adding or -nitting ma!hines$ The myth "oven around Rim#aud supposes and affirms that nothing "as possi#le after the #eason in Hell$ *ut "hat is impossi#le for the supremely gifted poet or for the ine/hausti#ly !reative "riter@ Ho" !an "e imagine anything to follo" 'oby Dic5 The Trial 6arathustra The "ossessed@ (evertheless they "ere follo"ed #y great "or-s "hi!h instru!t implement and #ear "itness to "hat is finest in the "riter and "hi!h only !ome to an end at his death$ .ho !an fail to regret the "or- that "ould have #een greater than the #eason in Hell and of "hi!h "e have #een deprived #y Rim#auds a#di!ation@ ,an style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42A#yssinia #e !onsidered as a monastery4 is it ,hrist "ho shut Rim#auds mouth@

3u!h a ,hrist "ould #e the -ind of man "ho no"adays lords it over the !ashiers des- in a #an- to %udge #y the letters in "hi!h the unhappy poet tal-s a#out his money "hi!h he "ants to see F"isely investedG and F#ringing in regular dividends$G 8It is only fair to note that the tone of these letters might #e e/plained #y the people to "hom they are "ritten$ *ut they do not suggest that Rim#aud is ma-ing a great effort to lie$ (ot one "ord #etrays the Rim#aud of former times$; The man "ho e/ulted under torture "ho hurled !urses at =od and at #eauty "ho hardened himself in the harsh atmosphere of !rime no" only "ants to marry someone F"ith a futureG$ The mage the seer the !onvi!t "ho lived perpetually in the shado" of the penal !olony the manE god on a godless earth al"ays !arried seventeen pounds of gold in a #elt "orn un!omforta#ly round his stoma!h "hi!h he !omplained gave him dysentery$ Is this the mythi!al hero "orshipped #y so many young men "ho though they did not spit in the fa!e of the "orld "ould die of shame at the mere idea of su!h a #elt@ To maintain the myth those de!isive letters must #e ignored$ It is easy to see "hy they have #een so little !ommented upon$ They are a sa!rilege as truth sometimes is$ A great and praise"orthy poet the greatest of his time a da66ling ora!le 0 Rim#aud is all of these things$ *ut he is not the manEgod the #urning inspiration the mon- of poetry as he is often presented$ The man only re!aptured his greatness in the hospital #ed in "hi!h at the hour of his painful end even his medio!rity #e!omes moving) FHo" unlu!-y I am ho" very unlu!-y I am I and Ive money on me that I !ant even -eep an eye onHG The defiant !ry of those last "ret!hed moments) F(o no no" I re#el against deathHG

happily restores Rim#aud to that part of !ommon human e/perien!e "hi!h involuntarily !oin!ides "ith greatness$ The young Rim#aud !omes to life again on the #rin- of the a#yss and "ith him revives the re#ellion of the times "hen his impre!ations against life "ere only e/pressions of despair at the thought of death$ It is at this point that the #ourgeois trader on!e more re%oins the tortured adoles!ent "hom "e so mu!h admired$ He re!aptures his youth in the terror and #itter pain finally e/perien!ed #y those "ho do not -no" ho" to attain happiness$ Only at this point does his passion and "ith it his truth #egin$ Moreover Harrar "as a!tually foretold in his "or#ut in the form of his final a#di!ation$ FAnd #est of all a drun-en sleep on the #ea!h$G The fury of annihilation appropriate to every re#el then assumes its most !ommon form$ The apo!alypse of !rime 0 as !on!eived #y Rim#aud in the person of the prin!e "ho insatia#ly slaughters his su#%e!ts 0 and endless li!entiousness are re#ellious themes that "ill #e ta-en up again #y the surrealists$ *ut finally even "ith Rim#aud nihilist de%e!tion prevailed4 the struggle the !rime itself proved too e/a!ting for his e/hausted mind$ The seer "ho dran- if "e may venture to say so in order not to forget ended #y finding in drun-enness the heavy sleep so "ell -no"n to our !ontemporaries$ One !an sleep on the #ea!h or at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Aden$ And one !onsents no longer a!tively #ut passively to a!!ept the order of the "orld even if the order is degrading$ Rim#auds silen!e is also a preparation for the silen!e of authority "hi!h hovers over minds resigned to everything save to the ne!essity of putting up a fight$

Rim#auds great intelle!t suddenly su#ordinated to money pro!laims the advent of other demands "hi!h are at first e/!essive and "hi!h "ill later #e put to use #y the poli!e$ To #e nothing 0 that is the !ry of the mind e/hausted #y its o"n re#ellion$ This leads to the pro#lem of sui!ide of the mind "hi!h after all is less respe!ta#le than the surrealists sui!ide and more fraught "ith !onse7uen!es$ 3urrealism itself !oming at the end of this great a!t of re#ellion is only signifi!ant #e!ause it attempted to perpetuate that aspe!t of Rim#aud "hi!h alone evo-es our sympathy$ 'eriving the rules for a re#ellious as!eti!ism from the letter a#out the seer and the system it implies he illustrates the struggle #et"een the "ill to #e and the desire for annihilation #et"een the yes and the no "hi!h "e have dis!overed again and again at every stage of re#ellion$ <or all these reasons rather than repeat the endless !ommentaries that surround Rim#auds "or- it seemed prefera#le to redis!over him and to follo" him among his su!!essors$ A#solute re#ellion total insu#ordination sa#otage on prin!iple the humour and !ult of the a#surd 0 su!h is the nature of surrealism "hi!h defines itself in its primary intent as the in!essant e/amination of all values$ The refusal to dra" any !on!lusions is flat de!isive and provo!ative$ F.e are spe!ialists in re#ellion$G 3urrealism "hi!h a!!ording to style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Aragon is a ma!hine for !apsi6ing the mind "as first !on%ured up #y the 'adaist movement "hose romanti! origins and anaemi! dandyism must #e noted$ 8Larry one of the masters of 'adaism is the last

in!arnation pe!uliar rather than #rilliant of the metaphysi!al dandy$; (onEsignifi!ation and !ontradi!tion are therefore !ultivated for their o"n sa-es$ FThe real 'adaists are against 'ada$ Everyone is a dire!tor of 'ada$G Or again) F.hat is good@ .hat is ugly@ .hat is great strong "ea- I@ 'ont -no"H 'ont -no"HG These parlour nihilists "ere o#viously threatened "ith having to a!t as slaves to the stri!test orthodo/ies$ *ut there is something more in surrealism than standard non!onformism the lega!y left # Rim#aud "hi!h in fa!t *reton re!apitulates as follo"s) FMust "e a#andon all hope at that parti!ular point@G An urgent appeal to a#sent life is reinfor!ed #y a total re%e!tion of the present "orld as *retons arrogant statement indi!ates) FIn!apa#le of a!!epting the fate assigned to me my highest per!eptions outraged #y this denial of %usti!e I refrain from adapting my e/isten!e to the ridi!ulous !onditions of e/isten!e here #elo"$G The mind a!!ording to *reton !an find no point of rest either in this life or #eyond it$ 3urrealism "ants to find a solution to this endless an/iety$ It is Fa !ry of the mind "hi!h turns against itself and finally ta-es the desperate de!ision to thro" off its #onds$G It protests against death and Fthe laugha#le durationG of a pre!arious !ondition$ Thus surrealism pla!es itself at the mer!y of impatien!e$ It e/ists in a !ondition of "ounded fren6y) at on!e infle/i#le and selfErighteous "ith the !onse7uent impli!ation of a moral philosophy$ 3urrealism the gospel of !haos found itself !ompelled from its very in!eption to !reate an order$ *ut at first it only dreamed of destru!tion 0 #y poetry to #egin "ith 0

on the plane of impre!ation and later #y the use of a!tual "eapons$ The trial of the real "orld has #e!ome #y logi!al development the trial of !reation$ 3urrealist irreligion is methodi!al and rational$ At first it esta#lished itself on the idea of the a#solute nonE !ulpa#ility of man to "hom one should render Fall the po"er that he has #een !apa#le of putting into the "ord =od$G As in every history of re#ellion this idea of a#solute nonE!ulpa#ility springing from despair "as little #y little transformed into a mania for punishment$ The surrealists "hile simultaneously e/alting human inno!en!e #elieved that they !ould e/alt murder and sui!ide$ They spo-e of sui!ide as a solution and ,revel "ho !onsidered this solution Fthe most pro#a#le %ust and definitive G -illed himself as did Rigaut and Va!hV$ Later style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Aragon "as to !ondemn the F#a##lers a#out sui!ide$G (evertheless the fa!t remains that to e/tol annihilation "ithout personal involvement is not a very honoura#le !ourse$ On this point surrealism has retained from the Flitt,rature! it despised the most fa!ile e/!uses and has %ustified Rigauds staggering remar-) F5ou are all poets and I myself am on the side of death$G 3urrealism did not rest there$ It !hose as its hero Violette (o6iSre or the anonymous !ommonEla" !riminal affirming in this "ay in the fa!e of !rime the inno!en!e of man$ *ut it "as also rash enough to say 0 and this is the statement that AndrV *reton must have regretted ever sin!e ABWW 0 that the simplest surrealist a!t !onsisted in going out into the street revolver in hand and shooting at random into the !ro"d$ .hoever refuses to re!ogni6e any other determining fa!tor apart

from the individual and his desires any priority other than that of the un!ons!ious a!tually su!!eeds in re#elling simultaneously against so!iety and against reason$ The theory of the gratuitous a!t is the !ulmination of the demand for a#solute freedom$ .hat does it matter if this freedom ends #y #eing em#odied in the solitude defined #y Larry) F.hen Ill have !olle!ted all the ready !ash in the "orld Ill -ill every#ody and go a"ay$G The essential thing is that every o#sta!le should #e denied and that the irrational should #e triumphant$ .hat in fa!t does this apology for murder signify if not that in a "orld "ithout meaning and "ithout honour only the desire for e/isten!e in all its forms is legitimate@ The instin!tive %oy of #eing alive the stimulus of the un!ons!ious the !ry of the irrational are the only pure truths that must #e professed$ Everything that stands in the "ay of desire E prin!ipally so!iety E must therefore #e mer!ilessly destroyed$ (o" "e !an understand AndrV *retons remar- a#out 3ade) F,ertainly man no longer !onsents to unite "ith nature e/!ept in !rime4 it remains to #e seen if this is not one of the "ildest the most in!ontesta#le "ays of loving$G It is easy to see that he is tal-ing of love "ithout an o#%e!t "hi!h is love as e/perien!ed #y people "ho are torn asunder$ *ut this empty avid love this insane desire for possession is pre!isely the love that so!iety inevita#ly th"arts$ That is "hy *reton "ho still #ears the stigma of his de!laration "as a#le to sing the praises of treason and de!lare >as the surrealists have tried to prove? that violen!e is the only ade7uate mode of e/pression$ *ut so!iety is not only !omposed of individuals$ It is also an institution$ Too "ellEmannered to -ill

every#ody the surrealists #y the very logi! of their attitude !ame to !onsider that in order to li#erate desire so!iety must first #e overthro"n$ They !hose to serve the revolutionary movement of their times$ <rom .alpole and 3ade 0 "ith an inevita#ility that !omprises the su#%e!t of this #oo- 0 surrealists passed on to HelvVtius and Mar/$ *ut it is o#vious that it is not the study of Mar/ism that led them to revolution$ 8The ,ommunists "ho %oined the party as a result of having studied Mar/ !an #e !ounted on the fingers of one hand$ They are first !onverted and then they read the 3!riptures$; Muite the !ontrary) surrealism is involved in an in!essant effort to re!on!ile "ith Mar/ism the inevita#le !on!lusions that led it to revolution$ .e !an say "ithout #eing parado/i!al that the surrealists arrived at Mar/ism on a!!ount of "hat today they most detest in Mar/$ Kno"ing the #asis and the no#ility of the motives that !ompelled him parti!ularly "hen one has shared the same la!erating e/perien!es one hesitates to remind AndrV *reton that his movement implied the esta#lishment of Fruthless authorityG and of di!tatorship of politi!al fanati!ism the refusal of free dis!ussion and the ne!essity of the death penalty$ The pe!uliar vo!a#ulary of that period is also astonishing >Fsa#otage G Finformer G et!$? in that it is the vo!a#ulary of a poli!eEdominated revolution$ *ut these fanati!s "anted Fany sort of revolution G no matter "hat as long as it res!ued them from the "orld of shop-eepers and !ompromise in "hi!h they "ere for!ed to live$ In that they !ould not have the #est they still preferred the "orst$ In that respe!t they "ere nihilists$ They "ere not a"are of the fa!t that those among them "ho "ere in the future to remain faithful to Mar/ism "ere faithful at

the same time to their initial nihilism$ The real destru!tion of language "hi!h the surrealists so o#stinately "anted does not lie in in!oheren!e or automatism$ It lies in the "ord order$ It "as pointless for style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Aragon to #egin "ith a denun!iation of the Fshameful pragmati! attitude G for in that attitude he finally found total li#eration from morality even if that li#eration !oin!ided "ith another form of servitude$ The surrealist "ho meditated most profoundly a#out this pro#lem +ierre (aville in trying to find the denominator !ommon to revolutionary a!tion and surrealist a!tion lo!ali6ed it "ith !onsidera#le penetration in pessimism meaning in Fthe intention of a!!ompanying man to his do"nfall and of overloo-ing nothing that !ould ensure that his perdition might #e useful$G This mi/ture of Ma!hiavellianism and Augustinism in fa!t e/plains t"entiethE!entury re#ellion4 no more auda!ious e/pression !an #e given to the nihilism of the times$ The renegades of surrealism "ere faithful to most of the prin!iples of nihilism$ In a !ertain "ay they "anted to die$ If AndrV *reton and a fe" others finally #ro-e "ith Mar/ism it "as #e!ause there "as something in them #eyond nihilism a se!ond loyalty to "hat is purest in the origins of re#ellion) they did not "ant to die$ ,ertainly the surrealists "anted to profess materialism$ F.e are pleased to re!ogni6e as one of the prime !auses of the mutiny on #oard the #attleship "otem5in that terri#le pie!e of meat$G *ut there is not "ith them as "ith the Mar/ists a feeling of friendship even intelle!tual for that pie!e of meat$ +utrid meat typifies only the real "orld "hi!h in fa!t gives #irth to

revolt #ut against itself$ It e/plains nothing even though it %ustifies everything$ Revolution for the surrealists "as not an end to #e reali6ed day #y day in a!tion #ut an a#solute and !onsolatory myth$ It "as Fthe real life li-e love G of "hi!h Eluard spo-e "ho at that time had no idea that his friend Kalandra "ould die of that sort of life$ They "anted the F!ommunism of genius G not the other form of ,ommunism$ These pe!uliar Mar/ists de!lared themselves in re#ellion against history and e/tolled the heroi! individual$ FHistory is governed #y la"s "hi!h are !onditioned #y the !o"ardi!e of individuals$G AndrV *reton "anted revolution and love together 0 and they are in!ompati#le$ Revolution !onsists in loving a man "ho does not yet e/ist$ *ut he "ho loves a living #eing if he really loves !an only !onsent to die for the sa-e of the #eing he loves$ In reality revolution for AndrV *reton "as only a parti!ular aspe!t of re#ellion "hile for Mar/ists and in general for all politi!al persuasions only the !ontrary is true$ *reton "as not trying to !reate #y a!tion the promised land that "as supposed to !ro"n history$ One of the fundamental theses of surrealism is in fa!t that there is no salvation$ The advantage of revolution "as not that it gives man-ind happiness Fa#omina#le material !omfort$G On the !ontrary a!!ording to *reton it should purify and illuminate mans tragi! !ondition$ .orld revolution and the terri#le sa!rifi!es it implies "ould only #ring one advantage) Fpreventing the !ompletely artifi!ial pre!ariousness of the so!ial !ondition from s!reening the real pre!ariousness of the human !ondition$G Muite simply for *reton this form of progress "as e/!essive$ One might as "ell say that revolution should #e enrolled

in the servi!e of the inner as!eti!ism #y "hi!h individual men !an transfigure reality into the supernatural Fthe #rilliant revenge of mans imagination$G .ith AndrV *reton the supernatural holds the same pla!e as the rational does "ith Hegel$ Thus it "ould #e impossi#le to imagine a more !omplete antithesis to the politi!al philosophy of Mar/ism$ The lengthy hesitations of those "hom Artaud !alled the Amiels of revolution are easily e/plained$ The surrealists "ere more different from Mar/ than "ere rea!tionaries li-e Loseph de Maistre for e/ample$ The rea!tionaries made use of the tragedy of e/isten!e to re%e!t revolution 0 in other "ords to !reate another histori!al situation$ *ut ma-e use of the human tragedy to further their pragmati! ends$ *ut *reton made use of revolution to !onsummate the tragedy and in spite of the title of his maga6ine made use of revolution to further the surrealist adventure$ <inally the definitive rupture is e/plained if one !onsiders that Mar/ism insisted on the su#mission of the irrational "hile the surrealists rose to defend irrationality to the death$ Mar/ism tended to"ard the !on7uest of totality and surrealism li-e all spiritual e/perien!es tended to"ard unity$ Totality !an demand the su#mission of the irrational if rationalism suffi!es to !on7uer the "orld$ *ut the desire for unity is more demanding$ It does not suffi!e that everything should #e rational$ It "ants a#ove all the rational and the irrational to #e re!on!iled on the same level$ There is no unity that supposes any form of mutilation$ <or AndrV *reton totality !ould #e only a stage a ne!essary stage perhaps #ut !ertainly inade7uate on the

"ay that leads to unity$ Here "e find on!e again the theme of All or (othing$ 3urrealism tends to"ard universality and the !urious #ut profound reproa!h that *reton ma-es to Mar/ !onsists in saying 7uite %ustifia#ly that the latter is not universal$ The surrealists "anted to re!on!ile Mar/s Flet us transform the "orldG "ith Rim#auds Flet us !hange life$G *ut the first leads to the !on7uest of the totality of the "orld and the se!ond to the !on7uest of the unity of life$ +arado/i!ally every form of totality is restri!tive$ In the end the t"o formulas su!!eeded in splitting the surrealist group$ *y !hoosing Rim#aud *reton demonstrated that surrealism "as not !on!erned "ith a!tion #ut "ith as!eti!ism and spiritual e/perien!e$ He again gave first pla!e to "hat !omposed the profound originality of his movement) the restoration of the sa!red and the !on7uest of unity "hi!h ma-es surrealism so invalua#le for a !onsideration of the pro#lem of re#ellion$ The more he ela#orated on this original !on!ept the more irrepara#ly he separated himself from his politi!al !ompanions and at the same time from some of his first manifestoes$ AndrV *reton never a!tually "avered in his support of surrealism 0 the fusion of a dream and of reality the su#limation of the old !ontradi!tion #et"een the ideal and the real$ .e -no" the surrealist solution) !on!rete irrationality o#%e!tive ris-$ +oetry is the !on7uest the only possi#le !on7uest of the Fsupreme position$G FA !ertain position of the mind from "here life and death the real and the imaginary the past and the future I !ease to #e per!eived in a !ontradi!tory sense$G .hat is this supreme position that should mar- the F!olossal

a#ortion of the Hegelian systemG@ It is the sear!h for the summitEa#yss familiar to the mysti!s$ A!tually it is the mysti!ism "ithout =od "hi!h demonstrates and 7uen!hes the re#els thirst for the a#solute$ The essential enemy of surrealism is rationalism$ *retons method moreover presents the pe!uliar spe!ta!le of a form of O!!idental thought in "hi!h the prin!iple of analogy is !ontinually favoured to the detriment of the prin!iples of identity and !ontradi!tion$ More pre!isely it is a 7uestion of dissolving !ontradi!tions in the fires of love and desire and of demolishing the "alls of death$ Magi! rites primitive or naYve !ivili6ations al!hemy the language of flo"ers fire or sleepless nights are so many mira!ulous stages on the "ay to unity and the philosophers stone$ If surrealism did not !hange the "orld it furnished it "ith a fe" strange myths "hi!h partly %ustified (iet6s!hes announ!ement of the return of the =ree-s$ Only partly #e!ause he "as referring to unenlightened !lass12=ramE2=ree!e the !lass12=ramE2=ree!e of mysteries and dar- gods$ <inally %ust as (iet6s!hes e/perien!e !ulminated in the a!!eptan!e of the light of day surrealist e/perien!e !ulminates in the e/altation of the dar-ness of night the agoni6ed and o#stinate !ult of the tempest$ *reton a!!ording to his o"n statements understood that despite everything life "as a gift$ *ut his !omplian!e !ould never shed the full light of day the light that all of us need$ FThere is too mu!h of the north in me G he said Ffor me to #e a man "ho !omplies entirely$G He nevertheless often diminished to his o"n detriment the importan!e of negation and advan!ed the positive !laims of re#ellion$ He !hose severity rather

than silen!e and retained only the Fdemand for morality G "hi!h a!!ording to *ataille first gave life to surrealism4 FTo su#stitute a ne" morality for !urrent morality "hi!h is the !ause of all our evils$G Of !ourse he did not su!!eed >nor has any#ody in our time? in the attempt to found a ne" morality$ *ut he never despaired of #eing a#le to do so$ ,onfronted "ith the horror of a period in "hi!h man "hom he "anted to magnify has #een persistently degraded in the name of !ertain prin!iples that surrealism adopted *reton felt !onstrained to propose provisionally a return to traditional morality$ That represents a hesitation perhaps$ *ut it is the hesitation of nihilism and the real progress of re#ellion$ After all "hen he !ould not give himself the morality and the values of "hose ne!essity he "as !learly a"are "e -no" very "ell that *reton !hose love$ In the general meanness of his times 0 and this !annot #e forgotten 0 he is the only person "ho "rote profoundly a#out love$ Love is the entran!ed morality that served this e/ile as a native land$ Of !ourse a dimension is still missing here$ 3urrealism in that it is neither politi!s nor religion is perhaps only an un#eara#le form of "isdom$ *ut it is also the a#solute proof that there is no !omforta#le form of "isdom) F.e "ant "e shall have the hereafter in our lifetime G *reton has admira#ly e/!laimed$ .hile reason em#ar-s on a!tion and sets its armies mar!hing on the "orld the splendid night in "hi!h *reton delights announ!es da"ns that have not yet #ro-en and as "ell the advent of the poet of our renaissan!e) RenV ,har$

ihilism and History %

One hundred and fifty years of metaphysi!al re#ellion and of nihilism have "itnessed the persistent reappearan!e under different guises of the same ravaged !ountenan!e) the fa!e of human protest$ All of them de!rying the human !ondition and its !reator have affirmed the solitude of man and the nonEe/isten!e of any -ind of morality$ *ut at the same time they have all tried to !onstru!t a purely terrestrial -ingdom "here their !hosen prin!iples "ill hold s"ay$ As rivals of the ,reator they have ines!apa#ly #een led to the point of re!onstru!ting !reation a!!ording to their o"n !on!epts$ Those "ho re%e!ted for the sa-e of the "orld they had !reated all other prin!iples #ut desire and po"er have rushed to sui!ide or madness and have pro!laimed the apo!alypse$ As for the rest "ho "anted to !reate their o"n prin!iples they have !hosen pomp and !eremony the "orld of appearan!es or #anality or again murder and destru!tion$ *ut 3ade and the romanti!s Karama6ov or (iet6s!he only entered the "orld of death #e!ause they "anted to dis!over the true life$ 3o that #y a pro!ess of inversion it is the desperate appeal for order that rings through this insane universe$ Their !on!lusions have only proved disastrous or destru!tive to freedom from the moment they laid aside the #urden of re#ellion fled the tension that it implies and !hose the !omfort of tyranny or of servitude$

Human insurre!tion in its e/alted and tragi! forms is only and !an only #e a prolonged protest against death a violent a!!usation against the universal death penalty$ In every !ase that "e have !ome a!ross the protest is al"ays dire!ted at everything in !reation "hi!h is dissonant opa7ue or promises the solution of !ontinuity$ Essentially then "e are dealing "ith a perpetual demand for unity$ The re%e!tion of death the desire for immortality and for !larity are the mainsprings of all these e/travagan!es "hether su#lime or puerile$ Is it only a !o"ardly and personal refusal to die@ (o for many of these re#els have paid the ultimate pri!e in order to live up to their o"n demands$ The re#el does not as- for life #ut for reasons for living$ He re%e!ts the !onse7uen!es implied #y death$ If nothing lasts then nothing is %ustified4 everything that dies is deprived of meaning$ To fight against death amounts to !laiming that life has a meaning to fighting for order and for unity$ The protest against evil "hi!h is at the very !ore of metaphysi!al revolt is signifi!ant in this regard$ It is not the suffering of a !hild "hi!h is repugnant in itself #ut the fa!t that the suffering is not %ustified$ After all pain e/ile or !onfinement are sometimes a!!epted "hen di!tated #y good sense or #y the do!tor$ In the eyes of the re#el "hat is missing from the misery of the "orld as "ell as from its moments of happiness is some prin!iple #y "hi!h they !an #e e/plained$ The insurre!tion against evil is a#ove all a demand for unity$ The re#el o#stinately !onfronts a "orld !ondemned to death and the impenetra#le o#s!urity of the human !ondition "ith his demand for life and

a#solute !larity$ He is see-ing "ithout -no"ing it a moral philosophy or a religion$ Re#ellion even though it is #lind is a form of as!eti!ism$ Therefore if the re#el #lasphemes it is in the hope of finding a ne" god$ He staggers under the sho!- of the first and most profound of all religious e/perien!es #ut it is a disen!hanted religious e/perien!e$ It is not re#ellion itself that is no#le #ut its aims even though its a!hievements are at times igno#le$ At least "e must -no" ho" to re!ogni6e the igno#le ends it a!hieves$ Ea!h time that it deifies the total re%e!tion the a#solute negation of "hat e/ists it destroys$ Ea!h time that it #lindly a!!epts "hat e/ists and gives voi!e to a#solute assent it destroys again$ Hatred of the !reator !an turn to hatred of !reation or to e/!lusive and defiant love of "hat e/ists$ *ut in #oth !ases it ends in murder and loses the right to #e !alled re#ellion$ One !an #e nihilist in t"o "ays in #oth #y having an intemperate re!ourse to a#solutes$ Apparently there are re#els "ho "ant to die and those "ho "ant to !ause death$ *ut they are identi!al !onsumed "ith desire for the true life frustrated #y their desire for e/isten!e and therefore preferring generali6ed in%usti!e to mutilated %usti!e$ At this pit!h of indignation reason #e!omes madness$ If it is true that the instin!tive re#ellion of the human heart advan!es gradually through the !enturies to"ard its most !omplete reali6ation it has also gro"n as "e have seen in #lind auda!ity to the inordinate e/tent of de!iding to ans"er universal murder #y metaphysi!al assassination$ The even if "hi!h "e have already re!ogni6ed as mar-ing the most important moment of metaphysi!al

re#ellion is in any !ase only fulfilled in a#solute destru!tion$ It is not the no#ility of re#ellion that illuminates the "orld today #ut nihilism$ And it is the !onse7uen!e of nihilism that "e must retra!e "ithout losing sight of the truth innate in its origins$ Even if =od e/isted Ivan "ould never surrender to Him in the fa!e of the in%usti!e done to man$ *ut a longer !ontemplation of this in%usti!e a more #itter approa!h transformed the Feven if you e/istG into Fyou do not deserve to e/ist G therefore Fyou do not e/ist$G The vi!tims have found in their o"n inno!en!e the %ustifi!ation for the final !rime$ ,onvin!ed of their !ondemnation and "ithout hope of immortality they de!ide to murder =od$ If it is false to say that from that day #egan the tragedy of !ontemporary man neither is it true to say that there "as "here it ended$ On the !ontrary this attempt indi!ates the highest point in a drama that #egan "ith the end of the an!ient "orld and of "hi!h the final "ords have not yet #een spo-en$ <rom this moment man de!ides to e/!lude himself from gra!e and to live #y his o"n means$ +rogress from the time of 3ade up to the present day has !onsisted in gradually enlarging the stronghold "here a!!ording to his o"n rules man "ithout =od #rutally "ields po"er$ In defian!e of the divinity the frontiers of this stronghold have #een gradually e/tended to the point of ma-ing the entire universe into a fortress ere!ted against the fallen and e/iled deity$ Man at the !ulmination of his re#ellion in!ar!erated himself4 from 3ades lurid !astle to the !on!entration !amps mans greatest li#erty !onsisted only in #uilding the prison of his !rimes$ *ut the state of siege gradually spreads the demand for freedom "ants to em#ra!e all man-ind$ Then the only

-ingdom that is opposed to the -ingdom of gra!e must #e founded 0 namely the -ingdom of %usti!e 0 and the human !ommunity must #e reunited among the de#ris of the fallen ,ity of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=od$ To -ill =od and to #uild a ,hur!h are the !onstant and !ontradi!tory purpose of re#ellion$ A#solute freedom finally #e!omes a prison of a#solute duties a !olle!tive as!eti!ism a story to #e #rought to an end$ The nineteenth !entury "hi!h is the !entury of re#ellion thus merges into the t"entieth the !entury of %usti!e and ethi!s in "hi!h everyone indulges in selfEre!rimination$ ,hamfort the moralist of re#ellion had already provided the formula) FOne must #e %ust #efore #eing generous as one must have #read #efore having !a-e$G Thus the ethi! of lu/ury "ill #e renoun!ed in favour of the #itter morality of the empireE#uilders$ .e must no" em#ar- on the su#%e!t of this !onvulsive effort to !ontrol the "orld and to introdu!e a universal rule$ .e have arrived at the moment "hen re#ellion re%e!ting every aspe!t of servitude attempts to anne/ all !reation$ Every time it e/perien!es a set#a!"e have already seen that the politi!al solution the solution of !on7uest is formulated$ Hen!eforth "ith the introdu!tion of moral nihilism it "ill retain of all its a!7uisitions only the "ill to po"er$ In prin!iple the re#el only "anted to !on7uer his o"n e/isten!e and to maintain it in the fa!e of =od$ *ut he forgets his origins and #y the la" of spiritual imperialism he sets out in sear!h of "orld !on7uest #y "ay of an infinitely multiplied series of murders$ He drove =od from His heaven #ut no" that the spirit of metaphysi!al re#ellion openly %oins for!es "ith revolutionary movements the

irrational !laim for freedom parado/i!ally adopts reason as a "eapon and as the only means of !on7uest "hi!h appears entirely human$ .ith the death of =od man-ind remains4 and #y this "e mean the history that "e must understand and shape$ (ihilism "hi!h in the very midst of re#ellion smothers the for!e of !reation only adds that one is %ustified in using every means at ones disposal$ Man on an earth that he -no"s is hen!eforth solitary is going to add to irrational !rimes the !rimes of reason that are #ent on the triumph of man$ To the FI re#el therefore "e e/ist G he adds "ith prodigious plans in mind "hi!h even in!lude the death of re#ellion) FAnd "e are alone$G

"art Three

Historical Rebellion *
<reedom Fthat terri#le "ord ins!ri#ed on the !hariot of the storm G 8+hilothVe O(eddy; is the motivating prin!iple of all revolutions$ .ithout it %usti!e seems in!on!eiva#le to the re#els mind$ There !omes a time ho"ever "hen %usti!e demands the suspension of freedom$ Then terror on a grand or small s!ale ma-es its appearan!e to !onsummate

the revolution$ Every a!t of re#ellion e/presses a nostalgia for inno!en!e and an appeal to the essen!e of #eing$ *ut one day nostalgia ta-es up arms and assumes the responsi#ility of total guilt4 in other "ords adopts murder and violen!e$ The servile re#ellions the regi!ide revolutions and those of the t"entieth !entury have thus !ons!iously a!!epted a #urden of guilt "hi!h in!reased in proportion to the degree of li#eration they proposed to introdu!e$ This !ontradi!tion "hi!h has #e!ome only too o#vious prevents our !ontemporary revolutionaries from displaying that aspe!t of happiness and optimism "hi!h shone forth from the fa!es and the spee!hes of the mem#ers of the ,onstituent Assem#ly in ATUB$ Is this !ontradi!tion inevita#le@ 'oes it !hara!teri6e or #etray the value of re#ellion@ These 7uestions are #ound to arise a#out revolution as they are #ound to arise a#out metaphysi!al re#ellion$ A!tually revolution is only the logi!al !onse7uen!e of metaphysi!al re#ellion and "e shall dis!over in our analysis of the revolutionary movement the same desperate and #loody effort to affirm the dignity of man in defian!e of the things that deny its e/isten!e$ The revolutionary spirit thus underta-es the defen!e of that part of man "hi!h refuses to su#mit$ In other "ords it tries to assure him his !ro"n in the realm of time and re%e!ting =od it !hooses history "ith an apparently inevita#le logi!$

In theory the "ord revolution retains the meaning that it has in astronomy$ It is a movement that des!ri#es a !omplete !ir!le that leads from one form of government to another after a !omplete transition$ A !hange of regulations !on!erning property "ithout a !orresponding !hange of government is not a revolution #ut a reform$ There is no -ind of e!onomi! revolution "hether its methods are violent or pa!ifi! "hi!h is not at the same time manifestly politi!al$ Revolution !an already #e distinguished in this "ay from re#ellion$ The "arning given to Louis ZVI) F(o sire this is not a re#ellion it is a revolution G a!!ents the essential differen!e$ It means pre!isely that Fit is the a#solute !ertainty of a ne" form of government$G Re#ellion is #y nature limited in s!ope$ It is no more than an in!oherent pronoun!ement$ Revolution on the !ontrary originates in the realm of ideas$ 3pe!ifi!ally it is the in%e!tion of ideas into histori!al e/perien!e "hile re#ellion is only the movement that leads from individual e/perien!e into the realm of ideas$ .hile even the !olle!tive history of a movement of re#ellion is al"ays that of a fruitless struggle "ith fa!ts of an o#s!ure protest "hi!h involves neither methods nor reason a revolution is an attempt to shape a!tions to ideas to fit the "orld into a theoreti! frame$ That is "hy re#ellion -ills men "hile revolution destroys #oth men and prin!iples$ *ut for the same reasons it !an #e said that there has not yet #een a revolution in the !ourse of history$ There !ould only #e one and that "ould #e the definitive revolution$ The movement that seems to !omplete the !ir!le already #egins to des!ri#e another at the pre!ise moment "hen the ne" government is formed$ The anar!hists "ith Varlet as their leader "ere

made "ell a"are of the fa!t that government and revolution are in!ompati#le in the dire!t sense$ FIt implies a !ontradi!tion G says +roudhon Fthat a government !ould #e revolutionary for the very simple reason that it is the government$G (o" that the e/periment has #een made let us 7ualify that statement #y adding that a government !an #e revolutionary only in opposition to other governments$ Revolutionary governments are o#liged most of the time to #e "ar governments$ The more e/tensive the revolution the more !onsidera#le the !han!es of the "ar that it implies$ The so!iety #orn of the revolution of ATUB "anted to fight for style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe$ The so!iety #orn of the ABAT revolution is fighting for universal dominion$ Total revolution ends #y demanding 0 "e shall see "hy 0 the !ontrol of the "orld$ .hile "aiting for this to happen if happen it must the history of man in one sense is the sum total of his su!!essive re#ellions$ In other "ords the movement of transition "hi!h !an #e !learly e/pressed in terms of spa!e is only an appro/imation in terms of time$ .hat "as devoutly !alled in the nineteenth !entury the progressive eman!ipation of the human ra!e appears from the outset li-e an uninterrupted series of re#ellions "hi!h overrea!h themselves and try to find their formulation in ideas #ut "hi!h have not yet rea!hed the point of definitive revolution "here everything on heaven and on earth "ould #e sta#ili6ed$ A superfi!ial e/amination seems to imply rather than an real eman!ipation an affirmation of man-ind #y man an affirmation in!reasingly #road in s!ope #ut al"ays

in!omplete$ In fa!t if there had ever #een one real revolution there "ould #e no more history$ Jnity "ould have #een a!hieved and death "ould have #een satiated$ That is "hy all revolutionaries finally aspire to "orld unity and a!t as though they #elieve that history "as !on!luded$ The originality of t"entiethE!entury revolution lies in the fa!t that for the first time it openly !laims to reali6e the an!ient dream of Anar!hasis ,loots of unity of the human ra!e and at the same time the definitive !onsummation of history$ Lust as the movement of re#ellion led to the point of FAll or (othingG and %ust as metaphysi!al re#ellion demanded the unity of the "orld the t"entiethE!entury revolutionary movement "hen it arrived at the most o#vious !on!lusions of its logi! insisted "ith threats of for!e on arrogating to itself the "hole of history$ Re#ellion is therefore !ompelled on pain of appearing futile or out of date to #e!ome revolutionary$ It no longer suffi!es for the re#el to deify himself li-e 3tirner or to loo- to his o"n salvation #y adopting a !ertain attitude of mind$ The spe!ies must #e deified as (iet6s!he attempted to do and his ideal of the superman must #e adopted so as to assure salvation for all 0 as Ivan Karama6ov "anted$ <or the first time the +ossessed appear on the s!ene and pro!eed to give the ans"er to one of the se!rets of the times) the identity of reason and of the "ill to po"er$ (o" that =od is dead the "orld must #e !hanged and organi6ed #y the for!es at mans disposal$ The for!e of impre!ation alone is not enough4 "eapons are needed and totality must #e !on7uered$ Even revolution parti!ularly revolution "hi!h !laims to #e materialist is only a limitless metaphysi!al !rusade$ *ut !an totality !laim to #e

unity@ That is the 7uestion "hi!h this #oo- must ans"er$ 3o far "e !an only say that the purpose of this analysis is not to give for the hundredth time a des!ription of the revolutionary phenomenon nor on!e more to e/amine the histori! or e!onomi! !auses of great revolutions$ Its purpose is to dis!over in !ertain revolutionary data the logi!al se7uen!e the e/planations and the invaria#le themes of metaphysi!al re#ellion$ The ma%ority of revolutions are shaped #y and derive their originality from murder$ All or almost all have #een homi!idal$ *ut some in addition have pra!tised regi!ide and dei!ide$ Lust as the history of metaphysi!al re#ellion #egan "ith 3ade so our real in7uiry only #egins "ith his !ontemporaries the regi!ides "ho atta!- the in!arnation of divinity "ithout yet daring to destroy the prin!iple of eternity$ >*ut #efore this the history of man-ind also demonstrates the e7uivalent of the first movement of re#ellion 0 the re#ellion of the slave$? .hen a slave re#els against his master the situation presented is of one man pitted against another under a !ruel s-y far from the e/alted realms of prin!iples$ The final result is merely the murder of man$ The servile re#ellions peasant risings #eggar out#rea-s rusti! revolts all advan!e the !on!ept of a prin!iple of e7uality a life for a life "hi!h despite every -ind of mystifi!ation and auda!ity "ill al"ays #e found in the purest manifestations of the revolutionary spirit 0 Russian terrorism in AB:D for e/ample$

3parta!us re#ellion "hi!h too- pla!e as the an!ient "orld "as !oming to an end a fe" de!ades #efore the ,hristian era is an e/!ellent illustration of this point$ <irst "e note that this is a re#ellion of gladiators 0 that is to say of slaves !onse!rated to single !om#at and !ondemned for the dele!tation of their masters to -ill or #e -illed$ *eginning "ith seventy men this re#ellion ended "ith an army of seventy thousand insurgents "hi!h !rushed the #est Roman legions and advan!ed through style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Italy to mar!h on the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Eternal style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,ity itself$ Ho"ever as AndrV +roudhommeau/ remar-s >in The Tragedy of #partacus? this re#ellion introdu!ed no ne" prin!iple into Roman life$ The pro!lamation issued #y 3parta!us goes no farther than to offer Fe7ual rightsG to the slaves$ The transition from fa!t to right "hi!h "e analy6ed in the first stage of re#ellion is indeed the only logi!al a!7uisition that one !an find on this level of re#ellion$ The insurgent re%e!ts slavery and affirms his e7uality "ith his master$ He "ants to #e master in his turn$ 3parta!us re#ellion is a !ontinual illustration of this prin!iple of positive !laims$ The slave army li#erates the slaves and immediately hands over their former masters to them in #ondage$ A!!ording to one tradition of dou#tful vera!ity it is true gladiatorial !om#ats "ere even organi6ed #et"een several hundred Roman !iti6ens "hile the slaves sat in the grandstands delirious "ith %oy and e/!itement$ *ut to -ill men leads to nothing #ut -illing more men$ <or one prin!iple to triumph another prin!iple must #e overthro"n$ The !ity of light of "hi!h 3parta!us dreamed !ould only have

#een #uilt on the ruins of eternal style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rome of its institutions and its gods$ 3parta!us army mar!hes to lay siege to a style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rome paraly6ed "ith fear at the prospe!t of having to pay for its !rimes$ At the de!isive moment ho"ever "ithin sight of the sa!red "alls the army halts and "avers as if it "ere retreating #efore the prin!iples the institutions the !ity of the gods$ .hen these had #een destroyed "hat !ould #e put in their pla!e e/!ept the #rutal desire for %usti!e the "ounded and e/a!er#ated love that until this moment had -ept these "ret!hes on their feet$ 83parta!us re#ellion re!apitulates the programme of the servile re#ellions that pre!eded it$ *ut this programme is limited to the distri#ution of land and the a#olition of slavery$ It is not dire!tly !on!erned "ith the gods of the !ity$; In any !ase the army retreated "ithout having fought and then made the !urious move of de!iding to return to the pla!e "here the slave re#ellion originated to retra!e the long road of its vi!tories and to return to 3i!ily$ It "as as though these out!asts forever alone and helpless #efore the great tas-s that a"aited them and too daunted to assail the heavens returned to "hat "as purest and most heartening in their history to the land of their first a"a-ening "here it "as easy and right to die$ Then #egan their defeat and martyrdom$ *efore the last #attle 3parta!us !ru!ified a Roman !iti6en to sho" his men the fate that "as in store for them$ 'uring the #attle 3parta!us himself tried "ith fren6ied determination the sym#olism of "hi!h is o#vious to rea!h ,rassus "ho "as !ommanding the Roman legions$ He "anted to perish #ut in single !om#at "ith

the man "ho sym#oli6ed at that moment every Roman master4 it "as his dearest "ish to die #ut in a#solute e7uality$ He did not rea!h ,rassus) prin!iples "age "ar at a distan!e and the Roman general -ept himself apart$ 3parta!us died as he "ished #ut at the hands of mer!enaries slaves li-e himself "ho -illed their o"n freedom "ith his$ In revenge for the one !ru!ified !iti6en ,rassus !ru!ified thousands of slaves$ The si/ thousand !rosses "hi!h after su!h a %ust re#ellion sta-ed out the road from style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,apua to style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rome demonstrated to the servile !ro"d that there is no e7uality in the "orld of po"er and that the masters !al!ulate at a usurious rate the pri!e of their o"n #lood$ The !ross is also ,hrists punishment$ One might imagine that he !hose a slaves punishment a fe" years later only so as to redu!e the enormous distan!e that hen!eforth "ould separate humiliated humanity from the impla!a#le fa!e of the Master$ He inter!edes He su#mits to the most e/treme in%usti!e so that re#ellion shall not divide the "orld in t"o so that suffering "ill also light the "ay to heaven and preserve it from the !urses of man-ind$ .hat is astonishing in the fa!t that the revolutionary spirit "hen it "anted to affirm the separation of heaven and earth should #egin #y disem#odying the divinity #y -illing His representatives on earth@ In !ertain aspe!ts the period of re#ellions !omes to an end in ATBW and revolutionary times #egin 0 on a s!affold$ 8In that this #oo- is not !on!erned "ith the spirit of re#ellion inside ,hristianity the Reformation has no pla!e here nor the numerous re#ellions against e!!lesiasti!al authority "hi!h

pre!eded it$ *ut "e !an say at least that the Reformation prepares the "ay for La!o#inism and in one sense initiates the reforms that ATUB !arries out$;

The /egicides %
Kings "ere put to death long #efore style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lanuary 9A ATBW and #efore the regi!ides of the nineteenth !entury$ *ut Ravailla! 'amiens and their follo"ers "ere interested in atta!-ing the person not the prin!iple of the -ing$ They "anted another -ing and that "as all$ It never o!!urred to them that the throne !ould remain empty forever$ ATUB is the startingEpoint of modern times #e!ause the men of that period "ished among other things to overthro" the prin!iple of divine right and to introdu!e to the histori!al s!ene the for!es of negation and re#ellion "hi!h had #e!ome the essen!e of intelle!tual dis!ussion in the previous !enturies$ Thus they added to traditional tyranni!ide the !on!ept of !al!ulated dei!ide$ The soE!alled freethin-ers the philosophers and %urists served as levers for this revolution$ 8The -ings themselves

!olla#orated in this #y allo"ing politi!al po"er gradually to en!roa!h on religious po"er thus threatening the very prin!iple of their legitima!y$; In order for su!h an underta-ing to enter into the realms of possi#ility and to #e !onsidered legitimate it "as first ne!essary for the ,hur!h "hose infinite responsi#ility it is to pla!e itself on the side of the masters #y !ompromising "ith the e/e!utioner 0 a step that developed into the In7uisition and "as perpetuated #y !ompli!ity "ith the temporal po"ers$ Mi!helet is 7uite !orre!t in "anting to re!ogni6e only t"o outstanding !hara!ters in the revolutionary saga) ,hristianity and the <ren!h Revolution$ In fa!t for him ATUB is e/plained #y the struggle #et"een divine gra!e and %usti!e$ Although Mi!helet shared the taste for allEem#ra!ing a#stra!tions "ith his intemperate period he sa" that this taste "as one of the profound !auses of the revolutionary !risis$ Even if the monar!hy of the ancient regime "as not al"ays ar#itrary in its manner of governing it "as undou#tedly ar#itrary in prin!iple$ It "as founded on divine right "hi!h means that its legitima!y !ould never #e 7uestioned$ Its legitima!y often "as 7uestioned ho"ever in parti!ular #y various parliaments$ *ut those "ho e/er!ised it !onsidered and presented it as an a/iom$ Louis ZIV as is "ell -no"n rigidly adhered to the prin!iple of divine right$ 8,harles I !lung so tena!iously to the prin!iple of divine right that he

!onsidered it unne!essary to #e %ust and loyal to those "ho denied it$; *ossuet gave him !onsidera#le help in this dire!tion #y saying to the -ings of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e) F5ou are gods$G The -ing in one of his aspe!ts is the divine emissary in !harge of human affairs and therefore of the administration of %usti!e$ Li-e =od Himself he is the last re!ourse of the vi!tims of misery and in%usti!e$ In prin!iple the people !an appeal to the -ing for help against their oppressors$ FIf the King only -ne" if the ,6ar only -ne" IG "as the fre7uently e/pressed sentiment of the <ren!h and Russian people during periods of great distress$ It is true in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e at least that "hen the monar!hy did -no" it often tried to defend the lo"er !lasses against the oppressions of the aristo!ra!y and the #ourgeoisie$ *ut "as this essentially %usti!e@ <rom the a#solute point of vie" "hi!h "as the point of vie" of the "riters of the period it "as not$ Even though it is possi#le to appeal to the -ing it is impossi#le to appeal against him insofar as he is the em#odiment of a prin!iple$ His dispenses his prote!tion and his assistan!e if and "hen he "ants to$ One of the attri#utes of gra!e is that it is dis!retionary$ Monar!hy in its theo!rati! form is a type of government "hi!h "ants to put gra!e #efore %usti!e #y al"ays letting it have the last "ord$ Rousseau in his 3avoyard !urates de!laration on the other hand is only original insofar as he su#mits =od to %usti!e and in this "ay inaugurates "ith the rather naYve solemnity of the period !ontemporary history$ <rom the moment that the freethin-ers #egan to 7uestion the e/isten!e of =od the pro#lem of %usti!e

#e!ame of primary importan!e$ The %usti!e of the period "as 7uite simply !onfused "ith e7uality$ The throne of =od totters and %usti!e to !onfirm its support of e7uality must give it the final push #y ma-ing a dire!t atta!- on His representative on earth$ 'ivine right to all intents and purposes "as already destroyed #y #eing opposed and for!ed to !ompromise "ith natural right for three years from ATUB to ATB9$ In the last resort gra!e is in!apa#le of !ompromise$ It !an give in on !ertain points #ut never on the final point$ *ut that does not suffi!e$ A!!ording to Mi!helet Louis ZVI still "anted to #e -ing in prison$ In a style12fontE si6e) ACpt42<ran!e entirely governed #y ne" prin!iples the prin!iple that had #een defeated still survived #ehind prison "alls through the mere po"er of faith and through the e/isten!e of one human #eing$ Lusti!e has this in !ommon "ith gra!e and this alone that it "ants to #e total and to rule a#solutely$ <rom the moment they !onfli!t they fight to the death$ F.e do not "ant to !ondemn the King G said 'anton "ho had not even the good manners of a la"yer F"e "ant to -ill him$G In fa!t if =od is denied the King must die$ 3aintELust it seems "as responsi#le for Louis ZVIs death4 #ut "hen he e/!laims) FTo determine the prin!iple in virtue of "hi!h the a!!used is perhaps to die is to determine the prin!iple #y "hi!h the so!iety that %udges him lives G he demonstrates that it is the philosophers "ho are going to -ill the King) the King must die in the name of the so!ial !ontra!t$ 8Rousseau "ould not of !ourse have "anted this$ It must #e remem#ered #efore pro!eeding "ith this analysis and in order to set its limits that Rousseau firmly de!lared) F(othing on this earth is

"orth #uying at the pri!e of human #lood$G; *ut this demands an e/planation$

The ew 7ospel The #ocial $ontract is primarily an in7uiry into the legitima!y of po"er$ *ut it is a #oo- a#out rights not a#out fa!ts and at no time is it a !olle!tion of so!iologi!al o#servations$ It is !on!erned "ith prin!iples and for this very reason is #ound to #e !ontroversial$ It presumes that traditional legitima!y "hi!h is supposedly of divine origin is not a!7uired$ Thus it pro!laims another sort of legitima!y and other prin!iples$ The #ocial $ontract is also a !ate!hism of "hi!h it has #oth the tone and the dogmati! language$ Lust as ATUB !ompletes the !on7uest of the English and Ameri!an revolutions so Rousseau pushes to its limits the theory of the so!ial !ontra!t to #e found in Ho##es$ The #ocial $ontract amplifies and dogmati!ally e/plains the ne" religion "hose god is reason !onfused "ith nature and "hose representative on earth in pla!e of the -ing is the people !onsidered as an e/pression of the general "ill$ The atta!- on the traditional order is so evident that from the very first !hapter Rousseau is determined to demonstrate the pre!eden!e of the !iti6ens pa!t "hi!h esta#lished the people over the pa!t #et"een the people and the -ing "hi!h founded royalty$ Jntil Rousseaus time =od !reated -ings "ho in their turn !reated peoples$ After The #ocial $ontract peoples !reate

themselves #efore !reating -ings$ As for =od there is nothing more to #e said for the time #eing$ Here "e have in the politi!al field the e7uivalent of style12fontE si6e) ACpt42(e"tons revolution$ +o"er therefore is no longer ar#itrary #ut derives its e/isten!e from general !onsent$ In other "ords po"er is no longer "hat is #ut "hat should #e$ <ortunately a!!ording to Rousseau "hat is !annot #e separated from "hat should #e$ The people are sovereign Fonly #e!ause they are al"ays everything that they should #e$G ,onfronted "ith this statement of prin!iple it is perfe!tly %ustifia#le to say that reason "hi!h "as al"ays o#stinately invo-ed at that period is not parti!ularly "ell treated in the !onte/t$ It is evident that "ith The #ocial $ontract "e are assisting at the #irth of a ne" mystique 0 the "ill of the people #eing su#stituted for =od Himself$ FEa!h of us G says Rousseau Fpla!es his person and his entire !apa#ilities under the supreme guidan!e of the "ill of the people and "e re!eive ea!h individual mem#er into the #ody as an indivisi#le part of the "hole$G This politi!al entity pro!laimed sovereign is also defined as a divine entity$ Moreover it has all the attri#utes of a divine entity$ It is in fa!t infalli#le in that in its role of sovereign it !annot even "ish to !ommit a#uses$ FJnder the la" of reason nothing is done "ithout !ause$G It is totally free if it is true that a#solute freedom is freedom in regard to oneself$ Thus Rousseau de!lares that it is against the nature of the #ody politi! for the sovereign po"er to impose a la" upon itself that it !annot violate$ It is also inaliena#le indivisi#le4 and finally it even aims at solving the great theologi!al pro#lem the !ontradi!tion #et"een a#solute

po"er and divine inno!en!e$ The "ill of the people is in fa!t !oer!ive4 its po"er has no limits$ *ut the punishment it infli!ts on those "ho refuse to o#ey it is nothing more than a means of F!ompelling them to #e free$G The deifi!ation is !ompleted "hen Rousseau separating the sovereign from his very origins rea!hes the point of distinguishing #et"een the general "ill and the "ill of all$ This !an #e logi!ally dedu!ed from Rousseaus premises$ If man is naturally good if nature as e/pressed in him is identified "ith reason 8Every ideology is !ontrary to human psy!hology$; he "ill e/press the preEeminen!e of reason on the one !ondition that he e/presses himself freely and naturally$ He !an no longer therefore go #a!- on his de!ision "hi!h hen!eforth hovers over him$ The "ill of the people is primarily the e/pression of universal reason "hi!h is !ategori!al$ The ne" =od is #orn$ That is "hy the "ords that are to #e found most often in The #ocial $ontract are the "ords absolute* sacred* inviolable$ The #ody politi! thus defined "hose la"s are sa!red !ommandments is only a #yEprodu!t of the mysti! #ody of temporal ,hristianity$ The #ocial $ontract moreover terminates "ith a des!ription of a !ivil religion and ma-es Rousseau a har#inger of !ontemporary forms of so!iety "hi!h e/!lude not only opposition #ut even neutrality$ Rousseau is in fa!t the first man in modern times to institute the profession of !ivil faith$ He is also the first to %ustify the death penalty in a !ivil so!iety and the a#solute su#mission of the su#%e!t to the authority of the sovereign$ FIt is in order not to #e!ome vi!tim of an assassin that "e !onsent to die if "e #e!ome assassins$G A strange

%ustifi!ation #ut one "hi!h firmly esta#lishes the fa!t that you must -no" ho" to die if the sovereign !ommands and must if ne!essary !on!ede that he is right and you are "rong$ This mysti! idea e/plains 3aintELusts silen!e from the time of his arrest until he goes to the s!affold$ 3uita#ly developed it e7ually "ell e/plains the enthusiasm of the defendants in the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mos!o" trials$ .e are "itnessing the da"n of a ne" religion "ith its martyrs its as!eti!s and its saints$ To #e a#le to estimate the influen!e a!hieved #y this gospel one must have some idea of the inspired tones of the pro!lamations of ATUB$ <au!het !onfronted "ith the s-eletons dis!overed in the *astille e/!laims) FThe day of revelation is upon usI$ The very #ones have risen at the sound of the voi!e of <ren!h freedom4 they #ear "itness against the !enturies of oppression and death and prophesy the regeneration of human nature and of the life of nations$G Then he predi!ts) F.e have rea!hed the heart of time$ The tyrants are ready to fall$G It is the moment of astonished and generous faith "hen a remar-a#ly enlightened mo# overthro"s the s!affold and the "heel at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Versailles$ 8The same idyll ta-es pla!e in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia in AB:D "here the soviet of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423t$ +eters#urg parades through the streets !arrying pla!ards demanding the a#olition of the death penalty and again in ABAT$; 3!affolds seemed to #e the very altars of religion and in%usti!e$ The ne" faith !ould not tolerate them$ *ut a moment !omes "hen faith if it #e!omes dogmati! ere!ts its o"n altars and demands un!onditional adoration$ Then s!affolds reappear and

despite the altars the freedom the oaths and the feasts of Reason the Masses of the ne" faith must no" #e !ele#rated "ith #lood$ In any !ase in order that ATUB shall mar- the #eginning of the reign of Fholy humanityG 8Vergniaud; and of FOur Lord the human ra!e G 8Anar!hasis ,loots; the fallen sovereign must first of all disappear$ The murder of the KingEpriest "ill san!tion the ne" age 0 "hi!h endures to this day$

The E8ecution of the 9ing 3aintELust introdu!ed Rousseaus ideas into the pages of history$ At the Kings trial the essential part of his arguments !onsisted in saying that the King is not inviola#le and should #e %udged #y the Assem#ly and not #y a spe!ial tri#unal$ His arguments he o"ed to Rousseau$ A tri#unal !annot #e the %udge #et"een the -ing and the sovereign people$ The general "ill !annot #e !ited #efore ordinary %udges$ It is a#ove everything$ The inviola#ility and the trans!enden!e of the general "ill are thus pro!laimed$ .e -no" that the predominant theme of the trial "as the inviola#ility of the royal person$ The struggle #et"een gra!e and %usti!e finds its most provo!ative illustration in ATBW "hen t"o different !on!eptions of trans!enden!e meet in mortal !om#at$ Moreover 3aintELust is perfe!tly a"are of ho" mu!h is at sta-e) FThe spirit in "hi!h the King is %udged "ill #e the same in "hi!h the spirit of the Repu#li! is esta#lished$G

3aintELusts famous spee!h has therefore all the earmar-s of a theologi!al treatise$ FLouis the stranger in our midst G is the thesis of this youthful prose!utor$ If a !ontra!t either !ivil or natural !ould still #ind the -ing and his people there "ould #e a mutual o#ligation4 the "ill of the people !ould not set itself up as a#solute %udge to pronoun!e a#solute %udgement$ Therefore it is ne!essary to prove that no agreement #inds the people and the -ing$ In order to prove that the people are themselves the em#odiment of eternal truth it is ne!essary to demonstrate that royalty is the em#odiment of eternal !rime$ 3aintELust therefore postulates that every -ing is a re#el or a usurper$ He is a re#el against the people "hose a#solute sovereignty he usurps$ Monar!hy is not a -ing Fit is !rime$G (ot a !rime #ut !rime itself says 3aintELust4 in other "ords a#solute profanation$ That is the pre!ise and at the same time ultimate meaning of 3aintELusts remar- the import of "hi!h has #een stret!hed too far) 8Or at least the signifi!an!e of "hi!h has #een anti!ipated$ .hen 3aintE Lust made this remar- he did not -no" that he "as already spea-ing for himself$; F(o one !an rule inno!ently$G Every -ing is guilty #e!ause any man "ho "ants to #e -ing is automati!ally on the side of death$ 3aintELust says e/a!tly the same thing "hen he pro!eeds to demonstrate that the sovereignty of the people is a Fsa!red matter$G ,iti6ens are inviola#le and sa!red and !an #e !onstrained only #y the la" "hi!h is an e/pression of their !ommon "ill$ Louis alone does not #enefit #y this parti!ular inviola#ility or #y the assistan!e of the la" for he is pla!ed outside the !ontra!t$ He is not part of the general "ill4 on the !ontrary #y his very e/isten!e he is a #lasphemer

against this allEpo"erful "ill$ He is not a F!iti6en G "hi!h is the only "ay of parti!ipating in the ne" divine dispensation$ F.hat is a -ing in !omparison "ith a <ren!hman@G Therefore he should #e %udged and nothing more$ *ut "ho "ill interpret the "ill of the people and pronoun!e %udgement@ The Assem#ly "hi!h #y its origin has attained the right to administer this "ill and "hi!h parti!ipates as an inspired !oun!il in the ne" divinity$ 3hould the people #e as-ed to ratify the %udgement@ .e -no" that the efforts of the monar!hists in the Assem#ly "ere finally !on!entrated on this point$ In this "ay the life of the King !ould #e res!ued from the logi! of the #ourgeois %urists and at least entrusted to the spontaneous emotions and !ompassion of the people$ *ut here again 3aintELust pushes his logi! to its e/tremes and ma-es use of the !onfli!t invented #y Rousseau #et"een the general "ill and the "ill of all$ Even though the "ill of all "ould pardon the general "ill !annot do so$ Even the people !annot effa!e the !rime of tyranny$ ,annot the vi!tims a!!ording to la" "ithdra" their !omplaint@ .e are not dealing "ith la" "e are dealing "ith theology$ The !rime of the -ing is at the same time a sin against the ultimate nature of things$ A !rime is !ommitted4 then it is pardoned punished and forgotten$ *ut the !rime of royalty is permanent4 it is ine/tri!a#ly #ound to the person of the -ing to his very e/isten!e$ ,hrist Himself though He !an forgive sinners !annot a#solve false gods$ They must disappear or !on7uer$ If the people forgive today they "ill find the !rime inta!t tomorro" even though the !riminal sleeps pea!efully in prison$ Therefore there

is only one solution) FTo avenge the murder of the people #y the death of the King$G The only purpose of 3aintELusts spee!h is on!e and for all to #lo!- every egress for the King e/!ept the one leading to the s!affold$ If in fa!t the premises of The #ocial $ontract are a!!epted this is logi!ally inevita#le$ At last after 3aintELust F-ings "ill flee to the desert and nature "ill resume her rights$G It "as 7uite pointless of the ,onvention to vote a reservation and say that it did not intend to !reate a pre!edent if it passed %udgement on Louis ZVI or if it pronoun!ed a se!urity measure$ In doing so it refused to fa!e the !onse7uen!es of its o"n prin!iples and tried to !amouflage "ith sho!-ing hypo!risy its real purpose "hi!h "as to found a ne" form of a#solutism$ La!7ues Rou/ at least "as spea-ing the truth of the times "hen he !alled the King Louis the Last thus indi!ating that the real revolution "hi!h had already #een a!!omplished on the e!onomi! level "as then ta-ing pla!e on the philosophi! plane and that it implied a t"ilight of the gods$ Theo!ra!y "as atta!-ed in prin!iple in ATUB and -illed in its in!arnation in ATBW$ *rissot "as right in saying) FThe most solid monument to our revolution is philosophy$G 8The religious .ars of the VendVe sho"ed him to #e right again$; On Lanuary 9A "ith the murder of the KingEpriest "as !onsummated "hat has signifi!antly #een !alled the passion of Louis ZVI$ It is !ertainly a !rying s!andal that the pu#li! assassination of a "ea- #ut goodEhearted man has #een presented as a great moment in <ren!h history$ That s!affold mar-ed no !lima/ 0 far from it$ *ut the fa!t remains that #y its !onse7uen!es the

!ondemnation of the King is at the !ru/ of our !ontemporary history$ It sym#oli6es the se!ulari6ation of our history and the disin!arnation of the ,hristian =od$ Jp to no" =od played a part in history through the medium of the -ings$ *ut His representative in history has #een -illed for there is no longer a -ing$ Therefore there is nothing #ut a sem#lan!e of =od relegated to the heaven of prin!iples$ 8This "ill #e!ome the =od of Kant La!o#i and <i!hte$; The revolutionaries may "ell refer to the =ospel #ut in fa!t they dealt a terri#le #lo" to ,hristianity from "hi!h it has not yet re!overed$ It really seems as if the e/e!ution of the King follo"ed as "e -no" #y hysteri!al s!enes of sui!ide and madness too- pla!e in !omplete a"areness of "hat "as #eing done$ Louis ZVI seems sometimes to have dou#ted his divine right though he systemati!ally re%e!ted any pro%e!ted legislation "hi!h threatened his faith$ *ut from the moment that he suspe!ted or -ne" his fate he seemed to identify himself as his language #etrayed "ith the divine mission so that there "ould #e no possi#le dou#t that the attempt on his person "as aimed at the KingE ,hrist the in!arnation of the divinity and not at the !raven flesh of a mere man$ His #edside #oo- in the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Temple "as the 4mitation$ The !almness and perfe!tion that this man of rather average sensi#ility displayed during his last moments his indifferen!e to everything of this "orld and finally his #rief display of "ea-ness on the solitary s!affold so far removed from the people "hose ears he had "anted to rea!h "hile the terri#le rolling of the drum dro"ned his voi!e give us the right to imagine that it "as not ,apet

"ho died #ut Louis appointed #y divine right and that "ith him in a !ertain manner died temporal ,hristianity$ To emphasi6e this sa!red #ond his !onfessor sustained him in his moment of "ea-ness #y reminding him of his Fresem#lan!eG to the =od of 3orro"s$ And Louis ZVI re!overs himself and spea-s in the language of this =od) FI shall drin- G he says Fthe !up to the last dregs$G Then he !ommits himself trem#ling into the igno#le hands of the e/e!utioner$

The /eligion of Virtue A religion that e/e!utes its o#solete sovereign must no" esta#lish the po"er of its ne" sovereign4 it !loses the !hur!hes and this leads to an endeavour to #uild a temple$ The #lood of the gods "hi!h for a se!ond #espatters the !onfessor of Louis ZVI announ!es a ne" #aptism$ Loseph de Maistre 7ualified the Revolution as satani!$ .e !an see "hy and in "hat sense$ Mi!helet ho"ever "as !loser to the truth "hen he !alled it a purgatory$ An era #lindly em#ar-s do"n this tunnel on an attempt to dis!over a ne" illumination a ne" happiness and the fa!e of the real =od$ *ut "hat "ill this ne" god #e@ Let us as- 3aintELust on!e more$ The year ATUB does not yet affirm the divinity of man #ut the divinity of the people to the degree in "hi!h the "ill of the people !oin!ides "ith the "ill of nature and of reason$ If the general "ill is freely e/pressed it !an only #e the universal e/pression of reason$ If the people are free they are infalli#le$ On!e

the King is dead and the !hains of the old despotism thro"n off the people are going to e/press "hat at all times and in all pla!es is has #een and "ill #e the truth$ They are the ora!le that must #e !onsulted to -no" "hat the eternal order of the "orld demands$ Vo8 populi* vo8 natur($ Eternal prin!iples govern our !ondu!t) Truth Lusti!e finally Reason$ There "e have the ne" =od$ The 3upreme *eing "hom !ohorts of young girls !ome to adore at the <east of Reason is only the an!ient god disem#odied peremptorily deprived of any !onne!tion "ith the earth and laun!hed li-e a #alloon into a heaven empty of all trans!endent prin!iples$ 'eprived of all his representatives of an inter!essor the god of the la"yers and philosophers only has the value of a demonstration$ He is not very strong in fa!t and "e !an see "hy Rousseau "ho prea!hed toleran!e though that atheists should #e !ondemned to death$ To ensure the adoration of a theorem for any length of time faith is not enough4 a poli!e for!e is needed as "ell$ *ut that "ill only !ome later$ In ATBW the ne" faith is still inta!t and it "ill suffi!e to ta-e 3aintELusts "ord to govern a!!ording to the di!tates of reason$ The art of ruling a!!ording to him has produ!ed only monsters #e!ause #efore his time no one "ished to govern a!!ording to nature$ The period of monsters has !ome to an end "ith the termination of the period of violen!e$ FThe human heart advan!es from nature to violen!e from violen!e to morality$G Morality is therefore only nature finally restored after !enturies of alienation$ Man only has to #e given la" Fin a!!ord "ith nature and "ith his heart G and he "ill !ease to #e unhappy and !orrupt$ Jniversal suffrage the foundation of the ne" la"s must

inevita#ly lead to a universal morality$ FOur aim is to !reate an order of things "hi!h esta#lishes a universal tenden!y of things to"ards good$G The religion of reason 7uite naturally esta#lishes the Repu#li! of la" and order$ The general "ill is e/pressed in la"s !odified #y its representatives$ FThe people ma-e the revolution the legislator ma-es the Repu#li!$G FImmortal impassiveG institutions Fsheltered from the temerity of man G "ill govern in their turn the lives of all men #y universal a!!ord and "ithout possi#ility of !ontradi!tion sin!e #y o#eying the la"s all "ill only #e o#eying themselves$ FOutside the la" G says 3aintELust Feverything is sterile and dead$G It is the formal and legalisti! Repu#li! of the Romans$ .e -no" the passion of 3aintELust and his !ontemporaries for an!ient style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rome$ The de!adent young man "ho in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Reims spent hours in a room painted #la!- and de!orated "ith "hite teardrops "ith the shutters !losed dreamed of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423partan style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Repu#li!$ The author of +rgant a long and li!entious poem "as a#solutely !onvin!ed of the ne!essity for frugality and virtue$ In the institutions that he invented 3aintELust refused to allo" !hildren to eat meat until the age of si/teen and he dreamed of a nation that "as #oth vegetarian and revolutionary$ FThe "orld has #een empty sin!e the Romans G he e/!laimed$ *ut heroi! times "ere at hand$ ,ato *rutus 3!Rvola had #e!ome possi#le on!e more$ The rhetori! of the Latin moralists flourished on!e again$ Vice* virtue* corruption "ere terms that !onstantly re!urred in the oratory of the times and even more in the spee!hes of

3aintELust of "hi!h they "ere the perpetual #urden$ The reason for this is simple$ This perfe!t edifi!e as Montes7uieu had already seen !ould not e/ist "ithout virtue$ The <ren!h Revolution #y !laiming to #uild history on the prin!iple of a#solute purity inaugurates modern times simultaneously "ith the era of formal morality$ .hat in fa!t is virtue@ <or the #ourgeois philosopher of the period it is !onformity "ith nature 8*ut nature itself as "e en!ounter it in the "or-s *ernadin de 3aintE+ierre !onforms to a preEesta#lished virtue$ (ature is also an a#stra!t prin!iple$; and in politi!s !onformity "ith the la" "hi!h e/presses the general "ill$ FMorality G says 3aintELust Fis stronger than tyrants$G It has in fa!t %ust -illed Louis ZVI$ Every form of diso#edien!e to la" therefore !omes not from an imperfe!tion of the la" "hi!h is presumed to #e impossi#le #ut from a la!- of virtue in the refra!tory !iti6en$ That is "hy the Repu#li! not only is an assem#ly as 3aintELust for!i#ly says #ut is also virtue itself$ Every form of moral !orruption is at the same time politi!al !orruption and vi!e versa$ A prin!iple of infinite repression derived from this very do!trine is then esta#lished$ Jndou#tedly 3aintELust "as sin!ere in his desire for a universal idyll$ He really dreamed of a repu#li! of as!eti!s of humanity re!on!iled and dedi!ated to the !haste pursuits of the age of inno!en!e under the "at!hful eye of those "ise old men "hom he de!-ed out in advan!e "ith a tri!olour s!arf and a "hite plume$ .e also -no" that at the #eginning of the Revolution 3aintELust de!lared himself at the same time as Ro#espierre against the death penalty$ He only

demanded that murderers should #e dressed in #la!- for the rest of their lives$ He "anted to esta#lish a form of %usti!e "hi!h did not attempt Fto find the !ulprit guilty #ut to find him "ea-G 0 an admira#le am#ition$ He also dreamed of a repu#li! of forgiveness "hi!h "ould re!ogni6e that though the fruits of !rime are #itter its roots are nevertheless tender$ One of his out#ursts at least !ame from the heart and is not easily forgotten) Fit is a frightful thing to torment the people$G 5es indeed it is a frightful thing$ *ut a man !an reali6e this and yet su#mit to prin!iples that imply in the final analysis the torment of the people$ Morality "hen it is formal devours$ To paraphrase 3aintELust no one is virtuous inno!ently$ <rom the moment that la"s fail to ma-e harmony reign or "hen the unity "hi!h should #e !reated #y adheren!e to prin!iples is destroyed "ho is to #lame@ <a!tions$ .ho !ompose the fa!tions@ Those "ho deny #y their very a!tions the ne!essity of unity$ <a!tions divide the sovereign4 therefore they are #lasphemous and !riminal$ They and they alone must #e !om#ated$ *ut "hat if there are many fa!tions@ All shall #e fought to the death$ 3aintELust e/!laims) FEither the virtues or the Terror$G <reedom must #e guaranteed and the draft !onstitution presented to the ,onvention already mentions the death penalty$ A#solute virtue is impossi#le and the repu#li! of forgiveness leads "ith impla!a#le logi! to the repu#li! of the guillotine$ Montes7uieu had already denoun!ed this logi! as one of the !auses of the de!aden!e of so!ieties saying that the a#use of po"er is greatest "hen la"s do not anti!ipate it$ The pure la" of 3aintELust did not ta-e into a!!ount

the truth "hi!h is as old as history itself that la" in its essen!e is #ound to #e transgressed$

The Terror 3aintELust the !ontemporary of 3ade finally arrives at the %ustifi!ation of !rime though he starts from very different prin!iples$ 3aintELust is of !ourse$ The antiE 3ade$ If 3ades formula "ere FOpen the prisons or prove your virtue G the 3aintELusts "ould #e) F+rove your virtue or go to prison$G *oth ho"ever %ustify terrorism 0 the li#ertine %ustifies individual terrorism the high priest of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42virtue style12fontE si6e) ACpt423tate terrorism$ A#solute good and a#solute evil if the ne!essary logi! is applied #oth demand the same degree of passion$ Of !ourse there is a !ertain am#iguity in the !ase of 3aintELust$ The letter "hi!h he "rote to Vilain dAu#igny in ATB9 has something really insane a#out it$ It is a profession of faith #y a perse!uted perse!utor "hi!h ends "ith a hysteri!al avo"al) FIf *rutus does not -ill others he "ill -ill himself$G A personality so o#stinately serious so voluntarily !old logi!al and impertur#a#le leads one to imagine every -ind of a#erration and disorder$ 3aintE Lust invented the -ind of seriousness "hi!h ma-es the history of the last t"o !enturies so tedious and depressing$ FHe "ho ma-es %o-es at the head of a government G he said Fhas a tenden!y to tyranny$G An astonishing ma/im a#ove all if one thin-s of the penalty for the mere a!!usation of tyranny one "hi!h in any

!ase prepared the "ay for the pedant ,Rsars$ 3aintELust sets the e/ample4 even his tone is definitive$ That !as!ade of peremptory affirmatives that a/iomati! and sententious style portrays him #etter than the most faithful painting$ His senten!es drone on4 his definitions follo" one another "ith the !oldness and pre!ision of !ommandments$ F+rin!iples should #e moderate la"s impla!a#le prin!iples "ithout redress$G It is the style of the guillotine$ 3u!h pertina!ity in logi! ho"ever implies a profound passion$ Here as else"here "e again find the passion for unity$ Every re#ellion implies some -ind of unity$ The re#ellion of ATUB demands the unity of the "hole !ountry$ 3aintELust dreams of an ideal !ity "here manners and !ustoms in final agreement "ith the la" "ill pro!laim the inno!en!e of man and the identity of his nature "ith reason$ And if fa!tions arise to interrupt this dream passion "ill e/aggerate its logi!$ (o one "ill dare to image that sin!e fa!tions e/ist the prin!iples are perhaps "rong$ <a!tions "ill #e !ondemned as !riminal #e!ause prin!iples remain intangi#le$ FIt is time that everyone returned to morality and the aristo!ra!y of the Terror$G *ut the aristo!rati! fa!tions are not the only ones to #e re!-oned "ith4 there are the repu#li!ans too and anyone else "ho !riti!i6es the a!tions of the legislature and of the ,onvention$ They too are guilty sin!e they threaten unity$ 3aintE Lust then pro!laims the ma%or prin!iple of t"entiethE !entury tyrannies$ FA patriot is he "ho supports the Repu#li! in general4 "hoever opposes it in detail is a traitor$G .hoever !riti!i6es it is a traitor "hoever fails to give open support is a suspe!t$ .hen neither reason

nor the free e/pression of individual opinion su!!eeds in systemati!ally esta#lishing unity it must #e de!ided to suppress all alien elements$ Thus the guillotine #e!omes a logi!ian "hose fun!tion is refutation$ FA rogue "ho has #een !ondemned to death #y the tri#unal says he "ants to resist oppression simply #e!ause he "ants to resist the s!affold$HG 3aintELusts indignation is hard to understand in that until his time the s!affold "as pre!isely nothing else #ut one of the most o#vious sym#ols of oppression$ *ut at the heart of this logi!al delirium at the logi!al !on!lusion of this morality of virtue the s!affold represents freedom$ It assures rational unity and harmony is the ideal !ity$ It purifies >the "ord is apt? the Repu#li! and eliminates malpra!ti!es that arise to !ontradi!t the general "ill and universal reason$ FThey 7uestion my right to the title of philanthropist G Marat e/!laims in 7uite a different style$ FAh "hat in%usti!eH .ho !annot see that I "ant to !ut off a fe" heads to save a great num#er@G A fe" 0 a fa!tion@ (aturally 0 and all histori! a!tions are performed at this pri!e$ *ut Marat ma-ing his final !al!ulations !laimed t"o hundred and seventyEthree thousand heads$ *ut he !ompromised the therapeuti! aspe!t of the operation #y s!reaming during the massa!re) F*rand them "ith hot irons !ut off their thum#s tear out their tongues$G This philanthropist "rote day and night in the most monotonous vo!a#ulary imagina#le of the ne!essity of -illing in order to !reate$ He "rote again #y !andlelight deep do"n in his !ellar during the 3eptem#er nights "hile his hen!hmen "ere installing spe!tators #en!hes in prison !ourtyards 0 men on the right "omen on the left 0 to display to them as a gra!ious e/ample of

philanthropy the spe!ta!le of the aristo!rats having their heads !ut off$ 'o not let us !onfuse even for a moment the imposing figure of 3aintELust "ith the sad spe!ta!le of Marat 0 Rousseaus mon-ey as Mi!helet rightly !alls him$ *ut the drama of 3aintELust lies in having at moments %oined for!es for superior and mu!h deeper reasons "ith Marat$ <a!tions %oin "ith fa!tions and minorities "ith minorities and in the end it is not even sure that the s!affold fun!tions in the servi!e of the "ill of all$ *ut at least 3aintELust "ill affirm to the #itter end that it fun!tions in the servi!e of the general "ill sin!e it fun!tions in the servi!e of virtue$ FA revolution su!h as ours is not a trial #ut a !lap of thunder for the "i!-ed$G =ood stri-es li-e a thunder#olt inno!en!e is a flash of lightning 0 a flash of lightning that #rings %usti!e$ Even the pleasureEsee-ers 0 in fa!t they a#ove all 0 are !ounterrevolutionaries$ 3aintELust "ho said that the idea of happiness "as ne" to style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe >a!tually it "as mainly ne" for 3aintELust for "hom history stopped at *rutus? remar-s that some people have an Fappalling idea of "hat happiness is and !onfuse it "ith pleasure$G They too must #e dealt "ith firmly$ <inally it is no longer a 7uestion of ma%ority or minority$ +aradise lost and al"ays !oveted #y universal inno!en!e disappears into the distan!e4 on the unhappy earth ra!-ed "ith the !ries of !ivil and national "ars 3aintELust de!rees against his nature and against his prin!iples that "hen the "hole !ountry suffers then all are guilty$ The series of reports on the fa!tions a#road the la" of the 99 +rairial the spee!h of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42April AD ATBC on the ne!essity of the poli!e mar-

the stages of this !onversion$ The man "ho "ith su!h no#ility held that it "as infamous to lay do"n ones arms "hile there remained some"here in the "orld one master and one slave is the same man "ho had to agree to suspend the ,onstitution of ATBW and to adopt ar#itrary rule$ In the spee!h that he made to defend Ro#espierre he re%e!ts fame and posterity and only refers himself to an a#stra!t providen!e$ At the same time he re!ogni6ed that virtue of "hi!h he made a religion has no other re"ard #ut history and the present and that it must at all !osts lay the foundations of its o"n reign$ He did not li-e po"er "hi!h he !alled F!ruel and "i!-ed and "hi!h he said Fadvan!ed to"ard repression "ithout any guiding prin!iple$G *ut the guiding prin!iple "as virtue and "as derived from the people$ .hen the people failed the guiding prin!iple #e!ame o#s!ured and oppression in!reased$ Therefore it "as the people "ho "ere guilty and not po"er "hi!h must remain in prin!iple inno!ent$ 3u!h an e/treme and outrageous !ontradi!tion !ould only #e resolved #y an even more e/treme logi! and #y the final a!!eptan!e of prin!iples in silen!e and in death$ 3aintELust at least remained e7ual to this demand and in this "ay "as at last to find his greatness and that independent life in time and spa!e of "hi!h he spo-e "ith su!h emotion$ <or a long time he had in fa!t had a presentiment that the demands he made implied a total and unreserved sa!rifi!e on his part and had said himself that those "ho ma-e revolutions in this "orld 0 Fthose "ho do goodG 0 !an sleep only in the tom#$ ,onvin!ed that his prin!iples in order to triumph must !ulminate in the virtue and happiness of his people a"are perhaps that

he "as as-ing the impossi#le he !ut off his o"n retreat in advan!e #y de!laring that he "ould sta# himself in pu#li! on the day "hen he despaired of the people$ (onetheless he despairs sin!e he has dou#ts a#out the Terror$ FThe revolution is fro6en every prin!iple has #een attenuated4 all that remains are red !aps "orn #y intriguers$ The e/er!ise of terror has #lunted !rime as strong drin- #lunts the palate$G Every virtue Funites "ith !rime in times of anar!hy$G He said that all !rime sprang from tyranny "hi!h "as the greatest !rime of all and yet !onfronted "ith the unflagging o#stina!y of !rime the Revolution itself resorted to tyranny and #e!ame !riminal$ Thus !rime !annot #e o#literated nor !an fa!tions nor the despi!a#le desire for en%oyment4 the people must #e despaired of and su#%ugated$ *ut neither is it possi#le to govern inno!ently$ Thus evil must #e either suffered or served prin!iples must #e de!lared "rong or the people and man-ind must #e re!ogni6ed as guilty$ Then 3aintELust averts his mysterious and handsome fa!e) FIt "ould #e leaving very little to leave a life in "hi!h one must #e either the a!!ompli!e or the silent "itness of evil$G *rutus "ho must -ill himself if he does not -ill others #egins #y -illing others$ *ut the others are too many4 they !annot all #e -illed$ In that !ase he must die and demonstrate yet again that re#ellion "hen it gets out of hand s"ings from the annihilation of others to the destru!tion of the self$ This tas- at any rate is easy4 on!e again it suffi!es to follo" logi! to the #itter end$ In his spee!h in defen!e of Ro#espierre shortly #efore his death 3aintELust reaffirms the guiding prin!iple of his a!tions "hi!h is the very same prin!iple "hi!h leads to his !ondemnation) FI #elong to no fa!tion I shall fight

against them all$G He a!!epted then and in advan!e the de!ision of the general "ill 0 in other "ords of the Assem#ly$ He agreed to go to his death for love of prin!iple and despite all the realities of the situation sin!e the opinion of the Assem#ly !ould only really #e s"ayed #y the elo7uen!e and fanati!ism of a fa!tion$ *ut that is #eside the pointH .hen prin!iples fail men have only one "ay to save them and to preserve their faith "hi!h is to die for them$ In the stifling heat of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42+aris in Luly 3aintELust ostensi#ly re%e!ting reality and the "orld !onfesses that he sta-es his life on the de!ision of prin!iples$ .hen this has #een said he seems to have a fleeting per!eption of another truth and ends "ith a restrained denun!iation of his !olleagues *illaudEVarennes and ,ollot dHer#ois$ FI "ant them to %ustify themselves and I "ant us to #e!ome "iser$G The style and the guillotine are here suspended for a moment$ *ut virtue in that it has too mu!h pride is not "isdom$ The guillotine is going to fall again on that head as !old and #eautiful as morality itself$ <rom the moment that the Assem#ly !ondemns him until the moment "hen he stret!hes his ne!- to the -nife 3aintELust -eeps silent$ This long silen!e is more important than his death$ He !omplained that silen!e reigned around thrones and that is "hy he "anted to spea- so mu!h and so "ell$ *ut in the end !ontemptuous of the tyranny and the enigma of a people "ho do not !onform to pure reason he resorts to silen!e himself$ His prin!iples do not allo" him to a!!ept things as they are4 and things not #eing "hat they should #e his prin!iples are therefore fi/ed silent and alone$ To a#andon oneself to prin!iples is really to die 0 and to die for an impossi#le love "hi!h is the !ontrary

of love$ 3aintELust dies and "ith him all hope of a ne" religion$
FAll the stones are !ut to #uild the stru!ture of

freedom G said 3aintELust4 Fyou !an #uild a pala!e or a tom# of the same stones$G The very prin!iples of The #ocial $ontract presided at the ere!tion of the tom# that (apoleon *onaparte !ame to seal$ Rousseau "ho "as not "anting in !ommon sense understood very "ell that the so!iety envisioned #y The #ocial $ontract "as suita#le only for gods$ His su!!essors too- him at his "ord and tried to esta#lish the divinity of man$ The red flag E a sym#ol of martial la" and therefore of the e/e!utive under the ancient regime 0 #e!ame the revolutionary sym#ol on style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42August A: ATB9$ A signifi!ant transfer a#out "hi!h LaurSs !omments as follo"s) FIt is "e the people "ho are the la"I$ .e are not re#els$ The re#els are in the Tuileries$G *ut it is not so easy as that to #e!ome =od$ Even the an!ient gods did not die at the first #lo" and the revolutions of the nineteenth !entury "ere intended to a!hieve the final li7uidation of the prin!iple of divinity$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42+aris rose to pla!e the King under the rule of the people and to prevent him from restoring an authority of prin!iple$ The !orpse "hi!h the re#els of AUW: dragged through the rooms of the Tuileries and installed on the throne in order to pay it derisory homage has no other signifi!an!e$ The -ing !ould still #e at that period a respe!ted minister #ut his authority is no" derived from the nation and his guiding prin!iple is the ,harter$ He is no longer Ma%esty$ (o" that the ancient regime had definitely

disappeared in <ran!e the ne" regime must again after AUCU reaffirm itself and the history of the nineteenth !entury up to ABAC is the history of the restoration of popular sovereignties against ancient regime monar!hies4 in other "ords the history of the prin!iple of nations$ This prin!iple finally triumphs in ABAB "hi!h "itnesses the disappearan!e of all a#solutist monar!hies in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe$ 8.ith the e/!eption of the 3panish monar!hy$ *ut the =erman Empire !ollapsed of "hi!h .ilhelm II said that it "as Fthe proof that "e Hohen6ollerns derive our !ro"n from heaven alone and that it is to heaven alone that "e must give an a!!ounting$G; Every"here the sovereignty of the nation is su#stituted in la" and in fa!t for the sovereign -ing$ Only then !an the !onse7uen!es of the prin!iples of ATUB #e seen$ .e survivors are the first to #e a#le to %udge them !learly$ The La!o#ins reinfor!ed the eternal moral prin!iples to the e/tent to "hi!h they suppressed the things "hi!h up to then had supported these prin!iples$ As prea!hers of a gospel they "anted to #ase fraternity on the a#stra!t la" of the Romans$ They su#stituted the la" for divine !ommandments on the supposition that it must #e re!ogni6ed #y all #e!ause it "as the e/pression of the general "ill$ The la" found its %ustifi!ation in natural virtue and then pro!eeded to %ustify natural virtue$ *ut immediately a single fa!tion manifests itself this reasoning !ollapses and "e per!eive that virtue has need of %ustifi!ation in order not to #e a#stra!t$ In the same "ay the #ourgeois %urists of the eighteenth !entury #y #urying under the "eight of their prin!iples the %ust and vital !on7uests of their people prepared the

"ay for the t"o !ontemporary forms of nihilism) individual nihilism and 3tate nihilism$ La" !an reign in fa!t insofar as it is the la" of universal reason$ 8Hegel sa" !learly that the philosophy of enlightenment "anted to deliver man from the irrational$ Reason reunites man-ind "hile the irrational destroys unity$; *ut it never is and it loses its %ustifi!ation if man is not naturally good$ A day !omes "hen ideology !onfli!ts "ith psy!hology$ Then there is no more legitimate po"er$ Thus the la" evolves to the point of #e!oming !onfused "ith the legislator and "ith a ne" form of ar#itrariness$ .here turn then@ The la" has gone !ompletely off its !ourse4 and losing its pre!ision it #e!omes more and more ina!!urate to the point of ma-ing everything a !rime$ The la" still reigns supreme #ut it no longer has any fi/ed limits$ 3aintE Lust had foreseen that this form of tyranny might #e e/er!ised in the name of a silent people$ FIngenious !rime "ill #e e/alted into a -ind of religion and !riminals "ill #e in the sa!red hierar!hy$G *ut this is inevita#le$ If ma%or prin!iples have no foundation if the la" e/presses nothing #ut a provisional in!lination it is only made in order to #e #ro-en or to #e imposed$ 3ade or di!tatorship individual terrorism or 3tate terrorism #oth %ustified #y the same a#sen!e of %ustifi!ation are from the moment that re#ellion !uts itself off from its roots and a#stains from any !on!rete morality one of the alternatives of the t"entieth !entury$ The revolutionary movement that "as #orn in ATUB !ould not ho"ever stop there$ =od for the La!o#ins is not !ompletely dead any more than he "as dead for the romanti!s$ They still preserve the 3upreme *eing$

Reason in a !ertain "ay is still a mediator$ It implies a preEe/istent order$ *ut =od is at least demateriali6ed and redu!ed to the theoreti!al e/isten!e of a moral prin!iple$ The #ourgeoisie su!!eeded in reigning during the entire nineteenth !entury only #e referring itself to a#stra!t prin!iples$ Less "orthy than 3aintELust it simply made use of this frame of referen!e as an ali#i "hile employing on all o!!asions the opposite values$ *y its essential !orruption and disheartening hypo!risy it helped to dis!redit for good and all the prin!iples it pro!laimed$ Its !ulpa#ility in this regard is infinite$ <rom the moment that eternal prin!iples are put in dou#t simultaneously "ith formal virtue and "hen every value is dis!redited reason "ill start to a!t "ithout referen!e to anything #ut its o"n su!!esses$ It "ould li-e to rule denying everything that has #een and affirming all that is to !ome$ One day it "ill !on7uer$ Russian ,ommunism #y its violent !riti!ism of every -ind of formal virtue puts the finishing tou!hes to the revolutionary "or- of the nineteenth !entury #y denying any superior prin!iple$ The regi!ides of the nineteenth !entury are su!!eeded #y the dei!ides of the t"entieth !entury "ho dra"n the ultimate !on!lusions from the logi! of re#ellion and "ant to ma-e the earth a -ingdom "here man is =od$ The reign of history #egins and identifying himself only "ith his history man unfaithful to his real re#ellion "ill hen!eforth devote himself to the nihilisti! revolution of the t"entieth !entury "hi!h denies all forms of morality and desperately attempts to a!hieve the unity of the human ra!e #y means of a ruinous series of !rimes and "ars$ The La!o#in Revolution "hi!h tried to institute the religion of virtue in order to esta#lish unity upon it "ill #e follo"ed #y

the !yni!al revolutions "hi!h !an #e either of the right or of the left and "hi!h "ill try to a!hieve the unity of the "orld so as to found at last the religion of man$ All that "as =ods "ill hen!eforth #e rendered to ,Rsar$

The Deicides %
Lusti!e reason truth still shone in the La!o#in heaven performing the fun!tion of fi/ed stars "hi!h !ould at least serve as guides$ =erman nineteenthE!entury thin-ers parti!ularly Hegel "anted to !ontinue the "or- of the <ren!h Revolution 8And of the Reformation 0 Fthe =ermans Revolution G a!!ording to Hegel$; "hile suppressing the !auses of its failure$ Hegel thought that he dis!erned the seeds of the Terror !ontained in the a#stra!t prin!iples of the La!o#ins$ A!!ording to him a#solute and a#stra!t freedom must inevita#ly lead to terrorism4 the rule of a#stra!t la" is identi!al "ith the rule of oppression$ <or e/ample Hegel remar-s that the period #et"een the time of Augustus and Ale/ander 3everus >A$'$ 9WD? is the period of the greatest legal profi!ien!y #ut also the period of the most ruthless tyranny$ To avoid

this !ontradi!tion it "as therefore ne!essary to "ish to !onstru!t a !on!rete so!iety invigorated #y a prin!iple that "as not formal and in "hi!h freedom !ould #e re!on!iled "ith ne!essity$ =erman philosophy therefore finished #y su#stituting for the universal #ut a#stra!t reason of 3aintELust and Rousseau a less artifi!ial #ut more am#iguous idea) !on!rete universal reason$ Jp to this point reason had soared a#ove the phenomena "hi!h "ere related to it$ (o" reason is hen!eforth in!orporated in the stream of histori!al events "hi!h it e/plains "hile deriving its su#stan!e from them$ It !an !ertainly #e said that Hegel rationali6ed to the point of #eing irrational$ *ut at the same time he gave reason an unreasona#le sho!- #y endo"ing it "ith a la!- of moderation the results of "hi!h are no" #efore our eyes$ Into the fi/ed ideas of this period =erman thought suddenly introdu!ed an irresisti#le urge to movement$ Truth reason and %usti!e "ere a#ruptly in!arnated in the progress of the "orld$ *ut #y !ommitting them to perpetual a!!eleration =erman ideology !onfused their e/isten!e "ith their impulse and fi/ed the !on!lusion of this e/isten!e at the final stage of the histori!al future 0 if there "as to #e one$ These values have !eased to #e guides in order to #e!ome goals$ As for the means of attaining these goals spe!ifi!ally life and history no preEe/istent value !an point the "ay$ On the !ontrary a large part of Hegelian demonstration is devoted to proving that moral !ons!ien!e #y #eing so #anal as to o#ey %usti!e and

truth as though these values e/isted independently of the "orld %eopardi6es pre!isely for this reason the advent of these values$ The rule of a!tion has thus #e!ome a!tion itself 0 "hi!h must #e performed in dar-ness "hile a"aiting the final illumination$ Reason anne/ed #y this form of romanti!ism is nothing more than an infle/i#le passion$ The ends have remained the same only am#ition has in!reased4 thought has #e!ome dynami! reason has em#ra!ed the future and aspired to !on7uest$ A!tion is no more than a !al!ulation #ased on results not on prin!iples$ ,onse7uently it !onfounds itself "ith perpetual movement$ In the same "ay all the dis!iplines that !hara!teri6e eighteenthE!entury thought as rigid and addi!ted to !lassifi!ation "ere a#andoned in the nineteenth !entury$ Lust as style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42'ar"in repla!ed LinnRus the philosophers "ho supported the do!trine of an in!essant diale!ti! repla!ed the harmonious and stri!t !onstru!tors of reason$ <rom this moment dates the idea >hostile to every !on!ept of an!ient thought "hi!h on the !ontrary reappeared to a !ertain e/tent in the mind of revolutionary style12fontE si6e) ACpt42<ran!e? that man has not #een endo"ed "ith a definitive human nature that he is not a finished !reation #ut an e/periment of "hi!h he !an #e partly the !reator$ .ith (apoleon and the (apoleoni! philosopher Hegel the period of effi!a!y #egins$ *efore (apoleon men had dis!overed spa!e and the universe4 "ith (apoleon they dis!overed time and the future in terms of this "orld4 and #y this dis!over the spirit of re#ellion is going to #e profoundly transformed$

In any !ase it is strange to find Hegels philosophy at this ne" stage in the development of the spirit of re#ellion$ A!tually in one sense his "or- e/udes an a#solute horror of dissiden!e) he "anted to #e the very essen!e of re!on!iliation$ *ut this is only one aspe!t of a system "hi!h #y its very method is the most am#iguous in all philosophi! literature$ To the e/tent that for him "hat is real is rational he %ustifies every ideologi!al en!roa!hment upon reality$ .hat has #een !alled Hegels panlogism is a %ustifi!ation of the !ondition of fa!t$ *ut his philosophy also e/alts destru!tion for its o"n sa-e$ Everything is re!on!iled of !ourse in the diale!ti! and one e/treme !annot #e stated "ithout the other arising4 there e/ists in Hegel as in all great thin-ers the material for !ontradi!ting Hegel$ +hilosophers ho"ever are rarely read "ith the head alone #ut often "ith the heart and all its passions "hi!h !an a!!ept no -ind of re!on!iliation$ (evertheless the revolutionaries of the t"entieth !entury have #orro"ed from Hegel the "eapons "ith "hi!h they definitively destroyed the formal prin!iples of virtue$ All that they have preserved is the vision of a history "ithout any -ind of trans!enden!e dedi!ated to perpetual strife and to the struggle of "ills #ent on sei6ing po"er$ In its !riti!al aspe!t the revolutionary movement of our times is primarily a violent denun!iation of the formal hypo!risy that provides over #ourgeois so!iety$ The partially %ustified pretension of modern ,ommunism li-e the more frivolous !laims of <as!ism is to denoun!e the mystifi!ation that underlines the prin!iples and virtues of the #ourgeois type of demo!ra!y$ 'ivine trans!enden!e up to ATUB served to

%ustify the ar#itrary a!tions of the -ing$ After the <ren!h Revolution the trans!enden!e of the formal prin!iples of reason or %usti!e serves to %ustify a rule that is neither %ust nor reasona#le$ This trans!enden!e is therefore a mas- that must #e torn off$ =od is dead #ut as 3tirner predi!ted the morality of prin!iples in "hi!h the memory of =od is still preserved must also #e -illed$ The hatred of formal virtue 0 degraded "itness to divinity and false "itness in the servi!e of in%usti!e 0 has remained one of the prin!ipal themes of history today$ (othing is pure) that is the !ry "hi!h !onvulses our period$ Impurity the e7uivalent of history is going to #e!ome the rule and the a#andoned earth "ill #e delivered to na-ed for!e "hi!h "ill de!ide "hether or not is divine$ Thus lies and violen!e are adopted in the same spirit in "hi!h a religion is adopted and on the same heartrending impulse$ *ut the first fundamental !riti!ism of the good !ons!ien!e 0 the denun!iation of the #eautiful soul and of ineffe!tual attitudes 0 "e o"e to Hegel for "hom the ideology of the good the true and the #eautiful is the religion of those possessed of none of them$ .hile the mere e/isten!e of fa!tions surprises 3aintELust and !ontravenes the ideal order that he affirms Hegel not only is not surprised #ut even affirms that fa!tion is the prelude to thought$ <or the La!o#in everyone is virtuous$ The movement "hi!h starts "ith Hegel and "hi!h is triumphant today presumes on the !ontrary that no one is virtuous #ut that everyone "ill #e$ At the #eginning everything a!!ording to 3aintELust is an idyll4 a!!ording to Hegel everything is a tragedy$ *ut in the end that amounts to the same thing$ Those "ho

destroy the idyll must #e destroyed or destru!tion must #e em#ar-ed on in order to !reate the idyll$ Violen!e in #oth !ases is the vi!tor$ The repudiation of the Terror underta-en #y Hegel only leads to an e/tension of the Terror$ That is not all$ Apparently the "orld today !an no longer #e anything other than a "orld of masters and slaves #e!ause !ontemporary ideologies those that are !hanging the fa!e of the earth have learned from Hegel to !on!eive of history in terms of the diale!ti! of master and slave$ If on the first morning of the "orld under the empty s-y there is only a master and a slave4 even if there is only the #ond of master and slave #et"een a trans!endent god and man-ind then there !an #e no other la" in this "orld than the la" of for!e$ Only a god or a prin!iple a#ove the master and the salve !ould intervene and ma-e mens history something more than a mere !hroni!le of their vi!tories and defeats$ <irst Hegel and then the Hegelians have tried on the !ontrary to destroy more and more thoroughly all idea of trans!enden!e and any nostalgia for trans!enden!e$ Although there "as infinitely more to Hegel than in the leftE"ing Hegelians "ho finally have triumphed over him he nevertheless furnished on the level of the diale!ti! of master and slave the de!isive %ustifi!ation of the spirit of po"er in the t"entieth !entury$ The !on7ueror is al"ays right4 that is one of the lessons "hi!h !an #e learned from the most important =erman philosophi!al system of the nineteenth !entury$ Of !ourse there is to #e found in the prodigious Hegelian edifi!e a means of partially !ontradi!ting those ideas$ *ut t"entiethE!entury ideology is not !onne!ted "ith

"hat is improperly !alled the idealism of the master of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lena$ Hegels fa!e "hi!h reappears in Russian ,ommunism has #een su!!essively remodelled #y 'avid 3trauss *runo *auer <euer#a!h Mar/ and the entire Hegelian leftE"ing$ .e are only interested in him here #e!ause he alone has any real #earing on the history of our time$ If (iet6s!he and Hegel serve as ali#is to the masters of 'a!hau and Karaganda 8They found less philosophi! models in the +russian (apoleoni! and ,6arist poli!e and in the *ritish !on!entration !amps in 3outh Afri!a$; that does not !ondemn their entire philosophy$ *ut it does lead to the suspi!ion that one aspe!t of their thought or of their logi! !an lead to these appalling !on!lusions$ (iet6s!hean nihilism is methodi!al$ The "henomenology of the 'ind also has a dida!ti! aspe!t$ At the meetingEpoint of t"o !enturies it depi!ts in its su!!essive stages the edu!ation of the mind as it pursues its "ay to"ard a#solute truth$ It is a metaphysi!al :mile- 8In one sense there is a ground of !omparison #et"een Hegel and Rousseau$ The fortune of the "henomenology has #een in its !onse7uen!es of the same -ind as that of the #ocial $ontract$ It shaped the politi!al thought of its time$ Rousseaus theory of the general "ill #esides re!urs in the Hegelian system$; Ea!h stage is an error and is moreover a!!ompanied #y histori! san!tions "hi!h are almost al"ays fatal either to the mind or to the !ivili6ation in "hi!h it is refle!ted$ Hegel proposes to demonstrate the ne!essity of these painful stages$ The "henomenology is in one aspe!t a meditation of despair and death$ The

mission of despair is simply to #e methodi!al in that it must #e transfigured at the end of history into a#solute satisfa!tion and a#solute "isdom$ The #oo- has the defe!t ho"ever of only imagining highly intelligent pupils and it has #een ta-en literally "hile literally it only "anted to pro!laim the spirit$ It is the same "ith the !ele#rated analysis of mastery and slavery$ Animals a!!ording to Hegel have an immediate -no"ledge of the e/terior "orld a per!eption of the self #ut not the -no"ledge of self "hi!h distinguishes man$ The latter is only really #orn at the moment "hen he #e!omes a"are of himself as a rational #eing$ Therefore his essential !hara!teristi! is selfE !ons!iousness$ ,ons!iousness of self to #e affirmed must distinguish itself from "hat it is not$ Man is a !reature "ho to affirm his e/isten!e and his differen!e denies$ .hat distinguishes !ons!iousness of self from the "orld of nature is not the simple a!t of !ontemplation #y "hi!h it identifies itself "ith the e/terior "orld and finds o#livion #ut the desire it !an feel "ith regard to the "orld$ This desire reEesta#lishes its identity "hen it demonstrates that the e/terior "orld is something apart$ In its desire the e/terior "orld !onsists of "hat it does not possess #ut "hi!h nevertheless e/ists and of "hat it "ould li-e to e/ist #ut "hi!h no longer does$ ,ons!iousness of self is therefore of ne!essity desire$ *ut in order to e/ist it must #e satisfied and it !an only #e satisfied #y the gratifi!ation of its desire$ It therefore a!ts in order to gratify itself and in so doing it denies and suppresses its means of gratifi!ation$ It is the epitome of negation$ To a!t is to destroy in order to give #irth to the spiritual

reality of !ons!iousness$ *ut to destroy an o#%e!t un!ons!iously as meat is destroyed for e/ample in the a!t of eating is a purely animal a!tivity$ To !onsume is not yet to #e !ons!ious$ 'esire for !ons!iousness must #e dire!ted to"ard something other than un!ons!ious nature$ The only thing in the "orld that is distin!t from nature is pre!isely selfE!ons!iousness$ Therefore desire must #e !entred upon another form of desire4 selfE !ons!iousness must #e gratified #y another form of selfE !ons!iousness$ In simple "ords man is not re!ogni6ed 0 and does not re!ogni6e himself 0 as a man as long as he limits himself to su#sisting li-e an animal$ He must #e a!-no"ledged #y other men$ All !ons!iousness is #asi!ally the desire to #e re!ogni6ed and pro!laimed as su!h #y other !ons!iousnesses$ It is others "ho #eget us$ Only in asso!iation do "e re!eive a human value as distin!t from an animal value$ In that the supreme value for the animal is the preservation of life !ons!iousness should raise itself a#ove the level of that instin!t in order to a!hieve human value$ It should #e !apa#le of ris-ing its life$ To #e re!ogni6ed #y another !ons!iousness man should #e ready to ris- his life and to a!!ept the !han!e of death$ <undamental human relations are thus relations of pure prestige a perpetual struggle to the death for re!ognition of one human #eing #y another$ At the first stage of his diale!ti! Hegel affirms that insofar as death is the !ommon ground of man and animal it is #y a!!epting death and even #y inviting it that the former differentiates himself from the latter$ At the heart of this primordial struggle for re!ognition man is thus identified "ith violent death$ The mysti! slogan

F'ie and #e!ome "hat you areG is ta-en up on!e more #y Hegel$ *ut F#e!ome "hat you areG gives pla!e to F*e!ome "hat you so far are not$G This primitive and passionate desire for re!ognition "hi!h is !onfused "ith the "ill to e/ist !an #e satisfied only #y a re!ognition gradually e/tended until it em#ra!es everyone$ In that everyone "ants e7ually mu!h to #e re!ogni6ed #y everyone the fight for life "ill !ease only "ith the re!ognition of all #y all "hi!h "ill mar- the termination of history$ The e/isten!e that Hegelian !ons!iousness see-s to o#tain is #orn in the hardE"on glory of !olle!tive approval$ It is not #eside the point to note that in the thought "hi!h "ill inspire our revolutions the supreme good does not in reality !oin!ide "ith e/isten!e #ut "ith an ar#itrary fa!simile$ The entire history of man-ind is in any !ase nothing #ut a prolonged fight to the death for the !on7uest of universal prestige and a#solute po"er$ It is in its essen!e imperialist$ .e are far from the gentle savage of the eighteenth !entury and from the #ocial $ontract$ In the sound and fury of the passing !enturies ea!h separate !ons!iousness to ensure its o"n e/isten!e must hen!eforth desire the death of others$ Moreover this relentless tragedy is a#surd sin!e in the event of one !ons!iousness #eing destroyed the vi!torious !ons!iousness is not re!ogni6ed as su!h in that it !annot #e vi!torious in the eyes of something that no longer e/ists$ In fa!t it is here the philosophy of appearan!es rea!hes its limits$ (o human reality "ould therefore have #een engendered if than-s to a propensity that !an #e !onsidered fortunate for Hegels system there had not

e/isted from the #eginning of time t"o -inds of !ons!iousness one of "hi!h has not the !ourage to renoun!e life and is therefore "illing to re!ogni6e the other -ind of !ons!iousness "ithout #eing re!ogni6ed itself in return$ Its !onsents in short to #eing !onsidered as an o#%e!t$ This type of !ons!iousness "hi!h to preserve its animal e/isten!e renoun!es independent life is the !ons!iousness of a slave$ The type of !ons!iousness "hi!h #y #eing re!ogni6ed a!hieves independen!e is that of the master$ They are distinguished one from the other at the moment "hen they !lash and "hen one su#mits to the other$ The dilemma at this stage is not to #e free or to die #ut to -ill or to enslave$ This dilemma "ill resound throughout the !ourse of history though at this moment its a#surdity has not yet #een resolved$ Jndou#tedly the master en%oys total freedom first as regards the slave sin!e the latter re!ogni6es him totally and then as regards the natural "orld sin!e #y his "orthe slave transforms it into o#%e!ts of en%oyment "hi!h the master !onsumes in a perpetual affirmation of his o"n identity$ Ho"ever this autonomy is not a#solute$ The master to his misfortune is re!ogni6ed in his autonomy #y a !ons!iousness that he himself does not re!ogni6e as autonomous$ Therefore he !annot #e satisfied and his autonomy is only negative$ Mastery is a #lind alley$ 3in!e moreover he !annot renoun!e mastery and #e!ome a slave again the eternal destiny of masters is to live unsatisfied or to #e -illed$ The master serves no other purpose in history than to arouse servile !ons!iousness the only form of !ons!iousness that really !reates history$ The slave in fa!t is not #ound to

his !ondition #ut "ants to !hange it$ Thus unli-e his master he !an improve himself and "hat is !alled history is nothing #ut the effe!ts of his long efforts to o#tain real freedom$ Already #y "or- #y his transformation of the natural "orld into a te!hni!al "orld he manages to es!ape from the nature "hi!h "as the #asis of his slavery in that he did not -no" ho" to raise himself a#ove it #y a!!epting death$ 8A!tually the am#iguity is profound for the nature in 7uestion is not the same$ 'oes the advent of the te!hni!al "orld suppress death or the fear of death in the natural "orld@ That is the real 7uestion "hi!h Hegel leaves in suspense$; The very agony of death e/perien!ed in the humiliation of the entire #eing lifts the slave to the level of human totality$ He -no"s hen!eforth that his totality e/ists4 no" it only remains for him to !on7uer it through a long series of struggles against nature and against the masters$ History identifies itself therefore "ith the history of endeavour and re#ellion$ It is hardly astonishing that Mar/ismELeninism derived from this diale!ti! the !ontemporary ideal of the soldier "or-er$ .e shall leave aside the des!ription of the various attitudes of the servile !ons!iousness >stoi!ism s!epti!ism guilty !ons!ien!e? "hi!h then follo"s in the "henomenology$ *ut than-s to its !onse7uen!es another aspe!t of this diale!ti! !annot #e negle!ted) namely the assimilation of the masterEslave relationship to the relationship #et"een man and =od$ One of Hegels !ommentators 8Lean Hyppolite; remar-s that if the master really e/isted he "ould #e =od$ Hegel himself !alls the master of the Master of the "orld the real =od$ In his des!ription of guilty !ons!ien!e he

sho"s ho" the ,hristian slave "ishing to deny everything that oppresses him ta-es refuge in the "orld #eyond and #y doing so gives himself a ne" master in the person of =od$ Else"here Hegel identifies the supreme master "ith a#solute death$ And so the struggle #egins again on a higher level #et"een man in !hains and the !ruel =od of A#raham$ The solution to this ne" !onfli!t #et"een the universal =od and the human entity "ill #e furnished #y ,hrist "ho re!on!iles in Himself the universal and the uni7ue$ *ut in one sense ,hrist is a part of the palpa#le "orld$ He is visi#le He lived and died$ He is therefore only a stage on the road to the universal4 He too must #e denied diale!ti!ally$ It is only ne!essary to re!ogni6e Him as the manE=od to o#tain a higher synthesis$ 3-ipping the intermediary stages it suffi!es to say that this synthesis after #eing in!arnated in the ,hur!h and in Reason !ulminates in the a#solute 3tate founded #y the soldier "or-ers "here the spirit of the "orld "ill #e finally refle!ted in the mutual re!ognition of ea!h #y all and in the universal re!on!iliation of everything that has ever e/isted under the sun$ At this moment F"hen the eyes of the spirit !oin!ide "ith the eyes of the #ody G ea!h individual !ons!iousness "ill #e nothing more than a mirror refle!ting another mirror itself refle!ted to infinity in infinitely re!urring images$ The ,ity of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=od "ill !oin!ide "ith the !ity of humanity4 and universal history sitting in %udgement on the "orld "ill pass its senten!e #y "hi!h good and evil "ill #e %ustified$ The 3tate "ill play the part of 'estiny and "ill pro!laim its approval of every aspe!t of reality on Fthe sa!red day of the +resen!e$G

This sums up the essential ideas "hi!h in spite or #e!ause of the e/treme am#iguity of their interpretation have literally driven the revolutionary mind in apparently !ontradi!tory dire!tions and "hi!h "e are no" learning to redis!over in the ideology of our times$ Amorality s!ientifi! materialism and atheism have definitely repla!ed the antiEtheism of the re#els of former times and have made !ommon !ause under Hegels parado/i!al influen!e "ith a revolutionary movement "hi!h until his time "as never really separated from its moral evangeli!al and idealisti! origins$ These tenden!ies if they are sometimes very far from really originating "ith Hegel found their sour!e in the am#iguity of his thought and in his !riti7ue of trans!enden!e$ Hegels undenia#le originality lies in his definitive destru!tion of all verti!al trans!enden!e 0 parti!ularly the trans!enden!e of prin!iples$ There is no dou#t that he restores the immanen!e of the spirit to the evolution of the "orld$ *ut this immanen!e is not pre!isely defined and has nothing in !ommon "ith the pantheism of the an!ients$ The spirit is and is not part of the "orld4 it !reates itself and "ill finally prevail$ Values are thus only to #e found at the end of history$ Jntil then there is no suita#le !riterion on "hi!h to #ase a %udgement of value$ One must a!t and live in terms of the future$ All morality #e!omes provisional$ The nineteenth and t"entieth !enturies in their most profound manifestations are !enturies that have tried to live "ithout trans!enden!e$ One of Hegels !ommentators Ale/andre Ko%Sve of leftE"ing tenden!ies it is true #ut orthodo/ in his

opinion on this parti!ular point notes Hegels hostility to the moralists and remar-s that his only a/iom is to live a!!ording to the manners and !ustoms of ones nation$ A ma/im of so!ial !onformity of "hi!h Hegel in fa!t gave the most !yni!al proofs$ Ko%Sve adds ho"ever that this !onformity is legitimate only to the e/tent that the !ustoms of the nation !orrespond to the spirit of the times 0 in other "ords to the e/tent that they are solidly esta#lished and !an resist revolutionary !riti!ism and atta!-s$ *ut "ho "ill determine their solidity and "ho "ill %udge their validity@ <or a hundred years the !apitalist regimes of the .est have "ithstood violent assaults$ 3hould they for that reason #e !onsidered legitimate@ Inversely should those "ho "ere faithful to the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42.eimar style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Repu#li! have a#andoned it and pledged themselves to Hitler in ABWW #e!ause the former !ollapsed "hen atta!-ed #y the latter@ 3hould the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423panish style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Repu#li! have #een #etrayed at the e/a!t moment "hen =eneral <ran!os for!es triumphed@ These are !on!lusions that traditional rea!tionary thought "ould have %ustified "ithin its o"n perspe!tives$ The novelty of "hi!h the !onse7uen!es are in!al!ula#le lies in the fa!t that revolutionary thought has assimilated them$ The suppression of every moral value and of all prin!iples and their repla!ement #y fa!t as provisional #ut a!tual -ing !ould only lead as "e have plainly seen to politi!al !yni!ism "hether it #e fa!t as envisioned #y the individual or more serious still as envisioned #y the 3tate$ The politi!al movements or ideologies inspired #y Hegel are all united in the ostensi#ly a#andonment of virtue$

Hegel !ould not in fa!t prevent those "ho had read him "ith feelings of anguish "hi!h "ere far from methodi!al in a Europe that "as already torn asunder #y in%usti!e from finding themselves pre!ipitated into a "orld "ithout inno!en!e and "ithout prin!iples 0 into the very "orld of "hi!h Hegel says that it is in itself a sin sin!e it is separated from the spirit$ Hegel of !ourse permits the forgiveness of sins at the end of history$ Jntil then ho"ever every human a!tivity is sinful$ FTherefore only the a#sen!e of a!tivity is inno!ent the e/isten!e of a stone and not even the e/isten!e of a !hild$G Thus even the inno!en!e of stones is un-no"n to us$ .ithout inno!en!e there are no human relations and no reason$ .ithout reason there is nothing #ut na-ed for!e the master and slave "aiting for reason one day to prevail$ *et"een master and slave even suffering is solitary %oy is "ithout foundation and #oth are underserved$ Then ho" !an one live ho" endure life "hen friendship is reserved for the end of time@ The only es!ape is to !reate order "ith the use of "eapons$ FKill or enslaveHG 0 those "ho have read Hegel "ith this single and terri#le purpose have really !onsidered only the first part of the dilemma$ <rom it they have derived a philosophy of s!orn and despair and have deemed themselves slaves and nothing #ut slaves #ound #y death to the a#solute Master and #y the "hip to their terrestrial masters$ This philosophy of the guilty !ons!ien!e has merely taught them that every slave is enslaved only #y his o"n !onsent and !an #e li#erated only #y an a!t of protest "hi!h !oin!ides "ith death$ Ans"ering the !hallenge the most !ourageous among them have !ompletely identified themselves "ith this a!t of protest and have dedi!ated themselves to

death$ After all to say that negation is in itself a positive a!t %ustified in advan!e every -ind of negation and predi!ted the !ry of *a-unin and (e!haiev) FOur mission is to destroy not to !onstru!t$G A nihilist for Hegel "as only a s!epti! "ho had no other es!ape #ut !ontradi!tion or philosophi! sui!ide$ *ut he himself gave #irth to another type of nihilist "ho ma-ing #oredom into a prin!iple of a!tion identified sui!ide "ith philosophi! murder$ 8This form of nihilism despite appearan!es is still nihilism in the (iet6s!hean sense to the e/tent that it is a !alumny of the present life to the advantage of a histori!al future in "hi!h one tries to #elieve$; It "as at this point that the terrorists "ere #orn "ho de!ided that it "as ne!essary to -ill and die in order to e/ist #e!ause man-ind and history !ould a!hieve their !reation only #y sa!rifi!e and murder$ The magnifi!ent idea that all idealism is !himeri!al if it is not paid for #y ris-ing ones life "as to #e developed to the fullest possi#le e/tent #y young men "ho "ere not engaged in e/pounding the !on!ept from the safe distan!e of a university !hair #efore dying in their #eds #ut among the tumult of falling #om#s and even on the gallo"s$ *y doing this and even #y their errors they !orre!ted their master and demonstrated !ontrary to his tea!hing that one -ind of aristo!ra!y at least is superior to the hideous aristo!ra!y of su!!ess e/alted #y Hegel) the aristo!ra!y of sa!rifi!e$ Another sort of follo"er "ho read Hegel more seriously !hose the se!ond term of the dilemma and made the pronoun!ement that the slave !ould only free himself #y enslaving in his turn$ +ostEHegelian do!trines unmindful of the mysti! aspe!t of !ertain of

the masters tenden!ies have led his follo"ers to a#solute atheism and to s!ientifi! materialism$ *ut this evolution is in!on!eiva#le "ithout the a#solute disappearan!e of every prin!iple of trans!endent e/planation and "ithout the !omplete destru!tion of the La!o#in ideal$ Immanen!e of !ourse is not atheism$ *ut immanen!e in the pro!ess of development is if one !an say so provisional atheism$ 8In any event the !riti!ism of Kier-egaard is valid$ To #ase divinity on history is parado/i!ally to #ase an a#solute value on appro/imate -no"ledge$ 3omething Feternally histori!G is a !ontradi!tion in terms$; The indefinite fa!e of =od "hi!h "ith Hegel is still refle!ted in the spirit of the "orld "ill not #e diffi!ult to effa!e$ Hegels su!!essors "ill dra" de!isive !on!lusions from his am#iguous formula) F=od "ithout man is no more than man "ithout =od$G 'avid 3trauss in his )ife of 0esus isolates the theory of ,hrist !onsidered as the =odEman$ *runo *auer >The $ritique of Evangelist History? institutes a -ind of materialist ,hristianity #y insisting on the humanity of Lesus$ <inally Lud"ig <euer#a!h >"hom Mar/ !onsidered as a great mind and of "hom he a!-no"ledges himself the !riti!al dis!iple? in his Essence of $hristianity repla!es all theology #y a religion of man and the spe!ies "hi!h has !onverted a large part of !ontemporary thought$ His tas- is to demonstrate that the distin!tion #et"een human and divine is illusory that it is nothing #ut the distin!tion #et"een the essen!e of humanity 0 in other "ords human nature 0 and the individual$ FThe mystery of =od is only the mystery of the love of man for himself$G The a!!ents of a strange ne" prophe!y ring out) FIndividuality has repla!ed faith reason the *i#le

politi!s religion and the ,hur!h the earth heaven "orprayer poverty hell and man ,hrist$G Thus there is only one hell and it is on this earth) and it is against this that the struggle must #e "aged$ +oliti!s is religion and trans!endent ,hristianity 0 that of the hereafter 0 esta#lishes the masters of the earth #y means of the slaves renun!iation and !reates one master more #eneath the heavens$ That is "hy atheism and the revolutionary spirit are only t"o aspe!ts of the same movement of li#eration$ That is the ans"er to the 7uestion "hi!h is al"ays #eing as-ed) "hy has the revolutionary movement identified itself "ith materialism rather than "ith idealism@ *e!ause to !on7uer =od to ma-e Him a slave amounts to a#olishing the trans!enden!e that -ept the former masters in po"er and to preparing "ith the as!endan!y of the ne" tyrants the advent of the manE-ing$ .hen poverty is a#olished "hen the !ontradi!tions of history are resolved Fthe real god the human god "ill #e the 3tate$G Then homo homini lupus #e!omes homo homini deus$ This !on!ept is at the root of the !ontemporary "orld$ .ith <euer#a!h "e assist at the #irth of a terri#le form of optimism "hi!h "e !an still o#serve at "or- today and "hi!h seems to #e the very antithesis of nihilist despair$ *ut that is only in appearan!e$ .e must -no" <euer#a!hs final !on!lusion in this Theogony to per!eive the profoundly nihilist derivation of his inflamed imagination$ In effe!t <euer#a!h affirms in the fa!e of Hegel that man is only "hat he eats and thus re!apitulates his ideas and predi!ts the future in the follo"ing phrase) FThe true philosophy is the negation of philosophy$ (o religion is my religion$ (o philosophy is my philosophy$G

,yni!ism the deifi!ation of history and of matter individual terror and 3tate !rime these are the inordinate !onse7uen!es that "ill no" spring armed to the teeth from the e7uivo!al !on!eption of a "orld that entrusts to history alone the tas- of produ!ing #oth values and truth$ If nothing !an #e !learly understood #efore truth has #een #rought to light at the end of time then every a!tion is ar#itrary and for!e "ill finally rule supreme$ FIf reality is in!on!eiva#le G Hegel e/!laims Fthen "e must !ontrive in!on!eiva#le !on!epts$G A !on!ept that !annot #e !on!eived must perfor!e li-e error #e !ontrived$ *ut to #e a!!epted it !annot rely on the persuasion innate in order and truth #ut must finally #e imposed$ Hegels attitude !onsists of saying) FThis is truth "hi!h appears to us ho"ever to #e error #ut "hi!h is true pre!isely #e!ause it happens to #e error$ As for proof it is not I #ut history at its !on!lusion that "ill furnish it$G 3u!h pretensions !an only entail t"o attitudes) either the suspension of all affirmation until the produ!tion of proof or the affirmation of everything in history "hi!h seems dedi!ated to su!!ess 0 for!e in parti!ular$ And #oth attitudes imply nihilism$ Moreover it is impossi#le to understand t"entiethE !entury revolutionary thought if "e overloo- the fa!t that unfortunately it derived a large part of its inspiration from a philosophy of !onformity and opportunism$ True re#ellion is not %eopardi6ed on a!!ount of the distortion of these parti!ular ideas$ (evertheless the #asis of Hegels !laims is "hat renders them intelle!tually and forever suspe!t$ He #elieved that history in AU:T "ith the advent of (apoleon and of himself had !ome to an end and that

affirmation "as possi#le and nihilism !on7uered$ The "henomenology the *i#le that "as to have prophesied only the past put a limit on time$ In AU:T all sins "ere forgiven and time had stopped$ *ut history has !ontinued$ Other sins sin!e then have #een hurled in the fa!e of the "orld and have revived the s!andal of the former !rimes "hi!h the =erman philosopher had already forgiven forever$ The deifi!ation of Hegel #y himself after the deifi!ation of (apoleon "ho "ould hen!eforth #e inno!ent sin!e he had su!!eeded in sta#ili6ing history lasted only seven years$ Instead of total affirmation nihilism on!e more !overed the fa!e of the earth$ +hilosophy even servile philosophy has its .aterloos$ *ut nothing !an dis!ourage the appetite for divinity in the heart of man$ Others have !ome and are still to !ome "ho forgetting style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42.aterloo still !laim to terminate history$ The divinity of man is still on the mar!h and "ill #e "orthy of adoration only at the end of time$ This apo!alypse must #e promoted and despite the fa!t that there is no =od at least a ,hur!h must #e #uilt$ After all history "hi!h has not yet !ome to an end allo"s us a glimpse of a perspe!tive that might even #e that of the Hegelian system #ut for the simple reason that it is provisionally dragged along if not led #y the spiritual heirs of Hegel$ .hen !holera !arries off the philosopher of the *attle of Lena at the height of his glory everything is in fa!t in order for "hat is to follo"$ The s-y is empty the earth delivered into the hands of po"er "ithout prin!iples$ Those "ho have !hosen to -ill and those "ho have !hosen to enslave "ill su!!essively o!!upy the front of the stage

in the name of a form of re#ellion "hi!h has #een diverted from the path of truth$

4ndividual Terrorism %
+isarev the theoreti!ian of Russian nihilism de!lares that the greatest fanati!s are !hildren and adoles!ents$ That is also true of nations$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia at this period is an adoles!ent nation delivered "ith for!eps #arely a !entury ago #y a ,6ar "ho "as still ingenuous enough to !ut off the heads of re#els himself$ It is not astounding that she should have pushed =ermani! ideology to e/tremes of sa!rifi!e and destru!tion "hi!h =erman professors had only #een !apa#le of theori6ing a#out$ 3tendhal noti!ed an essential differen!e #et"een =ermans and other people in the fa!t that they are e/!ited #y meditation rather than soothed$ That is true #ut it is even more true of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia$ In that immature !ountry !ompletely "ithout philosophi! tradition 8+isarev remar-s that !ivili6ation in its ideologi!al aspe!ts has al"ays #een imported into Russia$; some very young

people a-in to LautrVamonts tragi! fello" students enthusiasti!ally em#ra!ed the !on!epts of =erman thought and in!arnated the !onse7uen!es in #lood$ A Fproletariat of undergraduatesG 8'ostoievs-y; then too- the lead in the great movement of human eman!ipation and gave it its most violent aspe!t$ Jntil the end of the nineteenth !entury these undergraduates never num#ered more than a fe" thousand$ Entirely on their o"n ho"ever and in defian!e of the most integrated a#solutism of the time they aspired to li#erate and provisionally did !ontri#ute to the li#eration of forty million mu6hi-s$ Almost all of them paid for this li#eration #y sui!ide e/e!ution prison or madness$ The entire history of Russian terrorism !an #e summed up in the struggle of a handful of intelle!tuals to a#olish tyranny against a #a!-ground of a silent popula!e$ Their de#ilitated vi!tory "as finally #etrayed$ *ut #y their sa!rifi!e and even #y their most e/treme negations they gave su#stan!e to a ne" standard of values a ne" virtue "hi!h even today has not !eased to oppose tyranny and to give aid to the !ause of true li#eration$ The =ermani6ation of nineteenthE!entury style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Russia is not an isolated phenomenon$ The influen!e of =erman ideology at that moment "as preponderant and "e are "ell a"are for e/ample that the nineteenth !entury in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e "ith Mi!helet and Muinet is the !entury of =ermani!

thought$ *ut in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia this ideology did not en!ounter an already esta#lished system "hile in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e it had to !ontend and !ompromise "ith li#ertarian so!ialism$ In style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Russia it "as on !on7uered territory$ The first Russian university the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Jniversity of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mos!o" founded in ATD: is =erman$ The slo" !oloni6ation of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia #y =erman tea!hers #ureau!rats and soldiers "hi!h #egan under +eter the =reat "as transformed at the instan!e of (i!holas I into systemati! =ermani6ation$ The intelligentsia developed a passion for 3!helling >simultaneously "ith the passion for <ren!h "riters? in the AUW:s for Hegel in the AUC:s and in the se!ond half of the !entury for =erman so!ialism derived from Hegel$ 8Das 9apital "as translated in AUT9$; Russian youth then pro!eeded to pour into these a#stra!t thoughts the inordinate violen!e of its passions and authenti!ally e/perien!ed these already mori#und ideas$ The religion of man already formulated #y its =erman pastors "as still missing its apostles and martyrs$ Russian ,hristians led astray from their original vo!ation played this role$ <or this reason they had to a!!ept life "ithout trans!enden!e and "ithout virtue$

The /enunciation of Virtue In the AU9:s among the first Russian revolutionaries the 'e!em#rists virtue still e/isted$

La!o#in idealism had not yet #een uprooted from the hearts of these gentlemen$ They even pra!tised !ons!ious virtue) FOur fathers "ere sy#arites "e are ,atos G said one of them +eter Via6ems-y$ To this is only added the opinion "hi!h "ill still #e found in *a-unin and the revolutionary so!ialists of AB:D that suffering regenerates$ The 'e!em#rists remind us of the <ren!h no#les "ho allied themselves "ith the third estate and renoun!ed their privileges$ +atri!ian idealists they deli#erately !hose to sa!rifi!e themselves for the li#eration of the people$ 'espite the fa!t that their leader +estel "as a politi!al and so!ial theorist their a#ortive !onspira!y had no fi/ed programme4 it is not even sure that they #elieved in the possi#ility of su!!ess$ F5es "e shall die G one of them said on the eve of the insurre!tion F#ut it "ill #e a fine death$G It "as in fa!t a fine death$ In 'e!em#er AU9D the re#els arranged in formation "ere mo"n do"n #y !annon fire in the s7uare in front of the 3enate at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423t$ +eters#urg$ The survivors "ere deported #ut not #efore five had #een hanged and so !lumsily that it had to #e done t"i!e$ It is easy to understand "hy these ostensi#ly ineffi!a!ious vi!tims have #een venerated "ith feelings of e/altation and horror #y all of revolutionary style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia$ They "ere e/emplary if not effi!a!ious$ They indi!ated at the #eginning of this !hapter of revolutionary history the am#itions and the greatness of "hat Hegel ironi!ally !alled the #eautiful soul in relation to "hi!h Russian revolutionary ideas "ere nevertheless to #e defined$ In this atmosphere of e/altation =erman thought !ame to !om#at <ren!h influen!e and impose its

prestige on minds torn #et"een their desire for vengean!e and %usti!e and the reali6ation of their o"n impotent isolation$ It "as first re!eived e/tolled and !ommented upon as though it "ere revelation itself$ The #est minds "ere inflamed "ith a passion for philosophy$ They even "ent so far as to put Hegels )ogic into verse$ <or the most part Russian intelle!tuals at first inferred from the Hegelian system the %ustifi!ation of a form of so!ial 7uietism$ To #e a"are of the rationality of the "orld suffi!ed4 the 3pirit "ould reali6e itself in any !ase at the end of time$ That is the first rea!tion of 3tan-evi!h 8FThe "orld is ordered #y the spirit of reason this reassures me a#out everything else$G; *a-unin and *ielins-y for e/ample$ Then the Russian mind re!oiled at this fa!tual if not intentional !ompli!ity "ith a#solutism and immediately %umped to the opposite e/treme$ (othing is more revealing in this respe!t than the evolution of *ielins-y one of the most remar-a#le and influential minds of the AUW:s and C:s$ *eginning "ith a #a!-ground of rather vague li#ertarian idealism *ielins-y suddenly dis!overs Hegel$ In his room at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42midnight under the sho!- of revelation he #ursts into tears li-e +as!al and suddenly #e!omes a ne" man$ F(either !han!e nor the a#solute e/ists I have made my adieu/ to the <ren!h$G At the same time he is still a !onservative and a partisan of so!ial 7uietism$ He "rites to that effe!t "ithout a single hesitation and defends his position as he per!eives it !ourageously$ *ut this essentially -indEhearted man then sees himself allied "ith "hat is most detesta#le in this "orld) in%usti!e$ If everything is logi!al then

everything is %ustified$ One must !onsent to the "hip to serfdom to style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423i#eria$ To a!!ept the "orld and its sufferings seemed to him at one moment the no#le thing to do #e!ause he imagined that he "ould only have to #ear his o"n sufferings and his o"n !ontradi!tions$ *ut if it also implied !onsent to the sufferings of others he suddenly dis!overed that he had not the heart to !ontinue$ He set out again in the opposite dire!tion$ If one !annot a!!ept the suffering of others then something in the "orld !annot #e %ustified and history at one point at least no longer !oin!ides "ith reason$ *ut history must #e !ompletely reasona#le or it is not reasona#le at all$ This mans solitary protest 7uieted for a moment #y the idea that everything !an #e %ustified #ursts forth again in vehement terms$ *ielins-y addresses Hegel himself) F.ith all the esteem due to your philistine philosophy I have the honour to inform you that even if I had the opportunity of !lim#ing to the very top of the ladder of evolution I should still as- you to a!!ount for all the vi!tims of life and history$ I do not "ant happiness even gratuitous happiness if my mind is not at rest !on!erning all my #lood #rothers$G *ielins-y understood that "hat he "anted "as not the a#solute of reason #ut the fullness of life$ He refuses to identify them$ He "ants the immortality of the entire man !lothed in his living #ody not the a#stra!t immortality of the spe!ies #e!ome 3pirit$ He argues "ith e7ual passion against ne" adversaries and dra"s from this fier!e interior de#ate !on!lusions that he o"es to Hegel #ut "hi!h he turns against him$

These are the !on!lusions of individualism in revolt$ The individual !annot a!!ept history as it is$ He must destroy reality not !olla#orate "ith it in order to affirm his o"n e/isten!e$ F(egation is my god as reality formerly "as$ My heroes are the destroyers of the past) Luther Voltaire the En!y!lopedists the Terrorists *yron in $ain$G Thus "e redis!over here simultaneously all the themes of metaphysi!al re#ellion$ ,ertainly the <ren!h tradition of individualisti! so!ialism al"ays remained alive in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia$ 3aintE3imon and <ourier "ho "ere read in the AUW:s and +roudhon "ho "as imported in the forties inspired the great !on!epts of Her6en and very mu!h later those of +ierre Lavrov$ *ut this system "hi!h remained atta!hed to ethi!al values finally su!!um#ed provisionally at any rate during its great de#ate "ith !yni!al thought$ On the other hand *ielins-y redis!overs #oth "ith and against Hegel the same tenden!ies to so!ial individualism #ut under the aspe!t of negation in the re%e!tion of trans!endental values$ .hen he dies in AUCU his thought "ill moreover #e very !lose to that of Her6en$ *ut "hen he !onfronts Hegel he defines "ith pre!ision an attitude that "ill #e adopted #y the nihilists and at least in part #y the terrorists$ Thus he furnishes a type of transition #et"een the idealist aristo!rats of AU9D and the FnothingistG students of AUX:$

Three of the "ossessed

.hen Her6en in ma-ing his apology for the nihilist movement 0 only to the e/tent it is true that he sees in it a still greater eman!ipation from readyEmade ideas 0 "rites) FThe annihilation of the past is the pro!reation of the future G he is using the language of *ielins-y$ Koteiarevs-y spea-ing of the soE!alled radi!als of the period defends them as apostles F"ho thought that the past must #e !ompletely renoun!ed and the human personality must #e !onstru!ted to 7uite another plan$G 3tirners !laim reappears "ith the total re%e!tion of history and the determination to !onstru!t the future no longer "ith regard to the histori!al spirit #ut so as to !oin!ide "ith the manE-ing$ *ut the manE-ing !annot raise himself to po"er unaided$ He has need of others and therefore enters into a nihilist !ontradi!tion "hi!h +isarev *a-unin and (e!haiev "ill try to resolve #y slightly e/tending the area of destru!tion and negation to the point "here terrorism finally -ills the !ontradi!tion itself in a simultaneous a!t of sa!rifi!e and murder$ The nihilism of the AUX:s #egan apparently "ith the most radi!al negation imagina#le) the re%e!tion of any a!tion that "as not purely egoisti!$ .e -no" that the very term nihilism "as invented #y Turgeniev in his novel &athers and #ons "hose hero *a6arov "as an e/a!t portrayal of this type of man$ +isarev "hen he "rote a !riti!ism of this #oo- pro!laimed that the nihilists re!ogni6ed *a6arov as their model$ F.e have nothing G said *a6arov Fto #oast a#out #ut the sterile -no"ledge of understanding up to a !ertain point the sterility of "hat e/ists$G FIs that G he "as as-ed F"hat is !alled nihilism@G F5es that is "hat is !alled

nihilism$G +isarev praises *a6arovs attitude "hi!h for the sa-e of !larity he defines thus) FI am a stranger to the order of e/isting things I have nothing to do "ith it$G Thus the only value resides in rational egoism$ In denying everything that is not satisfa!tion of the self +isarev de!lares "ar on philosophy on art "hi!h he !onsiders a#surd on erroneous ethi!s on religion and even on !ustoms and on good manners$ He !onstru!ts a theory of intelle!tual terrorism "hi!h ma-es one thin- of the presentEday surrealists$ +rovo!ation is made into a do!trine #ut on a level of "hi!h Ras-olni-ov provides the perfe!t e/ample$ At the height of this fine transport +isarev as-s himself "ithout even laughing "hether he is %ustified in -illing his o"n mother and ans"ers) FAnd "hy not if I "ant to do so and if I find it useful@G <rom that point on it is surprising not to find the nihilists engaged in ma-ing a fortune or a!7uiring a title or in !yni!ally ta-ing advantage of every opportunity that offers itself$ It is true that there "ere nihilists to #e found in advantageous positions on all levels of so!iety$ *ut they did not !onstru!t a theory from their !yni!ism and preferred on all o!!asions to pay visi#le and 7uite in!onse7uential homage to virtue$ As for those "e are dis!ussing they !ontradi!ted themselves #y the defian!e they hurled in the fa!e of so!iety "hi!h in itself "as the affirmation of a value$ They !alled themselves materialists4 their #edside #oo- "as *u!hners &orce and 'atter$ *ut one of them !onfessed) FEvery one of us "as ready to go to the s!affold and to give his head for Moles!hott and 'ar"in G thus putting do!trine "ell ahead of matter$ 'o!trine ta-en seriously in this

degree has an air of religion and fanati!ism$ <or +isarev Lamar!- "as a traitor #e!ause style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42'ar"in "as right$ .hoever in this intelle!tual sphere #egan tal-ing a#out the immortality of the soul "as immediately e/!ommuni!ated$ Vladimir Veidle is therefore right "hen he defines nihilism as rationalist o#s!urantism$ Reason among the nihilists strangely enough anne/ed the pre%udi!es of faith4 !hoosing the most populari6ed forms of s!ien!eE"orship for their prototype of reason "as not the least of the !ontradi!tions a!!epted #y these individualists$ They denied everything #ut the most de#ata#le of values the values of <lau#erts Monsieur Homais$ Ho"ever it "as #y !hoosing to ma-e reason in its most limited aspe!t into an a!t of faith that the nihilists provided their su!!essors "ith a model$ They #elieved in nothing #ut reason and selfEinterest$ *ut instead of s!epti!ism they !hose to propagate a do!trine and #e!ame so!ialists$ Therein lies their #asi! !ontradi!tion$ Li-e all adoles!ent minds they simultaneously e/perien!ed dou#t and the need to #elieve$ Their personal solution !onsists in endo"ing their negation "ith the intransigen!e and passion of faith$ .hat after all is astonishing a#out that@ Veidle 7uotes the s!ornful phrase used #y 3oloviev the philosopher in denoun!ing this !ontradi!tion) FMan is des!ended from mon-eys therefore let us love one another$G +isarevs truth ho"ever is to #e found in this dilemma$ If man is the image of =od then it does not matter that he is deprived of human love4 the day "ill !ome "hen he "ill #e satiated "ith it$ *ut if he is a #lind !reature "andering in the dar-ness of a !ruel and

!ir!ums!ri#ed !ondition he has need of his e7uals and of their ephemeral love$ .here !an !harity ta-e refuge after all if not in the "orld "ithout =od@ In the other gra!e provides for all even for the ri!h$ Those "ho deny everything at least understand that negation is a !alamity$ They !an then open their hearts to the misery of others and finally deny themselves$ +isarev did not shrin- from the idea of murdering his mother and yet he managed to find the e/a!t "ords to des!ri#e in%usti!e$ He "anted to en%oy life egotisti!ally #ut he suffered imprisonment and finally "ent mad$ 3u!h an ostentatious display of !yni!ism finally led him to an understanding of love to #e e/iled from it and to suffer from it to the point of sui!ide thus revealing in pla!e of the manEgod he "anted to !reate the unhappy suffering old man "hose greatness illuminates the pages of history$ *a-unin em#odies #ut in a manner spe!ta!ular in a different "ay the very same !ontradi!tions$ He died on the eve of the terrorist epi! in AUTX$ Moreover he re%e!ted in advan!e individual outrages and denoun!ed Fthe *rutuses of the period$G He had a !ertain respe!t for them ho"ever sin!e he reproa!hed Her6en for having openly !riti!i6ed Kara-osov for his a#ortive attempt to assassinate Ale/ander II in AUXX$ This feeling of respe!t had its reasons$ *a-unin influen!ed the !ourse of events in the same manner as *ielins-y and the nihilists and dire!ted them into the !hannel of individual revolt$ *ut he !ontri#uted something more) a germ of politi!al !yni!ism "hi!h "ill !ongeal "ith (e!haiev into a do!trine and "ill drive the revolutionary movement to e/tremes$

*a-unin had hardly emerged from adoles!en!e "hen he "as over"helmed and uprooted #y Hegelian philosophy as if #y a giganti! earth7ua-e$ He #uries himself in it day and night Fto the point of madness G he says and adds) FI sa" a#solutely nothing #ut Hegels !ategories$G .hen he emerges from this initiation it is "ith the e/altation of a neophyte$ FMy personal self is dead forever my life is the true life$G He re7uired very little time to see the dangers of that !omforta#le position$ He "ho has understood reality does not re#el against it #ut re%oi!es in it4 in other "ords he #e!omes a !onformist$ (othing in *a-unins !hara!ter predestined him to that "at!hdog philosophy$ It is possi#le also that his travels in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany and the unfortunate opinion he formed of the =ermans may have illEprepared him to agree "ith the aged Hegel that the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42+russian style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423tate "as the privileged depository of the final fruits of the mind$ More Russian than the ,6ar himself despite his dreams of universality he !ould in no event su#s!ri#e to the apology of +russia "hen it "as founded on a logi! #rash enough to assert) FThe "ill of other peoples has no rights for it is the people "ho represent the "ill 8of the 3pirit; "ho dominate the "orld$G In the AUC:s moreover *a-unin dis!overed <ren!h so!ialism and anar!hism from "hi!h he appropriated a fe" tenden!ies$ *a-unin re%e!ts "ith a magnifi!ent gesture any part of =erman ideology$ He approa!hed the a#solute in the same "ay as he approa!hed total destru!tion "ith the same passionate emotion and "ith the #lind enthusiasm for the FAll or (othingG "hi!h "e again find in him in its purest form$

After having e/tolled a#solute Jnity *a-unin enthusiasti!ally em#ra!es the most elementary form of Mani!hRism$ .hat he "ants of !ourse is on!e and for all Fthe universal and authenti!ally demo!rati! style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,hur!h of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<reedom$G That is his religion4 he #elongs to his times$ It is not sure ho"ever that his faith on this point has #een perfe!t$ In his $onfession to ,6ar (i!holas I he seems to #e sin!ere "hen he says that he has never #een a#le to #elieve in the final revolution Fe/!ept "ith a supernatural and painful effort to stifle for!i#ly the interior voi!e "hi!h "hispered to me that my hopes "ere a#surd$G His theory of immorality on the other hand is mu!h more firmly #ased and he is often to #e seen plunging a#out in it "ith the ease and pleasure of a mettlesome horse$ History is governed #y only t"o prin!iples) the 3tate and so!ial revolution revolution and !ounterrevolution "hi!h !an never #e re!on!iled and "hi!h are engaged in a death struggle$ The 3tate is the in!arnation of !rime$ FThe smallest and most inoffensive 3tate is still !riminal in its dreams$G Therefore revolution is the in!arnation of good$ This struggle "hi!h surpasses politi!s is also the struggle of Lu!iferian prin!iples against the divine prin!iples$ *a-unin e/pli!itly reintrodu!es into re#ellious a!tion one of the themes of romanti! re#ellion$ +roudhon had already de!reed that =od is Evil and e/!laimed) F,ome 3atan vi!tim of the !alumnies of -ings and of the pettyE mindedHG *a-unin also gives a glimpse of the #roader impli!ations of an apparently politi!al re#ellion) FEvil is satani! re#ellion against divine authority a re#ellion in "hi!h "e see nevertheless the fruitful seed of every form of human eman!ipation$G Li-e the <rati!elli of

fourteenthE!entury style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42*ohemia revolutionary so!ialists today use this phrase as a pass"ord) FIn the name of him to "hom a great "rong has #een done$G The struggle against !reation "ill therefore #e "ithout mer!y and "ithout ethi!s and the only salvation lies in e/termination$ FThe passion for destru!tion is a !reative passion$G *a-unins #urning "ords on the su#%e!t of the revolution of AUCU in his $onfession vehemently pro!laim this pleasure in destru!tion$ FA feast "ithout #eginning and "ithout end G he says$ In fa!t for him as for all "ho are oppressed the revolution is a feast in the religious sense of the "ord$ Here "e are reminded of the <ren!h anar!hist ,[urderoy "ho in his #oo- Hurrah* or the $ossac5 /evolution summoned the hordes of the north to lay "aste to the "hole "orld$ He also "anted to Fapply the tor!h to my fathers houseG and pro!laimed that the only hope lay in the human deluge and in !haos$ Re#ellion is grasped throughout these manifestations in its pure state in its #iologi!al truth$ That is "hy *a-unin "ith e/!eptional perspi!a!ity "as the only one of his period to de!lare "ar on s!ien!e the idol of his !ontemporaries$ Against every a#stra!t idea he pleaded the !ause of the !omplete man !ompletely identified "ith his re#ellion$ If he glorifies the #rigand leader of the peasant rising if he !hooses to model himself on 3ten-a Ra6in and +uga!hev it is #e!ause these men fought "ithout either do!trine or prin!iple for an ideal of pure freedom$ *a-unin introdu!es into the midst of revolution the na-ed prin!iple of re#ellion$ FThe tempest and life that

is "hat "e need$ A ne" "orld "ithout la"s and !onse7uently free$G *ut is a "orld "ithout la"s a free "orld@ That is the 7uestion posed #y every re#ellion$ If the 7uestion "ere to #e as-ed of *a-unin the ans"er "ould not #e in dou#t$ 'espite the fa!t that he "as opposed in all !ir!umstan!es and "ith the most e/treme lu!idity to authoritarian so!ialism yet from the moment "hen he himself #egins to define the so!iety of the future he does so 0 "ithout #eing at all !on!erned "ith the !ontradi!tion 0 in terms of a di!tatorship$ The statutes of the International <raternity >AUXCET? "hi!h he edited himself already esta#lish the a#solute su#ordination of the individual to the !entral !ommittee during the period of a!tion$ It is the same for the period that "ill follo" the revolution$ He hopes to see in li#erated style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia Fa strong di!tatorial po"er I a po"er supported #y partisans enlightened #y their advi!e %ustified #y their free !olla#oration #ut "hi!h "ould #e limited to nothing and #y no one$G *a-unin !ontri#uted as mu!h as his enemy Mar/ to Leninist do!trine$ The dream of the revolutionary 3lav empire moreover as *a-unin !on%ures it up #efore the ,6ar is e/a!tly the same do"n to the last detail of its frontiers as that reali6ed #y 3talin$ ,oming from a man "ho "as "ise enough to say that the essential drivingEfor!e of ,6arist Russia "as fear and "ho re%e!ted the Mar/ist theory of party di!tatorship these !on!eptions may seem !ontradi!tory$ *ut this !ontradi!tion demonstrates that the origins of authoritarian do!trines are partially nihilisti!$ +isarev %ustifies *a-unin$ ,ertainly the latter "anted total freedom4 #ut he hoped to reali6e it through

total destru!tion$ To destroy everything is to pledge oneself to #uilding "ithout foundations and then to holding up the "alls "ith ones hands$ He "ho re%e!ts the entire past "ithout -eeping any part of it "hi!h !ould serve to #reathe life into the revolution !ondemns himself to finding %ustifi!ation only in the future and in the meantime to entrusting the poli!e "ith the tas- of %ustifying the provisional state of affairs$ *a-unin pro!laims di!tatorship not despite his desire for destru!tion #ut in a!!ordan!e "ith it$ (othing in fa!t !ould turn him from this path sin!e his ethi!al values had also #een dissolved in the !ru!i#le of total negation$ In his openly o#se7uious $onfession to the ,6ar "hi!h he "rote in order to gain his freedom he spe!ta!ularly introdu!es the dou#le game into revolutionary politi!s$ .ith his $atechism of a /evolutionary "hi!h he pro#a#ly drafted in 3"it6erland "ith the help of (e!haiev he voi!es even though he denies it later the politi!al !yni!ism that "ill never !ease to "eigh on the revolutionary movement and "hi!h (e!haiev himself has so provo!atively illustrated$ A less "ellE-no"n figure than *a-unin still more mysterious #ut more signifi!ant for our purpose (e!haiev pushed nihilism to the farthest !oherent point$ His thought presents pra!ti!ally no !ontradi!tion$ He appeared a#out AUXX in revolutionary intelle!tual !ir!les and died o#s!urely in Lanuary AUU9$ In this short spa!e of time he never !eased to su#orn the students around him *a-unin himself the revolutionary refugees and finally the guard in his prison "hom he su!!eeded in persuading to ta-e part in a !ra6y !onspira!y$ .hen he first appears he is already 7uite

sure of "hat he thin-s$ If *a-unin "as fas!inated #y him to the point of !onsenting to entrust him "ith imaginary authority it is #e!ause he re!ogni6ed in that impla!a#le figure the type of human #eing that he re!ommended and "hat he himself in a !ertain manner "ould have #een if he had #een a#le to silen!e his heart$ (e!haiev "as not !ontent "ith saying that one must unite "ith Fthe savage "orld of #andits the true and uni7ue revolutionary environment of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia G nor "ith "riting on!e more li-e *a-unin that hen!eforth politi!s "ould #e religion and religion politi!s$ He made himself the !ruel high priest of a desperate revolution4 his most re!urrent dream "as to found a homi!idal order that "ould permit him to propagate and finally enthrone the sinister divinity that he had de!ided to serve$ He not only gave dissertations on universal destru!tion4 his originality lay in !oldly !laiming for those "ho dedi!ate themselves to the revolution an FEverything is permittedG and in a!tually permitting himself everything FThe revolutionary man is !ondemned in advan!e$ He must have neither romanti! relationships nor o#%e!ts to engage his feelings$ He should even !ast off his o"n name$ Every part of him should #e !on!entrated in one single passion) the revolution$G If history is in fa!t independent of all prin!iples and !omposed only of a struggle #et"een revolution and !ounterrevolution there is no "ay out #ut to espouse "holeheartedly one of the t"o and either die or #e resurre!ted$ (e!haiev pursues this logi! to the #itter end$ .ith him for the first time revolution is

going to #e e/pli!itly separated from love and friendship$ The !onse7uen!es of ar#itrary psy!hology set in motion #y Hegels method !an #e seen for the first time in (e!haiev$ Hegel had allo"ed that the mutual re!ognition of minds !ould #e a!!omplished in love$ 8It !ould also #e #rought a#out #y the -ind of admiration in "hi!h the "ord master assumes its fullest meaning) he "ho !reates "ithout destroying$; He "ould not ho"ever give a pla!e in the foreground of his analysis to this Fphenomenon G "hi!h a!!ording to him he found Fhad not the strength the patien!e nor the appli!ation of the negative$G He had !hosen to demonstrate human minds in #lind !om#at dimly groping on the sands li-e !ra#s that finally !ome to grips in a fight to the death and voluntarily a#andoned the e7ually legitimate image of #eams of light painfully sear!hing for one another in the night and finally fo!using together in a #la6e of illumination$ Those "ho love friends or lovers -no" that love is not only a #linding flash #ut also a long and painful struggle in the dar-ness for the reali6ation of definitive re!ognition and re!on!iliation$ After all if virtue in the !ourse of history is re!ogni6ed #y the e/tent to "hi!h it gives proof of patien!e real love is as patient as hatred$ Moreover the demand for %usti!e is not the only %ustifi!ation throughout the !enturies for revolutionary passion "hi!h is sustained #y a painful insisten!e on universal friendship even 0 and a#ove all 0 in defian!e of an inimi!al heaven$ Those "ho die for %usti!e throughout history have al"ays #een !alled F#rothers$G Violen!e for every one of them is dire!ted only against

the enemy in the servi!e of the !ommunity of the oppressed$ *ut if the revolution is the only positive value it has a right to !laim everything 0 even the denun!iation and therefore the sa!rifi!e of the friend$ Hen!eforth violen!e "ill #e dire!ted against one and all in the servi!e of an a#stra!t idea$ The a!!ession to po"er of the possessed had to ta-e pla!e so that it !ould #e said on!e and for all that the revolution in itself "as more important than the people it "anted to save and that friendship "hi!h until then had transformed defeats into the sem#lan!e of vi!tories must #e sa!rifi!ed and postponed until the still invisi#le day of vi!tory$ (e!haievs originality thus lies in %ustifying the violen!e done to ones #rothers$ He de!ided "ith *a-unin on the terms of the $atcheism$ *ut on!e the latter in a fit of mental a#erration had given him the mission of representing in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia a European Revolutionary Jnion "hi!h e/isted only in his imagination (e!haiev in effe!t !ame to style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Russia founded his 3o!iety of the A/ and himself defined its regulations$ There "e find again the se!ret !entral !ommittee ne!essary no dou#t to any military or politi!al a!tion to "hom everyone must s"ear a#solute allegian!e$ *ut (e!haiev does more than militari6e the revolution from the moment "hen he admits that the leaders in order to govern their su#ordinates have the right to employ violen!e and lies$ (e!haiev lies to #egin "ith "hen he !laims to #e a delegate of a !entral !ommittee that is still none/istent and "hen to enlist !ertain s!epti!s in the a!tion that he proposes to underta-e he des!ri#es the !ommittee as

disposing of unlimited resour!es$ He goes still farther #y distinguishing #et"een !ategories of revolutionaries "ith those of the first !ategory >#y "hi!h he means the leaders? reserving the right to !onsider the rest as Fe/penda#le !apital$G All the leaders in history may have thought in these terms #ut they never said so$ Jntil (e!haiev at any rate no revolutionary leader had dared to ma-e this the guiding prin!iple of his !ondu!t$ Jp to his time no revolution had put at the head of its ta#le of la"s the !on!ept that man !ould #e a !hattel$ Traditionally re!ruiting relied on its appeal to !ourage and to the spirit of selfEsa!rifi!e$ (e!haiev de!ided that the s!epti!s !ould #e terrori6ed or #la!-mailed and the #elievers de!eived$ Even pseudoErevolutionaries !ould still #e used if they "ere urged on systemati!ally to perform the most dangerous deeds$ As for the oppressed sin!e they "ere going to #e saved on!e and for all they !ould #e oppressed still more$ .hat they "ould lose the oppressed of the future "ould gain$ (e!haiev states in prin!iple that governments must #e driven to ta-e repressive measures that the offi!ial representatives most hated #y the population must never #e tou!hed and that finally the se!ret so!iety must employ all its resour!es to in!rease the suffering and misery of the masses$ Although these #eautiful thoughts have reali6ed their full meaning today (e!haiev did not live to see the triumph of his prin!iples$ He tried to apply them at all events at the time of the student Ivanovs murder "hi!h so stru!- the popular imagination of the time that 'ostoievs-y made it one of the themes of The "ossessed$ Ivanov "hose only fault seems to have #een

that he had dou#ts a#out the !entral !ommittee of "hi!h (e!haiev !laimed to #e a delegate "as !onsidered an enemy of the revolution #e!ause he "as opposed to the man "ho "as identified "ith the revolution$ Therefore he must die$ F.hat right have "e to ta-e a mans life@G as-s Jspens-y one of (e!haievs !omrades$ 0 FIt is not a 7uestion of right #ut of our duty to eliminate everything that may harm our !ause$G .hen revolution is the sole value there are in fa!t no more rights there are only duties$ *ut #y an immediate inversion every right is assumed in the name of duty$ <or the sa-e of the !ause (e!haiev "ho has never made an attempt on the life of any tyrant am#ushes and -ills Ivanov$ Then he leaves style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia and returns to *a-unin "ho turns his #a!- on him and !ondemns his Frepugnant ta!ti!s$G FHe has gradually !ome G "rites *a-unin Fto the !on!lusion that to found an indestru!ti#le so!iety it must #e #ased on the politi!s of Ma!hiavelli and the methods of the Lesuits) for the #ody only violen!e4 for the soul de!eption$G That is "ell said$ *ut in the name of "hat value is it possi#le to de!ide that this ta!ti! is repugnant if the revolution as *a-unin #elieved is the only good@ (e!haiev is really in the servi!e of the revolution4 it is not his o"n ends that he serves #ut the !ause$ E/tradited he yields not an in!h to his %udges$ ,ondemned to t"entyEfive years in %ail he still reigns over the prisoners organi6ers the %ailers into a se!ret so!iety plans the assassination of the ,6ar and is again #rought up for trial$ 'eath in the dungeon of a fortress after t"elve years !onfinement #rings an end to the life of this re#el "ho is the first of the !ontemporary aristo!rats of the revolution$

At this period in the #osom of the revolution everything is really permitted and murder !an #e elevated into a prin!iple$ It "as thought ho"ever "ith the rene"al of +opulism in AUT: that this revolutionary movement sprung from the ethi!al and religious tenden!ies to #e found in the 'e!em#rists and in the so!ialism of Lavrov and Her6en "ould put a !he!- on the evolution to"ard politi!al !yni!ism that (e!haiev had illustrated$ This movement appealed to Fliving souls G prompted them to turn to the people and edu!ate them so that they "ould mar!h for"ard to their o"n li#eration$ FRepentant no#lemenG left their families dressed li-e the poor and "ent into the villages to prea!h to the peasants$ *ut the peasants "ere suspi!ious and held their pea!e$ .hen they did not hold their pea!e they denoun!ed the apostle to the poli!e$ This !he!- to the no#le souls had the result of thro"ing #a!the movement on the !yni!ism of a (e!haiev or at any rate on violen!e$ Insofar as the intelligentsia "as una#le to re!laim the allegian!e of the people it felt itself on!e more alone fa!e to fa!e "ith auto!ra!y4 on!e more the "orld appeared to it in the aspe!t of master and slave$ The group -no"n as the +eoples .ill "as then to elevate individual terrorism into a prin!iple and inaugurate the series of murders "hi!h !ontinued until AB:D "ith the 3o!ialist Revolutionary +arty$ This is the point at "hi!h the terrorists "ere #orn disillusioned "ith love united against the !rimes of their masters #ut alone in their despair and fa!e to fa!e "ith their !ontradi!tions "hi!h they !ould only resolve in the dou#le sa!rifi!e of their inno!en!e and their life$

The &astidious Assassins In the year AUTU Russian terrorism "as #orn$ A very young girl Vera Oassuli!h on the day follo"ing the trial th of one hundred and eightyEthree +opulists the 9C of Lanuary shot do"n =eneral Trepov the =overnor of 3t$ +eters#urg$ At her trial she "as a!7uitted and then su!!eeded in es!aping the poli!e of the ,6ar$ This revolutionary unleashed a "hole series of repressive a!tions and attempted assassinations "hi!h -ept pa!e "ith one another and "hi!h it "as already evident !ould only #e terminated #y mutual e/haustion$ The same year a mem#er of the +eoples .ill +arty Krav!hins-y stated the prin!iples of terror in his pamphlet Death for Death$ ,onse7uen!es al"ays follo" prin!iples$ In style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe attempts "ere made on the lives of the Emperor of =ermany the King of Italy and the King of 3pain$ Again in AUTU Ale/ander II !reated in the shape of the O-hrana the most effi!ient "eapon of 3tate terrorism the "orld has ever seen$ <rom then on the nineteenth !entury a#ounds in murders #oth in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia and in the .est$ In AUTB there is a ne" atta!- on the King of 3pain and an a#ortive attempt on the life of the ,6ar$ In AUUA the ,6ar is murdered #y terrorist mem#ers of the +eoples .ill$ 3ofia +erovs-aia Lelia#ov and their friends are hanged$ In AUUW ta-es pla!e the attempt on the life of the Emperor of =ermany "hose assailant is #eheaded "ith an a/e$ In AUUT there are the e/e!utions of the style12fontEsi6e)

ACpt42,hi!ago martyrs and the !ongress of 3panish anar!hists at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Valen!ia "here they

issue the terrorist pro!lamation) FIf so!iety does not !apitulate vi!e and evil must perish even if "e must all perish "ith them$G In style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e the AUB:s mar- the !ulminatingEpoint of "hat is !alled propaganda #y a!tion$ The e/ploits of Rava!hol Vaillant and Henry are the prelude to ,arnots assassination$ In the year AUB9 alone there are more than a thousand dynamite outrages in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe and in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Ameri!a almost five hundred$ In AUBU the Empress Elisa#eth of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Austria is murdered$ In AB:A the +resident of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Jnited 3tates M!Kinley is assassinated$ In style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia "here the series of attempts against the lives of minor representatives of the regime had not !eased the Organi6ation for ,om#at of the 3o!ialist Revolutionary +arty !omes into #eing in AB:W and unites the most outstanding personalities of Russian terrorism$ The murders of +lehve #y 3a6onov and of the =rand 'u-e 3ergei #y Kaliayev in AB:D mar- the !ulminatingEpoint of the thirty years apostolate of #lood and terminate for revolutionary religion the age of martyrs$ (ihilism intimately involved "ith a frustrated religious movement thus !ulminates in terrorism$ In the universe of total negation these young dis!iples try "ith #om#s and revolvers and also "ith the !ourage "ith "hi!h they "al- to the gallo"s to es!ape from !ontradi!tion and to !reate the values they la!-$ Jntil their time men died for "hat they -ne" or for "hat

they thought they -ne"$ <rom their time on it #e!ame the rather more diffi!ult ha#it to sa!rifi!e oneself for something a#out "hi!h one -ne" nothing e/!ept that it "as ne!essary to die so that it might e/ist$ Jntil then those "ho had to die put themselves in the hand of =od in defian!e of the %usti!e of man$ *ut on reading the de!larations of the !ondemned vi!tims of that period "e are ama6ed to see that all "ithout e/!eption entrusted themselves in defian!e of their %udges to the %usti!e of other men "ho "ere not yet #orn$ These men of the future remained in the a#sen!e of supreme values their last re!ourse$ The future is the only trans!endental value for men "ithout =od$ The terrorists no dou#t "anted first of all to destroy 0 to ma-e a#solutism totter under the sho!- of e/ploding #om#s$ *ut #y their death at any rate they aimed at reE!reating a !ommunity founded on love and %usti!e and thus to resume a mission that the ,hur!h had #etrayed$ The terrorists real mission is to !reate a ,hur!h from "hen!e "ill one day spring the ne" =od$ *ut is that all@ If their voluntary assumption of guilt and death gave rise to nothing #ut the promise of a value still to !ome the history of the "orld today "ould %ustify us in saying for the moment at any rate that they have died in vain and that they never have !eased to #e nihilists$ A value to !ome is moreover a !ontradi!tion in terms sin!e it !an neither e/plain an a!tion nor furnish a prin!iple of !hoi!e as long as it has not #een formulated$ *ut the men of AB:D tortured #y !ontradi!tions really did give #irth #y their very negation and death to a value that "ill hen!eforth #e imperative "hi!h they #rought to light in the #elief that they "ere only announ!ing its advent$ They ostensi#ly

pla!ed a#ove themselves and their e/e!utioners that supreme and painful good "hi!h "e have already found at the origins of re#ellion$ Let us stop and !onsider this value at the moment "hen the spirit of re#ellion en!ounters for the last time in our history the spirit of !ompassion$
FHo" !an "e spea- of terrorist a!tivity "ithout

ta-ing part in it@G e/!laims the student Kaliayev$ His !ompanions united ever sin!e AB:W in the Organi6ation for ,om#at of the 3o!ialist Revolutionary +arty under the dire!tion of A6e and later of *oris 3avin-ov all live up to the standard of this admira#le statement$ They are men of the highest prin!iples) the last in the history of re#ellion to refuse no part of their !ondition or their drama$ If their lives "ere dedi!ated to the terror Fif they had faith in it G as +o-otilov says they never !eased to #e torn asunder #y it$ History offers fe" e/amples of fanati!s "ho have suffered from s!ruples even in a!tion$ *ut the men of AB:D "ere al"ays prey to dou#ts$ The greatest homage "e !an pay them is to say that "e "ould not #e a#le in ABD: to as- them one 7uestion that they themselves had not already as-ed and that in their life or #y their death they had not partially ans"ered$ They 7ui!-ly passed into the realms of history ho"ever$ .hen Kaliayev for e/ample in AB:W de!ided to ta-e part "ith 3avin-ov in terrorist a!tivity he "as t"entyEsi/ years old$ T"o years later the F+oet G as he "as !alled "as hanged$ It "as a short !areer$ *ut to anyone "ho e/amines "ith a little feeling the history of that period Kaliayev in his #reathta-ing !areer displays the most signifi!ant aspe!t of terrorism$ 3a6onov

3!h"eit6er +o-otilov Voinarovs-y and most of the other anar!hists li-e"ise #urst upon the s!ene of Russian history and poised there for a moment dedi!ated to destru!tion as the s"ift and unforgetta#le "itnesses to an in!reasingly agoni6ed protest$ Almost all are atheists) FI remem#er G "rote *oris Voinarovs-y "ho died in thro"ing a #om# at Admiral 'u#assov Fthat even #efore going to high s!hool I prea!hed atheism to one of my !hildhood friends$ Only one 7uestion em#arrassed me$ .here did my ideas !ome from@ <or I had not the least !on!eption of eternity$G Kaliayev himself #elieved in =od$ A fe" moments #efore an attempted assassination "hi!h failed 3avin-ov sa" him in the street standing in front of an i!on holding the #om# in one hand and ma-ing the sign of the !ross "ith the other$ *ut he repudiated religion$ In his !ell #efore his e/e!ution he refused its !onsolations$ The need for se!re!y !ompelled them to live in solitude$ They did not -no" e/!ept perhaps in the a#stra!t the profound %oy e/perien!ed #y the man of a!tion in !ontra!t "ith a large se!tion of humanity$ *ut the #ond that united them repla!ed every other atta!hment in their minds$ F,hivalryHG "rites 3a6onov and !omments on it thus) FOur !hivalry "as permeated "ith su!h a degree of feeling that the "ord brother in no "ay !onveyed "ith suffi!ient !larity the essen!e of our relations "ith one another$G <rom prison 3a6onov "rites to his friends) F<or my part the indispensa#le !ondition of happiness is to -eep forever the -no"ledge of my perfe!t solidarity "ith you$G As for Voinarovs-y he !onfesses that to a "oman he loved "ho "ished to

detain him he made the follo"ing remar- "hi!h he re!ogni6es as Fslightly !omi!G #ut "hi!h a!!ording to him proves his state of mind) FI should !urse you if I arrived late for my !omrades$G This little group of men and "omen lost among the Russian masses #ound only to one another !hose the role of e/e!utioner to "hi!h they "ere in no "ay destined$ They lived in the same parado/ !om#ining in themselves respe!t for human life in general and !ontempt for their o"n lives 0 to the point of nostalgia for the supreme sa!rifi!e$ <or 'ora *rilliant the anar!hist programme "as of no importan!e4 terrorist a!tion "as primarily em#ellished #y the sa!rifi!e it demanded from the terrorist$ F*ut G says 3avin-ov Fterror "eighed on her li-e a !ross$G Kaliayev himself is ready to sa!rifi!e his life at any moment$ FEven #etter than that he passionately desired to ma-e this sa!rifi!e$G 'uring the preparations for the attempt on +lehve he stated his intention of thro"ing himself under the horses hoofs and perishing "ith the Minister$ .ith Voinarovs-y also the desire for sa!rifi!e !oin!ides "ith the attra!tion of death$ After his arrest he "rites to his parents) FHo" many times during my adoles!en!e the idea !ame to me to -ill myselfH$$$G At this same time these e/e!utioners "ho ris-ed their o"n lives so !ompletely made attempts on the lives of others only after the most s!rupulous e/amination of !ons!ien!e$ The first attempt on the =rand 'u-e 3ergei failed #e!ause Kaliayev "ith the full approval of his !omrades refused to -ill the !hildren "ho "ere riding in the =rand 'u-es !arriage$ Of Ra!hel LouriVe another terrorist 3avin-ov "rites)

F3he had faith in terrorist a!tion she !onsidered it an honour and a duty to ta-e part in it #ut #lood upset her no less than it did 'ora$G The same 3avin-ov "as opposed to an attempt on Admiral 'u#assov in the +eters#urgEMos!o" e/press #e!ause Fif there "ere the least mista-e the e/plosion !ould ta-e pla!e in the !ar and -ill strangers$G Later 3avin-ov Fin the name of terrorist !ons!ien!e G "ill deny "ith indignation having made a !hild of si/teen ta-e part in an attempted assassination$ At the moment of es!aping from a ,6arist prison he de!ides to shoot any offi!ers "ho might attempt to prevent his flight #ut to -ill himself rather than turn his revolver on an ordinary soldier$ It is the same "ith Voinarovs-y "ho does not hesitate to -ill men #ut "ho !onfesses that he has never hunted Ffinding the o!!upation #ar#arous G and "ho de!lares in his turn) FIf 'u#assov is a!!ompanied #y his "ife I shall not thro" the #om#$G 3u!h a degree of selfEa#negation a!!ompanied #y su!h profound !onsideration for the lives of others allo"s the supposition that these fastidious assassins lived out the re#el destiny in its most !ontradi!tory form$ It is possi#le to #elieve that they too "hile re!ogni6ing the inevita#ility of violen!e nevertheless admitted to themselves that it is un%ustifia#le$ (e!essary and ine/!usa#le 0 that is ho" murder appeared to them$ Medio!re minds !onfronted "ith this terri#le pro#lem !an ta-e refuge #y ignoring one of the terms of the dilemma$ They are !ontent in the name of formal prin!iples to find all dire!t violen!e ine/!usa#le and then to san!tion that diffuse form of violen!e "hi!h ta-es pla!e on the s!ale of "orld history$ Or they "ill

!onsole themselves in the name of history "ith the thought that violen!e is ne!essary and "ill add murder to murder to the point of ma-ing of history nothing #ut a !ontinuous violation of everything in man "hi!h protests against in%usti!e$ This defines the t"o aspe!ts of !ontemporary nihilism the #ourgeois and the revolutionary$ *ut the e/tremists "ith "hom "e are !on!erned forgot nothing$ <rom their earliest days they "ere in!apa#le of %ustifying "hat they nevertheless found ne!essary and !on!eived the idea of offering themselves as a %ustifi!ation and of replying #y personal sa!rifi!es to the 7uestion they as-ed themselves$ <or them as for all re#els #efore them murder is identified "ith sui!ide$ A life is paid for #y another life and from these t"o sa!rifi!es springs the promise of a value$ Kaliayev Voinarovs-y and the others #elieve in the e7ual value of human lives$ Therefore they do not value any idea a#ove human life though they -ill for the sa-e of ideas$ To #e pre!ise they live on the plane of their idea$ They %ustify it finally #y in!arnating it to the point of death$ .e are again !onfronted "ith a !on!ept of re#ellion "hi!h if not religious is at least metaphysi!al$ Other men to !ome !onsumed "ith the same devouring faith as these "ill find their methods sentimental and refuse to admit that any one life is the e7uivalent of any other$ They "ill then put an a#stra!t idea a#ove human life even if they !all it history to "hi!h they themselves have su#mitted in advan!e and to "hi!h they "ill also de!ide 7uite ar#itrarily to su#mit everyone else$ The pro#lem of re#ellion "ill no longer #e resolved #y arithmeti! #ut #y estimating pro#a#ilities$ ,onfronted

"ith the possi#ility that the idea may #e reali6ed in the future human life !an #e everything or nothing$ The greater the faith that the estimator pla!es in this final reali6ation the less the value of human life$ At the ultimate limit it is no longer "orth anything at all$ .e shall have o!!asion to e/amine this limit 0 that is the period of 3tate terrorism and of the philosophi!al e/e!utioners$ *ut mean"hile the re#els of AB:D at the frontier on "hi!h they stand united tea!h us to the sound of e/ploding #om#s that re#ellion !annot lead "ithout !easing to #e re#ellion to !onsolation and to the !omforts of dogma$ Their only evident vi!tory is to triumph at least over solitude and negation$ In the midst of a "orld "hi!h they deny and "hi!h re%e!ts them they try man after man li-e all the greatEhearted ones to re!onstru!t a #rotherhood of man$ The love their #ear for one another "hi!h #rings them happiness even in the desert of a prison "hi!h e/tends to the great mass of their enslaved and silent fello" men gives the measure of their distress and of their hopes$ To serve this love they must first -ill4 to inaugurate the reign of inno!en!e they must a!!ept a !ertain !ulpa#ility$ This !ontradi!tion "ill #e resolved for them only at the very last moment$ 3olitude and !hivalry renun!iation and hope "ill only #e surmounted #y the "illing a!!eptan!e of death$ Already Lelia#ov "ho organi6ed the attempt on Ale/ander II in AUUA and "as arrested fortyEeight hours #efore the murder had as-ed to #e e/e!uted at the same time as the real perpetrator of the attempt$ FOnly the !o"ardi!e of the government G he said F!ould a!!ount for the ere!tion of one gallo"s instead of t"o$G <ive "ere ere!ted one of "hi!h "as for the "oman he

loved$ *ut Lelia#ov died smiling "hile Ryssa-ov "ho had #ro-en do"n during his interrogations "as dragged to the s!affold halfEmad "ith fear$ Lelia#ov did this #e!ause of a sort of guilt "hi!h he did not "ant to a!!ept and from "hi!h he -ne" he "ould suffer li-e Ryssa-ov if he remained alone after having !ommitted or #een the !ause of a murder$ At the foot of the gallo"s 3ofia +erovs-aia -issed the man she loved and her t"o other friends #ut turned a"ay from Ryssa-ov "ho died solitary and damned #y the ne" religion$ <or Lelia#ov death in the midst of his !omrades !oin!ided "ith his %ustifi!ation$ He "ho -ills is guilty only if he !onsents to go on living or if to remain alive he #etrays his !omrades$ To die on the other hand !an!els out #oth the guilt and the !rime itself$ Thus ,harlotte ,orday shouts at <ou7uierE Tinville) FOh the monster he ta-es me for an assassinHG It is the agoni6ing and fugitive dis!overy of a human value that stands half"ay #et"een inno!en!e and guilt #et"een reason and irrationality #et"een history and eternity$ At the moment of this dis!overy #ut only then these desperate people e/perien!e a strange feeling of pea!e the pea!e of definitive vi!tory$ In his !ell +olivanov says that it "ould have #een Feasy and s"eetG for him to die$ Voinarovs-y "rites that he has !on7uered the fear of death$ F.ithout a single mus!le in my fa!e t"it!hing "ithout saying a "ord I shall !lim# on the s!affoldI$ And this "ill not #e an a!t of violen!e perpetrated on myself it "ill #e the perfe!tly natural result of all that I have lived through$G Very mu!h later Lieutenant 3!hmidt "ill "rite #efore #eing shot) FMy death "ill !onsummate everything and my

!ause !ro"ned #y my death "ill emerge irreproa!ha#le and perfe!t$G Kaliayev !ondemned to the gallo"s after having stood as prose!utor #efore the tri#unal de!lares firmly) FI !onsider my death as a supreme protest against a "orld of #lood and tears G and again "rites) F<rom the moment "hen I found myself #ehind #ars I never for one moment "anted to stay alive in any "ay "hatsoever$G His "ish is granted$ On May A: at style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42t"o o!lo!- in the morning he "al-s to"ard the only %ustifi!ation he re!ogni6es$ Entirely dressed in #la!- "ithout an over!oat and "earing a felt hat he !lim#s the s!affold$ To <ather <lorins-y "ho offers him the !ru!ifi/ the !ondemned man turning from the figure of ,hrist only ans"ers) FI have already told you that I have finished "ith life and that I am prepared for death$G 5es the an!ient value lives on!e more at the !ulmination of nihilism at the very foot of the gallo"s$ It is the refle!tion histori! on this o!!asion of the F"e areG "hi!h "e found at the termination of our analysis of the re#el mind$ It is privation and at the same time enlightened !onvi!tion$ It is this that shone "ith su!h mortal radian!e on the agoni6ed !ountenan!e of 'ora *rilliant at the thought of him "ho died for himself and for tireless friendship4 it is this that drives 3a6onov to sui!ide in prison as a protest and Fto earn respe!t for his !omradesG4 and this again "hi!h e/onerates even (e!haiev on the day "hen he is as-ed to denoun!e his !omrades #y a general "hom he -no!-s to the ground "ith a single #lo"$ *y means of this the terrorists "hile simultaneously affirming the "orld of men pla!es themselves a#ove this "orld thus demonstrating for the

last time in our history that real re#ellion is a !reator of values$ Than-s to them AB:D mar-s the highest pea- of revolutionary momentum$ *ut from then on a de!line sets in$ Martyrs do not #uild ,hur!hes4 they are the mortar or the ali#i$ Then !ome the priests and the #igots$ The revolutionaries "ho follo" "ill not demand an e/!hange of lives$ They a!!ept the ris- of death #ut "ill also agree to preserve themselves as far as they !an for the sa-e of serving the revolution$ Thus they "ill a!!ept !omplete !ulpa#ility for themselves$ A!7uies!en!e in humiliation 0 that is the true !hara!teristi! of t"entiethE!entury revolutionaries "ho pla!e the revolution and the ,hur!h of man a#ove themselves$ Kaliayev proves on the !ontrary that though the revolution is a ne!essary means it is not a suffi!ient end$ In this "ay he elevates man instead of degrading him$ It is Kaliayev and his Russian and =erman !omrades "ho in the history of the "orld really oppose Hegel 8T"o different spe!ies of men$ One -ills only on!e and pays "ith his life$ The other %ustifies thousands of !rimes and !onsents to #e re"arded "ith honours$; "ho first re!ogni6es universal re!ognition as ne!essary and then as insuffi!ient$ Appearan!es did not suffi!e for him$ .hen the "hole "orld "ould have #een "illing to re!ogni6e him a dou#t "ould still have remained in Kaliayevs mind) he needed his o"n form of a!7uies!en!e and the appro#ation of the "hole "orld "ould not have suffi!ed to silen!e the dou#t that a hundred enthusiasti! a!!lamations give rise to in the mind of any honest man$ Kaliayev dou#ted to the end #ut this dou#t did

not prevent him from a!ting4 it is for that reason that he is the purest image of re#ellion$ He "ho a!!epts death to pay for a life "ith a life no matter "hat his negations may #e affirms #y doing so a value that surpasses him in his aspe!ts of an individual in the histori!al sense$ Kaliayev dedi!ates himself to history until death and at the moment of dying pla!es himself a#ove history$ In a !ertain "ay it is true he prefers himself to history$ *ut "hat should his preferen!e #e@ Himself "hom he -ills "ithout hesitation or the value he in!arnates and ma-es immortal@ The ans"er is not diffi!ult to guess$ Kaliayev and his !omrades triumphed over nihilism$

The "ath of $higalev *ut this triumph is to #e shortElived) it !oin!ides "ith death$ (ihilism provisionally survives its vi!tors$ In the very #osom of the 3o!ialist Revolutionary +arty politi!al !yni!ism !ontinues to "end its "ay to vi!tory$ The party leader "ho sends Kaliayev to his death A6ev plays a dou#le game and denoun!es the revolutionaries to the O-hrana "hile planning the deaths of ministers and grand du-es$ The !on!ept of provo!ation reinstates the FEverything is permitted G and again identifies history and a#solute values$ This parti!ular form of nihilism after having influen!ed individualisti! so!ialism goes on to !ontaminate soE!alled s!ientifi! so!ialism "hi!h appears in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia during the AUU:s$ 8The first 3o!ial 'emo!rati! ground +le-hanovs #egan in AUUW$; The %oint lega!y of

(e!haiev and Mar/ "ill give #irth to the totalitarian revolution of the t"entieth !entury$ .hile individual terrorism hunted do"n the last representatives of divine right 3tate terrorism "as getting ready to destroy divine right definitively at the very root of human so!iety$ The te!hni7ue of the sei6ure of po"er for the reali6ation of ultimate ends ta-es the first step to"ard the e/emplary affirmation of these ends$ Lenin in fa!t #orro"s from T-a!hev a friend and spiritual #rother of (e!haiev a !on!ept of the sei6ure of po"er that he found Fma%esti!G and that he himself re!apitulated thus) Fa#solute se!re!y meti!ulous !are in the !hoi!e of mem#ers !reation of professional revolutionaries$G T-a!hev "ho died insane ma-es the transition from nihilism to military so!ialism$ He !laimed to have !reated a Russian La!o#inism and yet only #orro"ed from the La!o#ins their te!hni7ue of a!tion sin!e he too denied every prin!iple and every virtue$ An enemy of art and ethi!s he re!on!iles the rational and the irrational only in ta!ti!s$ His aim is to a!hieve human e7uality #y sei6ure of po"er of the 3tate$ 3e!ret organi6ations revolutionary allian!es di!tatorial po"ers of revolutionary leaders 0 these "ere the themes that defined the !on!ept if not the reali6ation of Fthe apparatusG "hi!h "as to en%oy so great and effi!a!ious a su!!ess$ As for the method itself it is possi#le to form a fair idea of it "hen one learns that T-a!hev proposes to suppress and eliminate all Russians over the age of t"entyEfive as in!apa#le of assimilating the ne" ideas$ A really inspired method and one that "as to prevail in the te!hni7ues of the modern superE3tate "here the fanati!al edu!ation of

!hildren is !arried on in the midst of a terrori6ed adult population$ ,Rsarian so!ialism undou#tedly !ondemns individual terrorism to the e/tent that it revives values in!ompati#le "ith the domination of histori! reason$ *ut it "ill restore terror on the level of the 3tate 0 "ith the !reation of an ultimately deified humanity as its sole %ustifi!ation$ .e have !ome full !ir!le here and re#ellion !ut off from its real roots unfaithful to man in having surrendered to history no" !ontemplates the su#%e!tion of the entire universe$ It is at this point that the era of ,higalevism #egins 0 pro!laimed in The "ossessed #y Ver-hovens-y the nihilist "ho !laims the right to !hoose dishonour$ His is an unhappy and impla!a#le mind 8FHe represented himself as man after his fashion and then he gave up the idea$G; and he !hooses the "ill to po"er "hi!h in fa!t alone is !apa#le of reigning over a history that has no other signifi!an!e #ut itself$ ,higalev the philanthropist is his guarantor4 love of man-ind "ill hen!eforth %ustify the enslavement of man$ +ossessed #y the idea of e7uality 8F3lander and assassination in e/treme !ases #ut espe!ially e7uality$G; ,higalev after long !onsideration arrived at the despairing !on!lusion that only one system is possi#le even though it is a system of despair$ F*eginning "ith the premise of unlimited freedom I arrive at unlimited despotism$G ,omplete freedom "hi!h is the negation of everything !an only e/ist and %ustify itself #y the !reation of ne" values identified "ith the entire human ra!e$ If the !reation of these values is postponed humanity "ill tear itself to pie!es$ The shortest route to these ne" standards passes #y "ay of total di!tatorship$

FOne tenth of humanity "ill have the right to individuality and "ill e/er!ise unlimited authority over the other nine tenths$ The latter "ill lose their individuality and "ill #e!ome li-e a flo!- of sheep4 !ompelled to passive o#edien!e they "ill #e led #a!- to original inno!en!e and so to spea- to the primitive paradise "here nevertheless they must "or-$G It is the government #y philosophers of "hi!h the Jtopians dream4 philosophers of this type 7uite simply #elieve in nothing$ The -ingdom has !ome #ut it negates real re#ellion and is only !on!erned "ith the reign of Fthe ,hrists of violen!e G to use the e/pression of an enthusiasti! "riter e/tolling the life and death of Rava!hol$ FThe pope on high G says Ver-hovens-y #itterly F"ith us around him and #eneath us ,higalevism$G The totalitarian theo!rats of the t"entieth !entury and 3tate terrorism are thus announ!ed$ The ne" aristo!ra!y and the grand in7uisitors reign today #y ma-ing use of the re#ellion of the oppressed over one part of our history$ Their reign is !ruel #ut they e/!use their !ruelty li-e the 3atan of the romanti!s #y !laiming that it is hard for them to #ear$ F.e reserve desire and suffering for ourselves4 for the slaves there is ,higalevism$G A ne" and some"hat hideous ra!e of martyrs is no" #orn$ Their martyrdom !onsists in !onsenting to infli!t suffering on others4 they #e!ome the slaves of their o"n domination$ <or man to #e!ome god the vi!tim must a#use himself to the point of #e!oming the e/e!utioner$ That is "hy #oth vi!tim and e/e!utioner are e7ually despairing$ (either slavery nor po"er "ill any longer !oin!ide "ith happiness4 the

masters "ill #e morose and the slaves sullen$ 3aintELust "as right) it is a terri#le thing to torment the people$ *ut ho" !an one avoid tormenting men if one has de!ided to ma-e them gods@ Lust as Kirilov "ho -ills himself in order to #e!ome =od a!!epts seeing his sui!ide made use of #y Ver-hovens-ys F!onspira!y G so mans deifi!ation #y man #rea-s the #ounds "hi!h re#ellion nevertheless reveals and there#y irrevo!a#ly !ommits itself to the la#yrinth of ta!ti!s and terror from "hi!h history has not yet emerged$

#tate Terrorism and 4rrational Terror %

All modern revolutions have ended in a reinfor!ement of the po"er of the 3tate$ ATUB #rings (apoleon4 AUCU (apoleon III4 ABAT 3talin4 the Italian distur#an!es of the t"enties Mussolini4 the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42.eimar style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Repu#li! Hitler$ These revolutions parti!ularly after the <irst .orld .ar had li7uidated the vestiges of divine right still proposed "ith in!reasing auda!ity to #uild the !ity of humanity and of authenti! freedom$ The gro"ing omnipoten!e of the 3tate san!tioned this am#ition on ea!h

o!!asion$ It "ould #e erroneous to say that this "as #ound to happen$ *ut it is possi#le to e/amine ho" it did happen4 and perhaps the lesson "ill follo"$ Apart from a fe" e/planations that are not the su#%e!t of this essay the strange and terrifying gro"th of the modern 3tate !an #e !onsidered as the logi!al !on!lusion of inordinate te!hni!al and philosophi!al am#itions foreign to the true spirit of re#ellion #ut "hi!h nevertheless gave #irth to the revolutionary spirit of our time$ The propheti! dream of Mar/ and the overE inspired predi!tions of Hegel or of (iet6s!he ended #y !on%uring up after the !ity of =od had #een ra6ed to the ground a rational or irrational 3tate "hi!h in #oth !ases ho"ever "as founded on terror$ In a!tual fa!t the <as!ist revolutions of the t"entieth !entury do not merit the title of revolution$ They la!-ed the am#ition of universality$ Mussolini and Hitler of !ourse tried to #uild an empire and the (ational 3o!ialist ideologists "ere #ent e/pli!itly on "orld domination$ *ut the differen!e #et"een them and the !lassi! revolutionary movement is that of the nihilist inheritan!e they !hose to deify the irrational and the irrational alone instead of deifying reason$ In this "ay they renoun!ed their !laim to universality$ And yet Mussolini ma-es use of Hegel and Hitler of (iet6s!he4 and #oth illustrate histori!ally some of the prophe!ies of =erman ideology$ In this respe!t they #elong to the history of re#ellion and of nihilism$ They "ere the first to !onstru!t a 3tate on the !on!ept that everything is meaningless and that history is only "ritten in terms of

the ha6ards of for!e$ The !onse7uen!es "ere not long in appearing$ As early as ABAC Mussolini pro!laimed the Fholy religion of anar!hy G and de!lares himself the enemy of every form of ,hristianity$ As for Hitler his professed religion unhesitatingly %u/taposed the =odE+roviden!e and style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Valhalla$ A!tually his god "as a politi!al argument and a manner of rea!hing an impressive !lima/ at the end of his spee!hes$ As long as he "as su!!essful he !hose to #elieve that he "as inspired$ In the hour of defeat he !onsidered himself #etrayed #y his people$ *et"een the t"o nothing intervened to announ!e to the "orld that he "ould ever have #een !apa#le of thin-ing himself guilty in relation to any prin!iple$ The only man of superior !ulture "ho gave (a6ism an appearan!e of #eing a philosophy Ernst Lunger even "ent so far as to !hoose the a!tual formulas of nihilism) FThe #est ans"er to the #etrayal of life #y the spirit is the #etrayal of the spirit #y the spirit and one of the great and !ruel pleasures of our times is to parti!ipate in the "or- of destru!tion$G Men of a!tion "hen they are "ithout faith have never #elieved in anything #ut a!tion$ Hitlers untena#le parado/ lay pre!isely in "anting to found a sta#le order on perpetual !hange and no negation$ Raus!hning in his /evolution of ihilism "as right in saying that the Hitlerian revolution represented unadulterated dynamism$ In style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany sha-en to its foundations #y a !alamitous "ar #y defeat and #y e!onomi! distress values no longer e/isted$ Although one must ta-e into

a!!ount "hat =oethe !alled Fthe =erman destiny of ma-ing everything diffi!ult G the epidemi! of sui!ides that s"ept through the entire !ountry #et"een the t"o "ars indi!ates a great deal a#out the state of mental !onfusion$ To those "ho despair of everything not reason #ut only passion !an provide a faith and in this parti!ular !ase it must #e the same passion that lay at the root of the despair 0 namely humiliation and hatred$ These "as no longer any standard of values #oth !ommon to and superior to all these men in the name of "hi!h it "ould have #een possi#le for them to %udge one another$ The style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany of ABWW thus agreed to adopt the degraded values of a mere handful of men and tried to impose them on an entire !ivili6ation$ 'eprived of the morality of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=oethe style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany !hose and su#mitted to the ethi!s of the gang$ =angster morality is an ine/hausti#le round of triumph and revenge defeat and resentment$ .hen Mussolini e/tolled Fthe elemental for!es of the individual G he announ!ed the e/altation of the darpo"ers of #lood and instin!t the #iologi!al %ustifi!ation of all the "orst things produ!ed #y the instin!t of domination$ At the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42(urem#erg trials <ran- emphasi6ed Fthe hatred of formG "hi!h animated Hitler$ It is true that this man "as nothing #ut an elemental for!e in motion dire!ted and rendered more effe!tive #y !al!ulated !unning and #y a relentless ta!ti!al !lairvoyan!e$ Even his physi!al appearan!e "hi!h "as thoroughly medio!re and !ommonpla!e "as no limitation) it esta#lished him firmly "ith the masses$ A!tion alone -ept him alive$ <or him to e/ist "as to

a!t$ That is "hy Hitler and his regime !ould not dispense "ith enemies$ They !ould only define themselves psy!hopathi! dandies 8It is "ell -no"n that =\ring sometimes entertained dressed as (ero and "ith his fa!e ma-e up$; that they "ere in relation to their enemies and only assume their final form in the #loody #attle that "as to #e their do"nfall$ The Le"s the <reemasons the pluto!rats the AngloE3a/ons the #estial 3lavs su!!eeded one another in their propaganda and their history as a means of propping up ea!h time a little higher the #lind for!e that "as stum#ling headlong to"ard its end$ +erpetual strife demanded perpetual stimulants$ Hitler "as history in its purest form$ FEvolution G said Lunger Fis far more important than living$G Thus he prea!hed !omplete identifi!ation "ith the stream of life on the lo"est level and in defian!e of all superior reality$ A regime "hi!h invented a #iologi!al foreign poli!y "as o#viously a!ting against its o"n #est interests$ *ut at least it o#eyed its o"n parti!ular logi!$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rosen#erg spea-s pompously of life in the follo"ing terms) FLi-e a !olumn on the mar!h and it is of little importan!e to"ard "hat destination and for "hat ends this !olumn is mar!hing$G Though later the !olumn "ill stre" ruins over the pages of history and "ill devastate its o"n !ountry it "ill at least have had the gratifi!ation of living$ The real logi! of this dynamism "as either total defeat or a progress from !on7uest to !on7uest and from enemy to enemy until the eventual esta#lishment of the empire of #lood and a!tion$ It is very unli-ely that Hitler ever had any !on!eption at least at the #eginning of this empire$

(either #y !ulture nor even #y instin!t or ta!ti!al intelligen!e "as he e7ual to his destiny$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany !ollapsed as a result of having engaged in a struggle for empire "ith the !on!epts of provin!ial politi!s$ *ut Lunger had grasped the import of this logi! and had formulated it in definite terms$ He had a vision of Fa te!hnologi!al "orld empire G of "hi!h the faithful and the militants "ould have themselves #een the priests #e!ause >and here Lunger re%oins Mar/? on a!!ount of his human form the "or-er is universal$ FThe statutes of a ne" authoritarian regime ta-es the pla!e of a !hange in the so!ial !ontra!t$ The "or-er is removed from the sphere of negotiation from pity and from literature and elevated to the sphere of a!tion$ Legal o#ligations are transformed into military o#ligations$G It !an #e seen that the empire is simultaneously the fa!tory and the #arra!-s of the "orld "here Hegels solider "or-er reigns as a slave$ Hitler "as halted relatively soon on the "ay to the reali6ation of this empire$ *ut even if he had gone still farther "e should only have "itnessed the more and more e/tensive deployment of an irresisti#le dynamism and the in!reasingly violent enfor!ement of !yni!al prin!iples "hi!h alone "ould #e !apa#le of serving this dynamism$ 3pea-ing of su!h a revolution Raus!hning says that it has nothing to do "ith li#eration %usti!e and inspiration) it is Fthe death of freedom the triumph of violen!e and the enslavement of the mind$G <as!ism is an a!t of !ontempt in fa!t$ Inversely every form of !ontempt if it intervenes in politi!s prepares the "ay for or esta#lishes <as!ism$ It must #e added that <as!ism !annot #e anything else #ut an e/pression of

!ontempt "ithout denying itself$ Lunger dre" the !on!lusion from his o"n prin!iples that it "as #etter to #e !riminal than #ourgeois$ Hitler "ho "as endo"ed "ith less literary talent #ut on this o!!asion "ith more !oheren!e -ne" that to #e either one or the other "as a matter of !omplete indifferen!e from the moment that one !eased to #elieve in anything #ut su!!ess$ Thus he authori6ed himself to #e #oth at the same time$ F<a!t is all G said Mussolini$ And Hitler added) F.hen the ra!e is in danger of #eing oppressed I the 7uestion of legality plays only a se!ondary role$G Moreover in that the ra!e must al"ays #e mena!ed in order to e/ist there is never any legality$ FI am ready to sign anything to agree to anythingI$ As far as I am !on!erned I am !apa#le in !omplete good faith of signing treaties today and of dispassionately tearing them up tomorro" if the future of the =erman people is at sta-e$G *efore he de!lared "ar moreover Hitler made the statement to his generals that no one "as going to as- the vi!tor if he had told the truth or not$ The leitmotiv of =\rings defen!e at the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42(urem#erg trials returned time and again to this theme) FThe vi!tor "ill al"ays #e the %udge and the van7uished "ill al"ays #e the a!!used$G That is a point that !an !ertainly #e argued$ *ut then it is hard to understand style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rosen#erg "hen he said during the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42(urem#erg trials that he had not foreseen that the (a6i myth "ould lead to murder$ .hen the English prose!uting attorney o#serves that Ffrom 'ein 9ampf the road led straight to the gas !ham#ers of Maidene- G he tou!hes on the real su#%e!t of the trial that of the histori! responsi#ilities of .estern nihilism and the only one "hi!h nevertheless "as not really dis!ussed at

style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42(urem#erg for reasons only too

evident$ A trial !annot #e !ondu!ted #y announ!ing the general !ulpa#ility of a !ivili6ation$ Only the a!tual deeds "hi!h at least stan- in the nostrils of the entire "orld "ere #rought to %udgement$ Hitler in any !ase invented the perpetual motion of !on7uest "ithout "hi!h he "ould have #een nothing at all$ *ut the perpetual enemy is perpetual terror this time on the level of the 3tate$ The 3tate is identified "ith the FapparatusG4 that is to say "ith the sum total of me!hanisms of !on7uest and repression$ ,on7uest dire!ted to"ard the interior of the !ountry is !alled repression or propaganda >Fthe first step on the road to hell G a!!ording to <ran-$? 'ire!ted to"ard the e/terior it !reates the army$ All pro#lems are thus militari6ed and posed in terms of po"er and effi!ien!y$ The supreme !ommander determines poli!y and also deals "ith all the main pro#lems of administration$ This prin!iple a/iomati! as far as strategy is !on!erned is applied to !ivil life in general$ One leader one people signifies one master and millions of slaves$ The politi!al intermediaries "ho are in all so!ieties the guarantors of freedom disappear to ma-e "ay for a #ooted and spurred Lehovah "ho rules over the silent masses or "hi!h !omes to the same thing over masses "ho shout slogans at the top of their lungs$ There is no organ of !on!iliation or mediation interposed #et"een the leader and the people nothing in fa!t #ut the apparatus 0 in other "ords the party 0 "hi!h is the emanation of the leader and the tool of his "ill to oppress$ In this "ay the first and sole prin!iple of this degraded form of mysti!ism is #orn the &;hrerprin3ip

"hi!h restores idolatry and a de#ased deity to the "orld of nihilism$ Mussolini the Latin la"yer !ontented himself "ith reasons of 3tate "hi!h he transformed "ith a great deal of rhetori! into the a#solute$ F(othing #eyond the 3tate a#ove the 3tate against the 3tate$ Everything to the 3tate for the 3tate in the 3tate$G The =ermany of Hitler gave his false reasoning its real e/pression "hi!h "as that of a religion$ FOur divine mission G says a (a6i ne"spaper during a party !ongress F"as to lead everyone #a!- to his origins #a!- to the !ommon Mother$ It "as truly a divine mission$G These origins are thus to #e found in primitive ho"ls and shrie-s$ .ho is the god in 7uestion@ An offi!ial party de!laration ans"ers that) FAll of us here #elo" #elieve in Adolf Hitler our <]hrer I and 8"e !onfess; that (ational 3o!ialism is the only faith "hi!h !an lead our people to salvation$G The !ommandments of the leader standing in the #urning #ush of spotlights on a 3inai of plan-s and flags therefore !omprise #oth la" and virtue$ If the superhuman mi!rophones give orders only on!e for a !rime to #e !ommitted then the !rime is handed do"n from !hief to su#!hief until it rea!hes the slave "ho re!eives orders "ithout #eing a#le to pass them on to any#ody$ One of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42'a!hau e/e!utioners "eeps in prison and says) FI only o#eyed orders$ The <]hrer and the Rei!hsf]hrer alone planned all this and then they ran a"ay$ =lue!-s re!eived orders from Kalten#runner and finally I re!eived orders to !arry out the shootings$ I have #een left holding the #ag #e!ause I "as only a little Hauptsharf;hrer and #e!ause I !ouldnt hand it on any

lo"er do"n the line$ (o" they say that I am the assassin$G =\ring during the trial pro!laimed his loyalty to the <]hrer and said that Fthere "as still a !ode of honour in that a!!ursed life$G Honour lay in o#edien!e "hi!h "as often !onfused "ith !rime$ Military la" punishes diso#edien!e #y death and its honour is servitude$ .hen all the "orld has #e!ome military then !rime !onsists in not -illing if orders insist on it$ Orders unfortunately seldom insist on good deeds$ +ure do!trinal dynamism !annot #e dire!ted to"ard good #ut only to"ard effi!a!y$ As long as enemies e/ist terror "ill e/ist4 and there "ill #e enemies as long as dynamism e/ists to ensure that) FAll the influen!es lia#le to undermine the sovereignty of the people as e/er!ised #y the <]hrer "ith the assistan!e of the party I must #e eliminated$G Enemies are hereti!s and must #e !onverted #y prea!hing or propaganda e/terminated #y in7uisition or #y the =estapo$ The result is that man if he is a mem#er of the party is no more than a tool in the hands of the <]hrer a !og in the apparatus or if he is the enemy of the <]hrer a "aste produ!t of the ma!hine$ The impetus to"ard irrationality of this movement #orn of re#ellion no" even goes so far as to propose suppressing all that ma-es man more than a !og in the ma!hine4 in other "ords re#ellion itself$ The romanti! individualism of the =erman revolutions finally satiated in the "orld of inanimate o#%e!ts$ Irrational terror transforms men into o#%e!ts Fplanetary #a!illi G a!!ording to Hitlers formula$ It proposes the destru!tion not only of the individual of refle!tion solidarity and the urge to a#solute love$ +ropaganda and torture are the dire!t means of #ringing a#out

disintegration4 more destru!tive still are systemati! degradation identifi!ation "ith the !yni!al !riminal and for!ed !ompli!ity$ The triumph of the man "ho -ills or tortures is marred #y only one shado") he is una#le to feel that he is inno!ent$ Thus he must !reate guilt in his vi!tim so that in a "orld that has no dire!tion universal guilt "ill authori6e no other !ourse of a!tion than the use of for!e and give its #lessing to nothing #ut su!!ess$ .hen the !on!ept of inno!en!e disappears from the mind of the inno!ent vi!tim himself the value of po"er esta#lishes a definitive rule over a "orld in despair$ That is "hy an un"orthy and !ruel peniten!e reigns over this "orld "here only the stones are inno!ent$ The !ondemned are !ompelled to hang one another$ Even the inno!ent !ry of maternity is stifled as in the !ase of the =ree- mother "ho "as for!ed #y an offi!er to !hoose "hi!h of her three sons "as to #e shot$ This is the final reali6ation of freedom) to po"er to -ill and degrade saves the servile soul from utter emptiness$ The hymn of =erman freedom is sung to the musi! of a prisoners or!hestra in the !amps of death$ The !rimes of the Hitler regime among them the massa!re of the Le"s are "ithout pre!edent in history #e!ause history gives no other e/ample of a do!trine of su!h total destru!tion #eing a#le to sei6e the levers of the !ommand of a !ivili6ed nation$ *ut a#ove all for the first time in history the rulers of a !ountry have used their immense po"er to esta#lish a mystique #eyond the #ounds of any ethi!al !onsiderations$ The first attempt to found a ,hur!h on nihilism "as paid for #y !omplete annihilation$ The destru!tion of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lidi!e demonstrates !learly that the systemati! and

s!ientifi! aspe!t of the (a6i movement really hides an irrational drive that !an only #e interpreted as a drive of despair and arrogan!e$ Jntil then there "ere supposedly only t"o possi#le attitudes for a !on7ueror to"ard a village that "as !onsidered re#ellious$ Either !al!ulated repression and !oldE#looded e/e!ution of hostages or a savage and ne!essarily #rief sa!- #y enraged soldiers$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lidi!e "as destroyed #y #oth methods simultaneously$ It illustrates the ravages of that irrational form of reason "hi!h is the only value that !an #e found in the "hole story$ (ot only "ere all the houses #urned to the ground the hundred and seventyEfour men of the village shot the t"o hundred and three "omen deported and the three hundred !hildren transferred else"here to #e edu!ated in the religion of the <]hrer #ut spe!ial teams spent months at "or- levelling the terrain "ith dynamite destroying the very stones filling in the village pond and finally diverting the !ourse of the river$ After that style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lidi!e "as really nothing more than a mere possi#ility a!!ording to the logi! of the movement$ To ma-e assuran!e dou#ly sure the !emetery "as emptied of its dead "ho might have #een a perpetual reminder that on!e something e/isted in this pla!e$ 8It is stri-ing to note that atro!ities reminis!ent of these e/!esses "ere !ommitted in !olonies >India AUDT4 Algeria ABCD4 et!$? #y European nations that in reality o#eyed the same irrational pre%udi!e of ra!ial superiority$; The nihilist revolution "hi!h is e/pressed histori!ally in the Hitlerian regime thus only aroused an insensate passion for nothingness "hi!h ended #y

turning against itself$ (egation this time at any rate and despite Hegel has not #een !reative$ Hitler presents the e/ample perhaps uni7ue in history of a tyrant "ho left a#solutely nothing to his !redit$ <or himself for his people and for the "orld he "as nothing #ut the epitome of sui!ide and murder$ 3even million Le"s assassinated seven million Europeans deported or -illed ten million "ar vi!tims are perhaps not suffi!ient to allo" history to pass %udgement) history is a!!ustomed to murderers$ *ut the very destru!tion of Hitlers final %ustifi!ation 0 that is the =erman nation 0 hen!eforth ma-es this man "hose presen!e in history for years on end haunted the minds of millions of men into an in!onsistent and !ontempti#le phantom$ 3peers deposition at the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42(urem#erg trials sho"ed that Hitler though he !ould have stopped the "ar #efore the point of total disaster really "anted universal sui!ide and the material and politi!al destru!tion of the =erman nation$ The only value for him remained until the #itter end su!!ess$ 3in!e style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany had lost the "ar she "as !o"ardly and trea!herous and she deserved to die$ FIf the =erman people are in!apa#le of vi!tory they are un"orthy to live$G Hitler therefore de!ided to drag them "ith him to the grave and to ma-e their destru!tion an apotheosis "hen the Russian !annon "ere already splitting apart the "alls of his pala!e in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42*erlin$ Hitler =\ring "ho "anted to see his #ones pla!ed in a mar#le tom# =oe##els Himmler Ley -illed themselves in dugouts or in !ells$ *ut their deaths "ere deaths for nothing4 they "ere li-e a #ad dream a puff of smo-e that vanishes$ (either effi!a!ious nor e/emplary they !onse!rate the

#loodthirsty vanity of nihilism$ FThey thought they "ere free G <ran- !ries hysteri!ally4 Fdidnt they -no"n that no one es!apes from Hitlerism@G They did not -no"4 nor did they -no" that the negation of everything is in itself a form of servitude and that real freedom is an inner su#mission to a value "hi!h defies history and its su!!esses$ *ut the <as!ist mysti!s even though they aimed at gradually dominating the "orld really never had pretensions to a universal empire$ At the very most Hitler astonished at his o"n vi!tories "as diverted from the provin!ial origins of his movement to"ard the indefinite dream of an empire of the =ermans that had nothing to do "ith the universal ,ity$ Russian ,ommunism on the !ontrary #y its very origins openly aspires to "orld empire$ That is its strength its deli#erate signifi!an!e and its importan!e in our history$ 'espite appearan!es the =erman revolution had no hope of a future$ It "as only a primitive impulse "hose ravages have #een greater than its real am#itions$ Russian ,ommunism on the !ontrary has appropriated the metaphysi!al am#ition that this #oodes!ri#es the ere!tion after the death of =od of a !ity of man finally deified$ The name revolution to "hi!h Hitlers adventure had no !laim "as on!e deserved #y Russian ,ommunism and although it apparently deserves it no longer it !laims that one day it "ill deserve it forever$ <or the first time in history a do!trine and a movement #ased on an Empire in arms has as its purpose definitive revolution and the final unifi!ation of the "orld$ It remains for us to e/amine

this pretension in detail$ Hitler at the height of his madness "anted to fi/ the !ourse of history for a thousand years$ He #elieved himself to #e on the point of doing so and the realist philosophers of the !on7uered nations "ere preparing to a!-no"ledge this and to e/!use it "hen the *attle of *ritain and style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423talingrad thre" him #a!- on the path of death and set history on!e more on the mar!h$ *ut as indefatiga#le as history itself the !laim of the human ra!e to divinity is on!e more #rought to life "ith more seriousness more effi!ien!y and more reason under the auspi!es of the rational 3tate as it is to #e found in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia$

#tate Terrorism and /ational Terror %

Mar/ in nineteenthE!entury style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42England in the midst of the terri#le sufferings !aused #y the transition from an agri!ultural e!onomy to an industrial e!onomy had plenty of material for !onstru!ting a stri-ing analysis of primitive !apitalism$ As for 3o!ialism apart from the lessons "hi!h for the most part !ontradi!ted his do!trines that he !ould dra" from the <ren!h Revolution he "as o#liged to spea- in

the future tense and in the a#stra!t$ Thus it is not astonishing that he !ould #lend in his do!trine the most valid !riti!al method "ith a Jtopian Messianism of highly du#ious value$ The unfortunate thing is that his !riti!al method "hi!h #y definition should have #een ad%usted to reality has found itself further and further separated from fa!ts to the e/a!t e/tent that it "anted to remain faithful to the prophe!y$ It "as thought and this is already an indi!ation of the future that "hat "as !on!eded to truth !ould #e ta-en for Messianism$ This !ontradi!tion is per!epti#le in Mar/s lifetime$ The do!trine of the $ommunist 'anifesto is no longer stri!tly !orre!t t"enty years later "hen Das 9apital appears$ Das 9apital nevertheless remained in!omplete #e!ause Mar/ "as influen!ed at the end of his life #y a ne" and prodigious mass of so!ial and e!onomi! fa!ts to "hi!h the system had to #e adapted ane"$ These fa!ts !on!erned in parti!ular style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia "hi!h he had spurned until then$ .e no" -no" that the Mar/EEngels Institute in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mos!o" !eased in ABWD the pu#li!ation of the !omplete "or-s of Mar/ "hile more than thirty volumes still remained unpu#lished4 dou#tless the !ontent of these volumes "as not FMar/istG enough$ 3in!e Mar/s death in any !ase only a minority of dis!iples have remained faithful to his method$ The Mar/ists "ho have made history have on the !ontrary

appropriated the prophe!y and the apo!alypti! aspe!ts of his do!trine in order to reali6e a Mar/ist revolution in the e/a!t !ir!umstan!es under "hi!h Mar/ had foreseen that a revolution !ould not ta-e pla!e$ It !an #e said of Mar/ that the greater part of his predi!tions #egan to #e!ome an o#%e!t of in!reasing faith$ The reason is simple) the predi!tions "ere shortEterm and !ould #e !ontrolled$ +rophe!y fun!tions on a very longEterm #asis and has as one of its properties a !hara!teristi! that is the very sour!e of strength of all religions) the impossi#ility of proof$ .hen the predi!tions failed to !ome true the prophe!ies remained the only hope4 "ith the result that they alone rule over our history$ Mar/ism and its su!!essors "ill #e e/amined here from the angle of prophe!y$

The Bourgeois "rophecy Mar/ is simultaneously a #ourgeois and a revolutionary prophet$ The latter is #etter -no"n than the former$ *ut the former e/plains many things in the !areer of the latter$ A Messianism of ,hristian and #ourgeois origin "hi!h "as #oth histori!al and s!ientifi! influen!ed his revolutionary Messianism "hi!h sprang from =erman ideology and the <ren!h re#ellions$ In !ontrast to the an!ient "orld the unity of the ,hristian and Mar/ist "orld is astonishing$ The t"o do!trines have in !ommon a vision of the "orld "hi!h !ompletely separates them from the =ree- attitude$

Laspers defines this very "ell) FIt is a ,hristian "ay of thin-ing to !onsider that the history of man is stri!tly uni7ue$G The ,hristians "ere the first to !onsider human life and the !ourse of events as a history that is unfolding from a fi/ed #eginning to"ard a definite end in the !ourse of "hi!h man a!hieves his salvation or earns his punishment$ The philosophy of history springs from a ,hristian representation "hi!h is surprising to a =ree- mind$ The =ree- idea of evolution has nothing in !ommon "ith our idea of histori!al evolution$ The differen!e #et"een the t"o is the differen!e #et"een a !ir!le and a straight line$ The =ree-s imagined the history of the "orld as !y!li!al$ Aristotle to give a definite e/ample did not #elieve that the time in "hi!h he "as living "as su#se7uent to the Tro%an .ar$ ,hristianity "as o#liged in order to penetrate the Mediterranean "orld to Helleni6e itself and its do!trine then #e!ame more fle/i#le$ *ut its originality lay in introdu!ing into the an!ient "orld t"o ideas that had never #efore #een asso!iated) the idea of history and the idea of punishment$ In its !on!ept of mediation ,hristianity is =ree-$ In its idea of history ,hristianity is Ludai! and "ill #e found again in =erman ideology$ It is easier to understand this dissimilarity #y understanding the hostility of histori!al methods of thought to"ard nature "hi!h they !onsidered as an o#%e!t not for !ontemplation #ut for transformation$ <or the ,hristian as for the Mar/ist nature must #e su#dued$ The =ree-s are of the opinion that it is #etter to o#ey it$ The love of the an!ients for the !osmos "as !ompletely un-no"n to the first ,hristians "ho moreover a"aited "ith impatien!e an imminent end of

the "orld$ Hellenism in asso!iation "ith ,hristianity then produ!es the admira#le efflores!en!e of the Al#igensian heresy on the one hand and on the other 3aint <ran!is$ *ut "ith the In7uisition and the destru!tion of the Al#igensian heresy the ,hur!h again parts !ompany "ith the "orld and "ith #eauty and gives #a!- to history its preEeminen!e over nature$ Laspers is again right in saying) FIt is the ,hristian attitude that gradually empties the "orld of its su#stan!e I sin!e the su#stan!e resided in a !onglomeration of sym#ols$G These sym#ols are those of the drama of the divinity "hi!h unfolds throughout time$ (ature is only the setting for this drama$ The deli!ate e7uili#rium #et"een humanity and nature mans !onsent to the "orld "hi!h gives an!ient thought it distin!tion and its refulgen!e "as first shattered for the #enefit of history #y ,hristianity$ The entry into this history of the (ordi! peoples "ho have no tradition of friendship "ith the "orld pre!ipitated this trend$ <rom the moment that the divinity of ,hrist is denied or that than-s to the efforts of =erman ideology He only sym#oli6es the manEgod the !on!ept of mediation disappears and a Ludai! "orld reappears$ The impla!a#le god of "ar rules again4 all #eauty if insulated as the sour!e of idle pleasures nature itself is enslaved$ Mar/ from this point of vie" is the Leremiah of the god of history and the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423aint Augustine of the revolution$ That this e/plains the really revolutionary aspe!ts of his do!trine !an #e demonstrated #y a simple !omparison "ith his one !ontemporary "ho "as an intelligent theorist of rea!tion$

Loseph de Maistre refutes La!o#inism and ,alvinism t"o do!trines "hi!h summed up for him Feverything #ad that has #een thought for three !enturies G in the name of a ,hristian philosophy of history$ To !ounter s!hisms and heresies he "anted to reE!reate Fthe ro#e "ithout a seamG of a really !atholi! ,hur!h$ His aim 0 and this !an #e seen at the period of his Masoni! adventures 0 is the universal ,hristian !ity$ Maistre dreams of the protoplasti! Adam or the Jniversal Man of <a#re dOlivet "ho "ill #e the rallyingEpoint of individual souls and of the Adam Kadmon of the !a#alists "ho pre!eded the <all and "ho must no" #e #rought to life again$ .hen the ,hur!h has re!laimed the "orld she "ill endo" this first and last Adam "ith a #ody$ In the #oir,es in #t- "etersburg there is a mass of formulas on this su#%e!t "hi!h #ear a stri-ing resem#lan!e to the Messiani! formulas of Hegel and Mar/$ In #oth the terrestrial and the !elestial style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Lerusalem that Maistre imagines Fall the inha#itants pervaded #y the same spirit "ill pervade one another and "ill refle!t one anothers happiness$G Maistre does not go so far as to deny personal survival after death4 he only dreams of a mysterious unity re!on7uered in "hi!h Fevil having #een annihilated there "ill #e no more passion nor selfEinterest G and "here Fman "ill #e reunited "ith himself "hen his dou#le standard "ill #e o#literated and his t"o !entres unified$G In the !ity of a#solute -no"ledge "here the eyes of the mind and the eyes of the #ody #e!ame as one Hegel also re!on!iled !ontradi!tions$ *ut Maistres vision again !oin!ides "ith that of Mar/ "ho pro!laims Fthe

end of the 7uarrel #et"een essen!e and e/isten!e #et"een freedom and ne!essity$G Evil for Maistre is nothing #ut the destru!tion of unity$ *ut humanity must redis!over its unity on earth and in heaven$ *y "hat means@ Maistre "ho is an ancient regime rea!tionary is less e/pli!it on this point than Mar/$ Mean"hile he "as "aiting for a great religious revolution of "hi!h ATUB "as only the Fappalling prefa!e$G He 7uotes style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423aint Lohn "ho as-s that "e ma5e truth "hi!h is e/a!tly the programme of the modern revolutionary mind and style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423aint +aul "ho announ!es that Fthe last enemy that shall #e destroyed is death$G Humanity mar!hes #y "ay of !rimes violen!e and death to"ard this final !onsummation "hi!h "ill %ustify everything$ The earth for Maistre is nothing #ut Fan immense altar on "hi!h all the living must #e sa!rifi!ed "ithout end "ithout limit "ithout respite until the end of time until the e/tin!tion of evil until the death of death$G His fatalism ho"ever is a!tive as "ell as passive$ FMan must a!t as if he "ere !apa#le of all things and resign himself as if he "ere !apa#le of nothing$G .e find in Mar/ the same sort of !reative fatalism$ Maistre undou#tedly %ustifies the esta#lished order$ *ut Mar/ %ustifies the order that is esta#lished in his time$ The most elo7uent eulogy of !apitalism "as made #y its greatest enemy$ Mar/ is only antiE!apitalist insofar as !apitalism is out of date$ Another order must #e esta#lished "hi!h "ill demand in the name of history a ne" !onformity$ As for the means they are the same for Mar/ as for Maistre) politi!al realism dis!ipline for!e$ .hen Maistre adopts *ossuets #old idea that Fthe hereti! is "ho has personal ideasG 0 in other "ords

ideas that have no referen!e to either a so!ial or a religious tradition 0 he provides the formula for the most an!ient and the most modern of !onformities$ The attorney general pessimisti! !hoirmaster of the e/e!utioner announ!es our diplomati! prose!utors$ It goes "ithout saying that these resem#lan!es do not ma-e Maistre a Mar/ist nor Mar/ a traditional ,hristian$ Mar/ist atheism is a#solute$ *ut nevertheless it does reinstate the supreme #eing on the level of humanity$ F,riti!ism of religion leads to this do!trine that man is for man the supreme #eing$ <rom this angle so!ialism is therefore an enterprise for the deifi!ation of man and has assumed some of the !hara!teristi!s of traditional religions$ 83aint 3imon "ho influen!es Mar/ is moreover influen!ed himself #y Maistre and *onald$; This re!on!iliation in any !ase is instru!tive as !on!erns the ,hristian origins of all types of histori! Messianism even revolutionary Messianism$ The only differen!e lies in a !hange of sym#ols$ .ith Maistre as "ith Mar/ the end of time reali6es Vignys am#itious dream the re!on!iliation of the "olf and the lam# the pro!ession of !riminal and vi!tim to the same altar the reopening or opening of a terrestrial paradise$ <or Mar/ the la"s of history refle!t material reality4 for Maistre they refle!t divine reality$ *ut for the former matter is the su#stan!e4 for the latter the su#stan!e of his god is in!arnate here #elo"$ Eternity separates them at the #eginning #ut the do!trines of history end #y reuniting them in a realisti! !on!lusion$ Maistre hated style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ree!e >it also ir-ed Mar/ "ho found any form of #eauty under the

sun !ompletely alien? of "hi!h he said that it had !orrupted style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe #y #e7ueathing it its spirit of division$ It "ould have #een more appropriate to say that =ree- thought "as the spirit of unity pre!isely #e!ause it !ould not do "ithout intermediaries and #e!ause it "as on the !ontrary 7uite una"are of the histori!al spirit of totality "hi!h "as invented #y ,hristianity and "hi!h !ut off from its religious origins threatens the life of Europe today$ FIs there a fa#le a form of madness a vi!e "hi!h has not a =ree- name a =ree- em#lem or a =ree- mas-@G .e !an ignore the outraged +uritanism$ This passionate denun!iation e/presses the spirit of modernity at varian!e "ith the an!ient "orld and in dire!t !ontinuity "ith authoritarian so!ialism "hi!h is a#out to de!onse!rate ,hristianity and in!orporate it in a ,hur!h #ent on !on7uest$ Mar/s s!ientifi! Messianism is itself of #ourgeois origin$ +rogress the future of s!ien!e the !ult of te!hnology and of produ!tion are #ourgeois myths "hi!h in the nineteenth !entury #e!ame dogma$ .e note that the $ommunist 'anifesto appeared in the same year as Renans &uture of #cience$ This profession of faith "hi!h "ould !ause !onsidera#le !onsternation to a !ontemporary reader nevertheless gives the most a!!urate idea of the almost mysti! hopes aroused in the nineteenth !entury #y the e/pansion of industry and the surprising progress made #y s!ien!e$ This hope is the hope of #ourgeois so!iety itself 0 the final #enefi!iary of te!hni!al progress$

The idea of progress is !ontemporary "ith the age of enlightenment and "ith the #ourgeois revolution$ Of !ourse !ertain sour!es of its inspiration !an #e found in the seventeenth !entury4 the 7uarrel #et"een the An!ients and the Moderns already introdu!ed into European ideology the perfe!tly a#surd !on!eption of an artisti! form of progress$ In a more serious fashion the idea of a s!ien!e that steadily in!reases its !on7uests !an also #e derived from ,artesian philosophy$ *ut Turgot in ATD: is the first person the give a !lear definition of the ne" faith$ His treatise on the progress of the human mind #asi!ally re!apitulates *ossuets universal history$ The idea of progress alone is su#stituted for the divine "ill$ FThe total mass of the human ra!e #y alternating stages of !alm and agitation of good and evil al"ays mar!hes though "ith dragging footsteps to"ard greater and greater perfe!tion$G This optimisti! statement "ill furnish the #asi! ingredient of the rhetori!al o#servations of ,ondor!et the offi!ial theorist of progress "hi!h he lin-ed "ith the progress of the 3tate and of "hi!h he "as also the offi!ial vi!tim in that the enlightened 3tate for!ed him to poison himself$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423orel 8)es 4llusions du progress; "as perfe!tly !orre!t in saying that the philosophy of progress "as e/a!tly the philosophy to suit a so!iety eager to en%oy the material prosperity derived from te!hni!al progress$ .hen "e are assured that tomorro" in the natural order of events "ill #e #etter than today "e !an en%oy ourselves in pea!e$ +rogress parado/i!ally !an #e used to %ustify !onservatism$ A draft dra"n on !onfiden!e in the future it allo"s the master to have a !lear !ons!ien!e$ The slave and those "hose present life is misera#le and "ho !an find no

!onsolation in the heavens are assured that at least the future #elongs to them$ The future is the only -ind of property that the masters "illingly !on!ede to the slaves$ These refle!tions are not as "e !an see out of date$ *ut they are not out of date #e!ause the revolutionary spirit has resumed the am#iguous and !onvenient theme of progress$ Of !ourse it is not the same -ind of progress4 Mar/ !annot pour enough s!orn on #ourgeois rational optimism$ His !on!ept of reason as "e shall see is different$ *ut arduous progress to"ard a future of re!on!iliation nevertheless defines Mar/s thought$ Hegel and Mar/ism destroyed the formal values that lighted for the La!o#ins the straight road of this optimisti! version of history$ In this "ay they preserved the idea of the for"ard mar!h of history "hi!h "as simply !onfounded #y them "ith so!ial progress and de!lared ne!essary$ Thus they !ontinued on the path of nineteenthE!entury #ourgeois thought$ To!7ueville enthusiasti!ally su!!eeded #y +e!7ueur >"ho influen!ed Mar/? had solemnly pro!laimed that) FThe gradual and progressive development of e7uality is #oth the past and the future of the history of man$G To o#tain Mar/ism su#stitute the term level of production for e7uality and imagine that in the final stage of produ!tion a transformation ta-es pla!e and a re!on!iled so!iety is a!hieved$ As for the ne!essity of evolution Auguste ,omte "ith the la" of three stages of man "hi!h he formulates in AU99 gives the most systemati! definition of it$ ,omtes !on!lusions are !uriously li-e those finally a!!epted #y s!ientifi! so!ialism$ 8The last volume of $ours de philosophie positive appeared in the same year

as <euer#a!hs Essence of $hristianity$; +ositivism demonstrates "ith !onsidera#le !larity the reper!ussions of the ideologi!al revolution of the nineteenth !entury of "hi!h Mar/ is one of the representatives and "hi!h !onsisted in relegating to the end of history the =arden of Eden and the Revelation "hi!h tradition had al"ays pla!ed at the #eginning$ The positivist era "hi!h "as #ound to follo" the metaphysi!al era and the theologi!al era "as to mar- the advent of a religion of humanity$ Henri =ouhier gives an e/a!t definition of ,omtes enterprise "hen he says that his !on!ern "as to dis!over a man "ithout any tra!es of =od$ ,omtes primary aim "hi!h "as to su#stitute every"here the relative for the a#solute "as 7ui!-ly transformed #y for!e of !ir!umstan!es into the deifi!ation of the relative and into prea!hing a religion that is #oth universal and "ithout trans!enden!e$ ,omte sa" in the La!o#in !ult of Reason an anti!ipation of positivism and !onsidered himself "ith perfe!t %ustifi!ation as the real su!!essor of the revolutionaries of ATUB$ He !ontinued and enlarged the s!ope of this revolution #y suppressing the trans!enden!e of prin!iples and #y systemati!ally founding the religion of the spe!ies$ His formula) F3et aside =od in the name of religion G meant nothing else #ut this$ Inaugurating a mania that has sin!e en%oyed a great vogue he "anted to #e the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423aint +aul of this ne" religion and repla!e the ,atholi!ism of Rome #y the ,atholi!ism of +aris$ .e -no" that he "anted to see in all the !athedrals Fthe statue of deified humanity on the former altar of =od$G He !al!ulated "ith !onsidera#le a!!ura!y that positivism "ould #e prea!hed in (otreE'ame #efore AUX:$ This !al!ulation "as not so ridi!ulous as it

seems$ (otreE'ame in a state of siege still resists) #ut the religion of humanity "as effe!tively prea!hed to"ard the end of the nineteenth !entury and Mar/ despite the fa!t that he had not read ,omte "as one of its prophets$ Mar/ only understood that a religion "hi!h did not em#ra!e trans!enden!e should properly #e !alled politi!s$ ,omte -ne" it too after all or at least he understood that his religion "as primarily a form of so!ial idolatry and that it implied politi!al realism 8FEverything that develops spontaneously is ne!essarily legitimate for a !ertain time$G; the negation of individual rights and the esta#lishment of despotism$ A so!iety "hose e/perts "ould #e priests t"o thousand #an-ers and te!hni!ians ruling over a Europe of one hundred and t"enty million inha#itants "here private life "ould #e a#solutely identified "ith pu#li! life "here a#solute o#edien!e Fof a!tion of thought and of feelingG "ould #e given to the high priest "ho "ould reign over everything su!h "as ,omtes Jtopia "hi!h announ!es "hat might #e !alled the hori6ontal religions of our times$ It is true that it is Jtopian #e!ause !onvin!ed of the enlightening po"ers of s!ien!e ,omte forgot to provide a poli!e for!e$ Others "ill #e more pra!ti!al4 the religions of humanity "ill #e effe!tively founded on the #lood and suffering of humanity$ <inally if "e add to these o#servations the remarthat Mar/ o"es to the #ourgeois e!onomists the idea "hi!h he !laims e/!lusively as his o"n of the part played #y industrial produ!tion in the development of humanity and that he too- the essentials of his theory of "or-Evalue from Ri!ardo an e!onomist of the #ourgeois industrial revolution our right to say that his prophe!y

is #ourgeois in !ontent "ill dou#tless #e re!ogni6ed$ These !omparisons only aim to sho" that Mar/ instead of #eing as the fanati!al Mar/ists of our day "ould have it the #eginning and the end of the prophe!y 8A!!ording to style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Ohdanov Mar/ism is Fa philosophy that is 7ualitatively different from any previous system$G This means for e/ample either that Mar/ism is not ,artesianism "hi!h no one "ould dream of denying or that Mar/ism o"es essentially nothing to ,artesianism "hi!h is a#surd$; parti!ipates on the !ontrary in human nature) he is an heir #efore he is a pioneer$ His do!trine "hi!h he "anted to #e a realist do!trine a!tually "as realisti! during the period of the religion of s!ien!e of 'ar"inian evolutionism of the steam engine and the te/tile industry$ A hundred years later s!ien!e en!ounters relativity un!ertainty and !han!e4 the e!onomy must ta-e into a!!ount ele!tri!ity metallurgy and atomi! produ!tion$ The ina#ility of pure Mar/ism to assimilate these su!!essive dis!overies "as shared #y the #ourgeois optimism of Mar/s time$ It renders ridi!ulous the Mar/ist pretension of maintaining that truths one hundred years old are unaltera#le "ithout !easing to #e s!ientifi!$ (ineteenthE!entury Messianism "hether it is revolutionary or #ourgeois has not restated the su!!essive developments of this s!ien!e and this history "hi!h to different degrees they have deified$

The /evolutionary "rophecy

Mar/s prophe!y is also revolutionary in prin!iple$ In that all human reality has its origins in the fruits of produ!tion histori!al evolution is revolutionary #e!ause the e!onomy is revolutionary$ At ea!h level of produ!tion the e!onomy arouses the antagonisms that destroy to the profit of a superior level of produ!tion the !orresponding so!iety$ ,apitalism is the last of these stages of produ!tion #e!ause it produ!es the !onditions in "hi!h every antagonism "ill #e resolved and "here there "ill #e no more e!onomy$ On that day our history "ill #e!ome preEhistory$ This representation is the same as Hegels #ut in another perspe!tive$ The diale!ti! is !onsidered from the angle of produ!tion and "orinstead of from the angle of the spirit$ Mar/ of !ourse never spo-e himself a#out diale!ti!al materialism$ He left to his heirs the tas- of e/tolling this logi!al monstrosity$ *ut he says at the same time that reality is diale!ti! and that it is e!onomi!$ Reality is a perpetual pro!ess of evolution propelled #y the fertile impa!t of antagonisms "hi!h are resolved ea!h time into a superior synthesis "hi!h itself !reates its opposite and again !auses history to advan!e$ .hat Hegel affirmed !on!erning reality advan!ing to"ard the spirit Mar/ affirms !on!erning e!onomy on the mar!h to"ard the !lassless so!iety4 everything is #oth itself and its opposite and this !ontradi!tion !ompels it to #e!ome something else$ ,apitalism #e!ause it is #ourgeois reveals itself as revolutionary and prepares the "ay for !ommunism$ Mar/s originality lies in affirming that history is simultaneously diale!ti! and e!onomi!$ Hegel more e/treme affirmed that it "as #oth matter and spirit$

Moreover it !ould only #e matter to the e/tent that it "as spirit and vi!e versa$ Mar/ denies the spirit as the definitive su#stan!e and affirms histori!al materialism$ .e !an immediately remar- "ith *erdyaev on the impossi#ility of re!on!iling the diale!ti! "ith materialism$ There !an #e a diale!ti! only of the mind$ *ut even materialism itself is an am#iguous idea$ Only to form this "ord it must #e admitted that there is something more in the "orld than matter alone$ <or even stronger reasons this !riti!ism applies to histori!al materialism$ History is distinguished from nature pre!isely #y the fa!t that it transforms s!ien!e and passion #y means of "ill$ Mar/ then is not a pure materialist for the o#vious reason that there is neither a pure nor an a#solute materialism$ 3o far is it from #eing pure or a#solute that it re!ogni6es that if "eapons !an se!ure the triumph of theory theory !an e7ually "ell give #irth to "eapons$ Mar/s position "ould #e more properly !alled histori!al determinism$ He does not deny thought4 he imagines it a#solutely determined #y e/terior reality$ F<or me the pro!ess of thought is only the refle!tion of the pro!ess of reality transported and transposed to the mind of man$G This parti!ularly !lumsy definition has no meaning$ Ho" and #y "hat means !an an e/terior pro!ess #y Ftransported to the mind G and this diffi!ulty is as nothing !ompared to that of then defining Fthe transpositionG of this pro!ess$ *ut Mar/ used the a##reviated philosophy of his time$ .hat he "ishes to say !an #e defined on other planes$ <or him man is only history and in parti!ular the history of the means of produ!tion$ Mar/ in fa!t remar-s that man differs from animals in that he

produ!es his o"n means of su#sisten!e$ If he does not first eat if he does not !lothe himself or ta-e shelter he does not e/ist$ This primum vivere is his first determination$ The little that he thin-s at this moment is in dire!t relation to these inevita#le ne!essities$ Mar/ then demonstrates that his dependen!e is #oth invaria#le and inevita#le$ FThe history of industry is the open #oo- of mans essential fa!ulties$G His personal generali6ation !onsists in inferring from this affirmation "hi!h is on the "hole a!!epta#le that e!onomi! dependen!e is uni7ue and suffi!es to e/plain everything a !on!ept that still remains to #e demonstrated$ .e !an admit that e!onomi! determination plays a highly important role in the genesis of human thoughts and a!tions "ithout dra"ing the !on!lusion as Mar/ does that the =erman re#ellion against (apoleon is e/plained only #y the la!- of sugar and !offee$ Moreover pure determination is a#surd in itself$ If it "ere not then one single affirmation "ould suffi!e to lead from !onse7uen!e to !onse7uen!e to the entire truth$ If this is not so then either "e have never made a single true affirmation 0 not even the one stated #y determinism 0 or "e simply happen o!!asionally to say the truth #ut "ithout any !onse7uen!es and determinism is then false$ Mar/ had his reasons ho"ever "hi!h are foreign to pure logi! for resorting to so ar#itrary a simplifi!ation$ To put e!onomi! determinism at the root of all human a!tion is to sum man up in terms of his so!ial relations$ There is no su!h thing as a solitary man4 that is the indisputa#le dis!overy of the nineteenth !entury$ An ar#itrary dedu!tion then leads to the statement that

man only feels solitary in so!iety for so!ial reasons$ If in fa!t the solitary mind must #e e/plained #y something outside man then man is on the road to some form of trans!enden!e$ On the other hand so!iety has only man as its sour!e of origin4 if in addition it !an #e affirmed that so!iety is the !reator of man it "ould seem as though one had a!hieved the total e/planation that "ould allo" the final #anishment of trans!enden!e$ Man "ould then #e as Mar/ "anted Fauthor and a!tor of his o"n history$G Mar/s prophe!y is revolutionary #e!ause he !ompletes the movement of negation #egun #y the philosophy of illumination$ The La!o#ins destroyed the trans!enden!e of a personal god #ut repla!ed it #y the trans!enden!e of prin!iples$ Mar/ institutes !ontemporary atheism #y also destroying the trans!enden!e of prin!iples$ <aith is repla!ed in ATUB #y reason$ *ut this reason itself in its fi/ity is trans!endent$ Mar/ destroys even more radi!ally than Hegel the trans!enden!e of reason and hurls it into the stream of history$ Even #efore their time history "as a regulating prin!iple4 no" it is triumphant$ Mar/ goes farther than Hegel and pretends to !onsider him as an idealist >"hi!h he is not at least no more than Mar/ is a materialist? to the pre!ise e/tent that the reign of the mind restores in a !ertain "ay a supraEhistori!al value$ Das 9apital returns to the diale!t of mystery and servitude #ut repla!es a !ons!iousness of self #y e!onomi! autonomy and the final reign of the a#solute 3pirit through the advent of !ommunism$ FAtheism is humanism mediated #y the suppression of religion !ommunism is humanism mediated #y the suppression of private property$G Religious alienation has the same origin as e!onomi! alienation$ Religion !an #e disposed

of only #y a!hieving the a#solute li#erty of man in regard to his material determinations$ The revolution is identified "ith atheism and "ith the reign of man$ That is "hy Mar/ is #rought to the point of putting the emphasis on e!onomi! and so!ial determination$ His most profita#le underta-ing has #een to reveal the reality that is hidden #ehind the formal values of "hi!h the #ourgeois of his time made a great sho"$ His theory of mystifi!ation is still valid #e!ause it is in fa!t universally true and is e7ually appli!a#le to revolutionary mystifi!ations$ The freedom of "hi!h Monsieur Thiers dreamed "as the freedom of privilege !onsolidated #y the poli!e4 the family e/tolled #y the !onservative ne"spapers "as supported #y so!ial !onditions in "hi!h men and "omen "ere sent do"n into the mines halfEna-ed atta!hed to a !ommunal rope4 morality prospered on the prostitution of the "or-ing !lasses$ That the demands of honesty and intelligen!e "ere put to egoisti! ends #y the hypo!risy of a medio!re and grasping so!iety "as a misfortune that Mar/ the in!ompara#le eyeEopener denoun!ed "ith a vehemen!e 7uite un-no"n #efore him$ This indignant denun!iation #rought other e/!esses in its train "hi!h re7uire 7uite another denun!iation$ *ut a#ove all "e must re!ogni6e and state that the denun!iation "as #orn in the #lood of the a#ortive style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Lyon re#ellion of AUWC and in the despi!a#le !ruelty of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Versailles moralists in AUTA$ FThe man "ho has nothing is nothing$G If this affirmation is a!tually false it "as very nearly true in the optimist so!iety of the nineteenth !entury$ The e/treme de!aden!e #rought a#out #y the

e!onomy of prosperity "as to !ompel Mar/ to give first pla!e to so!ial and e!onomi! relationships and to magnify still more his prophe!y of the reign of man$ It is no" easier to understand the purely e!onomi! e/planation of history offered #y Mar/$ If prin!iples are de!eptive only the reality of poverty and "or- is true$ If it is then possi#le to demonstrate that this suffi!es to e/plain the past and the future of man-ind then prin!iples "ill #e destroyed forever and "ith them the so!iety that profits #y them$ This in fa!t is Mar/s am#ition$ Man is #orn into a "orld of produ!tion and so!ial relations$ The une7ual opportunities of different lands the more or less rapid improvements in the means of produ!tion and the struggle for life have rapidly !reated so!ial ine7ualities that have #een !rystalli6ed into antagonisms #et"een produ!tion and distri#ution4 and !onse7uently into !lass struggles$ These struggles and antagonisms are the motive po"er of history$ 3lavery in an!ient times and feudal #ondage "ere stages on a long road that led to the artisanship of the !lassi!al !enturies "hen the produ!er "as master of the means of produ!tion$ At this moment the opening of "orld trade routes and the dis!overy of ne" outlets demanded a less provin!ial form of produ!tion$ The !ontradi!tion #et"een the method of produ!tion and the ne" demands of distri#ution already announ!es the end of the regime of smallEs!ale agri!ultural and industrial produ!tion$ The industrial revolution the invention of steam applian!es and !ompetition for outlets inevita#ly led to the e/propriation of the small proprietor and to the

introdu!tion of largeEs!ale produ!tion$ The means of produ!tion are then !on!entrated in the hands of those "ho are a#le to #uy them4 the real produ!ers the "or-ers no" only dispose of the strength of their arms "hi!h !an #e sold to the Fman "ith the money$G Thus #ourgeois !apitalism is defined #y the separation of the produ!er from the means of produ!tion$ <rom this !onfli!t a series of inevita#le !onse7uen!es are going to spring "hi!h allo" Mar/ to predi!ate the end of so!ial antagonisms$ At first sight there is no reason "hy the firmly esta#lished prin!iple of a diale!ti!al !lass struggle should suddenly !ease to #e true$ It is al"ays true or it has never #een true$ Mar/ says plainly that there "ill #e no more !lasses after the revolution than there "ere Estates after ATUB$ *ut Estates disappeared "ithout !lasses disappearing and there is nothing to prove that !lasses "ill not give "ay to some other form of so!ial antagonism$ The essential point of the Mar/ist prophe!y lies nevertheless in this affirmation$ .e -no" the Mar/ist s!heme$ Mar/ follo"ing in the footsteps of Adam 3mith and Ri!ardo defines the value of all !ommodities in terms of the amount of "orne!essary to produ!e them$ The amount of "or- is itself a !ommodity sold #y the proletarian to the !apitalist of "hi!h the value is defined #y the 7uantity of "or- that produ!es it4 in other "ords #y the value of the !onsumers goods ne!essary for his su#sisten!e$ The !apitalist in #uying this !ommodity there#y underta-es to pay for it ade7uately so that he "ho sells it the "or-er may feed and perpetuate himself$ *ut at the same time he a!7uires the right to ma-e the latter "or-

as long as he !an$ He !an "or- for a long time very mu!h longer than is ne!essary to pay for his su#sisten!e$ In a t"elveEhour day if half the time suffi!es to produ!e a value e7uivalent to the value of the produ!ts of su#sisten!e the other si/ hours are hours not paid for a plusEvalue "hi!h !onstitutes the !apitalists o"n profit$ Thus the !apitalists interest lies in prolonging to the ma/imum the hours of "or- or "hen he !an do so no longer of in!reasing the "or-ers output to the ma/imum$ The first type of !oer!ion is a matter of oppression and !ruelty$ The se!ond is a 7uestion of the organi6ation of la#our$ It leads first to the division of la#our and then to the utili6ation of the ma!hine "hi!h dehumani6es the "or-er$ Moreover !ompetition for foreign mar-ets and the ne!essity for larger and larger investments in ra" materials produ!e phenomena of !on!entration and a!!umulation$ <irst small !apitalists are a#sor#ed #y #ig !apitalists "ho !an maintain for e/ample unprofita#le pri!es for a longer period$ A larger and larger part of the profits is finally invested in ne" ma!hines and a!!umulated in the fi/ed assets of !apital$ This dou#le movement first of all hastens the ruin of the middle !lasses "ho are a#sor#ed into the proletariat and then pro!eeds to !on!entrate in an in!reasingly small num#er of hands the ri!hes produ!ed uni7uely #y the proletariat$ Thus the proletariat in!reases in si6e in proportion to its in!reasing ruin$ ,apital is no" !on!entrated in the hands of only a very fe" masters "hose gro"ing po"er is #ased on ro##ery$ Moreover these masters are sha-en to their foundations #y su!!essive !rises over"helmed #y the !ontradi!tions of the system and !an no longer assure even mere su#sisten!e to their slaves "ho then

!ome to depend on private or pu#li! !harity$ A day !omes inevita#ly "hen a huge army of oppressed slaves find themselves fa!e to fa!e "ith a handful of despi!a#le masters$ That day is the day of revolution$ FThe ruin of the #ourgeoisie and the vi!tory of the proletariat are e7ually inevita#le$G This hen!eforth famous des!ription does not yet give an a!!ount of the end of all antagonisms$ After the vi!tory of the proletariat the struggle for life might "ell give #irth to ne" antagonisms$ T"o ideas then intervene one of "hi!h is e!onomi! the identity of the development of produ!tion and the development of so!iety and the other purely systemati! the mission of the proletariat$ These t"o ideas reunite in "hat might #e !alled Mar/s a!tivist fatalism$ The same e!onomi! evolution "hi!h in effe!t !on!entrates !apital in a very fe" hands ma-es the antagonism #oth more violent and to a !ertain e/tent unreal$ It seems that at the highest point of development of the produ!tive for!es the slightest stimulus "ould lead to the proletariat finding itself alone in possession of the means of produ!tion already snat!hed from the grasp of private o"nership and !on!entrated in one enormous mass "hi!h hen!eforth "ould #e held in !ommon$ .hen private property is !on!entrated in the hands of one single o"ner it is only separated from !olle!tive o"nership #y the e/isten!e of one single man$ The inevita#le result of private !apitalism is a -ind of 3tate !apitalism "hi!h "ill then only have to #e put to the servi!e of the !ommunity to give #irth to a so!iety "here !apital and la#our hen!eforth indistinguisha#le "ill produ!e in one

identi!al advan!e to"ard progress #oth %usti!e and a#undan!e$ It is in !onsideration of this happy out!ome that Mar/ al"ays e/tolled the revolutionary role played un!ons!iously it is true #y the #ourgeoisie$ He spo-e of the Fhistori! rightsG of !apitalism "hi!h he !alled a sour!e #oth of progress and of misery$ The histori!al mission and the %ustifi!ation of !apitalism are in his eyes to prepare the !onditions for a superior mode of produ!tion$ This mode of produ!tion is not in itself revolutionary4 it "ill only #e the !onsummation of the revolution$ Only the fundamental prin!iples of #ourgeois produ!tion are revolutionary$ .hen Mar/ affirms that humanity only sets itself pro#lems it !an solve he is simultaneously demonstrating that the germ of the solution of the revolutionary pro#lem is to #e found in the !apitalist system itself$ Therefore he re!ommends tolerating the #ourgeois 3tate and even helping to #uild it rather than returning to a less industriali6ed form of produ!tion$ The proletariat F!an and must a!!ept the #ourgeois revolution as a !ondition of the "or-ingE!lass revolution$G Thus Mar/ is the prophet of produ!tion and "e are %ustified in thin-ing that on this pre!ise point and on no other he ignored reality in favour of the system$ He never !eased defending Ri!ardo the e!onomist of produ!tion in the manner of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Man!hester against those "ho a!!used him of "anting produ!tion for produ!tions sa-e$ >FHe "as a#solutely rightHG Mar/ e/!laims? and of "anting it "ithout any !onsideration for man-ind$ FThat is pre!isely his merit G Mar/ replies "ith the same airy indifferen!e as Hegel$ .hat in fa!t does the sa!rifi!e of

individual men matter as long as it !ontri#utes to the salvation of all man-indH +rogress resem#les Fthat horri#le pagan god "ho "ished to drin- ne!tar from the s-ulls of his fallen enemies$G *ut at least it is progress and it "ill !ease to infli!t torture after the industrial apo!alypse "hen the day of re!on!iliation !omes$ *ut if the proletariat !annot avoid this revolution nor avoid #eing put in possession of the means of produ!tion "ill it at least -no" ho" to use them for the #enefit of all@ .here is the guarantee that in the very #osom of the revolution Estates !lasses and antagonisms "ill not arise@ The guarantee lies in Hegel$ The proletariat is for!ed to use its "ealth for the universal good$ It is not the proletariat it is the universal in opposition to the parti!ular 0 in other "ords to !apitalism$ The antagonism #et"een !apital and the proletariat is the last phase of the struggle #et"een the parti!ular and the universal the same struggle that animated the histori!al tragedy of master and slave$ At the end of the visionary design !onstru!ted #y Mar/ the proletariat "ill unite all !lasses and dis!ard only a handful of masters perpetrators of Fnotorious !rime G "ho "ill #e %ustly destroyed #y the revolution$ .hat is more !apitalism #y driving the proletariat to the final point of degradation gradually delivers it from every de!ision that might separate it from other men$ It has nothing neither property nor morality nor !ountry$ Therefore it !lings to nothing #ut the spe!ies of "hi!h it is hen!eforth the na-ed and impla!a#le representative$ In affirming itself it affirms everything and everyone$ (ot #e!ause mem#ers of the proletariat are gods #ut pre!isely #e!ause they have

#een redu!ed to the most a#%e!tly inhuman !ondition$ FOnly the proletariat totally e/!luded from this affirmation of their personality are !apa#le of reali6ing the !omplete affirmation of self$G That is the mission of the proletariat) to #ring forth supreme dignity from supreme humiliation$ Through its suffering and its struggles it is ,hrist in human form redeeming the !olle!tive sin of alienation$ It is first of all the multiform #earer of total negation and then the herald of definitive affirmation$ F+hilosophy !annot reali6e itself "ithout the disappearan!e of the proletariat the proletariat !annot li#erate itself "ithout the reali6ation of philosophy G and again) FThe proletariat !an e/ist only on the #asis of "orld historyI$ ,ommunist a!tion !an e/ist only as histori!al reality on the planetary s!ale$G *ut this ,hrist is at the same time an avenger$ A!!ording to Mar/ he !arries out the senten!e that private property passes on itself$ FAll the houses in our times are mar-ed "ith a mysterious red !ross$ The %udge is history the e/e!utioner is the proletariat$G Thus the fulfilment is inevita#le$ ,risis "ill su!!eed !risis 8Every ten or eleven years Mar/ predi!ted$ *ut the period #et"een the re!urren!e of the !y!les F"ill gradually shorten$G; the degradation of the proletariat "ill #e!ome more and more profound it "ill in!rease in num#ers until the time of the universal !risis "hen the "orld of !hange "ill vanish and "hen history #y a supreme a!t of violen!e "ill !ease to #e violent any longer$ The -ingdom of ends "ill have !ome$ .e !an see that this fatalism !ould #e driven >as happened to Hegelian thought? to a sort of politi!al

7uietism #y Mar/ists li-e Kauts-y for "hom it "as as little "ithin the po"er of the proletariat to !reate the revolution as "ithin the po"er of the #ourgeois to prevent it$ Even Lenin "ho "as to !hoose the a!tivist aspe!t of the do!trine "rote in AB:D in the style of an a!t of e/!ommuni!ation) FIt is a rea!tionary "ay of thin-ing to try to find salvation in the "or-ing !lass in any other "ay than in the topEheavy development of !apitalism$G It is not in the nature of e!onomi!s a!!ording to Mar/ to ma-e leaps in the dar- and it must not #e en!ouraged to gallop ahead$ It is !ompletely false to say that the so!ialist reformers remained faithful to Mar/ on this point$ On the !ontrary fatalism e/!ludes all reforms in that there "ould #e a ris- of mitigating the !atastrophi! aspe!t of the out!ome and !onse7uently delaying the inevita#le result$ The logi! of su!h an attitude leads to the approval of everything that tends to in!rease "or-ingE!lass poverty$ The "or-er must #e given nothing so that one day he !an have everything$ And yet Mar/ sa" the danger of this parti!ular form of 7uietism$ +o"er !annot #e loo-ed for"ard to or else it is loo-ed for"ard to indefinitely$ A day !omes "hen it must #e sei6ed and it is the e/a!t definition of this day that remains of dou#tful !larity to all readers of Mar/$ On this point he never stops !ontradi!ting himself$ He remar-ed that so!iety "as Fhistori!ally !ompelled to pass through a period of di!tatorship #y the "or-ing !lasses$G As for the nature of this di!tatorship he definitions are !ontradi!tory$ 8Mi!hel ,ollinet in The Tragedy of 'ar8ism points out in Mar/ three forms of the sei6ure of po"er #y the proletariat)

La!o#in repu#li! in the $ommunist 'anifesto authoritarian di!tatorship in the <= Brumaire and federal and li#ertarian government in the ,ivil .ar in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e$; .e are sure that he !ondemned the 3tate in no un!ertain terms saying that its e/isten!e and the e/isten!e of servitude are insepara#le$ *ut he protested against *a-unins nevertheless %udi!ious o#servation of finding the idea of provisional di!tatorship !ontrary to "hat is -no"n as human nature$ Mar/ thought it is true that the diale!ti!al truths "ere superior to psy!hologi!al truths$ .hat does the diale!ti! say@ That Fthe a#olition of the 3tate has no meaning e/!ept among !ommunists "here it is an inevita#le result of the suppression of !lasses the disappearan!e of "hi!h ne!essarily leads to the disappearan!e of the need for a po"er organi6ed #y one !lass for the oppression of another$G A!!ording to the sa!red formula the government of people "as then to #e repla!ed #y the administration of affairs$ The diale!ti! "as therefore e/pli!it and %ustified the e/isten!e of the proletarian 3tate only for the period ne!essary for the destru!tion or integration of the #ourgeois !lass$ *ut unfortunately the prophe!y and its attitude of fatalism allo"ed other interpretations$ If it is !ertain that the -ingdom "ill !ome "hat does time matter@ 3uffering is never provisional for the man "ho does not #elieve in the future$ *ut one hundred years of suffering are fleeting in the eyes of the man "ho prophesies for the hundred and first year the definitive !ity$ In the perspe!tive of the Mar/ist prophe!y nothing matters$ In any event "hen the #ourgeois !lass has disappeared the proletariat "ill esta#lish the rule of the universal man at the summit of produ!tion #y the very logi! of

produ!tive development$ .hat does it matter that this should #e a!!omplished #y di!tatorship and violen!e@ In this (e" Lerusalem e!hoing "ith the roar of mira!ulous ma!hinery "ho "ill still remem#er the !ry of the vi!tims@ The golden age postponed until the end of history and !oin!ident to add to its attra!tions "ith an apo!alypse therefore %ustifies everything$ The prodigious am#itions of Mar/ism must #e !onsidered and its inordinate do!trines evaluated in order to understand that hope on su!h a s!ale leads to the inevita#le negle!t of pro#lems that therefore appear to #e se!ondary$ F,ommunism insofar as it is the real appropriation of the human essen!e #y man and for man insofar as it is the return of man to himself as a so!ial #eing 0 in other "ords as a human #eing 0 a !omplete !ons!ious return "hi!h preserves all the values of the inner movement this !ommunism #eing a#solute naturalism !oin!ides "ith humanism) it is the real end of the 7uarrel #et"een man and nature #et"een man and man #et"een essen!e and e/isten!e #et"een e/ternali6ation and the affirmation of self #et"een li#erty and ne!essity #et"een the individual and the spe!ies$ It solves the mystery of history and is a"are of having solved it$G It is only the language here that attempts to #e s!ientifi!$ *asi!ally "here is the differen!e from <ourier "ho announ!es Ffertile deserts sea "ater made drin-a#le and tasting of violets eternal spring IG@ The eternal springtime of man-ind is foretold to us in the language of an en!y!li!al$ .hat !an man "ithout =od "ant and hope for if not the -ingdom of man@ This e/plains the e/altation of

Mar/ist dis!iples$ FIn a so!iety "ithout anguish it is easy to ignore death G says one of them$ Ho"ever and this is the real !ondemnation of our so!iety the anguish of death is a lu/ury that is felt far more #y the idler than #y the "or-er "ho is stifled #y his o"n o!!upation$ *ut every -ind of so!ialism is Jtopian most of all s!ientifi! so!ialism$ Jtopia repla!es =od #y the future$ Then it pro!eeds to identify the future "ith ethi!s4 the only values are those "hi!h serve this parti!ular future$ <or that reason Jtopias have almost al"ays #een !oer!ive and authoritarian$ 8Morelly *a#euf and =od"in in reality des!ri#e so!ieties #ased on an in7uisition$; Mar/ insofar as he is a Jtopian does not differ from his frightening prede!essors and one part of his tea!hing more than %ustifies his su!!essors$ It has undou#tedly #een !orre!t to emphasi6e the ethi!al demands that form the #asis of the Mar/ist dream$ It must in all fairness #e said #efore e/amining the !he!- to Mar/ism that in them lies the real greatness of Mar/$ The very !ore of his theory "as that "or- is profoundly dignified and un%ustly despised$ He re#elled against the degradation of "or- to the level of a !ommodity and of the "or-er to the level of an o#%e!t$ He reminded the privileged that their privileges "ere not divine and that property "as not an eternal right$ He gave a #ad !ons!ien!e to those "ho had no right to a !lear !ons!ien!e and denoun!ed "ith unparalleled profundity a !lass "hose !rime is not so mu!h having had po"er as having used it to advan!e the ends of a medio!re so!iety deprived of any real no#ility$ To him "e o"e the idea "hi!h is the despair of our times 0 #ut here despair is "orth more than any hope 0

that "hen "or- is a degradation it is not life even though it o!!upies every moment of a life$ .ho despite the pretensions of this so!iety !an sleep in it in pea!e "hen they -no" that it derives its medio!re pleasures from the "or- of millions of dead souls@ *y demanding for the "or-er real ri!hes "hi!h are not the ri!hes of money #ut of leisure and !reation he has re!laimed despite all appearan!e to the !ontrary the dignity of man$ In doing so and this !an #e said "ith !onvi!tion he never "anted the additional degradation that has #een imposed on man in his name$ One of his phrases "hi!h for on!e is !lear and tren!hant forever "ithholds from his triumphant dis!iples the greatness and the humanity "hi!h on!e "ere his) FAn end that re7uires un%ust means is not a %ust end$G *ut (iet6s!hes tragedy is found here on!e again$ The aims the prophe!ies are generous and universal #ut the do!trine is restri!tive and the redu!tion of every value to histori!al terms leads to the direst !onse7uen!es$ Mar/ thought that the ends of history at least "ould prove to #e moral and rational$ That "as his Jtopia$ *ut Jtopia at least in the form he -ne" it is destined to serve !yni!ism of "hi!h he "anted no part$ Mar/ destroys all trans!enden!e then !arries out #y himself the transition from fa!t to duty$ *ut his !on!ept of duty has no other origin #ut fa!t$ The demands for %usti!e ends in in%usti!e if it is not primarily #ased on an ethi!al %ustifi!ation of %usti!e4 "ithout this !rime itself one day #e!omes a duty$ .hen good and evil are reintegrated in time and !onfused "ith events nothing is any longer good or #ad #ut only either premature or out of date$ .ho "ill de!ide on the

opportunity if not the opportunist@ Later say the dis!iples you shall %udge$ *ut the vi!tims "ill not #e there to %udge$ <or the vi!tim the present is the only value re#ellion the only a!tion$ Messianism in order to e/ist must !onstru!t a defen!e against the vi!tims$ It is possi#le that Mar/ did not "ant this #ut in this lies his responsi#ility "hi!h must #e e/amined that he in!urred #y %ustifying in the name of the revolution the hen!eforth #loody struggle against all forms of re#ellion$

The &ailing of the "rophecy Hegel haughtily #rings history to an end in AU:T4 the dis!iples of 3aintE3imon #elieve that the revolutionary !onvulsions of AUW: and AUCU are the last4 ,omte dies in AUDT preparing to !lim# into the pulpit and prea!h positivism to a humanity returned at last from the path of error$ .ith the same #lind romanti!ism Mar/ in his turn prophesies the !lassless so!iety and the solution of the histori!al mystery$ 3lightly more !ir!umspe!t ho"ever he does not fi/ the date$ Jnfortunately his prophe!y also des!ri#ed the mar!h of history up to the hour of fulfilment4 it predi!ted the trend of events$ The events and the fa!ts of !ourse have forgotten to arrange themselves a!!ording to the synthesis4 and this already e/plains "hy it has #een ne!essary to rally them #y for!e$ *ut a#ove all the prophe!ies from the moment that they #egin to #etray the living hopes of millions of men !annot "ith impunity remain indeterminate$ A

time !omes "hen de!eption transforms patient hope into furious disillusionment and "hen the ends affirmed "ith the mania of o#stina!y demanded "ith everE in!reasing !ruelty ma-e o#ligatory the sear!h for other means$ The revolutionary movement at the end of the nineteenth !entury and #eginning of the t"entieth lived li-e the early ,hristians in the e/pe!tation of the end of the "orld and the advent of the proletarian ,hrist$ .e -no" ho" persistent this sentiment "as among primitive ,hristian !ommunities$ Even at the end of the fourth !entury a #ishop in pro!onsular style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Afri!a !al!ulated that the "orld "ould only e/ist for another one hundred and one years$ At the end of this period "ould !ome the -ingdom of heaven "hi!h must #e merited "ithout further delay$ This sentiment is prevalent in the first !entury 8On the imminen!e of this event see Mar- i/ A) /iii W:4 Matthe" / 9W4 /vi 9TEU4 //iv WC4 Lu-e i/ 9XET4 //i 99 et!$; and e/plains the indifferen!e of the early ,hristians to"ard purely theologi!al 7uestions$ If the advent is near everything must #e !onse!rated to a #urning faith rather than to "or-s and to dogma$ Jntil ,lement and Tertullian during more than a !entury ,hristian literature ignored theologi!al pro#lems and did not ela#orate on the su#%e!t of "or-s$ *ut from the moment the advent no longer seems imminent man must live "ith his faith E in other "ords !ompromise$ Then piety and the !ate!hism appear on the s!ene$ The evangeli!al advent fades into the distan!e4 style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423aint +aul has !ome to esta#lish dogma$ The ,hur!h has in!orporated the faith that has only an ardent desire for the -ingdom to !ome$

Everything had to #e organi6ed in the period even martyrdom of "hi!h the temporal "itnesses are the monasti! orders and even the prea!hing "hi!h "as to #e found again in the guise of the In7uisition$ A similar movement "as #orn of the !he!- to the revolutionary advent$ The passages from Mar/ already !ited give a fair idea of the #urning hope that inspired the revolutionary spirit of the time$ 'espite partial set#a!-s this faith never !eased to in!rease up to the moment "hen it found itself in ABAT fa!e to fa!e "ith the partial reali6ation of its dreams$ F.e are fighting for the gates of heaven G !ried Lie#-ne!ht$ In ABAT the revolutionary "orld really #elieved that it had arrived #efore those gates$ Rosa Lu/em#urgs prophe!y "as #eing reali6ed$ FThe revolution "ill rise resoundingly tomorro" to its full height and to your !onsternation "ill announ!e "ith the sound of all its trumpets) I "as I am I shall #e$G The 3parta-us movement #elieved that it had a!hieved the definitive revolution #e!ause a!!ording to Mar/ himself the latter "ould !ome to pass after the Russian Revolution had #een !onsummated #y a .estern revolution$ After the revolution of ABAT a 3oviet =ermany "ould in fa!t have opened the gates of heaven$ *ut the 3parta-us movement is !rushed the <ren!h general stri-e of AB9: fails the Italian revolutionary movement is strangled$ Lie#-ne!ht then re!ogni6es that the time is not ripe for revolution$ FThe period has not yet dra"n to a !lose$G *ut also and no" "e grasp ho" defeat !an e/!ite van7uished faith to the point of religious e!stasy) FAt the !rash of e!onomi! !ollapse "hose rum#lings !an already #e heard the sleeping soldiers of the proletariat

"ill a"a-e as at the fanfare of the Last Ludgement and the !orpses of the vi!tims of the struggle "ill arise and demand an a!!ounting from those "ho are #o"ed do"n "ith !urses$G .hile a"aiting these events Lie#-ne!ht and Rosa Lu/em#urg are assassinated and style12fontE si6e) ACpt42=ermany rushes to"ards servitude$ The Russian Revolution remains isolated living in defian!e of its o"n system still far from the !elestial gates "ith an apo!alypse to organi6e$ The advent is again postponed$ <aith is inta!t #ut it totters #eneath an enormous load of pro#lems and dis!overies "hi!h Mar/ism had not foreseen$ The ne" religion is on!e more !onfronted "ith style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=alilee) to preserve its faith it must deny the sun and humiliate free man$ .hat does style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=alilee say in fa!t at this moment@ .hat are the errors demonstrated #y history itself of the prophe!y@ .e -no" that the e!onomi! evolution of the !ontemporary "orld refutes a !ertain num#er of the postulates of Mar/$ If the revolution is to o!!ur at the end of t"o parallel movements the unlimited shrin-ing of !apital and the unlimited e/pansion of the proletariat it "ill not o!!ur or ought not to have o!!urred$ ,apital and proletariat have #oth #een e7ually unfaithful to Mar/$ The tenden!y o#served in industrial style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42England of the nineteenth !entury has in !ertain !ases !hanged its !ourse and in others #e!ome more !omple/$ E!onomi! !rises "hi!h should have o!!urred "ith in!reasing fre7uen!y have on the !ontrary #e!ome more sporadi!) !apitalism has learned the se!rets of planned produ!tion and has !ontri#uted on its

o"n part to the gro"th of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Molo!h style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423tate$ Moreover "ith the introdu!tion of !ompanies in "hi!h sto!- !ould #e held !apital instead of #e!oming in!reasingly !on!entrated has given rise to a ne" !ategory of smallholders "hose very last desire "ould !ertainly #e to en!ourage stri-es$ 3mall enterprises have #een in many !ases destroyed #y !ompetition as Mar/ foresa"$ *ut the !omple/ity of modern produ!tion has generated a multitude of small fa!tories around great enterprises$ In ABWU <ord "as a#le to announ!e that five thousand t"o hundred independent "or-shops supplied him "ith their produ!ts$ Of !ourse large industries inevita#ly assimilated these enterprises to a !ertain e/tent$ *ut the essential thing is that these small industrialists form an intermediary so!ial layer "hi!h !ompli!ates the s!heme that Mar/ imagined$ <inally the la" of !on!entration has proved a#solutely false in agri!ultural e!onomy "hi!h "as treated "ith !onsidera#le frivolity #y Mar/$ The hiatus is important here$ In one of its aspe!ts the history of so!ialism in our times !an #e !onsidered as the struggle #et"een the proletarian movement and the peasant !lass$ This struggle !ontinues on the histori!al plane the nineteenthE!entury ideologi!al struggle #et"een authoritarian so!ialism and li#ertarian so!ialism of "hi!h the peasant and artisan origins are 7uite evident$ Thus Mar/ had in the ideologi!al material of his time the elements for a study of the peasant pro#lem$ *ut his desire to systemati6e made him oversimplify everything$ This parti!ular simplifi!ation "as to prove e/pensive for the -ula-s "ho !onstituted more than five million histori!

e/!eptions to #e #rought #y death and deportation "ithin the Mar/ist pattern$ The same desire for simplifi!ation diverted Mar/ from the phenomenon of the nation in the very !entury of nationalism$ He #elieved that through !ommer!e and e/!hange through the very vi!tory of the proletariat the #arriers "ould fall$ *ut it "as national #arriers that #rought a#out the fall of the proletarian ideal$ As a means of e/plaining history the struggle #et"een nations has #een proved at least as important as the !lass struggle$ *ut nations !annot #e entirely e/plained #y e!onomi!s4 therefore the system ignored them$ The proletariat on its part did not toe the line$ <irst of all Mar/s fear is !onfirmed) reforms and trade unions #rought a#out a rise in the standard of living and an amelioration in "or-ing !onditions$ These improvements are very far from !onstituting an e7uita#le settlement of the so!ial pro#lem4 #ut the misera#le !ondition of the English te/tile "or-ers in Mar/s time far from #e!oming general and even deteriorating as he "ould have li-ed has on the !ontrary #een alleviated$ Mar/ "ould not !omplain a#out this today the e7uili#rium having #een reE esta#lished #y another error in his predi!tions$ It has in fa!t #een possi#le to prove that the most effi!a!ious revolutionary or tradeEunion asset has al"ays #een the e/isten!e of a "or-ingE!lass elite "ho have not #een sterili6ed #y hunger$ +overty and degeneration have never !eased to #e "hat they "ere #efore Mar/s time and "hat he did not "ant to admit they "ere despite all his o#servations) fa!tors !ontri#uting to servitude not to revolution$ One third of "or-ingE!lass style12fontEsi6e)

ACpt42=ermany "as unemployed in ABWW$ *ourgeois

so!iety "as then o#liged to provide a means of livelihood for these unemployed thus #ringing a#out the situation that Mar/ said "as essential for revolution$ *ut it is not a good thing that future revolutionaries should #e put in the situation of e/pe!ting to #e fed #y the 3tate$ Thus unnatural ha#it leads to others "hi!h are even less good and "hi!h Hitler made into do!trine$ <inally the proletariat did not in!rease in num#ers indefinitely$ The very !ondition of industrial produ!tion "hi!h every Mar/ist is !alled upon to en!ourage improved to a !onsidera#le e/tent the !onditions of the middle !lass 8<rom AB9: toABW: in a period of intense produ!tivity the num#er of metallurgi!al "or-ers de!reased in the Jnited 3tates "hile the num#er of salesmen "or-ing for the same industry almost dou#led$; and even !reated a ne" so!ial stratum the te!hni!ians$ The ideal so dear to Lenin of a so!iety in "hi!h the engineer "ould at the same time #e a manual la#ourer is in !onfli!t "ith the fa!ts$ The prin!ipal fa!t is that te!hnology li-e s!ien!e has rea!hed su!h a degree of !ompli!ation that it is not possi#le for a single man to understand the totality of its prin!iples and appli!ations$ It is almost impossi#le for instan!e for a physi!ist today to have a !omplete understanding of the #iologi!al s!ien!e of his times$ Even "ithin the realms of physi!s he !annot !laim to #e e7ually familiar "ith every #ran!h of the su#%e!t$ It is the same in te!hnology$ <rom the moment that produ!tivity "hi!h is !onsidered #y #oth #ourgeois and Mar/ist as a #enefit in itself is developed to enormous proportions the division of la#our "hi!h Mar/ thought

!ould have #een avoided #e!ame inevita#le$ Every "or-er has #een #rought to the point of performing a parti!ular fun!tion "ithout -no"ing the overall plan into "hi!h his "or- "ill fit$ Those "ho !oEordinate individual "or- have formed #y their very fun!tion a !lass "hose so!ial importan!e is de!isive$ It is only fair to point out that this era of te!hno!ra!y announ!ed #y *urnham "as des!ri#ed a#out t"enty years ago #y 3imone .eil in a form that !an #e !onsidered !omplete "ithout dra"ing *urnhams una!!epta#le !on!lusions$ To the t"o traditional forms of oppression -no"n to humanity 0 oppression #y armed for!e and #y "ealth 0 3imone .eil adds a third 0 oppression #y o!!upation$ FOne !an a#olish the opposition #et"een the #uyer and the seller of "or- G she "rote F"ithout a#olishing the opposition #et"een those "ho dispose of the ma!hine and those of "hom the ma!hine disposes$G The Mar/ist plan to a#olish the degrading opposition of intelle!tual "or- to manual "or- has !ome into !onfli!t "ith the demands of produ!tion "hi!h else"here Mar/ e/alted$ Mar/ undou#tedly foresa" in Das 9apital the importan!e of the FmanagerG on the level of ma/imum !on!entration of !apital$ *ut he did not #elieve that this !on!entration of !apital !ould survive the a#olition of private property$ 'ivision of la#our and private property he said are identi!al e/pressions$ History has demonstrated the !ontrary$ The ideal regime #ased on !olle!tive property !ould #e defined a!!ording to Lenin as %usti!e plus ele!tri!ity$ In the final analysis it is only ele!tri!ity "ithout %usti!e$

The idea of a mission of the proletariat has not so far #een a#le to formulate itself in history) this sums up the failing of the Mar/ist prophe!y$ The failure of the 3e!ond International has proved that the proletariat "as influen!ed #y other things as "ell as its e!onomi! !ondition and that !ontrary to the famous formula it had a fatherland$ The ma%ority of the proletariat a!!epted or su#mitted to the "ar and !olla#orated "illyEnilly in the nationalist e/!esses of the times$ Mar/ intended that the "or-ing !lasses #efore they triumphed should have a!7uired legal and politi!al a!umen$ His error lay only in #elieving that e/treme poverty and parti!ularly industrial poverty !ould lead to politi!al maturity$ Moreover it is 7uite !ertain that the revolutionary !apa!ity of the masses "as !urtailed #y the de!apitation of the li#ertarian revolution during and after the ,ommune$ After all Mar/ism easily dominated the "or-ingE!lass movement from AUT9 on undou#tedly #e!ause of its o"n strength #ut also #e!ause the only so!ialist tradition that !ould have opposed it had #een dro"ned in #lood4 there "ere pra!ti!ally no Mar/ists among the insurgents of AUTA$ This automati! purifi!ation of revolution has #een !ontinued than-s to the a!tivities of poli!e states until our times$ More and more revolution has found itself delivered into the hands of its #ureau!rats and do!trinaires on the one hand and to enfee#led and #e"ildered masses on the other$ .hen the revolutionary elite are guillotined and "hen Talleyrand is left alive "ho "ill oppose *onaparte@ *ut to these histori!al reasons are added e!onomi! ne!essities$ The passages #y 3imone .eil on the !ondition of the fa!tory "or-er 8)a $ondition ouvri>re >+aris) =allimard$?; must #e read

in order to reali6e to "hat degree of moral e/haustion and silent despair the rationali6ation of la#our !an lead$ 3imone .eil is right in saying that the "or-ers !ondition is dou#ly inhumane in that he is first deprived of money and then of dignity$ .or- in "hi!h one !an have an interest !reative "or- even though it is #adly paid does not degrade life$ Industrial so!ialism has done nothing essential to alleviate the !ondition of the "or-ers #e!ause it has not tou!hed on the very prin!iple of produ!tion and the organi6ation of la#our "hi!h on the !ontrary it has e/tolled$ It even "ent so far as to offer the "or-er a histori! %ustifi!ation of his lot of mu!h the same value as a promise of !elestial %oys to one "ho "or-s himself to death4 never did it attempt to give him the %oy of !reation$ The politi!al form of so!iety is no longer in 7uestion at this level #ut the #eliefs of a te!hni!al !ivili6ation on "hi!h !apitalism and so!ialism are e7ually dependent$ Any ideas that do not advan!e the solution of this pro#lem hardly tou!h on the misfortunes of the "or-er$ Only through the interplay of e!onomi! for!es so mu!h admired #y Mar/ has the proletariat #een a#le to re%e!t the histori!al mission "ith "hi!h Mar/ had rightly !harged it$ His error !an #e e/!used #e!ause !onfronted "ith the de#asement of the ruling !lasses a man "ho has the future of !ivili6ation at heart instin!tively loo-s for an elite as a repla!ement$ *ut this instin!tive sear!h is not in itself alone !reative$ The revolutionary #ourgeoisie sei6ed po"er in ATUB #e!ause they already had it$ At this period legality as Lules Monnerot says "as lagging #ehind the fa!ts$ The fa!ts "ere that the #ourgeoisie "ere already in possession of

the posts of !ommand and of the ne" po"er) money$ The proletariat "ere not at all in the same position having only their poverty and their hopes and #eing -ept in their !ondition of misery #y the #ourgeoisie$ The #ourgeois !lass de#ased itself #y a mania for produ!tion and material po"er "hile the very organi6ation of this mania made the !reation of an elite impossi#le$ 8Lenin "as the first to re!ord this truth #ut "ithout any apparent #itterness$ If his "ords are terri#le for revolutionary hopes they are no less so for Lenin himself$ He dared to say in fa!t that the masses "ould more easily a!!ept #ureau!rati! and di!tatorial !entralism #e!ause Fdis!ipline and organi6ation are assimilated more easily #y the proletariat than-s to the hard s!hool of the fa!tory$G; *ut !riti!ism of this organi6ation and the development of re#el !ons!ien!e !ould on the !ontrary forge a reserve elite$ Only revolutionary trade unionism "ith +elloutier and 3orel em#ar-ed on this !ourse and "anted to !reate #y professional and !ultural edu!ation ne" !adres for "hi!h a "orld "ithout honour "as !alling and still !alls$ *ut that !ould not #e a!!omplished in a day and the ne" masters "ere already on the s!ene interested in ma-ing immediate use of human unhappiness for the sa-e of happiness in the distant future rather than relieving as mu!h and as soon as possi#le the suffering of millions of men$ The authoritarian so!ialists deemed that history "as going too slo"ly and that it "as ne!essary in order to hurry it on to entrust the mission of the proletariat to a handful of do!trinaires$ <or that very reason they have #een the first to deny this mission$ (evertheless it e/ists not in the e/!lusive sense that Mar/ gives it #ut in the sense that a mission

e/ists for any human group "hi!h -no"s ho" to derive pride and fe!undity from its la#ours and its sufferings$ 3o that it !an manifest itself ho"ever a ris- must #e ta-en and !onfiden!e put in "or-ingE!lass freedom and spontaneity$ Authoritarian so!ialism on the !ontrary has !onfis!ated this living freedom for the for the #enefit of an ideal freedom "hi!h is yet to !ome$ In so doing "hether it "ished to or not it reinfor!ed the attempt at enslavement #egun #y industrial !apitalism$ *y the !om#ined a!tion of these t"o fa!tors and during a hundred and fifty years e/!ept in the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42+aris of the ,ommune "hi!h "as the last refuge of re#el revolution the proletariat has had no other histori!al mission #ut to #e #etrayed$ The "or-ers fought and died to give po"er to the military or to intelle!tuals "ho dreamed of #e!oming military and "ho "ould enslave them in their turn$ This struggle ho"ever has #een the sour!e of their dignity a fa!t that is re!ogni6ed #y all "ho have !hosen to share their aspirations and their misfortunes$ *ut this dignity has #een a!7uired in opposition to the "hole !lan of old and ne" masters$ At the very moment "hen they dare to ma-e use of it it denies them$ In one sense it announ!es their e!lipse$ The e!onomi! predi!tions of Mar/ have therefore #een at least !alled in 7uestion #y reality$ .hat remains true in his vision of the e!onomi! "orld is the esta#lishment of a so!iety more and more defined #y the rhythm of produ!tion$ *ut he shared this !on!ept in the enthusiasm of his period "ith #ourgeois ideology$ The #ourgeois illusions !on!erning s!ien!e and te!hni!al progress shared #y the authoritarian so!ialists gave

#irth to the !ivili6ation of the ma!hineEtamers "hi!h !an through the stresses of !ompetition and the desire for domination #e separated into enemy #lo!s #ut "hi!h on the e!onomi! plane is su#%e!t to identi!al la"s) the a!!umulation of !apital and rationali6ed and !ontinually in!reasing produ!tion$ The politi!al differen!e "hi!h !on!erns the degree of omnipoten!e of the 3tate is appre!ia#le #ut !an #e redu!ed #y e!onomi! evolution$ Only the differen!e in ethi!al !on!epts 0 formal virtue as opposed to histori!al !yni!ism 0 seems su#stantial$ *ut the imperative of produ!tion dominates #oth universes and ma-es them on the e!onomi! plane one "orld$ 8It is "orth spe!ifying that produ!tivity is only in%urious "hen it is !onsidered as an end not as a means in "hi!h !ase it !ould have a li#erating effe!t$; In any event if the e!onomi! imperative !an no longer #e denied 8Although it "as denia#le 0 until the eighteenth !entury 0 during all the period in "hi!h Mar/ thought he had dis!overed it$ Histori!al e/amples in "hi!h the !onfli!t #et"een forms of !ivili6ation did not end in progress in methods of produ!tion) destru!tion of the My!enRan !ivili6ation invasion of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Rome #y the #ar#arians e/pulsion of the Moors from style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423pain e/termination of the Al#igenses$; its !onse7uen!es are not "hat Mar/ imagined$ E!onomi!ally spea-ing !apitalism #e!omes oppressive through the phenomenon of a!!umulation$ It is oppressive through #eing "hat it is it a!!umulates in order to in!rease "hat it is to e/ploit it all the more and a!!ordingly to a!!umulate still more$ At that moment a!!umulation "ould #e ne!essary only to a very small

e/tent in order to guarantee so!ial #enefits$ *ut the revolution in its turn #e!omes industriali6ed and reali6es that "hen a!!umulation is an attri#ute of te!hnology itself and not of !apitalism the ma!hine finally !on%ures up the ma!hine$ Every form of !olle!tivity fighting for survival is for!ed to a!!umulate instead of distri#uting its revenues$ It a!!umulates in order to in!rease in si6e and so to in!rease in po"er$ .hether #ourgeois or so!ialist it postpones %usti!e for a later date in the interests of po"er alone$ *ut po"er opposes other forms of po"er$ It arms and rearms #e!ause others are arming and rearming$ It does not stop a!!umulating and "ill never !ease to do so until the day "hen perhaps it "ill reign alone on earth$ Moreover for that to happen it must pass through a "ar$ Jntil that day the proletariat "ill re!eive only the #are minimum for its su#sisten!e$ The revolution !ompels itself to !onstru!t at a great e/penditure in human lives the industrialist and !apitalist intermediary that its o"n system demands$ Revenue is repla!ed #y human la#our$ 3lavery then #e!omes the general !ondition and the gates of heaven remain lo!-ed$ 3u!h is the e!onomi! la" governing a "orld that lives #y the !ult of produ!tion and the reality is even more #loody than the la"$ Revolution in the dilemma into "hi!h it has #een led #y its #ourgeois opponents and its nihilist supporters is nothing #ut slavery$ Jnless it !hanges its prin!iples and its path it !an have no other final result than servile re#ellions o#literated in #lood or the hideous prospe!t of atomi! sui!ide$ The "ill to po"er the nihilist struggle for domination and authority have done !onsidera#ly more than s"eep a"ay the Mar/ist Jtopia$ This has #e!ome

in its turn a histori! fa!t destined to #e put to use li-e all the other histori! fa!ts$ This idea "hi!h "as supposed to dominate history has #e!ome lost in history4 the !on!ept of a#olishing means has #een redu!ed to a means in itself and !yni!ally manipulated for the most #anal and #loody ends$ The uninterrupted development of produ!tion has not ruined the !apitalist regime to the #enefit of the revolution$ It has e7ually #een the ruin of #oth #ourgeois and revolutionary so!iety to the #enefit of an idol that has the snout of po"er$ Ho" !ould a soE!alled s!ientifi! so!ialism !onfli!t to su!h a point "ith fa!ts@ The ans"er is easy) it "as not s!ientifi!$ On the !ontrary its defeat resulted from a method am#iguous enough to "ish to #e simultaneously determinist and propheti! diale!ti! and dogmati!$ If the mind is only the refle!tion of events it !annot anti!ipate their progress e/!ept #y hypothesis$ If Mar/ist theory is determined #y e!onomi!s it !an des!ri#e the past history of produ!tion not its future "hi!h remains in the realms of pro#a#ility$ The tas- of histori!al materialism !an only #e to esta#lish a method of !riti!ism of !ontemporary so!iety4 it is only !apa#le of ma-ing suppositions unless it a#andons its s!ientifi! attitude a#out the so!iety of the future$ Moreover is it not for this reason that its most important "or- is !alled $apital and not /evolution@ Mar/ and the Mar/ists allo"ed themselves to prophesy the future and the triumph of !ommunism to the detriment of their postulates and of s!ientifi! method$ Then predi!tions !ould #e s!ientifi! on the !ontrary only #y !easing to prophesy definitively$ Mar/ism is

not s!ientifi!4 at the #est it has s!ientifi! pre%udi!es$ It #rought out into the open the profound differen!e #et"een s!ientifi! reasoning that fruitful instrument of resear!h of thought and even of re#ellion and histori!al reasoning "hi!h =erman ideology invented #y its negation of all prin!iples$ Histori!al reasoning is not a type of reasoning that "ithin the frame"or- of its o"n fun!tions !an pass %udgement on the "orld$ .hile pretending to %udge it it really tries to determine its !ourse$ Essentially a part of events it dire!ts them and is simultaneously pedagogi! and allE!on7uering$ Moreover its most a#struse des!riptions !on!eal the most simple truths$ If man is redu!ed to nothing #ut a !hara!ter in history he has no other !hoi!e #ut to su#side into the sound and fury of a !ompletely irrational history or to endo" history "ith the form of human reason$ Therefore the history of !ontemporary nihilism is nothing #ut a prolonged endeavour to give order #y human for!es alone and simply #y for!e to a history no longer endo"ed "ith order$ The pseudoE reasoning ends #y identifying itself "ith !unning and strategy "hile "aiting to !ulminate in the ideologi!al Empire$ .hat part !ould s!ien!e play in this !on!ept@ (othing is less determined on !on7uest than reason$ History is not made "ith s!ientifi! s!ruples4 "e are even !ondemned to not ma-ing history from the moment "hen "e !laim to a!t "ith s!ientifi! o#%e!tivity$ Reason does not prea!h or if it does it is no longer reason$ That is "hy histori!al reason is an irrational and romanti! form of reason "hi!h sometimes re!alls the false logi! of the insane and at other times the mysti! affirmation of the "ord$

The only really s!ientifi! aspe!t of Mar/ism is to #e found in its preliminary re%e!tions of myths and in its e/posure of the !rudest -ind of interests$ *ut in this respe!t Mar/ is not more s!ientifi! in his attitude than La Ro!hefou!auld4 and that is %ust the attitude that he a#andons "hen he em#ar-s on prophe!y$ Therefore it is not surprising that to ma-e Mar/ism s!ientifi! and to preserve this fi!tion "hi!h is very useful in this !entury of s!ien!e it has #een a ne!essary first step to render s!ien!e Mar/ist through terror$ The progress of s!ien!e sin!e Mar/ has roughly !onsisted in repla!ing determinism and the rather !rude me!hanism of its period #y a do!trine of provisional pro#a#ility$ Mar/ "rote to Engels that the 'ar"inian theory !onstituted the very foundation of their method$ <or Mar/ism to remain infalli#le it has therefore #een ne!essary to deny all #iologi!al dis!overies made sin!e style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42'ar"in$ As it happens that all dis!overies sin!e the une/pe!ted mutations esta#lished #y 'e Vries have !onsisted in introdu!ing !ontrary to the do!trines of determinism the idea of !han!e into #iology it has #een ne!essary to entrust to Lyssen-o "ith the tas- of dis!iplining !hromosomes and of demonstrating on!e again the truth of the most elementary determinism$ That is ridi!ulous) #ut put a poli!e for!e under <lau#erts Monsieur Homais and he "ould no longer #e ridi!ulous and there "e have the t"entieth !entury$ As far as that is !on!erned the t"entieth !entury has also "itnessed the denial of the prin!iple of indeterminism in s!ien!e of limited relativity of the 7uantum theory 8Roger ,allois in $ritique du 'ar8isme >+aris) =allimard? remar-s that 3talinism o#%e!ts to the 7uantum theory #ut ma-es use of atomi! s!ien!e "hi!h

is derived from it$; and finally of every general tenden!y of !ontemporary s!ien!e$ Mar/ism is only s!ientifi! today in defian!e of Heisen#erg *ohr Einstein and all the greatest minds of our time$ After all there is really nothing mysterious a#out the prin!iple that !onsists in using s!ientifi! reasoning to the advantage of a prophe!y$ This has already #een named the prin!iple of authority and it is this that guides the ,hur!hes "hen they "ish to su#%e!t living reason to dead faith and freedom of the intelle!t to the maintenan!e of temporal po"er$ <inally there remains of Mar/s prophe!y 0 hen!eforth in !onfli!t "ith its t"o prin!iples e!onomy and s!ien!e 0 only the passionate annun!iation of an event that "ill ta-e pla!e in the very far future$ The only re!ourse of the Mar/ists !onsists in saying that the delays are simply longer than "as imagined and that one day far a"ay in the future the end "ill %ustify all$ In other "ords "e are in purgatory and "e are promised that there "ill #e no hell$ And so the pro#lem that is posed is of another order$ If the struggle "aged #y one or t"o generations throughout a period of e!onomi! evolution "hi!h is perfor!e #enefi!ial suffi!es to #ring a#out a !lassless so!iety then the ne!essary sa!rifi!e #e!omes !omprehensi#le to the man "ith a militant turn of mind4 the future for him has a !on!rete aspe!t 0 the aspe!t of his !hild for instan!e$ *ut if "hen the sa!rifi!e of several generations has proved insuffi!ient "e must then em#ar- on an infinite period of universal strife one thousand times more destru!tive than #efore then the !onvi!tion of faith in needed in order to a!!ept the ne!essity of -illing and dying$ This ne" faith is no

more founded on pure reason than "ere the an!ient faiths$ In "hat terms is it possi#le to imagine this end of history@ Mar/ did not fall #a!- on Hegels terms$ He said rather o#s!urely that !ommunism "as only a ne!essary aspe!t of the future of humanity and did not !omprise the entire future$ *ut either !ommunism does not terminate the history of !ontradi!tions and suffering and then it is no longer possi#le to see ho" one !an %ustify so mu!h effort and sa!rifi!e4 or it does terminate it and it is no longer possi#le to image the !ontinuation of history e/!ept as an advan!e to"ard this perfe!ted form of so!iety$ Thus a mysti! idea is ar#itrarily introdu!ed into a des!ription that !laims to #e s!ientifi!$ The final disappearan!e of politi!al e!onomy 0 the favourite theme of Mar/ and Engels 0 signifies the end of all suffering$ E!onomi!s in fa!t !oin!ides "ith pain and suffering in history$ .e arrive at last in the =arden of Eden$ .e !ome no nearer to solving the pro#lem #y de!laring that it is not a 7uestion of the end of history #ut of a leap into the midst of a different history$ .e !an only imagine this other history in terms of our o"n history4 for man they are #oth one and the same thing$ Moreover this other history poses the same dilemma$ Either it is not the solution of all !ontradi!tions and "e suffer die and -ill for almost nothing or it is the solution of !ontradi!tions and therefore to all intents and purposes terminates our history$ Mar/ism at this stage is only %ustified #y the definitive !ity$ ,an it #e said therefore that this !ity of ends has a meaning@ It has in terms of the sa!red universe on!e

the religious postulate has #een admitted$ The "orld "as !reated it "ill have an end4 Adam left style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Eden humanity must return there$ It has no meaning in the histori!al universe if the diale!ti!al postulate is admitted$ The diale!ti! !orre!tly applied !annot and must not !ome to an end$ 83ee the e/!ellent dis!ussion #y Lules Mournrot in #ociologie du communisme +art III$; The antagonisti! terms of a histori!al situation !an negate one another and then #e surmounted in a ne" synthesis$ *ut there is no reason "hy this ne" synthesis should #e #etter than the original$ Or rather there is only a reason for this supposition if one ar#itrarily imposes an end to the diale!ti! and if one then applies a %udgement #ased on outside values$ If the !lassless so!iety is going to terminate history then !apitalist so!iety is in effe!t superior to feudal so!iety to the e/tent that it #rings the advent of this !lassless so!iety still nearer$ *ut if the diale!ti! postulate is admitted at all it must #e admitted entirely$ Lust as aristo!rati! so!iety has #een su!!eeded #y a so!iety "ithout an aristo!ra!y #ut "ith !lasses it must #e !on!luded that the so!iety of !lasses "ill #e su!!eeded #y a !lassless so!iety #ut animated #y a ne" antagonism still to #e defined$ A movement that is refused a #eginning !annot have an end$ FIf so!ialism G says an anar!hist essayist 8Ernestan) #ocialism and &reedom$; Fis an eternal evolution its means are its end$G More pre!isely it has no ends4 it has only means "hi!h are guaranteed #y nothing unless #y a value foreign to evolution$ In this sense it is !orre!t to remarthat the diale!ti! is not and !annot #e revolutionary$ <rom our point of vie" it is only nihilism 0 pure

movement "hi!h aims at denying everything "hi!h is not itself$ There is in this universe no reason therefore to imagine the end of history$ That is the only %ustifi!ation ho"ever for the sa!rifi!es demanded of humanity in the name of Mar/ism$ *ut it has no other reasona#le #asis #ut a petitio principii "hi!h introdu!es into history 0 a -ingdom that "as meant to #e uni7ue and selfEsuffi!ient E a value foreign to history$ 3in!e that value is at the same time foreign to ethi!s it is not properly spea-ing a value on "hi!h one !an #ase ones !ondu!t4 it is a dogma "ithout foundation that !an #e adopted only as the desperate effort to es!ape of a mind "hi!h is #eing stifled #y solitude or #y nihilism or a value "hi!h is going to #e imposed #y those "hom dogma profits$ The end of history is not an e/emplary or a perfe!tionist value4 it is an ar#itrary and terroristi! prin!iple$ Mar/ re!ogni6ed that all revolutions #efore his time had failed$ *ut he !laimed that the revolution announ!ed #y him must su!!eed definitively$ Jp to no" the "or-ers movement has lived on this affirmation "hi!h has #een !ontinually #elied #y fa!ts and of "hi!h it is high time that the falsehood should #e dispassionately denoun!ed$ In proportion as the prophe!y "as postponed the affirmation of the !oming of the final -ingdom "hi!h !ould only find the most fee#le support in reason #e!ame an arti!le of faith$ The sole value of the Mar/ist "orld hen!eforth resides despite Mar/ in a dogma imposed on an entire ideologi!al empire$ The -ingdom of ends is used li-e the ethi!s of eternity and the -ingdom of heaven for purposes of so!ial mystifi!ation$ lie HalVvy de!lared

himself un7ualified to say if so!ialism "as going to lead to the universali6ation of the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423"iss style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Repu#li! or to European ,Rsarism$ (o"adays "e are #etter informed$ The prophe!ies of (iet6s!he on this point at least are %ustified$ Mar/ism is hen!eforth to "in fame in defian!e of its o"n tea!hings and #y an inevita#le pro!ess of logi! #y intelle!tual ,Rsarism "hi!h "e must no" finally des!ri#e$ The last representative of the struggle of %usti!e against gra!e it ta-es over "ithout having "anted to do so the struggle of %usti!e against truth$ Ho" to live "ithout gra!e E that is the 7uestion that dominates the nineteenth !entury$ F*y %usti!e G ans"ered all those "ho did not "ant to a!!ept a#solute nihilism$ To the people "ho despaired of the -ingdom of heaven they promised the -ingdom of men$ The prea!hing of the ,ity of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Humanity in!reased in fervour up to the end of the nineteenth !entury "hen it #e!ame really visionary in tone and pla!ed s!ientifi! !ertainties in the servi!e of Jtopia$ *ut the -ingdom has retreated into the distan!e giganti! "ars have ravaged the oldest !ountries of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe the #lood of re#els has #espattered "alls and total %usti!e has approa!hed not a step nearer$ The 7uestion of the t"entieth !entury 0 for "hi!h the terrorists of AB:D died and "hi!h tortures the !ontemporary "orld 0 has gradually #een spe!ified) ho" to live "ithout gra!e and "ithout %usti!e@ Only nihilism and not re#ellion has ans"ered that 7uestion$ Jp to no" only nihilism has spo-en returning on!e more to the theme of the romanti! re#els) F<ren6y$G <ren6y in terms of history is !alled po"er$

The "ill to po"er !ame to ta-e the pla!e of the "ill to %usti!e pretending at first to #e identified "ith it and then relegating it to a pla!e some"here at the end of history "aiting until su!h time as nothing remains on earth to dominate$ Thus the ideologi!al !onse7uen!e has triumphed over the e!onomi! !onse7uen!e) the history of Russian ,ommunism gives the lie to every one of its prin!iples$ On!e more "e find at the end of this long %ourney metaphysi!al re#ellion "hi!h this time advan!es to the !lash of arms and the "hispering of pass"ords #ut forgetful of its real prin!iples #urying its solitude in the #osom of armed masses !overing the emptiness of its negations "ith o#stinate s!holasti!ism still dire!ted to"ard the future "hi!h it has made its only god #ut separated from it #y a multitude of nations that must #e overthro"n and !ontinents that must #e dominated$ .ith a!tion as its uni7ue prin!iple and "ith the -ingdom of man as an ali#i it has already #egun in the east of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe to !onstru!t its o"n armed !amp fa!e to fa!e "ith other armed !amps$

The style1229ingdom of style122Ends Mar/ never dreamed of su!h a terrifying apotheosis$ (or indeed did Lenin though he too- a de!isive step to"ard esta#lishing a military Empire$ As good a strategist as he "as a medio!re philosopher he first of all posed himself the pro#lem of the sei6ure of po"er$ Let us note immediately that it is a#solutely false to talas if often done of Lenins La!o#inism$ Only his idea of

units of agitators and revolutionaries is La!o#in$ The La!o#ins #elieved in prin!iples and in virtue4 they died #e!ause they had to deny them$ Lenin #elieves only in the revolution and in the virtue of e/pedien!y$ FOne must #e prepared for every sa!rifi!e to use if ne!essary every stratagem ruse illegal method to #e determined to !on!eal the truth for the sole purpose of penetrating the la#our unions I and of a!!omplishing despite everything the ,ommunist tas-$G The struggle against formal morality inaugurated #y Hegel and Mar/ is found again in Lenin "ith his !riti!ism of ineffi!a!ious revolutionary attitudes$ ,omplete dominion "as the aim of this movement$ It "e e/amine the t"o "or-s "ritten at the #eginning 8What to Do? >AB:9?; and at the end 8The #tate and the /evolution >ABAT?; of his !areer as an agitator one is stru!- #y the fa!t that he never !eased to fight mer!ilessly against the sentimental forms of revolutionary a!tion$ He "anted to a#olish the morality of revolutionary a!tion #e!ause he #elieved !orre!tly that revolutionary po"er !ould not #e esta#lished "hile still respe!ting the Ten ,ommandments$ .hen he appears after his first e/periments on the stage of history "here he "as to play su!h an important role to see him ta-e the "orld so freely and so naturally as it had #een shaped #y the ideology and the e!onomy of the pre!eding !entury one "ould imagine him to #e the first man of a ne" era$ ,ompletely impervious to an/iety to nostalgia to ethi!s he ta-es !ommand loo-s for the #est method of ma-ing the ma!hine run and de!ides that !ertain virtues are suita#le for the driver of historys !hariot and that others are not$ He gropes a little at first

and hesitates as to "hether style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia should first pass through the !apitalist and industrial phase$ *ut this !omes to the same as dou#ting "hether the revolution !an ta-e pla!e in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia$ He himself is Russian and his tas- is to ma-e the Russian Revolution$ He %ettisons e!onomi! fatalism and em#ar-s on a!tion$ He roundly de!lares from AB:9 on that the "or-ers "ill never ela#orate an independent ideology #y themselves$ He denies the spontaneity of the masses$ 3o!ialist do!trine supposes a s!ientifi! #asis that only the intelle!tuals !an give it$ .hen he says that all distin!tions #et"een "or-ers and intelle!tuals must #e effa!ed "hat he really means is that it is possi#le not to #e proletarian and -no" #etter than the proletariat "hat its interests are$ He then !ongratulates Lassalle for having !arried on a tena!ious struggle against the spontaneity of the masses$ FTheory G he says Fshould su#ordinate spontaneity$G 8Mar/ said mu!h the same) F.hat !ertain proletarians or even the entire proletariat imagine to #e their goal is of no importan!e$G; In plain language that means that revolution needs leaders and theorists$ He atta!-s #oth reformism "hi!h he !onsiders guilty of dissipating revolutionary strength and terrorism 8.e -no" that his elder #rother "ho had !hosen terrorism "as hanged$; "hi!h he thin-s an e/emplary and ineffi!a!ious attitude$ The revolution #efore #eing either e!onomi! or sentimental is military$ Jntil the day that the revolution #rea-s out revolutionary a!tion is identified "ith strategy$ Auto!ra!y is its enemy "hose main sour!e of strength is the poli!e for!e "hi!h is nothing #ut a !orps of

professional politi!al soldiers$ The !on!lusion is simple) FThe struggle against the politi!al poli!e demands spe!ial 7ualities demands professional revolutionaries$G The revolution "ill have its professional army as "ell as the masses "hi!h !an #e !ons!ripted "hen needed$ This !orps of agitators must #e organi6ed #efore the mass is organi6ed$ A net"or- of agents is the e/pression that Lenin uses thus announ!ing the reign of the se!ret so!iety and of the realist mon-s of the revolution) F.e are the 5oung Tur-s of the revolution G he said F"ith something of the Lesuit added$G <rom that moment the proletariat no longer has a mission$ It is only one po"erful means among others in the hands of the revolutionary as!eti!s$ 8Heine already !alled the so!ialists Fthe ne" puritans$G +uritanism and revolution go histori!ally together$; The pro#lem of the sei6ure of po"er #rings in its train the pro#lem of the 3tate$ The #tate and the /evolution >ABAT? "hi!h deals "ith this su#%e!t is the strangest and the most !ontradi!tory of pamphlets$ Lenin employs in it his favourite method "hi!h is the method of authority$ .ith the help of Mar/ and Engels he #egins #y ta-ing a stand against any -ind of reformism "hi!h "ould !laim to utili6e the #ourgeois 3tate 0 that organism of domination of one !lass over another$ The #ourgeois 3tate o"es its survival to the poli!e and to the army #e!ause it is primarily an instrument of oppression$ It refle!ts #oth the irre!on!ila#le antagonism of the !lasses and the for!i#le su#%ugation of this antagonism$ This authority of fa!t is only "orthy of !ontempt$ FEven the head of the military po"er of a !ivili6ed 3tate must envy the head of the !lan

"hom patriar!hal so!iety surrounded "ith voluntary respe!t not "ith respe!t imposed #y the !lu#$G Moreover Engels has firmly esta#lished that the !on!ept of the 3tate and the !on!ept of a free so!iety are irre!on!ila#le$ F,lasses "ill disappear as inelu!ta#ly as they appeared$ .ith the disappearan!e of !lasses the 3tate "ill inevita#ly disappear$ The so!iety that reorgani6es produ!tion on the #asis of the free and e7ual asso!iation of the produ!ers "ill relegate the ma!hine of 3tate to the pla!e it deserves) to the museum of anti7uities side #y side "ith the spinningE"heel and the #ron6e a/e$G 'ou#tless this e/plains "hy inattentive readers have as!ri#ed the reason for "riting The #tate and the /evolution to Lenins anar!histi! tenden!ies and have regretted the pe!uliar posterity of a do!trine so severe a#out the army the poli!e !lu# and #ureau!ra!y$ *ut Lenins points of vie" in order to #e understood must al"ays #e !onsidered in terms of strategy$ If he defends so very energeti!ally Engels thesis a#out the disappearan!e of the #ourgeois 3tate it is #e!ause he "ants on the one hand to put an o#sta!le in the "ay of the pure Fe!onomismG of +le-hanov and Kauts-y and on the other to demonstrate that Kerens-ys government is a #ourgeois government "hi!h must #e destroyed$ One month later moreover he destroys it$ It "as also ne!essary to ans"er those "ho o#%e!ted to the fa!t that the revolution itself had need of an administrative and repressive apparatus$ There again Mar/ and Engels are largely used to prove authoritatively that the proletarian 3tate is not a 3tate organi6ed on the lines of other states #ut a 3tate "hi!h

#y definition is in the pro!ess of "ithering a"ay$ FAs soon as there is no longer a so!ial !lass "hi!h must #e -ept oppressed I$ a 3tate !eases to #e ne!essary$ The first a!t #y "hi!h the 8proletarian; 3tate really esta#lishes itself as the representative of an entire so!iety 0 the sei6ure of the so!ietys means of produ!tion 0 is at the same time the last real a!t of the 3tate$ <or the government of people is su#stituted the administration of thingsI$ The 3tate is not a#olished it perishes$G The #ourgeois 3tate is first suppressed #y the proletariat$ Then #ut only then the proletarian 3tate fades a"ay$ The di!tatorship of the proletariat is ne!essary 0 first to !rush or suppress "hat remains of the #ourgeois !lass4 se!ondly to #ring a#out the so!iali6ation of the means of produ!tion$ On!e these t"o tas-s are a!!omplished it immediately #egins to "ither a"ay$ Lenin therefore #egins from the firm and definite prin!iple that the 3tate dies as soon as the so!iali6ation of the means of produ!tion is a!hieved and the e/ploiting !lass has !onse7uently #een suppressed$ 5et in the same pamphlet he ends #y %ustifying the preservation even after the so!iali6ation of the means of produ!tion and "ithout any predi!ta#le end of the di!tatorship of a revolutionary fa!tion over the rest of the people$ The pamphlet "hi!h ma-es !ontinual referen!e to the e/perien!es of the ,ommune flatly !ontradi!ts the !ontemporary federalist and antiE authoritarian ideas that produ!ed the ,ommune4 and it is e7ually opposed to the optimisti! fore!asts of Mar/ and Engels$ The reason for this is !lear4 Lenin had not forgotten that the ,ommune failed$ As for the means of

su!h a surprising demonstration they "ere even more simple) "ith ea!h ne" diffi!ulty en!ountered #y the revolution the 3tate as des!ri#ed #y Mar/ is endo"ed "ith a supplementary prerogative$ Ten pages farther on "ithout any -ind of transition Lenin in effe!t affirms that po"er is ne!essary to !rush the resistan!e of the e/ploiters Fand also to dire!t the great mass of the population peasantry lo"er middle !lasses and semiE proletariat in the management of the so!ialist e!onomy$G The shift here is undenia#le4 the provisional 3tate of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mar/ and Engels is !harged "ith a ne" mission "hi!h ris-s prolonging its life indefinitely$ Already "e !an per!eive the !ontradi!tion of the 3talinist regime in !onfli!t "ith its offi!ial philosophy$ Either this regime has reali6ed the !lassless so!ialist so!iety and the maintenan!e of a formida#le apparatus of repression is not %ustified in Mar/ist terms or it has not reali6ed the !lassless so!iety and has therefore proved that Mar/ist do!trine is erroneous and in parti!ular that the so!iali6ation of the means of produ!tion does not mean the disappearan!e of !lasses$ ,onfronted "ith its offi!ial do!trine the regime is for!ed to !hoose) the do!trine is false or the regime has #etrayed it$ In fa!t together "ith (e!haiev and T-a!hev it is Lassalle the inventor of 3tate so!ialism "hom Lenin has !aused to triumph in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia to the detriment of Mar/$ <rom this moment on the history of the interior struggles of the party from Lenin to 3talin is summed up in the struggle #et"een the "or-ers demo!ra!y and military and #ureau!rati! di!tatorship4 in other "ords #et"een %usti!e and e/pedien!y$

There is a moments dou#t a#out "hether Lenin is not going to find a -ind of means of !on!iliation "hen "e hear him praising the measures adopted #y the ,ommune) ele!ted revo!a#le fun!tionaries remunerated li-e "or-ers and repla!ement of industrial #ureau!ra!y #y dire!t "or-ers management$ .e even !at!h a glimpse of a federalist Lenin "ho praises the institution and representation of the !ommunes$ *ut it #e!omes rapidly !lear that this federalism is only e/tolled to the e/tent that it signifies the a#olition of parliamentarianism$ Lenin in defian!e of every histori!al truth !alls it !entralism and immediately puts the a!!ent on the idea of the di!tatorship of the proletariat "hile reproa!hing the anar!hists for their intransigen!e !on!erning the 3tate$ At this point a ne" affirmation #ased on Engels is introdu!ed "hi!h %ustifies the !ontinuation of the di!tatorship of the proletariat after so!iali6ation after the disappearan!e of the #ourgeois !lass and even after !ontrol of the masses has finally #een a!hieved$ The preservation of authority "ill no" have as limits those that are pres!ri#ed for it #y the very !onditions of produ!tion$ <or e/ample the final "ithering a"ay of the 3tate "ill !oin!ide "ith the moment "hen a!!ommodation !an #e provided for all free of !harge$ It is the higher phase of ,ommunism) FTo ea!h a!!ording to his needs$G Jntil then the 3tate "ill !ontinue$ Ho" rapid "ill #e the development to"ard this higher phase of ,ommunism "hen ea!h shall re!eive a!!ording to his needs@ FThat "e do not and !annot -no"I$ .e have no data that allo" us to solve these 7uestions$G F<or the sa-e of greater !larity G Lenin

affirms "ith his !ustomary ar#itrariness Fit has never #een vou!hsafed to any so!ialist to guarantee the advent of the higher phase of ,ommunism$G It !an #e said that at this point freedom definitely dies$ <rom the rule of the masses and the !on!ept of the proletarian revolution "e first pass on to the idea of a revolution made and dire!ted #y professional agents$ The relentless !riti!ism of the 3tate is then re!on!iled "ith the ne!essary #ut provisional di!tatorship of the proletariat em#odied in its leaders$ <inally it is announ!ed that the end of this provisional !ondition !annot #e foreseen and that "hat is more no one has ever presumed to promise that there "ill #e an end$ After that it is logi!al that the autonomy of the soviets should #e !ontested$ Ma-hno #etrayed and the sailors of Kronstadt !rushed #y the party$ Jndou#tedly many of the affirmations of Lenin "ho "as a passionate lover of %usti!e !an still #e opposed to the 3talinist regime4 mainly the notion of the "ithering a"ay of the 3tate$ Even if it is admitted that the proletarian 3tate !annot disappear #efore many years have passed it is still ne!essary a!!ording to Mar/ist do!trine that it should tend to disappear and #e!ome less and less restri!tive in order that it should #e a#le to !all itself proletarian$ It is !ertain that Lenin #elieved this trend to #e inevita#le and that in this parti!ular sense he has #een ignored$ <or more than thirty years the proletarian 3tate has sho"n no signs of progressive anaemia$ On the !ontrary it seems to #e en%oying in!reasing prosperity$ Mean"hile in a le!ture at the 3verdlov Jniversity t"o years later under the pressure of outside events and interior realities Lenin spo-e "ith a pre!ision "hi!h left little dou#t a#out the indefinite

!ontinuation of the proletarian superE3tate$ F.ith this ma!hine or rather this "eapon 8the 3tate; "e shall !rush every form of e/ploitation and "hen there are no longer any possi#ilities of e/ploitation left on earth no more people o"ning land or fa!tories no more people gorging themselves under the eyes of others "ho are starving "hen su!h things #e!ome impossi#le then and only then shall "e !ast this ma!hine aside$ Then there "ill #e neither 3tate nor e/ploitation$G Therefore as long as there e/ists on earth and no longer in a spe!ifi! so!iety one single oppressed person and one proprietor so long the 3tate "ill !ontinue to e/ist$ It also "ill #e o#liged to in!rease in strength during this period so as to van7uish one #y one the in%usti!es the governments responsi#le for in%usti!e the o#stinately #ourgeois nations and the people "ho are #lind to their o"n interests$ And "hen on an earth that has finally #een su#dued and purged of enemies the final ini7uity shall have #een dro"ned in the #lood of the %ust and the un%ust then the 3tate "hi!h has rea!hed the limit of all po"er a monstrous idol !overing the entire earth "ill #e dis!reetly a#sor#ed into the silent !ity of Lusti!e$ Jnder the easily predi!ta#le pressure of adverse imperialism the imperialism of %usti!e "as #orn in reality "ith Lenin$ *ut imperialism even the imperialism of %usti!e has no other end #ut defeat or "orld empire$ Jntil then it has no other means #ut in%usti!e$ <rom no" on the do!trine is definitively identified "ith the prophe!y$ <or the sa-e of %usti!e in the farEa"ay future it authori6es in%usti!e throughout the entire !ourse of history and #e!omes the type of mystifi!ation "hi!h Lenin detested more than anything

else in the "orld$ It !ontrives the a!!eptan!e of in%usti!e !rime and falsehood #y the promise of a mira!le$ 3till greater produ!tion still more po"er uninterrupted la#our in!essant suffering permanent "ar and then a moment "ill !ome "hen universal #ondage in the totalitarian empire "ill #e mira!ulously !hanged into its opposite) free leisure in a universal repu#li!$ +seudoErevolutionary mystifi!ation has no" a!7uired a formula) all freedom must #e !rushed in order to !on7uer the empire and one day the empire "ill #e the e7uivalent of freedom$ And so the "ay to unity passes through totality$

Totality and Trials Totality is in effe!t nothing more than the an!ient dream of unity !ommon to #oth #elievers and re#els #ut pro%e!ted hori6ontally onto an earth deprived of =od$ To renoun!e every value therefore amounts to renoun!ing re#ellion in order to es!ape the Empire and slavery$ ,riti!ism of formal values !annot pass over the !on!ept of freedom$ On!e the impossi#ility has #een re!ogni6ed of !reating #y means of the for!es of re#ellion alone the free individual of "hom the romanti!s dreamed freedom itself has also #een in!orporated in the movement of history$ It has #e!ome freedom fighting for e/isten!e "hi!h in order to e/ist must !reate itself$ Identified "ith the dynamism of history it !annot play its proper role until history !omes to a stop in the reali6ation of the style12fontEsi6e)

ACpt42Jniversal style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,ity$ Jntil then

every one of its vi!tories "ill lead to an antithesis that "ill render it pointless$ The =erman nation frees itself from its oppressors #ut at the pri!e of the freedom of every =erman$ The individuals under a totalitarian regime are not free even though man in the !olle!tive sense is free$ <inally "hen the Empire delivers the entire human spe!ies freedom "ill reign over herds of slaves "ho at least "ill #e free in relation to =od and in general in relation to every -ind of trans!enden!e$ The diale!ti! mira!le the transformation of 7uantity into 7uality is e/plained here) it is the de!ision to !all total servitude freedom$ Moreover as in all the e/amples !ited #y Hegel and Mar/ there is no o#%e!tive transformation #ut only a su#%e!tive !hange of denomination$ In other "ords there is no mira!le$ If the only hope of nihilism lies in thin-ing that millions of slaves !an one day !onstitute a humanity "hi!h "ill #e freed forever then history is nothing #ut a desperate dream$ Histori!al thought "as to deliver man from su#%e!tion to a divinity4 #ut this li#eration demanded of him the most a#solute su#%e!tion to histori!al evolution$ Then man ta-es refuge in the permanen!e of the party in the same "ay that he formerly prostrated himself #efore the altar$ That is "hy the era "hi!h dares to !laim that it is the most re#ellious that has ever e/isted only offers a !hoi!e of various types of !onformity$ The real passion of the t"entieth !entury is servitude$ *ut total freedom is no more easy to !on7uer than individual freedom$ To ensure mans empire over the "orld it is ne!essary to suppress in the "orld and in man everything that es!apes the Empire everything that

does not !ome under the reign of 7uantity) and this is an endless underta-ing$ The Empire must em#ra!e time spa!e and people "hi!h !ompose the three dimensions of history$ It is simultaneously "ar o#s!urantism and tyranny desperately affirming that one day it "ill #e li#erty fraternity and truth4 the logi! of its postulates o#liges it to do so$ There is undou#tedly in style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Russia today even in its ,ommunist do!trines a truth that denies 3talanist ideology$ *ut this ideology has its logi! "hi!h must #e isolated and e/posed if "e "ish the revolutionary spirit to es!ape final disgra!e$ The !yni!al intervention of the armies of the .estern po"ers against the 3oviet Revolution demonstrated among other things to the Russian revolutionaries that "ar and nationalism "ere realities in the same !ategory as the !lass struggle$ .ithout an international solidarity of the "or-ing !lasses a solidarity that "ould !ome into play automati!ally no interior revolution !ould #e !onsidered li-ely to survive unless an international order "as !reated$ <rom then on it "as ne!essary to admit that the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Jniversal style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,ity !ould only #e #uilt on t"o !onditions) either #y almost simultaneous revolutions in every #ig !ountry or #y the li7uidation through "ar of the #ourgeois nations4 permanent revolution or permanent "ar$ .e -no" that the first point of vie" almost triumphed$ The revolutionary movements in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42=ermany style12fontE si6e) ACpt42Italy and style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e mar-ed the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42high point in revolutionary hopes and aspirations$ *ut the !rushing of these revolutions and the ensuing reinfor!ement of !apitalist

regimes have made "ar the reality of the revolution$ Thus the philosophy of enlightenment finally led to the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe of the #la!-Eout$ *y the logi! of history and of do!trine the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Jniversal style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,ity "hi!h "as to have #een reali6ed #y the spontaneous insurre!tion of the oppressed has #een little #y little repla!ed #y the Empire imposed #y means of po"er$ Engels "ith the approval of Mar/ dispassionately a!!epted this prospe!t "hen he "rote in ans"er to *a-unins Appeal to the #lavs) FThe ne/t "orld "ar "ill !ause the disappearan!e from the surfa!e of the glo#e not only of rea!tionary !lasses and dynasties #ut of "hole ra!es of rea!tionaries$ That also is part of progress$G That parti!ular form of progress in Engels mind "as destined to eliminate the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia of the !6ars$ Today the Russian nation has reversed the dire!tion of progress$ .ar !old and lu-e"arm is the slavery imposed #y "orld Empire$ *ut no" that it has #e!ome imperialist the revolution is in an impasse$ If it does not renoun!e its false prin!iples in order to return to the origins of re#ellion it only means the !ontinuation for several generations and until !apitalism spontaneously de!omposes of a total di!tatorship over hundreds of millions of men4 or if it "ants to pre!ipitate the advent of the Jniversal ,ity it only signifies the atomi! "ar "hi!h it does not "ant and after "hi!h any !ity "hatsoever "ill only #e a#le to !ontemplate !omplete destru!tion$ .orld revolution #y the very la"s of the history it so imprudently deified is !ondemned to the poli!e or to the #om#$ At the same time it finds itself !onfronted "ith yet another !ontradi!tion$ The sa!rifi!e of ethi!s and virtue the

a!!eptan!e of all the means that it !onstantly %ustified #y the end it pursued !an only #e a!!epted if a#solutely ne!essary in terms of an end that is reasona#ly li-ely to #e reali6ed$ The !old "ar supposes #y the indefinite prolongation of di!tatorship the indefinite negation of this end$ The danger of "ar moreover ma-es this end highly unli-ely$ The e/tension of the Empire over the fa!e of the earth is an inevita#le ne!essity for t"entiethE !entury revolution$ *ut this ne!essity !onfronts it "ith a final dilemma) to !onstru!t ne" prin!iples for itself or to renoun!e %usti!e and pea!e "hose definitive reign it al"ays "anted$ .hile "aiting to dominate spa!e the Empire sees itself also !ompelled to reign over time$ In denying every sta#le truth it is !ompelled to go to the point of denying the very lo"est form of truth 0 the truth of history$ It has transported revolution "hi!h is still impossi#le on a "orld"ide s!ale #a!- into a past that it is determined to deny$ Even that too is logi!al$ Any -ind of !oheren!e that is not purely e!onomi! #et"een the past and the future of humanity supposes a !onstant "hi!h in its turn !an lead to a #elief in a human nature$ The profound !oheren!e that Mar/ "ho "as a man of !ulture had per!eived as e/isting #et"een all !ivili6ations threatened to s"amp his thesis and to #ring to light a natural !ontinuity far #roader in s!ope that e!onomi! !ontinuity$ Little #y little Russian ,ommunism has #een for!ed to #urn its #ridges to introdu!e a solution of !ontinuity into the pro#lem of histori!al evolution$ The negation of every genius "ho proves to #e a hereti! >and almost all of them do? the denial of the #enefits of !ivili6ation of art 0 to the

infinite degree in "hi!h it es!apes from history 0 and the renun!iation of vital traditions have gradually for!ed !ontemporary Mar/ism "ithin narro"er and narro"er limits$ It has not suffi!ed for Mar/ism to deny or to silen!e the things in the history of the "orld "hi!h !annot #e assimilated #y its do!trine or to re%e!t the dis!overies of modern s!ien!e$ It has also had to re"rite history even the most re!ent and the #estE-no"n even the history of the party and of the Revolution$ 5ear #y year sometimes month #y month "ravda !orre!ts itself and re"ritten editions of the offi!ial history #oo-s follo" one another off the presses$ Lenin is !ensored Mar/ is not pu#lished$ At this point !omparison "ith religious o#s!urantism is no longer even fair$ The ,hur!h never "ent so far as to de!ide that the divine manifestation "as em#odied in t"o then in four or in three and then again in t"o persons$ The a!!eleration of events that is part of our times also affe!ts the fa#ri!ation of truth "hi!h a!!omplished at this speed #e!omes pure fantasy$ As in the fairy story in "hi!h all the looms of an entire to"n "ove the empty air to provide !lothes for the -ing thousands of men "hose strange profession it is re"rite a presumptuous version of history "hi!h is destroyed the same evening "hile "aiting for the !alm voi!e of a !hild to pro!laim suddenly that the -ing is na-ed$ This small voi!e the voi!e of re#ellion "ill then #e saying "hat all the "orld !an already see that a revolution "hi!h in order to last is !ondemned to deny its universal vo!ation or to renoun!e itself in order to #e universal is living #y false prin!iples$

Mean"hile these prin!iples !ontinue to dominate the lives of millions of men$ The dream of Empire held in !he!- #y the realities of time and spa!e gratifies its desires on humanity$ +eople are not only hostile to the Empire as individuals) in that !ase the traditional methods of terror "ould suffi!e$ They are hostile to it insofar as human nature to date has never #een a#le to live #y history alone and has al"ays es!aped from it #y some means$ The Empire supposes a negation and a !ertainty) the !ertainty of the infinite mallea#ility of man and the negation of human nature$ +ropaganda te!hni7ues serve to measure the degree of this mallea#ility and try to ma-e refle!tion and !onditioned refle/ !oin!ide$ +ropaganda ma-es it possi#le to sign a pa!t "ith those "ho for years have #een designated as the mortal enemy$ Even more it allo"s the psy!hologi!al effe!t thus o#tained to #e reversed and the people on!e again to #e aligned against this same enemy$ The e/periment has not yet #een #rought to an end #ut its prin!iple is logi!al$ If there is no human nature then the mallea#ility of man is in fa!t infinite$ +oliti!al realism on this level is nothing #ut un#ridled romanti!ism a romanti!ism of e/pedien!y$ In this "ay it is possi#le to e/plain "hy Russian Mar/ism re%e!ts in its entirety and even though it -no"s very "ell ho" to ma-e use of it the "orld of the irrational$ The irrational !an serve the Empire as "ell as refute it$ The irrational es!apes !al!ulation and !al!ulation alone must reign in the Empire$ Man is only an interplay of for!es that !an #e rationally influen!ed$ A fe" in!onsiderate Mar/ists "ere rash enough to imagine that they !ould re!on!ile their do!trine "ith

<reuds for e/ample$ Their eyes "ere opened for them 7ui!-ly enough$ <reud is a hereti! thin-er and a Fpetit #ourgeoisG #e!ause he #rought to light the un!ons!ious and #esto"ed on it at least as mu!h reality as on the super or so!ial ego$ This un!ons!ious mind !an therefore define the originality of a human nature opposed to the histori! ego$ Man on the !ontrary must #e e/plained in terms of the so!ial and rational ego and as an o#%e!t of !al!ulation$ Therefore it has #een ne!essary to enslave not only ea!h individual life #ut also the most irrational and the most solitary event of all the e/pe!tan!y of "hi!h a!!ompanies man throughout his entire life$ The Empire in its !onvulsive effort to found a definitive -ingdom strives to integrate death$ A living man !an #e enslaved and redu!ed to the histori! !ondition of an o#%e!t$ *ut if he dies in refusing to #e enslaved he reaffirms the e/isten!e of another -ind of human nature "hi!h refuses to #e !lassified as an o#%e!t$ That is "hy the a!!ursed is never produ!ed and -illed #efore the eyes of the "orld unless he !onsents to say that his death is %ust and unless he !onforms to the Empire of o#%e!ts$ One must die dishonoured or no longer e/ist 0 neither in life nor in death$ In the latter event the vi!tim does not die he disappears$ If he is punished his punishment "ould #e a silent protest and might !ause a fissure in the totality$ *ut the !ulprit is not punished he is simply repla!ed in the totality and thus helps to !onstru!t the ma!hine of Empire$ He is transformed into a !og in the ma!hinery of produ!tion so indispensa#le that in the long run he "ill not #e used in produ!tion #e!ause he is guilty #ut

!onsidered guilty #e!ause produ!tion has need of him$ The !on!entrationE!amp system of the Russians has in fa!t a!!omplished the diale!ti!al transition from the government of people to the administration of o#%e!ts #ut #y identifying people "ith o#%e!ts$ Even the enemy must !olla#orate in the !ommon endeavour$ *eyond the !onfines of the Empire there is no salvation$ This is or "ill #e the Empire of friendship$ *ut this friendship is the #efriending of o#%e!ts for the friend !annot #e preferred to the Empire$ The friendship of people 0 and there is no other definition of it 0 is spe!ifi! solidarity to the point of death against everything that is not part of the -ingdom of friendship$ The friendship of o#%e!ts is friendship in general friendship "ith everything "hi!h supposes 0 "hen it is a 7uestion of selfEpreservation 0 mutual denun!iation$ He "ho loves his friend loves him in the present and the revolution "ants to love only a man "ho has not yet appeared$ To love is in a !ertain "ay to -ill the perfe!t man "ho is going to #e #orn of the revolution$ In order that one day he may live he should from no" on #e preferred to anyone else$ In the -ingdom of humanity men are #ound #y ties of affe!tion4 in the Empire of o#%e!ts men are united #y mutual a!!usation$ The !ity that planned to #e the !ity of fraternity #e!omes an antEheap of solitary men$ On another plane only a #rute in a state of irrational fury !an imagine that men should #e sadisti!ally tortured in order to o#tain their !onsent$ 3u!h an a!t only a!!omplishes the su#%ugation of one man #y another in an outrageous relationship #et"een persons$ The representative of rational totality is !ontent on the

!ontrary to allo" the o#%e!t to su#due the person in the soul of man$ The highest mind is first of all redu!ed to the level of the lo"est #y the poli!e te!hni7ue of %oint a!!usation$ Then five ten t"enty nights of insomnia "ill !ulminate an illusory !onvi!tion and "ill #ring yet another dead soul into the "orld$ <rom this point of vie" the only psy!hologi!al revolution -no"n to our times sin!e <reuds has #een #rought a#out #y the (KV' and the politi!al poli!e in general$ =uided #y a determinist hypothesis that !al!ulates the "ea- points and the degree of elasti!ity of the soul these ne" te!hni7ues have on!e again thrust aside one of mans limits and have attempted to demonstrate that no individual psy!hology is original and that the !ommon measure of all human !hara!ter is matter$ They have literally !reated the physi!s of the soul$ <rom that point on traditional human relations have #een transformed$ These progressive transformations !hara!teri6e the "orld of rational terror in "hi!h in different degrees style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe lives$ 'ialogue and personal relations have #een repla!ed #y propaganda or polemi! "hi!h are t"o -inds of monologue$ A#stra!tion "hi!h #elongs to the "orld of po"er and !al!ulation has repla!ed the real passions "hi!h are in the domain of the flesh and of the irrational$ The ration !oupon su#stituted for #read4 love and friendship su#mitted to a do!trine and destiny to a plan4 punishment !onsidered the norm and produ!tion su#stituted for living !reation 7uite satisfa!torily des!ri#e this disem#odied Europe peopled "ith positive or negative sym#ols of po"er$ FHo" misera#le G Mar/ e/!laims Fis a so!iety that -no"s no #etter means of

defen!e than the e/e!utionerHG *ut in Mar/s day the e/e!utioner had not yet #e!ome a philosopher and at least made no preten!e of universal philanthropy$ The ultimate !ontradi!tion of the greatest revolution that history ever -ne" does not after all lie entirely in the fa!t that it lays !laim to %usti!e despite an uninterrupted pro!ession of violen!e and in%usti!e$ This is an evil !ommon to all times and a produ!t of servitude or mystifi!ation$ The tragedy of this revolution is the tragedy of nihilism 0 it !onfounds itself "ith the drama of !ontemporary intelligen!e "hi!h "hile !laiming to #e universal is only responsi#le for a series of mutilations of mens minds$ Totality is not unity$ The state of siege even "hen it is e/tended to the very #oundaries of the earth is not re!on!iliation$ The !laim to a universal !ity is supported in this revolution only #y re%e!ting t"o thirds of the "orld and the magnifi!ent heritage of the !enturies and #y denying to the advantage of history #oth nature and #eauty and #y depriving man of the po"er of passion dou#t happiness and imaginative invention 0 in a "ord of his greatness$ The prin!iples that men give to themselves end #y over"helming their no#lest intentions$ *y dint of argument in!essant struggle polemi!s e/!ommuni!ations perse!utions !ondu!ted and suffered the universal !ity of free and fraternal man is slo"ly diverted and gives "ay to the only universe in "hi!h history and e/pedien!y !an in fa!t #e elevated to the position of supreme %udges) the universe of the trial$ Every religion revolves around the !on!epts of inno!en!e and guilt$ +rometheus the first re#el ho"ever denies the right to punish$ Oeus himself Oeus

a#ove all is not inno!ent enough to e/er!ise this right$ Thus re#ellion in its very first manifestation refuses to re!ogni6e punishment as legitimate$ *ut in his last in!arnation at the end of his e/hausting %ourney the re#el on!e more adopts the religious !on!ept of punishment and pla!es it at the !entre of his universe$ The supreme %udge is no longer in the heavens4 history itself a!ts as an impla!a#le divinity$ History in one sense is nothing #ut a protra!ted punishment for the real re"ard "ill #e reaped only at the end of time$ .e are far it "ould seem from Mar/ism and from Hegel and even farther from the first re#els$ (evertheless all purely histori!al thought leads to the #rin- of this a#yss$ To the e/tent to "hi!h Mar/ predi!ted the inevita#le esta#lishment of the !lassless !ity and to the e/tent to "hi!h he thus esta#lishes the good "ill of history every !he!- to the advan!e to"ard freedom must #e imputed to the ill "ill of man-ind$ Mar/ reintrodu!ed !rime and punishment into the un!hristian "orld #ut only in relation to history$ Mar/ism in one of its aspe!ts is a do!trine of !ulpa#ility on mans part and inno!en!e on historys$ His interpretation of history is that "hen it is deprived of po"er it e/presses itself in revolutionary violen!e4 at the height of its po"er it ris-ed #e!oming legal violen!e 0 in other "ords terror and trial$ In the universe of religion moreover the final %udgement is postponed4 it is not ne!essary for !rime to #e punished "ithout delay or for inno!en!e to #e re"arded$ In the ne" universe on the other hand the %udgement pronoun!ed #y history must #e pronoun!ed immediately for !ulpa#ility !oin!ides "ith the !he!- to progress and "ith punishment$ History has %udged

*u-arin in that it !ondemned him to death$ It pro!laims the inno!en!e of 3talin) he is the most po"erful man on earth$ It is the same "ith Tito a#out "hom "e do not -no" so "e are told "hether he is guilty or not$ He is on trial as "as Trots-y "hose guilt only #e!ame !lear at the moment "hen the murderers a/e !ra!-ed his s-ull$ Tito has #een denoun!ed #ut not yet stru!do"n$ .hen he has #een stru!- do"n his guilt "ill #e !ertain$ *esides Trots-ys and Titos provisional inno!en!e depended and depends to a large e/tent on geography4 they "ere far removed from the arm of se!ular po"er$ That is "hy those "ho !an #e rea!hed #y that arm must #e %udged "ithout delay$ The definitive %udgement of history depends on an infinite num#er of %udgements "hi!h "ill have #een pronoun!ed #et"een no" and then and "hi!h "ill finally #e !onfirmed or invalidated$ Thus there is the promise of mysterious reha#ilitations on the day "hen the tri#unal of the "orld "ill #e esta#lished #y the "orld itself$ 3ome "ho "ill pro!laim themselves !ontempti#le traitors "ill enter the +antheon of man-ind4 others "ho maintain their inno!en!e "ill #e !ondemned to the hell of history$ *ut "ho then "ill #e the %udge@ Man himself finally fulfilled in his divinity$ Mean"hile those "ho !on!eived the prophe!y and "ho alone are !apa#le of reading in history the meaning "ith "hi!h they previously endo"ed it "ill pronoun!e senten!e 0 definitive for the guilty provisional senten!es for the %udges$ *ut it sometimes happens that those "ho %udge li-e Ra%- are %udged in their turn$ Must "e #elieve that he no longer interpreted history !orre!tly@ His defeat and death in fa!t prove it$ Then "ho guarantees that those "ho %udge him today "ill not #e traitors

tomorro" hurled do"n from the height of their %udgement seat to the !on!rete !aves "here historys damned are dying@ The guarantee lies in their infalli#le !lairvoyan!e$ .hat proof is there of that@ Their uninterrupted su!!ess$ The "orld of trial is a spheri!al "orld in "hi!h su!!ess and inno!en!e authenti!ate ea!h other and "here every mirror refle!ts the same mystifi!ation$ Thus there "ill #e a histori! gra!e 8FThe rise of reason G in the histori!al universe presents the pro#lem of evil in a ne" form$; "hose po"er alone !an interpret events and "hi!h favours or e/!ommuni!ates the su#%e!t of the Empire$ To guard against its !apri!es the latter has only faith at his disposal 0 faith as defined in the #piritual E8ercises of 3aint Ignatius) F.e should al"ays #e prepared so as never to err to #elieve that "hat I see as "hite is #la!- if the hierar!hi! ,hur!h defines it thus$G Only this a!tive faith held #y the representatives of truth !an save the su#%e!t from the mysterious ravages of history$ He is not yet free of the universe of trial to "hi!h he is #ound #y the histori! sentiment of fear$ *ut "ithout this faith he runs a perpetual ris- of #e!oming "ithout having "ished to do so and "ith the #est intentions in the "orld an o#%e!tive !riminal$ The universe of trial finally !ulminates in this !on!ept at "hi!h point "e have !ome full !ir!le$ At the end of this long insurre!tion in the name of human inno!en!e there arises #y an inevita#le perversion of fa!t the affirmation of general !ulpa#ility$ Every man is a !riminal "ho is una"are of #eing so$ The o#%e!tive !riminal is pre!isely he "ho #elieved himself

inno!ent$ His a!tions he !onsidered su#%e!tively inoffensive or even advantageous for the future of %usti!e$ *ut it is demonstrated to him that o#%e!tively his a!tions have #een harmful to that future$ Are "e dealing "ith s!ientifi! o#%e!tivity@ (o #ut "ith histori!al o#%e!tivity$ Ho" is it possi#le to -no" for e/ample if the future of %usti!e is !ompromised #y the un!onsidered denun!iation of present in%usti!e@ Real o#%e!tivity "ould !onsist in %udging #y those results "hi!h !an #e s!ientifi!ally o#served and #y fa!ts and their general tenden!ies$ *ut the !on!ept of o#%e!tive !ulpa#ility proves that this !urious -ind of o#%e!tivity is only #ased on results and fa!ts "hi!h "ill only #e!ome a!!essi#le to s!ien!e in the year 9::: at the very earliest$ Mean"hile it is em#odied in an intermina#le su#%e!tivity "hi!h is imposed on others as o#%e!tivity) and that is the philosophi! definition of terror$ This type of o#%e!tivity has no defina#le meaning #ut po"er "ill give it a !ontent #y de!reeing that everything of "hi!h it does not approve is guilty$ It "ill !onsent to say or allo" to #e said to philosophers "ho live outside the Empire that in this "ay it is ta-ing a ris- in regard to history %ust as the o#%e!tive !ulprit too- a ris- though "ithout -no"ing it$ .hen vi!tim and e/e!utioner have disappeared the matter "ill #e %udged$ *ut this !onsolation is of any value only to the e/e!utioner "ho has really no need of it$ Mean"hile the faithful are regularly #idden to attend strange feasts "here a!!ording to s!rupulous rites vi!tims over"helmed "ith !ontrition are offered as sa!rifi!e to the god of history$ The e/press o#%e!t of this idea is to prevent indifferen!e to matters of faith$ It is !ompulsory

evangeli6ation$ The la" "hose fun!tion it is to pursue suspe!ts fa#ri!ates them$ *y fa#ri!ating them it !onverts them$ In #ourgeois so!iety for e/ample every !iti6en is supposed to approve the la"$ In o#%e!tive so!iety every !iti6en "ill #e presumed to disapprove of it$ Or at least he should al"ays #e ready to prove that he does not disapprove of it$ ,ulpa#ility no longer has any fa!tual #asis4 it simply !onsists of a#sen!e of faith "hi!h e/plains the apparent !ontradi!tion of the o#%e!tive system$ Jnder a !apitalist regime the man "ho says he is neutral is !onsidered o#%e!tively to #e favoura#le to the regime$ Jnder the regime of the Empire the man "ho is neutral is !onsidered hostile o#%e!tively to the regime$ There is nothing astonishing a#out that$ If a su#%e!t of the Empire does not #elieve in the Empire he is of his o"n !hoi!e nothing histori!ally spea-ing4 therefore he ta-es sides against history and is in other "ords a #lasphemer$ Even lip servi!e paid to faith "ill not suffi!e4 it must #e lived and a!ted upon in order to #e served properly and the !iti6en must #e al"ays on the alert to !onsent in time to the !hanges in dogma$ At the slightest error potential !ulpa#ility #e!omes in its turn o#%e!tive !ulpa#ility$ ,onsummating its history in this manner the revolution is not !ontent "ith -illing all re#ellion$ It insists in holding every man even the most servile responsi#le for the fa!t that re#ellion ever e/isted and still e/ists under the sun$ In the universe of the trial !on7uered and !ompleted at last a ra!e of !ulprits "ill endlessly shuffle to"ard an impossi#le inno!en!e under the grim regard of the grand in7uisitors$ In the t"entieth !entury po"er "ears the mas- of tragedy$

Here ends +rometheus surprising itinerary$ +ro!laiming his hatred of the gods and his love of man-ind he turns a"ay from Oeus "ith s!orn and approa!hes mortal men in order to lead them in an assault against the heavens$ *ut men are "ea- and !o"ardly4 they must #e organi6ed$ They love pleasure and immediate happiness4 they must #e taught to refuse in order to gro" up immediate re"ards$ Thus +rometheus in his turn #e!omes a master "ho first tea!hes and then !ommands$ Men dou#t that they !an safely atta!- the !ity of light and are even un!ertain "hether the !ity e/ists$ They must #e saved from themselves$ The hero then tells them that he and he alone -no"s the !ity$ Those "ho dou#t his "ord "ill #e thro"n into the desert !hained to a ro!- offered to the vultures$ The others "ill mar!h hen!eforth in dar-ness #ehind the pensive and solitary master$ +rometheus alone has #e!ome god and reigns over the solitude of men$ *ut from Oeus he has gained only solitude and !ruelty4 he is no longer +rometheus he is ,Rsar$ The real the eternal +rometheus has no" assumed the aspe!t of one of his vi!tims$ The same !ry springing from the depths of the past rings forever through the 3!ythian desert$

/ebellion and /evolution

%
The revolution #ased on prin!iples -ills =od in the person of His representative on earth$ The revolution of the t"entieth !entury -ills "hat remains of =od in the prin!iples themselves and !onse!rates histori!al nihilism$ .hatever paths nihilism may pro!eed to ta-e from the moment that it de!ides to #e the !reative for!e of its period and ignores every moral pre!ept it #egins to #uild the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42temple of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42,Rsar$ To !hoose history and history alone is to !hoose nihilism in defian!e of the tea!hings of re#ellion itself$ Those "ho rush #lindly to history in the name of the irrational pro!laiming that it is meaningless en!ounter servitude and terror and finally emerge into the universe of !on!entration !amps$ Those "ho laun!h themselves into it prea!hing its a#solute rationality en!ounter servitude and terror and emerge into the universe of the !on!entration !amps$ <as!ism "ants to esta#lish the advent of the (iet6s!hean superman$ It immediately dis!overs that =od if He e/ists may "ell #e this or that #ut He is primarily the master of death$ If man "ants to #e!ome =od he arrogates to himself the po"er of life or death over others$ Manufa!turer of !orpses and of su#men he is a su#Eman himself and not =od #ut the igno#le servant of death$ The rational

revolution on its part "ants to reali6e the total man des!ri#ed #y Mar/$ The logi! of history from the moment that it is totally a!!epted gradually leads it against its most passionate !onvi!tions to mutilate man more and more and to transform itself into o#%e!tive !rime$ It is not legitimate to identify the ends of <as!ism "ith the ends of Russian ,ommunism$ The first represents the e/altation of the e/e!utioner #y the e/e!utioner4 the se!ond more dramati! in !on!ept the e/altation of the e/e!utioner #y the vi!tims$ The former never dreamed of li#erating all men #ut only of li#erating a fe" #y su#%ugating the rest$ The latter in its most profound prin!iple aims at li#erating all men #y provisionally enslaving them all$ It must #e granted the grandeur of its intentions$ *ut on the other hand it is legitimate to identify the means employed #y #oth "ith the politi!al !yni!ism that they have dra"n from the same sour!e moral nihilism$ Everything has ta-en pla!e as though the des!endants of 3tirner and of (e!haiev "ere ma-ing use of the des!endants of Kaliayev and +roudhon$ The nihilists today are seated on thrones$ Methods of thought "hi!h !laim to give the lead to our "orld in the name of revolution has #e!ome in reality ideologies of !onsent and not of re#ellion$ That is "hy our period is the period of private and pu#li! te!hni7ues of annihilation$

The revolution o#edient to the di!tates of nihilism has in fa!t turned against its re#el origins$ Man "ho hated death and the god of death "ho despaired of personal survival "anted to free himself in the immortality of the spe!ies$ *ut as long as the group does not dominate the "orld as long as the spe!ies does not reign it is still ne!essary to die$ Time is pressing therefore4 persuasion demands leisure and friendship a stru!ture that "ill never #e !ompleted4 thus terror remains the shortest route to immortality$ *ut these e/tremes simultaneously pro!laim a longing for the primitive values of re#ellion$ The !ontemporary revolution that !laims to deny every value is already in itself a standard for %udging values$ Man "ants to reign supreme through the revolution$ *ut "hy reign supreme if nothing has any meaning@ .hy "ish for immortality if the aspe!t of life is so hideous@ There is no method of thought "hi!h is a#solutely nihilist e/!ept perhaps the method that leads to sui!ide any more than there is a#solute materialism$ The destru!tion of man on!e more affirms man$ Terror and !on!entration !amps are the drasti! means used #y man to es!ape solitude$ The thirst for unity must #e assuaged even in the !ommon grave$ If men -ill one another it is #e!ause they re%e!t mortality and desire immortality for all men$ Therefore in one sense they !ommit sui!ide$ *ut they prove at the same time that they !annot dispense "ith man-ind4 they satisfy a terri#le hunger for fraternity$ FThe human #eing needs happiness and "hen he is unhappy he needs another human #eing$G Those "ho re%e!t the agony of living and dying "ish to dominate$ F3olitude is po"er G says 3ade$ +o"er today #e!ause for thousands of solitary people it signifies the suffering of

others #ears "itness to the need for others$ Terror is the homage that the malignant re!luse finally pays to the #rotherhood of man$ *ut nihilism if it does not e/ist tries to do so4 and that is enough to ma-e the "orld a desert$ This parti!ular form of madness is "hat has given our times their for#idding aspe!t$ The land of humanism has #e!ome the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe of today the land of inhumanity$ *ut the times are ours and ho" !an "e diso"n them@ If our history is our hell still "e !annot avert our fa!es$ This horror !annot #e es!aped #ut is assumed in order to #e ignored #y the very people "ho a!!epted it "ith lu!idity and not #y those "ho having provo-ed it thin- that they have a right to pronoun!e %udgement$ 3u!h a plant !ould in fa!t thrive only in the fertile soil of a!!umulated ini7uities$ In the last throes of a death struggle in "hi!h men are indis!riminately involved #y the insanity of the times the enemy remains the fraternal enemy$ Even "hen he has #een denoun!ed for his errors he !an #e neither despised nor hated4 misfortune is today the !ommon fatherland and the only earthly -ingdom that has fulfilled the promise$ The longing for rest and pea!e must itself #e thrust aside4 it !oin!ides "ith the a!!eptan!e of ini7uity$ Those "ho "eep for the happy periods they en!ounter in history a!-no"ledge "hat they "ant) not the alleviation #ut the silen!ing of misery$ *ut let us on the !ontrary sing the praises of the times "hen misery !ries aloud and distur#s the sleep of the surfeited ri!hH Maistre has already spo-en of the Fterri#le sermon that the revolution prea!hed to -ings$G It prea!hes the same

sermon today and in a still more urgent fashion to the dishonoured elite of the times$ This sermon must #e heard$ In every "ord and in every a!t even though it #e !riminal lies the promise of a value that "e must seeout and #ring to light$ The future !annot #e foreseen and it may #e that the renaissan!e is impossi#le$ Even though the histori!al diale!ti! is false and !riminal the "orld after all !an very "ell reali6e itself in !rime and in pursuit of a false !on!ept$ This -ind of resignation is 7uite simply re%e!ted here) "e must sta-e everything on the renaissan!e$ (othing remains for us moreover #ut to #e re#orn or to die$ If "e are at the moment in history "hen re#ellion has rea!hed the point of its most e/treme !ontradi!tion #y denying itself then it must either perish "ith the "orld it has !reated or find a ne" o#%e!t of faith and a ne" impetus$ *efore going any farther this !ontradi!tion must at least #e stated in plain language$ It is not a !lear definition to say li-e the e/istentialists for e/ample >"ho are also su#%e!ted for the moment to the !ult of history and its !ontradi!tions? 8Atheist e/istentialism at least "ishes to !reate a morality$ This morality is still to #e defined$ *ut the real diffi!ulty lies in !reating it "ithout reintrodu!ing into histori!al e/isten!e a value foreign to history$; that there is progress in the transition from re#ellion to revolution and that the re#el is nothing if he is not revolutionary$ The !ontradi!tion is in reality !onsidera#ly more restri!ted$ The revolutionary is simultaneously a re#el or he is not a revolutionary #ut a poli!eman and a #ureau!rat "ho turns against re#ellion$ *ut if he is a re#el he ends #y ta-ing sides against the revolution$ 3o

mu!h so that there is a#solutely no progress from one attitude to the other #ut !oe/isten!e and endlessly in!reasing !ontradi!tion$ Every revolutionary ends #y #e!oming either an oppressor or a hereti!$ In the purely histori!al universe that they have !hosen re#ellion and revolution end in the same dilemma) either poli!e rule or insanity$ On this level therefore history alone offers no hope$ It is not a sour!e of values #ut is still a sour!e of nihilism$ ,an one at least !reate values in defian!e of history on the single level of a philosophy #ased on eternity@ That !omes to the same as ratifying histori!al in%usti!e and the sufferings of man$ To slander the "orld leads to the nihilism defined #y (iet6s!he$ Thought that is derived from history alone li-e thought that re%e!ts history !ompletely deprives man of the means and the reason for living$ The former drives him to the e/treme de!aden!e of F"hy live@G the latter to Fho" live@G History ne!essary #ut not suffi!ient is therefore only an o!!asional !ause$ It is not a#sen!e of values nor values themselves nor even the sour!e of values$ It is one o!!asion among others for man to prove the still !onfused e/isten!e of a value that allo"s him to %udge history$ Re#ellion itself ma-es us the promise of us a value$ A#solute revolution in fa!t supposes the a#solute mallea#ility of human nature and its possi#le redu!tion to the !ondition of a histori!al for!e$ *ut re#ellion in man is the refusal to #e treated as an o#%e!t and to #e redu!ed to simple histori!al terms$ It is the affirmation of a nature !ommon to all men "hi!h eludes the "orld of po"er$ History undou#tedly is one of the limits of

mans e/perien!e4 in this sense the revolutionaries are right$ *ut man #y re#elling imposes in his turn a limit to history and at this limit the promise of a value is #orn$ It is the #irth of this value that the ,Rsarian revolution impla!a#ly !om#ats today #e!ause it presages its final defeat and the o#ligation to renoun!e its prin!iples$ The fate of the "orld is not #eing played out at present as it seemed it "ould #e in the struggle #et"een #ourgeois produ!tion and revolutionary produ!tion4 their end results "ill #e the same$ It is #eing played out #et"een the for!es of re#ellion and those of the ,Rsarian revolution$ The triumphant revolution must prove #y means of its poli!e its trials and its e/!ommuni!ations that there is no su!h thing as human nature$ Humiliated re#ellion #y its !ontradi!tions its sufferings its !ontinuous defeats and its ine/hausti#le pride must give its !ontent of hope and suffering to this nature$
FI re#el therefore "e e/ist G said the slave$

Metaphysi!al re#ellion then added) F"e are alone G #y "hi!h "e still live today$ *ut if "e are alone #eneath the empty heavens if "e must die forever ho" !an "e really e/ist@ Metaphysi!al re#ellion then tried to !onstru!t e/isten!e "ith appearan!es$ After "hi!h purely histori!al thought !ame to say that to #e "as to a!t$ .e did not e/ist #ut "e should e/ist #y every possi#le means$ Our revolution is an attempt to !on7uer a ne" e/isten!e #y a!tion that re!ogni6es no moral stri!tures$ That is "hy it is !ondemned to live only for history and in a reign of terror$ Man is nothing a!!ording to the revolution if he does not o#tain from history "illingly and #y for!e unanimous approval$ At

this e/a!t point the limit is e/!eeded re#ellion is first #etrayed and then logi!ally assassinated for it has never affirmed in its purest form anything #ut the e/isten!e of a limit and the divided e/isten!e that "e represent) it is not originally the total negation of all e/isten!e$ Muite the !ontrary it says yes and no simultaneously$ It is the re%e!tion of one part of e/isten!e in the name of another part "hi!h it e/alts$ The more profound the e/altation the more impla!a#le is the re%e!tion$ Then "hen re#ellion in rage or into/i!ation adopts the attitude of Fall or nothingG and the negation of all e/isten!e and all human nature it is at this point that it denies itself$ Only total negation %ustifies the !on!ept of a totality that must #e !on7uered$ *ut the affirmation of a limit a dignity and a #eauty !ommon to all men only entails the ne!essity of e/tending this value to em#ra!e everything and everyone and of advan!ing to"ard unity "ithout denying the origins of re#ellion$ In this sense re#ellion in its original authenti!ity does not %ustify any purely histori!al !on!ept$ Re#ellions demand is unity4 histori!al revolutions demand is totality$ The former starts from a negative supported #y an affirmative the latter from a#solute negation and is !ondemned to every aspe!t of slavery in order to fa#ri!ate an affirmative that is dismissed until the end of time$ One is !reative the other nihilist$ The first is dedi!ated to !reation so as to e/ist more and more !ompletely4 the se!ond is for!ed to produ!e results in order to negate more and more !ompletely$ The histori!al revolution is al"ays o#liged to a!t in the hope "hi!h is invaria#ly disappointed of one day really e/isting$ Even unanimous !onsent "ill not suffi!e to !reate its e/isten!e$ FO#ey G said style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<rederi!- the =reat to his su#%e!ts4

#ut "hen he died his "ords "ere) FI am tired of ruling slaves$G To es!ape this a#surd destiny the revolution is and "ill #e !ondemned to renoun!e not only its o"n prin!iples #ut nihilism as "ell as purely histori!al values in order to redis!over the !reative sour!e of re#ellion$ Revolution in order to #e !reative !annot do "ithout either a moral or metaphysi!al rule to #alan!e the insanity of history$ Jndou#tedly it has nothing #ut s!orn for the formal and mystifying morality to #e found in #ourgeois so!iety$ *ut its folly has #een to e/tend this s!orn to every moral demand$ At the very sour!es of its inspiration and in its most profound transports is to #e found a rule that is not formal #ut that nevertheless !an serve as a guide$ Re#ellion in fa!t says 0 and "ill say more and more e/pli!itly 0 that revolution must try to a!t not in order to !ome into e/isten!e at some future date in the eyes of a "orld redu!ed to a!7uies!en!e #ut in terms of the o#s!ure e/isten!e that is already made manifest in the a!t of insurre!tion$ This rule is neither formal nor su#%e!t to history it is "hat !an #e #est des!ri#ed #y e/amining it in its pure state 0 in artisti! !reation$ *efore doing so let us only note that to the FI re#el therefore "e e/istG and the F.e are aloneG of metaphysi!al re#ellion re#ellion at grips "ith history adds that instead of -illing and dying in order to produ!e the #eing that "e are not "e have to live and let live in order to !reate "hat "e are$

"art &our

Rebellion and Art

*
Art is the a!tivity that e/alts and denies simultaneously$ F(o artist tolerates reality G says (iet6s!he$ That is true #ut no artist !an get along "ithout reality$ Artisti! !reation is a demand for unity and a re%e!tion of the "orld$ *ut it re%e!ts the "orld on a!!ount of "hat it la!-s and in the name of "hat it sometimes is$ Re#ellion !an #e o#served here in its pure state and in its original !omple/ities$ Thus art should give us a final perspe!tive on the !ontent of re#ellion$ The hostility to art sho"n #y all revolutionary reformers must ho"ever #e pointed out$ +lato is moderately reasona#le$ He only !alls in 7uestion the de!eptive fun!tion of language and e/iles only poets from his repu#li!$ Apart from that he !onsiders #eauty more important than the "orld$ *ut the revolutionary movement of modern times !oin!ides "ith an artisti! pro!ess that is not yet !ompleted$ The Reformation !hooses morality and e/iles #eauty$ Rousseau denoun!es in art a !orruption of nature #y so!iety$ 3aintELust inveighs against the theatre and in the ela#orate programme he !omposes for the F<east of ReasonG he states that he "ould li-e Reason to #e impersonated #y someone Fvirtuous rather than #eautiful$G The <ren!h Revolution gave #irth to no artists #ut only to a great %ournalist 'esmoulins and to a !landestine "riter 3ade$ It guillotines the only poet of

the times$ 8AndrV ,hVnier$ >E'$?; The only great proseE "riter 8<ran^ois RenV ,hateau#riand$ >E'$?; too- refuge in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42London and pleaded the !ause of ,hristianity and legitima!y$ A little later the follo"ers of 3aintE3imon demanded a Fso!ially useful form of art$ FArt for progressG "as a !ommonpla!e of the "hole period and one that Hugo revived "ithout su!!eeding in ma-ing it sound !onvin!ing$ VallSs alone #rings to his maledi!tion of art a tone of impre!ation that gives it authenti!ity$ This tone is also employed #y the Russian nihilists$ +isarev pro!laims the deposition of Rstheti! values in favour of pragmati! values$ FI "ould rather #e a Russian shoema-er than a Russian Raphael$G A pair of shoes in his eyes is more useful than 3ha-espeare$ The nihilist (e-rassov a great and moving poet nevertheless affirms that he prefers a pie!e of !heese to all of +ush-in$ <inally "e are familiar "ith the e/!ommuni!ation of art pronoun!ed #y Tolstoy$ Revolutionary style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia finally even turned its #a!- on the mar#le statues of Venus and Apollo still gilded #y the Italian sun that +eter the =reat had had #rought to his summer garden in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423t$ +eters#urg$ 3uffering sometimes turns a"ay from too painful e/pressions of happiness$ =erman ideology is no less severe in its a!!usations$ A!!ording to the revolutionary interpreters of Hegels "henomenology there "ill #e no art in re!on!iled so!iety$ *eauty "ill #e lived and no longer only imagined$ Reality #e!ome entirely rational "ill satisfy !ompletely #y itself every appetite$ The

!riti!ism of formal !ons!ien!e and of es!apist values naturally e/tends itself to em#ra!e art$ Art does not #elong to all times4 it is determined on the !ontrary #y its period and e/presses says Mar/ the privileged values of the ruling !lasses$ Thus there is only one revolutionary form of art "hi!h is pre!isely art dedi!ated to the servi!e of the revolution$ Moreover #y !reating #eauty outside the !ourse of history art impedes the only rational a!tivity) the transformation of history itself into a#solute #eauty$ The Russian shoema-er on!e he is a"are of his revolutionary role is the real !reator of definitive #eauty$ As for Raphael he !reated only a transitory #eauty "hi!h "ill #e 7uite in!omprehensi#le to the ne" man$ Mar/ as-s himself it is true ho" the #eauty !reated #y the =ree-s !an still #e #eautiful for us$ His ans"er is that this #eauty is the e/pression of the naYve !hildhood of this "orld and that "e have in the midst of our adult struggles a nostalgia for this !hildhood$ *ut ho" !an the masterpie!es of the Italian Renaissan!e ho" !an Rem#randt ho" !an ,hinese art still #e #eautiful in our eyes@ .hat does it matterH The trial of art has #een opened definitively and is !ontinuing today "ith the em#arrassed !ompli!ity of artists and intelle!tuals dedi!ated to !alumniating #oth their art and their intelligen!e$ .e noti!e in fa!t that in the !ontest #et"een 3ha-espeare and the shoema-er it is not the shoema-er "ho maligns 3ha-espeare or #eauty #ut on the !ontrary the man "ho !ontinues to read 3ha-espeare and "ho does not !hoose to ma-e shoes 0 "hi!h he !ould never ma-e if it !omes to that$ The artists of our times resem#le the repentant no#lemen of nineteenthE

!entury style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Russia4 their #ad !ons!ien!e is their e/!use$ *ut the last emotion that an artist !an e/perien!e !onfronted "ith his art is repentan!e$ It is going far #eyond simple and ne!essary humility to pretend to dismiss #eauty too until the end of time and mean"hile to deprive all the "orld in!luding the shoema-er of this additional #read of "hi!h one has ta-en advantage oneself$ This form of as!eti! insanity nevertheless has its reasons "hi!h at least are of interest to us$ They e/press on the Rstheti! level the struggle already des!ri#ed of revolution and re#ellion$ In every re#ellion is to #e found the metaphysi!al demand for unity the impossi#ility of !apturing it and the !onstru!tion of a su#stitutive universe$ Re#ellion from this point of vie" is a fa#ri!ator of universes$ This also defines art$ The demands of re#ellion are really in part Rstheti! demands$ All re#el thought as "e have seen is e/pressed either in rhetori! or in a !losed universe$ The rhetori! of ramparts in Lu!retius the !onvents and isolated !astles of 3ade the island or the lonely ro!- of the romanti!s the solitary heights of (iet6s!he the primeval seas of LautrVamont the parapets of Rim#aud the terrifying !astles of the surrealists "hi!h spring up in a storm of flo"ers the prison the nation #ehind #ar#ed "ire the !on!entration !amps the empire of free slaves all illustrate after their o"n fashion the same need for !oheren!e and unity$ In these sealed "orlds man !an reign and have -no"ledge at last$ This tenden!y is !ommon to all the arts$ The artist re!onstru!ts the "orld to his plan$ The symphonies of nature -no" no rests$ The "orld is never 7uiet4 even its

silen!e eternally resounds "ith the same notes in vi#rations that es!ape our ears$ As for those that "e per!eive they !arry sounds to us o!!asionally a !hord never a melody$ Musi! e/ists ho"ever in "hi!h symphonies are !ompleted "here melody gives its form to sound that #y themselves have none and "here finally a parti!ular arrangement of notes e/tra!ts from natural disorder a unity that is satisfying to the mind and the heart$
FI #elieve more and more G "rote Van =ogh Fthat

=od must not #e %udged on this earth$ It is one of His s-et!hes that has turned out #adly$G Every artist tries to re!onstru!t this s-et!h and to give it the style it la!-s$ The greatest and most am#itious of all the arts s!ulpture is #ent on !apturing in three dimensions the fugitive figure of man and on restoring the unity of great style to the general disorder of gestures$ 3!ulpture does not re%e!t resem#lan!e of "hi!h indeed it has need$ *ut resem#lan!e is not its first aim$ .hat it is loo-ing for in its periods of greatness is the gesture the e/pression or the empty stare "hi!h "ill sum up all the gestures and all the stares in the "orld$ Its purpose is not to imitate #ut to styli6e and to imprison in one signifi!ant e/pression the fleeting e!stasy of the #ody or the infinite variety of human attitudes$ Then and only then does it ere!t on the pediments of teeming !ities the model the type the motionless perfe!tion that "ill !ool for one moment the fevered #ro" of man$ The frustrated lover of love !an finally ga6e at the =ree!aryatids and grasp "hat it is that triumphs in the #ody and fa!e of the "oman over every degradation$

The prin!iple of painting is also to ma-e a !hoi!e$ FEven genius G "rites 'ela!roi/ ruminating on his art Fis only the gift of generali6ing and !hoosing$G The painter isolates his su#%e!t "hi!h is the first "ay of unifying it$ Lands!apes flee vanish from the memory or destroy one another$ That is "hy the lands!ape painter or the painter of still life isolates in spa!e and time things that normally !hange "ith the light get lost in an infinite perspe!tive or disappear under the impa!t of other values$ The first thing that a lands!ape painter does is to s7uare off his !anvas$ He eliminates as mu!h as he in!ludes$ 3imilarly su#%e!tEpainting isolates in #oth time and spa!e an a!tion that normally "ould #e!ome lost in another a!tion$ Thus the painter arrives at a point of sta#ili6ation$ The really great !reative artists are those "ho li-e +iero della <ran!es!a give the impression that the sta#ili6ation has only %ust ta-en pla!e that the pro%e!tion ma!hine has suddenly stopped dead$ All their su#%e!ts give the impression that #y some mira!le of art they !ontinue to live "hile !easing to #e mortal$ Long after his death Rem#randts philosopher still meditates #et"een light and shade on the same pro#lem$
FHo" vain a thing is painting that #eguiles us #y the

resem#lan!e to o#%e!ts that do not please us at all$G 'ela!roi/ "ho 7uotes +as!als !ele#rated remar- is !orre!t in "riting FstrangeG instead of Fvain$G These o#%e!ts do not please us at all #e!ause "e do not see them4 they are o#s!ured and negated #y a perpetual pro!ess of !hange$ .ho loo-ed at the hands of the e/e!utioner during the <lagellation and the olive trees on the "ay to the ,ross@ *ut here "e see them

represented transfigured #y the in!essant movement of the +assion4 and the agony of ,hrist imprisoned in images of violen!e and #eauty !ries out again ea!h day in the !old rooms of museums$ A painters style lies in this #lending of nature and history in this sta#ility imposed on in!essant !hange$ Art reali6es "ithout apparent effort the re!on!iliation of the uni7ue "ith the universal of "hi!h Hegel dreamed$ +erhaps that is "hy periods su!h as ours "hi!h are #ent on unity to the point of madness turn to primitive arts in "hi!h styli6ation is the most intense and unity the most provo!ative$ The most e/treme styli6ation is al"ays found at the #eginning and end of artisti! movements4 it demonstrates the intensity of negation and transposition "hi!h has given modern painting its disorderly impetus to"ard interpreting unity and e/isten!e$ Van =oghs admira#le !omplaint is the arrogant and desperate !ry of all artists$ FI !an very "ell in life and in painting too do "ithout =od$ *ut I !annot suffering as I do do "ithout something that is greater than I am that is my life 0 the po"er to !reate$G *ut the artists re#ellion against reality "hi!h is automati!ally suspe!t to the totalitarian revolution !ontains the same affirmation as the spontaneous re#ellion of the oppressed$ The revolutionary spirit #orn of total negation instin!tively felt that as "ell as refusal there "as also !onsent to #e found in art4 that there "as a ris- of !ontemplating !ounter#alan!ing a!tion #eauty and in%usti!e and that in !ertain !ases #eauty itself "as a form of in%usti!e from "hi!h there "as no appeal$ E7ually "ell no form of art !an survive on total denial alone$ Lust as all thought and primarily

that of nonEsignifi!ation signifies something so there is no art that has no signifi!ation$ Man !an allo" himself to denoun!e the total in%usti!e of the "orld and then demand a total %usti!e that he alone "ill !reate$ *ut he !annot affirm the total hideousness of the "orld$ To !reate #eauty he must simultaneously re%e!t reality and e/alt !ertain of its aspe!ts$ Art disputes reality #ut does not hide from it$ (iet6s!he !ould deny any form of trans!enden!e "hether moral or divine #y saying that trans!enden!e drove one to slander this "orld and this life$ *ut perhaps there is a living trans!enden!e of "hi!h #eauty !arries the promise "hi!h !an ma-e this mortal and limited "orld prefera#le to and more appealing then any other$ Art thus leads us #a!- to the origins of re#ellion to the e/tent that it tries to give its form to an elusive value "hi!h the future perpetually promises #ut of "hi!h the artist has a presentiment and "ishes to snat!h from the grasp of history$ .e shall understand this #etter in !onsidering the art form "hose pre!ise aim is to #e!ome part of the pro!ess of evolution in order to give it the style that it la!-s4 in other "ords the novel$

/ebellion and the ovel It is possi#le to separate the literature of !onsent "hi!h !oin!ides #y and large "ith an!ient history and the !lassi!al period from the literature of re#ellion "hi!h #egins in modern times$ .e note the s!ar!ity of fi!tion in the former$ .hen it e/ists "ith very fe"

e/!eptions it is not !on!erned "ith a story #ut "ith fantasy >Theagenes and $haricleia or Astr(a?$ These are fairy tales not novels$ In the latter period the novel form is really developed 0 a form that has not !eased to thrive and e/tend its field of a!tivity up to the present day simultaneously "ith the !riti!al and revolutionary movement$ The novel is #orn at the same time as the spirit of re#ellion and e/presses on the Rstheti! plane the same am#ition$
FA ma-eE#elieve story "ritten in prose G says LittrV

a#out the novel$ Is it only that@ In any !ase a ,atholi! !riti! 3tanislas <umet has "ritten) FArt "hatever its aims is al"ays in sinful !ompetition "ith =od$G A!tually it is more !orre!t to tal- a#out !ompetition "ith =od in !onne!tion "ith the novel than of !ompetition "ith mans !ivil status$ Thi#audet e/presses a similar idea "hen he says of *al6a!) FThe $om,die humaine is the 4mitation of =od the <ather$G The aim of great literature seems to #e to !reate a !losed universe or a perfe!t type$ The .est in its great !reative "or-s does not limit itself to retra!ing the steps of its daily life$ It !onsistently presents magnifi!ent images "hi!h inflame its imagination and sets off hotfoot in pursuit of them$ After all "riting or even reading a novel is an unusual a!tivity$ To !onstru!t a story #y a ne" arrangement of a!tual fa!ts has nothing inevita#le or even ne!essary a#out it$ Even if the ordinary e/planation of the mutual pleasure of reader and "riter "ere true it "ould still #e ne!essary to as- "hy it "as in!um#ent on a large part of humanity to ta-e pleasure and an interest in ma-eE#elieve stories$ Revolutionary

!riti!ism !ondemns the novel in its pure form as #eing simply a means of es!ape for an idle imagination$ In everyday spee!h "e find the term romance used to des!ri#e an e/aggerated des!ription or lying a!!ount of some event$ (ot so very long ago it "as a !ommonpla!e that young girls despite all appearan!e to the !ontrary "ere Fromanti! G #y "hi!h "as meant that these ideali6ed !reatures too- no a!!ount of everyday realities$ In general it has al"ays #een !onsidered that the romanti! "as 7uite separate from life and that it enhan!ed it "hile at the same time #etraying it$ The simplest and most !ommon "ay of envisaging romanti! e/pression is to see it as an es!apist e/er!ise$ ,ommon sense %oins hands "ith revolutionary !riti!ism$ *ut from "hat are "e es!aping #y means of the novel@ <rom a reality "e !onsider too over"helming@ Happy people read novels too and it is an esta#lished fa!t that e/treme suffering ta-es a"ay the taste for reading$ <rom another angle the romanti! universe of the novel !ertainly has less su#stan!e than the other universe "here people of flesh and #lood harass us "ithout respite$ Ho"ever #y "hat magi! does Adolphe for instan!e seem so mu!h more familiar to us than *en%amin ,onstant and ,ount Mos!a than our professional moralists@ *al6a! on!e terminated a long !onversation a#out politi!s and the fate of the "orld #y saying) FAnd no" let us get #a!- to serious matters G meaning that he "anted to tal- a#out his novels$ The in!ontesta#le importan!e of the "orld of the novel our insisten!e in fa!t on ta-ing seriously the innumera#le myths "ith "hi!h "e have #een provided for the last t"o !enturies #y the genius of "riters is not fully

e/plained #y the desire to es!ape$ Romanti! a!tivities undou#tedly imply a re%e!tion of reality$ *ut this re%e!tion is not a mere es!apist flight and might #e interpreted as the retreat of the soul "hi!h a!!ording to Hegel !reates for itself in its disappointment a fi!titious "orld in "hi!h ethi!s reigns alone$ The edifying novel ho"ever is far from #eing great literature4 and the #est of all romanti! novels "aul et Virginie a really heart#rea-ing #oo- ma-es no !on!essions to !onsolation$ The !ontradi!tion is this) man re%e!ts the "orld as it is "ithout a!!epting the ne!essity of es!aping it$ In fa!t men !ling to the "orld and #y far the ma%ority do not "ant to a#andon it$ <ar from al"ays "anting to forget it they suffer on the !ontrary from not #eing a#le to possess it !ompletely enough estranged !iti6ens of the "orld e/iled from their o"n !ountry$ E/!ept for vivid moments of fulfilment all reality for them is in!omplete$ Their a!tions es!ape them in the form of other a!tions return in une/pe!ted guises to %udge them and disappear li-e the "ater Tantalus longed to drininto some still undis!overed orifi!e$ To -no" the "herea#outs of the orifi!e to !ontrol the !ourse of the river to understand life at last as destiny 0 these are their true aspirations$ *ut this vision "hi!h in the realm of !ons!iousness at least "ill re!on!ile them "ith themselves !an only appear if it ever does appear at the fugitive moment that is death in "hi!h everything is !onsummated$ In order to e/ist %ust on!e in the "orld it is ne!essary never again to e/ist$ At this point is #orn the fatal envy "hi!h so many men feel of the lives of others$ 3een from a distan!e

these e/isten!es seem to possess a !oheren!e and a unity "hi!h they !annot have in reality #ut "hi!h seem evident to the spe!tator$ He sees only the salient points of these lives "ithout ta-ing into a!!ount the details of !orrosion$ Thus "e ma-e these lives into "or-s of art$ In an elementary fashion "e turn them into novels$ In this sense everyone tries to ma-e his life a "or- of art$ .e "ant love to last and "e -no" that it does not last4 even if #y some mira!le it "ere to last a "hole lifetime it "ould still #e in!omplete$ +erhaps in this insatia#le need for perpetuation "e should #etter understand human suffering if "e -ne" that it "as eternal$ It appears that great minds are sometimes less horrified #y suffering than #y the fa!t that it does not endure$ In default of ine/hausti#le happiness eternal suffering "ould at least give us a destiny$ *ut "e do not even have that !onsolation and our "orst agonies !ome to an end one day$ One morning after many dar- nights of despair an irrepressi#le longing to live "ill announ!e to us the fa!t that all is finished and that suffering has no more meaning than happiness$ The desire for possession is only another form of the desire to endure4 it is this that !omprises the impotent delirium of love$ (o human #eing even the most passionately loved and passionately loving is ever in our possession$ On the pitiless earth "here lovers are often separated in death and are al"ays #orn divided the total possession of another human #eing and a#solute !ommunion throughout an entire lifetime are impossi#le dreams$ The desire for possession is insatia#le to su!h a point that it !an survive even love itself$ To love therefore is to sterili6e the person one

loves$ The shamefa!ed suffering of the a#andoned lover is not so mu!h due to #eing no longer loved as to -no"ing that the other partner !an and must love again$ In the final analysis every man devoured #y the overpo"ering desire to endure and possess "ishes that those "hom he has loved "ere either sterile or dead$ This is real re#ellion$ Those "ho have not insisted at least on!e on the a#solute virginity of human #eings and of the "orld "ho have not trem#led "ith longing and impoten!e at the fa!t that it is impossi#le and have then not #een destroyed #y trying to love halfEheartedly perpetually for!ed #a!- upon their longing for the a#solute !annot understand the realities of re#ellion and its ravening desire for destru!tion$ *ut the lives of others al"ays es!ape us and "e es!ape them too4 they have no firm outline$ Life from this point of vie" is "ithout style$ It is only an impulse that endlessly pursues its form "ithout ever finding it$ Man tortured #y this tries in vain to find the form that "ill impose !ertain limits #et"een "hi!h he !an #e -ing$ If only one single living thing had definite form he "ould #e re!on!iledH There is not one human #eing "ho a#ove a !ertain elementary level of !ons!iousness does not e/haust himself in trying to find formulas or attitudes that "ill give his e/isten!e the unity it la!-s$ Appearan!e and a!tion the dandy and the revolutionary all demand unity in order to e/ist and in order to e/ist on this earth$ As in those moving and unhappy relationships "hi!h sometimes survive for a very long time #e!ause one of the partners is "aiting to find the right "ord a!tion gesture or situation "hi!h "ill #ring his

adventure to an end on e/a!tly the right note so everyone proposes and !reates for himself the final "ord$ It is not suffi!ient to live there must #e a destiny that does not have to "ait for death$ It is therefore %ustifia#le to say that man has an idea of a #etter "orld than this$ *ut #etter does not mean different it means unified$ This passion "hi!h lifts the mind a#ove the !ommonpla!es of a dispersed "orld from "hi!h it nevertheless !annot free itself is the passion for unity$ It does not result in medio!re efforts to es!ape ho"ever #ut in the most o#stinate demands$ Religion or !rime every human endeavour in fa!t finally o#eys this unreasona#le desire and !laims to give life a form it does not have$ The same impulse "hi!h !an lead to the adoration of the heavens or the destru!tion of man also leads to !reative literature "hi!h derives its serious !ontent from this sour!e$ .hat in fa!t is a novel #ut a universe in "hi!h a!tion is endo"ed "ith form "here final "ords are pronoun!ed "here people possess one another !ompletely and "here life assumes the aspe!t of destiny@ 8Even if the novel des!ri#es only nostalgia despair frustration it still !reates a form of salvation$ To tal- of despair is to !on7uer it$ 'espairing literature is a !ontradi!tion in terms$; The "orld of the novel is only a re!tifi!ation of the "orld "e live in in pursuan!e of mans deepest "ishes$ <or the "orld is undou#tedly the same one "e -no"$ The heroes spea- our language have our "ea-nesses and our strength$ Their universe is neither more #eautiful nor more enlightening than ours$ *ut they at least pursue their destinies to the #itter end and there are no more fas!inating heroes than those "ho

indulge their passions to the fullest Kirilov and 3tavrogin Mme =raslin Lulien 3orel or the +rin!e de ,lSves$ It is here that "e !an no longer -eep pa!e "ith them for they !omplete things that "e !an never !onsummate$ Mme de La <ayette derived the "rincesse de $l>ves from the most harro"ing e/perien!es$ Jndou#tedly she is Mme de ,lSves and yet she is not$ .here lies the differen!e@ The differen!e is that Mme de La <ayette did not go into a !onvent and that no one around her died of despair$ (o dou#t she -ne" moments at least of agony in her e/traordinary passion$ *ut there "as no !ulminatingEpoint4 she survived her love and prolonged it #y !easing to live it and finally no one not even herself "ould have -no"n its pattern if she had not given it the perfe!t delineation of faultless prose$ (or is there any story more romanti! and #eautiful than that of 3ophie Tons-a and ,asimir in =o#ineaus "l,@ades- 3ophie a sensitive and #eautiful "oman "ho ma-es one understand 3tendahls !onfession that Fonly "omen of great !hara!ter !an ma-e me happy G for!es ,asimir to !onfess his love for her$ A!!ustomed to #eing loved she #e!omes impatient "ith ,asimir "ho sees her every day and yet never departs from an attitude of irritating deta!hment$ ,asimir !onfesses his love #ut in the tone of one stating a legal !ase$ He has studied it -no"s it as "ell as he -no"s himself and is !onvin!ed that this love "ithout "hi!h he !annot live has no future$ He has therefore de!ided to tell her of his love and at the same time to a!-no"ledge that it is vain and to ma-e over his fortune to her 0 she is ri!h and this gesture is of no importan!e 0 on !ondition that she give

him a very modest pension "hi!h "ill allo" him to install himself in the su#ur# of a to"n !hosen at random >it "ill #e Vilna? and there a"ait death in poverty$ ,asimir re!ogni6es moreover that the idea of re!eiving from 3ophie the ne!essary money on "hi!h to live represents a !on!ession to human "ea-ness the only one he "ill permit himself "ith at long intervals the dispat!h of a #lan- sheet of paper in an envelope on "hi!h he "ill "rite 3ophies name$ After #eing first indignant then pertur#ed and then melan!holy 3ophie a!!epts4 and everything happens as ,asimir foresa"$ He dies in Vilna of a #ro-en heart$ Romanti!ism thus has its logi!$ A story is never really moving and su!!essful "ithout the impertur#a#le !ontinuity "hi!h is never part of real life #ut "hi!h is to #e found on the #orderland #et"een reality and reverie$ If =o#ineau himself had gone to Vilna he "ould have got #ored and !ome #a!or "ould have settled do"n !omforta#ly$ *ut ,asimir never e/perien!ed any desire to !hange nor did he ever "a-e !ured of his love$ He "ent to the #itter end li-e Heath!liff "ho "anted to go #eyond death in order to rea!h the very depths of hell$ Here "e have an imaginary "orld therefore "hi!h is !reated #y the re!tifi!ation of the a!tual "orld 0 a "orld "here suffering !an if it "ishes !ontinue until death "here passions are never distra!ted "here people are prey to o#sessions and are al"ays present to one another$ Man is finally a#le to give himself the alleviating form and limits "hi!h he pursues in van in his o"n life$ The novel !reates destiny to suit any eventuality$ In this "ay it !ompetes "ith !reation and provisionally !on7uers death$ A detailed analysis of the

most famous novels "ould sho" in different perspe!tives ea!h time that the essen!e of the novel lies in this perpetual alteration al"ays dire!ted to"ard the same ends that the artist ma-es in his o"n e/perien!e$ <ar from #eing moral or even purely formal this alteration aims primarily at unity and there#y e/presses a metaphysi!al need$ The novel on this level is primarily an e/er!ise of the intelligen!e in the servi!e of nostalgi! or re#ellious sensi#ilities$ It "ould #e possi#le to study this 7uest for unity in the <ren!h analyti!al novel and in Melville *al6a! 'ostoievs-y or Tolstoy$ *ut a #rief !omparison #et"een the t"o attempts that stand at different poles of the "orld of the novel 0 the "or-s of +roust and Ameri!an fi!tion of the last fe" years 0 "ill suffi!e for our purposes$ The Ameri!an novel 8I am referring of !ourse to the FtoughG novel of the thirties and forties and not to the admira#le Ameri!an efflores!en!e of the nineteenth !entury$; !laims to find its unity in redu!ing man either to elementals or to his e/ternal rea!tions and to his #ehaviour$ It does not !hoose feelings or passions to give a detailed des!ription of su!h as "e find in !lassi! <ren!h novels$ It re%e!ts analysis and the sear!h for a fundamental psy!hologi!al motive that !ould e/plain and re!apitulate the #ehaviour of a !hara!ter$ This is "hy the unity of this novel form is only the unity of the flash of re!ognition$ Its te!hni7ue !onsists in des!ri#ing men #y their outside appearan!es in their most !asual a!tions of reprodu!ing "ithout !omment everything they say do"n to their repetitions 8Even in <aul-ner a great "riter of this generation the interior monologue only reprodu!es the outer hus- of thought$; and finally

#y a!ting as if men "ere entirely defined #y their daily automatisms$ On this me!hani!al level men in fa!t seem e/a!tly ali-e "hi!h e/plains this pe!uliar universe in "hi!h all the !hara!ters appear inter!hangea#le even do"n to their physi!al pe!uliarities$ This te!hni7ue is !alled realisti! only o"ing to a misapprehension$ In addition to the fa!t that realism in art is as "e shall see an in!omprehensi#le idea it is perfe!tly o#vious that this fi!titious "orld is not attempting a reprodu!tion pure and simple of reality #ut the most ar#itrary form of styli6ation$ It is #orn of a mutilation and of a voluntary mutilation performed on reality$ The unity thus o#tained is a degraded unity a levelling off of human #eings and of the "orld$ It "ould seem that for these "riters it is the inner life that deprives human a!tions of unity and that tears people a"ay from one another$ This is a partially legitimate suspi!ion$ *ut re#ellion "hi!h is one of the sour!es of the art of fi!tion !an find satisfa!tion only in !onstru!ting unity on the #asis of affirming this interior reality and not of denying it$ To deny it totally is to refer oneself to an imaginary man$ (ovels of violen!e are also love stories of "hi!h they have the formal !on!eits 0 in their o"n "ay they edify$ 8*ernardin de 3aintE+ierre and Mar7uis de 3ade "ith different indi!ations of it are the !reators of the propagandist novel$; The life of the #ody redu!ed to its essentials parado/i!ally produ!es an a#stra!t and gratuitous universe !ontinuously denied in its turn #y reality$ This type of novel purged of interior life in "hi!h men seem to #e o#served #ehind a pure pane of glass logi!ally ends "ith its emphasis on the pathologi!al #y giving itself as its uni7ue su#%e!t the supposedly average man$ In this "ay it is possi#le to

e/plain the e/traordinary num#er of Finno!entsG "ho appear in this universe$ The simpleton is the ideal su#%e!t for su!h an enterprise sin!e he !an only #e defined 0 and !ompletely defined 0 #y his #ehaviour$ He is the sym#ol of the despairing "orld in "hi!h "ret!hed automatons live in a ma!hineEridden universe "hi!h Ameri!an novelists have presented as a heartE rending #ut sterile protest$ As for +roust his !ontri#ution has #een to !reate from an o#stinate !ontemplation of reality a !losed "orld that #elonged only to him and that indi!ated his vi!tory over the transitoriness of things and over death$ *ut he uses a#solutely the opposite means$ He upholds a#ove everything #y a deli#erate !hoi!e a !areful sele!tion of uni7ue e/perien!e "hi!h the "riter !hooses from the most se!ret re!esses of his past$ Immense empty spa!es are thus dis!arded from life #e!ause they have left no tra!e in the memory$ If the Ameri!an novel is the novel of men "ithout memory the "orld of +roust is nothing #ut memory$ It is !on!erned only "ith the most diffi!ult and most e/a!ting of memories the memory that re%e!ts the dispersion of the a!tual "orld and derives from the tra!e of a lingering perfume the se!ret of a ne" and an!ient universe$ +roust !hooses the interior life and of the interior life that "hi!h is more interior than life itself in preferen!e to "hat is forgotten in the "orld of reality 0 in other "ords the purely me!hani!al and #lind aspe!ts of the "orld$ *ut #y his re%e!tion of reality he does not deny reality$ He does not !ommit the error "hi!h "ould !ounter#alan!e the error of Ameri!an fi!tion of suppressing the me!hani!al$ He unites on the !ontrary into a superior form of unity the

memory of the past and the immediate sensation the t"isted foot and the happy days of times past$ It is diffi!ult to return to the pla!es of ones early happiness$ The young girls in the flo"er of their youth still laugh and !hatter on the seashore #ut he "ho "at!hes them gradually loses his right to love them %ust as those he has loved lose the po"er to #e loved$ This melan!holy is the melan!holy of +roust$ It "as po"erful enough in him to !ause a violent re%e!tion of all e/isten!e$ *ut his passion for fa!es and for the light atta!hed him at the same time to life$ He never admitted that the happy days of his youth "ere lost forever$ He undertoo- the tas- of reE!reating them and of demonstrating in the fa!e of death that the past !ould #e regained at the end of time in the form of an imperisha#le present #oth truer and ri!her than it "as at the #eginning$ The psy!hologi!al analysis of /emembrance of Things "ast is nothing #ut a potent means to an end$ The real greatness of +roust lies in having "ritten Time /egained "hi!h resem#les the "orld of dispersion and "hi!h gives it a meaning on the very level of integration$ His diffi!ult vi!tory on the eve of his death is to have #een a#le to e/tra!t from the in!essant flight of forms #y means of memory and intelligen!e alone the tentative trem#ling sym#ols of human unity$ The most definite !hallenge that a "or- of this -ind !an give to !reation is to present itself as an entirety as a !losed and unified "orld$ This defines an unrepentant "or- of art$ It has #een said that the "orld of +roust "as a "orld "ithout a god$ If that is true it is not #e!ause =od is never spo-en of #ut #e!ause the am#ition of this "orld

is to #e a#solute perfe!tion and to give to eternity the aspe!t of man$ Time /egained at least in its aspirations is eternity "ithout =od$ +rousts "or- in this regard appears to #e one of the most am#itious and most signifi!ant of mans enterprises against his mortal !ondition$ He has demonstrated that the art of the novel !an re!onstru!t !reation itself in the form that it is imposed on us and in the form in "hi!h "e re%e!t it$ In one of its aspe!ts at least this art !onsists in !hoosing the !reature in preferen!e to his !reator$ *ut still more profoundly it is allied to the #eauty of the "orld or of its inha#itants against the po"ers of death and o#livion$ It is in this "ay that his re#ellion is !reative$

/ebellion and #tyle *y the treatment that the artist imposes on reality he de!lares the intensity of his re%e!tion$ *ut "hat he retains of reality in the universe that he !reates reveals the degree of !onsent that he gives to at least one part of reality 0 "hi!h he dra"s from the shado"s of evolution to #ring it to the light of !reation$ In the final analysis if the re%e!tion is total reality is then !ompletely #anished and the result is a purely formal "or-$ If on the other hand the artists !hooses for reasons often un!onne!ted "ith art to e/alt !rude reality the result is then realism$ In the first !ase the primitive !reative impulse in "hi!h re#ellion and !onsent affirmation and negation are !losely allied is adulterated to the advantage of re%e!tion$ It then represents formal

es!apism of "hi!h our period has furnished so many e/amples and of "hi!h the nihilist origin is 7uite evident$ In the se!ond !ase the artist !laims to give the "orld unity #y "ithdra"ing from it all privileged perspe!tives$ In this sense he !onfesses his need for unity even a degraded form of unity$ *ut he also renoun!es the first re7uirement of artisti! !reation$ To deny the relative freedom of the !reative mind more for!i#ly he affirms the immediate totality of the "orld$ The a!t of !reation denies itself in #oth these -inds of "or-$ Originally it refused only one aspe!t of reality "hile simultaneously affirming another$ .hether it !omes to the point of re%e!ting all reality or of affirming nothing #ut reality it denies itself ea!h time either #y a#solute negation or #y a#solute affirmation$ It !an #e seen that on the plane of Rstheti!s this analysis !oin!ides "ith the analysis I have s-et!hed on the histori!al plane$ *ut %ust as there is no nihilism that does not end #y supposing a value and no materialism that #eing selfE !on!eived does not end #y !ontradi!ting itself so formal art and realist art are a#surd !on!epts$ (o art !an !ompletely re%e!t reality$ The =orgon is dou#tless a purely imaginary !reature4 its fa!e and the serpents that !ro"n it are part of nature$ <ormalism !an su!!eed in purging itself more and more of real !ontent #ut there is al"ays a limit$ Even pure geometry "here a#stra!t painting sometimes ends still derives its !olour and its !onformity to perspe!tive from the e/terior "orld$ The only real formalism is silen!e$ Moreover realism !annot dispense "ith a minimum of interpretation and ar#itrariness$ Even the very #est photographs do not

represent reality4 they result from an a!t of sele!tion and impose a limit on something that has none$ The realist artist and the formal artist try to find unity "here it does not e/ist in reality in its !rudest state or in imaginative !reation "hi!h "ants to a#olish all reality$ On the !ontrary unity in art appears at the limit of the transformation that the artist imposes on reality$ It !annot dispense "ith either$ This !orre!tion 8'ela!roi/ notes 0 and this is a penetrating o#servation 0 that it is ne!essary to !orre!t the Finfle/i#le perspe!tive "hi!h >in reality? falsifies the appearan!e of o#%e!ts by virtue of precision$G; "hi!h the artist imposes #y his language and #y a redistri#ution of elements derived from reality is !alled style and gives the reE!reated universe its unity and its #oundaries$ It attempts in the "or- of every re#el to impose its la"s on the "orld and su!!eeds in the !ase of a fe" geniuses$ F+oets G said 3helley Fare the una!-no"ledged legislators of the "orld$G Literary art #y its origins !annot fail to illustrate this vo!ation$ It !an neither totally !onsent to reality nor turn aside from it !ompletely$ The purely imaginary does not e/ist and even if it did e/ist in an ideal novel "hi!h "ould #e purely disin!arnate it "ould have no artisti! signifi!an!e in that the primary ne!essity for a mind in sear!h of unity is that the unity should #e !ommuni!a#le$ <rom another point of vie" the unity of pure reasoning is a false unity for it is not #ased on reality$ The sentimental love story the horror story and the edifying novel deviate from art to the great or small e/tent that they diso#ey this la"$ Real literary !reation on the other hand uses reality and only reality "ith all

its "armth and its #lood its passion and its out!ries$ It simply adds something that transfigures reality$ Li-e"ise "hat is !ommonly !alled the realisti! novel tries to #e the reprodu!tion of reality in its immediate aspe!ts$ To reprodu!e the elements of reality "ithout ma-ing any -ind of sele!tion "ould #e if su!h an underta-ing !ould #e imagined nothing #ut a sterile repetition of !reation$ Realism should only #e the means of e/pression of religious genius 0 3panish art admira#ly illustrates this !ontention 0 or at the other e/treme the artisti! e/pression of mon-eys "hi!h are 7uite satisfied "ith mere imitation$ In fa!t art is never realisti! though sometimes it is tempted to #e$ To #e really realisti! a des!ription "ould have to #e endless$ .here 3tendhal des!ri#es in one phrase Lu!ien Leu"ins entran!e into a room the realisti! artist ought logi!ally to fill several volumes "ith des!riptions of !hara!ters and setting still "ithout su!!eeding in e/hausting every detail$ Realism is infinite enumeration$ *y this it reveals that its real am#ition is !on7uest not of the unity #ut of the totality of the real "orld$ (o" "e understand "hy it should #e the offi!ial Rstheti! of a totalitarian revolution$ *ut the impossi#ility of su!h an Rstheti! has already #een demonstrated$ Realisti! novels sele!t their material despite themselves from reality #e!ause the !hoi!e and the !on7uest of reality are a#solute !onditions of thought and e/pression$ 8'ela!roi/ demonstrated this again "ith profundity) F<or realism not to #e a "ord devoid of sense all men must have the same minds and the same "ay of !on!eiving things$G; To "rite is already to !hoose$ There is thus an ar#itrary aspe!t to reality

%ust as there is an ar#itrary aspe!t to the ideal "hi!h ma-es a realisti! novel an impli!it pro#lem novel$ To redu!e the unity of the "orld of fi!tion to the totality of reality !an only #e done #y means of an a priori %udgement "hi!h eliminates form reality and everything that !onfli!ts "ith do!trine$ Therefore soE !alled so!ialist realism is !ondemned #y the very logi! of nihilism to a!!umulate the advantages of the edifying novel and propaganda literature$ .hether the event enslaves the !reator or "hether the !reator !laims to deny the event !ompletely !reation is nevertheless redu!ed to the degraded form of nihilist art$ It is the same thing "ith !reation as "ith !ivili6ation) it presumes uninterrupted tension #et"een form and matter #et"een evolution and the mind and #et"een history and values$ If the e7uili#rium is destroyed the result is di!tatorship or anar!hy propaganda or formal insanity$ In either !ase !reation "hi!h al"ays !oin!ides "ith rational freedom is impossi#le$ .hether it su!!um#s to the into/i!ation of a#stra!tion and formal o#s!urantism or "hether it falls #a!- on the "hip of the !rudest and most ingenious realism modern art in its semiEtotality is an art of tyrants and slaves not of !reators$ A "or- in "hi!h the !ontent overflo"s the form or in "hi!h the form dro"ns the !ontent only #espea-s an un!onvin!ed and un!onvin!ing unity$ In this domain as in others any unity that is not a unity of style is a mutilation$ .hatever may #e the !hosen point of vie" of an artist one prin!iple remains !ommon to all !reators) styli6ation "hi!h supposes the simultaneous e/isten!e of reality and of the mind that gives reality its

form$ Through style the !reative effort re!onstru!ts the "orld and al"ays "ith the same slight distortion that is the mar- of #oth art and protest$ .hether it is the enlargement of the mi!ros!ope "hi!h +roust #rings to #ear on human e/perien!e or on the !ontrary the a#surd insignifi!an!e "ith "hi!h the Ameri!an novel endo"s its !hara!ters reality is in some "ay artifi!ial$ The !reative for!e the fe!undity of re#ellion are !ontained in this distortion "hi!h the style and tone of a "orrepresent$ Art is an impossi#le demand given e/pression and form$ .hen the most agoni6ing protest finds its most resolute form of e/pression re#ellion satisfies its real aspirations and derives !reative energy from this fidelity to itself$ 'espite the fa!t that this runs !ounter to the pre%udi!es of the times the greatest style in art is the e/pression of the most passionate re#ellion$ Lust as genuine !lassi!ism is only romanti!ism su#dued genius is a re#ellion that has !reated its o"n limits$ That is "hy there is no genius !ontrary to "hat "e are taught today in negation and pure despair$ This means at the same time that great style is not a mere formal virtue$ It is a mere formal virtue "hen it is sought out for its o"n sa-e to the detriment of reality #ut then it is not great style$ It no longer invents #ut imitates 0 li-e all a!ademi! "or-s 0 "hile real !reation is in its o"n fashion revolutionary$ If styli6ation must ne!essarily #e rather e/aggerated sin!e it sums up the intervention of man and the desire for re!tifi!ation "hi!h the artist #rings to his reprodu!tion of reality it is nevertheless desira#le that it should remain invisi#le so that the demand "hi!h gives #irth to art should #e e/pressed in its most e/treme tension$ =reat style is

invisi#le styli6ation or rather styli6ation in!arnate$ FThere is never any need G says <lau#ert Fto #e afraid of e/aggeration in art$G *ut he adds that the e/aggeration should #e F!ontinuous and proportionate to itself$G .hen styli6ation is e/aggerated and o#vious the "or- #e!omes nothing #ut pure nostalgia4 the unity it is trying to !on7uer has nothing to do "ith !on!rete unity$ On the other hand "hen reality is delivered over to unadorned fa!t or to insignifi!ant styli6ation then the !on!rete is presented "ithout unity$ =reat art style and the true aspe!t of re#ellion lie some"here #et"een these t"o heresies$

$reation and /evolution In art re#ellion is !onsummated and perpetuated in the a!t of real !reation not in !riti!ism or !ommentary$ Revolution in its turn !an only affirm itself in a !ivili6ation and not in terror or tyranny$ The t"o 7uestions that are posed #y our times to a so!iety !aught in a dilemma 0 Is !reation possi#le@ Is the revolution possi#le@ 0 are in reality only one 7uestion "hi!h !on!erns the renaissan!e of !ivili6ation$ The revolution and art of the t"entieth !entury are tri#utaries of the same nihilism and live in the same !ontradi!tion$ They deny ho"ever all that they affirm even in their o"n a!tions and #oth try to find an impossi#le solution through terror$ The !ontemporary revolution #elieves that it is inaugurating a ne" "orld "hen it is really only the !ontradi!tory !lima/ of the old

one$ <inally !apitalist so!iety and revolutionary so!iety are one and the same thing to the e/tent that they su#mit themselves to the same means 0 industrial produ!tion 0 and to the same promise$ *ut one ma-es its promise in the name of formal prin!iples that it is 7uite in!apa#le of in!arnating and that are denied #y the methods it employs$ The other %ustifies its prophe!y in the name of the only reality it re!ogni6es and ends #y mutilating reality$ The so!iety #ased on produ!tion is only produ!tive not !reative$ ,ontemporary art #e!ause it is nihilisti! also flounders #et"een formalism and realism$ Realism moreover is %ust as mu!h #ourgeois "hen it is Ftough G as so!ialist "hen it #e!omes edifying$ <ormalism #elongs %ust as mu!h to the so!iety of the past "hen it ta-es the form of gratuitous a#stra!tion as to the so!iety that !laims to #e the so!iety of the future 0 "hen it #e!omes propaganda$ Language destroyed #y irrational negation #e!omes lost in ver#al delirium4 su#%e!t to determinist ideology it is summed up in the slogan$ Half"ay #et"een the t"o lies art$ If the re#el must simultaneously re%e!t the fren6y of annihilation and the a!!eptan!e of totality the artist must simultaneously es!ape from the passion for formality and the totalitarian Rstheti! of reality$ The "orld today is one in fa!t #ut its unity is the unity of nihilism$ ,ivili6ation is only possi#le if #y renoun!ing the nihilism of formal prin!iples and nihilism "ithout prin!iples the "orld redis!overs the road to a !reative synthesis$ In the same "ay in art the time of perpetual !ommentary and fa!tual reporting is at the point of death4 it announ!es the advent of !reative artists$

*ut art and so!iety !reation and revolution to prepare for this event must redis!over the sour!e of re#ellion "here refusal and a!!eptan!e the uni7ue and the universal the individual and history #alan!e ea!h other in a !ondition of a!ute tension$ Re#ellion in itself is not an element of !ivili6ation$ *ut it is a preliminary to all !ivili6ation$ Re#ellion alone in the #lind alley in "hi!h "e live allo"s us to hope for the future of "hi!h (iet6s!he dreamed) FInstead of the %udges and the oppressor the !reator$G This formula !ertainly does not authori6e the ridi!ulous illusion of a !ivili6ation !ontrolled #y artists$ It only illuminates the drama of our times in "hi!h "or- entirely su#ordinated to produ!tion has !eased to #e !reative$ Industrial so!iety "ill open the "ay to a ne" !ivili6ation only #y restoring to the "or-er the dignity of a !reator4 in other "ords #y ma-ing him apply his interest and his intelligen!e as mu!h to the "or- itself as it "hat it produ!es$ The type of !ivili6ation that is inevita#le "ill not #e a#le to separate among !lasses as "ell as among individuals the "or-er from the !reator4 any more than artisti! !reation dreams of separating form and su#stan!e history and the mind$ In this "ay it "ill #esto" on everyone the dignity that re#ellion affirms$ It "ould #e un%ust and moreover Jtopian for 3ha-espeare to dire!t the shoema-ers union$ *ut it "ould #e e7ually disastrous for the shoema-ers union to ignore 3ha-espeare$ 3ha-espeare "ithout the shoema-er serves as an e/!use for tyranny$ The shoema-er "ithout 3ha-espeare is a#sor#ed #y tyranny "hen he does not !ontri#ute to its propagation$ Every a!t of !reation #y its mere e/isten!e denies the "orld of master and slave$ The appalling so!iety of tyrants and slaves in

"hi!h "e survive "ill find its death and transfiguration only on the level of !reation$ *ut the fa!t that !reation is ne!essary does not perfor!e imply that it is possi#le$ A !reative period in art is determined #y the order of a parti!ular style applied to the disorder of a parti!ular time$ It gives form and formulas to !ontemporary passions$ Thus it no longer suffi!es for a !reative artist to imitate Mme de La <ayette in a period "hen our morose rulers have no more time for love$ Today "hen !olle!tive passions have stolen a mar!h on individual passions the e!stasy of love !an al"ays #e !ontrolled #y art$ *ut the inelu!ta#le pro#lem is also to !ontrol !olle!tive passions and the histori!al struggle$ The s!ope of art despite the regrets of the plagiarists has #een e/tended from psy!hology to the human !ondition$ .hen the passions of the times put the fate of the "hole "orld at sta-e !reation "ishes to dominate the "hole of destiny$ *ut at the same time it maintains in the fa!e of totality the affirmation of unity$ In simple "ords !reation is then imperilled first #y itself and then #y the spirit of totality$ To !reate today is to !reate dangerously$ In order to dominate !olle!tive passions they must in fa!t #e lived through and e/perien!ed at least relatively$ At the same time that he e/perien!es them the artist is devoured #y them$ The result is that our period is rather the period of %ournalism than of the "or- of art$ The e/er!ise of these passions finally entails far greater !han!es of death than in the period of love and am#ition in that the only "ay of living !olle!tive passions is to #e "illing to die for them and #y their hand$ The greatest opportunity for authenti!ity

is today the greatest defeat of art$ If !reation is impossi#le during "ars and revolutions then "e shall have no !reative artists for "ar and revolution are our lot$ The myth of unlimited produ!tion #rings "ar in its train as inevita#ly as !louds announ!e a storm$ .ars lay "aste to the .est and -ill the flo"er of a generation$ Hardly has it arisen from the ruins "hen the #ourgeois system sees the revolutionary system advan!ing upon it$ =enius has not even had time to #e re#orn4 the "ar that threatens us "ill -ill all those "ho perhaps might have #een geniuses$ If a !reative !lassi!ism is nevertheless proved possi#le "e must re!ogni6e that even though it is rendered illustrious #y one name alone it "ill #e the "or- of an entire generation$ The !han!es of defeat in the !entury of destru!tion !an only #e !ompensated for #y the ha6ard of num#ers4 in other "ords the !han!e that of ten authenti! artists one at least "ill survive ta-e !harge of the first utteran!es of his #rother artists and su!!eed in finding in his life #oth the time for passion and the time for !reation$ The artist "hether he li-es it or not !an no longer #e a solitary e/!ept in the melan!holy triumph he o"es to his fello" artists$ Re#ellious art also ends #y revealing the F.e are G and "ith it the "ay to a #urning humility$ Mean"hile the triumphant revolution in the a#errations of its nihilism mena!es those "ho in defian!e of it !laim to maintain the e/isten!e of unity in totality$ One of the impli!ations of history today and still more of the history of tomorro" is the struggle #et"een the artists and the ne" !on7uerors #et"een "itnesses to the !reative revolution and the founders of the nihilist revolution$ As to the out!ome of the

struggle it is only possi#le to ma-e inspired guesses$ At least "e -no" that it must hen!eforth #e !arried on to the #itter end$ Modern !on7uerors !an -ill #ut do not seem to #e a#le to !reate$ Artists -no" ho" to !reate #ut !annot really -ill$ Murderers are only very e/!eptionally found among artists$ In the long run therefore art in our revolutionary so!ieties must die$ *ut then the revolution "ill have lived its allotted span$ Ea!h time that the revolution -ills in a man the artist that he might have #een it attenuates itself a little more$ If finally the !on7uerors su!!eed in moulding the "orld a!!ording to their la"s it "ill not prove that 7uantity is -ing #ut that this "orld is hell$ In this hell the pla!e of art "ill !oin!ide "ith that of van7uished re#ellion a #lind and empty hope in the pit of despair$ Ernst '"inger in his #iberian Diary mentions a =erman lieutenant 0 for years a prisoner in a !amp "here !old and hunger "ere almost un#eara#le E "ho !onstru!ted himself a silent piano "ith "ooden -eys$ In the most a#%e!t misery perpetually surrounded #y a ragged mo# he !omposed a strange musi! "hi!h "as audi#le to him alone$ And for us "ho have #een thro"n into hell mysterious melodies and the torturing images of a vanished #eauty "ill al"ays #ring us in the midst of !rime and folly the e!ho of that harmonious insurre!tion "hi!h #ears "itness throughout the !enturies to the greatness of humanity$ *ut hell !an endure for only a limited period and life "ill #egin again one day$ History may perhaps have an end4 #ut our tas- is not to terminate it #ut to !reate it in the image of "hat "e hen!eforth -no" to #e true$ Art at least tea!hes us that man !annot #e e/plained #y

history alone and that he also finds a reason for his e/isten!e in the order of nature$ <or him the great god +an is not dead$ His most instin!tive a!t of re#ellion "hile it affirms the value and the dignity !ommon to all men o#stinately !laims so as to satisfy its hunger for unity an integral part of the reality "hose name is #eauty$ One !an re%e!t all history and yet a!!ept the "orld of the sea and stars$ The re#els "ho "ish to ignore nature and #eauty are !ondemned to #anish from history everything "ith "hi!h they "ant to !onstru!t the dignity of e/isten!e and of la#our$ Every great reformer tries to !reate in history "hat 3ha-espeare ,evantes MoliSre and Tolstoy -ne" ho" to !reate) a "orld al"ays ready to satisfy the hunger for freedom and dignity "hi!h every man !arries in his heart$ *eauty no dou#t does not ma-e revolutions$ *ut a day "ill !ome "hen revolutions "ill have need of #eauty$ The pro!edure of #eauty "hi!h is to !ontest reality "hile endo"ing it "ith unity is also the pro!edure of re#ellion$ Is it possi#le eternally to re%e!t in%usti!e "ithout !easing to a!!laim the nature of man and the #eauty of the "orld@ Our ans"er is yes$ This ethi! at on!e unsu#missive and loyal is in any event the only one that lights the "ay to a truly realisti! revolution$ In upholding #eauty "e prepare the "ay for the day of regeneration "hen !ivili6ation "ill give first pla!e 0 far ahead of the formal prin!iples and degraded values of history 0 to this living virtue on "hi!h is founded the !ommon dignity of man and the "orld he lives in and "hi!h "e must no" define in the fa!e of a "orld that insults it$

"art &ive

Thought at the style122Meridian /ebellion and 'urder %

<ar from this sour!e of life ho"ever style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe and the revolution are #eing sha-en to the !ore #y a spe!ta!ular !onvulsion$ 'uring the last !entury man !ast off the fetters of religion$ Hardly "as he free ho"ever "hen he !reated ne" and utterly intolera#le !hains$ Virtue dies #ut is #orn again more e/a!ting than ever$ It prea!hes an earEsplitting sermon on !harity to all !omers and a -ind of love for the future "hi!h ma-es a mo!-ery of !ontemporary humanism$ .hen it has rea!hed this point of sta#ility it !an only "rea- havo!$ A day arrives "hen it #e!omes #itter immediately adopts poli!e methods and for the salvation of man-ind assumes the igno#le aspe!t of an in7uisition$ At the !lima/ of !ontemporary tragedy "e therefore #e!ome intimates of !rime$ The sour!es of life and of !reation seem e/hausted$ <ear paraly6es a style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe peopled "ith

phantoms and ma!hines$ *et"een t"o holo!austs s!affolds are installed in underground !averns "here humanist e/e!utioners !ele#rate their ne" !ult in silen!e$ .hat !ry "ould ever trou#le them@ The poets themselves !onfronted "ith the murder of their fello" men proudly de!lare that their hands are !lean$ The "hole "orld a#sentmindedly turns its #a!- on these !rimes4 the vi!tims have rea!hed the e/tremity of their disgra!e) they are a #ore$ In an!ient times the #lood of murder at least produ!ed a religious horror and in this "ay san!tified the value of life$ The real !ondemnation of the period "e live in is on the !ontrary that it leads us to thin- that it is not #loodthirsty enough$ *lood is no longer visi#le4 it does not #espatter the fa!es of our pharisees visi#ly enough$ This is the e/treme of nihilism4 #lind and savage murder #e!omes an oasis and the im#e!ile !riminal seems positively refreshing in !omparison "ith our highly intelligent e/e!utioners$ Having #elieved for a long time that it !ould fight against =od "ith all humanity as its ally the European mind then per!eived that it must also if it did not "ant to die fight against men$ The re#els "ho united against death "anted to !onstru!t on the foundation of the human spe!ies a savage immortality are terrified at the prospe!t of #eing o#liged to -ill in their turn$ (evertheless if they retreat they must a!!ept death4 if they advan!e they must a!!ept murder$ Re#ellion !ut

off from its origins and !yni!ally travestied os!illates on all levels #et"een sa!rifi!e and murder$ The form of %usti!e that it advo!ated and that it hoped "as impartial has turned out to #e summary$ The -ingdom of gra!e has #een !on7uered #ut the -ingdom of %usti!e is !rum#ling too$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe is dying of this disappointing reali6ation$ Re#ellion pleaded for the inno!en!e of man-ind and no" it has hardened its heart against its o"n !ulpa#ility$ Hardly does it start off in sear!h of totality "hen it re!eives as its portion the most desperate sensations of solitude$ It "anted to enter into !ommunion "ith man-ind and no" it has no other hope #ut to assem#le one #y one throughout the years the solitary men "ho fight their "ay to"ard unity$ Must "e therefore renoun!e every -ind of re#ellion "hether "e a!!ept "ith all its in%usti!es a so!iety that outlives its usefulness or "hether "e de!ide !yni!ally to serve against the interest of man the ine/ora#le advan!e of history@ After all if the logi! of our refle!tion should lead to a !o"ardly !onformism it "ould have to #e a!!epted as !ertain families sometimes a!!ept inevita#le dishonour$ If it must also %ustify all the varieties of attempts against man and even his systemati! destru!tion it "ould #e ne!essary to !onsent to his sui!ide$ The desire for %usti!e "ould finally reali6e its am#ition) the disappearan!e of a "orld of tradesmen and poli!e$ *ut are "e still living in a re#ellious "orld@ Has not re#ellion #e!ome on the !ontrary the e/!use of a ne" variety of tyrant@ ,an the F.e areG !ontained in the movement of re#ellion "ithout shame and "ithout su#terfuge #e re!on!iled "ith murder@ In assigning

oppression a limit "ithin "hi!h #egins the dignity !ommon to all men re#ellion defined a primary value$ It put in the first ran- of its frame of referen!e an o#vious !ompli!ity among men a !ommon te/ture the solidarity of !hains a !ommuni!ation #et"een human #eing and human #eing "hi!h ma-es men #oth similar and united$ In this "ay it !ompelled the mind to ta-e a first step in defian!e of an a#surd "orld$ *y this progress it rendered still more a!ute the pro#lem that it must no" solve in regard to murder$ On the level of the a#surd in fa!t murder "ould only give rise to logi!al !ontradi!tions4 on the level of re#ellion it is mental la!eration$ <or it is no" a 7uestion of de!iding "hether it is possi#le to -ill someone "hose resem#lan!e to ourselves "e have at last re!ogni6ed and "hose identity "e have %ust san!tified$ .hen "e have only %ust !on7uered solitude must "e then reEesta#lish it definitively #y legitimi6ing the a!t that isolates everything@ To for!e solitude on a man "ho has %ust !ome to understand that he is not alone is that not the definitive !rime against man@ Logi!ally one should reply that murder and re#ellion are !ontradi!tory$ If a single master should in fa!t #e -illed the re#el in a !ertain "ay is no longer %ustified in using the terms community of men from "hi!h he derived his %ustifi!ation$ If this "orld has no higher meaning if man is only responsi#le to man it suffi!es for a man to remove one single human #eing from the so!iety of the living to automati!ally e/!lude himself from it$ .hen ,ain -ills A#el he flees to the desert$ And if murderers are legion then this legion

lives in the desert and in that other -ind of solitude !alled promis!uity$ <rom the moment that he stri-es the re#el !uts the "orld in t"o$ He re#elled in the name of the identity of man "ith man and he sa!rifi!es this identity #y !onse!rating the differen!e in #lood$ His only e/isten!e in the midst of suffering and oppression "as !ontained in this identity$ The same movement "hi!h intended to affirm him thus #rings an end to his e/isten!e$ He !an !laim that some or even almost all are "ith him$ *ut if one single human #eing is missing in the irrepla!ea#le "orld of fraternity then this "orld is immediately depopulated$ If "e are not then I am not and this e/plains the infinite sadness of Kaliayev and the silen!e of 3aintELust$ The re#els "ho have de!ided to gain their ends through violen!e and murder have in vain repla!ed in order to preserve the hope of e/isting F.e areG #y the F.e shall #e$G .hen the murderer and the vi!tim have disappeared the !ommunity "ill provide its o"n %ustifi!ation "ithout them$ The e/!eption having lasted its appointed time the rule "ill on!e more #e!ome possi#le$ On the level of history as in individual life murder is thus a desperate e/!eption or it is nothing$ The distur#an!e that it #rings to the order of things offers no hope of a future4 it is an e/!eption and therefore it !an #e neither utilitarian nor systemati! as the purely histori!al attitude "ould have it$ It is the limit that !an #e rea!hed #ut on!e after "hi!h one must die$ The re#el has only one "ay of re!on!iling himself "ith his a!t of murder if he allo"s himself to #e led into performing it) to a!!ept his o"n death and sa!rifi!e$ He -ills and dies so that it shall #e !lear that murder is

impossi#le$ He demonstrates that in reality he prefers the F.e areG to the F.e shall #e$G The !alm happiness of Kaliayev in his prison the serenity of 3aintELust "hen he "al-s to"ard the s!affold are e/plained in their turn$ *eyond that farthest frontier !ontradi!tion and nihilism #egin$

ihilistic 'urder Irrational !rime and rational !rime in fa!t #oth e7ually #etray the value #rought to light #y the movement of re#ellion$ Let us first !onsider the former$ He "ho denies everything and assumes the authority to -ill 0 3ade the homi!idal dandy the pitiless Jni7ue Karama6ov the 6ealous supporters of the unleashed #andit 0 lay !laim to nothing short of total freedom and the unlimited display of human pride$ (ihilism !onfounds !reator and !reated in the same #lind fury$ 3uppressing every prin!iple of hope it re%e!ts the idea of any limit and in #lind indignation "hi!h no longer is even a"are of its reasons ends "ith the !on!lusion that it is a matter of indifferen!e to -ill "hen the vi!tim is already !ondemned to death$ *ut its reasons 0 the mutual re!ognition of a !ommon destiny and the !ommuni!ation of men #et"een themselves 0 are al"ays valid$ Re#ellion pro!laimed them and undertoo- to serve them$ In the same "ay it defined in !ontradi!tion to nihilism a rule of !ondu!t that has no need to a"ait the end of history to e/plain its a!tions and "hi!h is nevertheless not

formal$ ,ontrary to La!o#in morality it made allo"an!es for everything that es!apes from rules and la"s$ It opened the "ay to a morality "hi!h far from o#eying a#stra!t prin!iples dis!overs them only in the heat of #attle and in the in!essant movement of !ontradi!tion$ (othing %ustifies the assertion that these prin!iples have e/isted e/ternally4 it is of no use to de!lare that they "ill one day e/ist$ .ith us and throughout all history they deny servitude falsehood and terror$ There is in fa!t nothing in !ommon #et"een a master and a slave4 it is impossi#le to spea- and !ommuni!ate "ith a person "ho has #een redu!ed to servitude$ Instead of the impli!it and untrammelled dialogue through "hi!h "e !ome to re!ogni6e our similarity and !onse!rate our destiny servitude gives s"ay to the most terri#le of silen!es$ If in%usti!e is #ad for the re#el it is not #e!ause it !ontradi!ts an eternal idea of %usti!e #ut #e!ause it perpetuates the silent hostility that separates the oppressor from the oppressed$ It -ills the small part of e/isten!e that !an #e reali6ed on this earth through the mutual understanding of men$ In the same "ay sin!e the man "ho lies shuts himself off from other men falsehood is therefore pros!ri#ed and on a slightly lo"er level murder and violen!e "hi!h impose definitive silen!e$ The mutual understanding and !ommuni!ation dis!overed #y re#ellion !an survive only in the free e/!hange of !onversation$ Every am#iguity every misunderstanding leads to death4 !lear language and simple "ords are the only salvation from this death$ 8It is "orth noting that the language pe!uliar to totalitarian

do!trines is al"ays a s!holasti! or administrative language$; The !lima/ of every tragedy lies in the deafness of its heroes$ +lato is right and not Moses and (iet6s!he$ 'ialogue on the level of man-ind is less !ostly than the gospel prea!hed #y totalitarian regimes in the form of a monologue di!tated from the top of a lonely mountain$ On the stage as in reality the monologue pre!edes death$ Every re#el solely #y the movement that sets him in opposition to the oppressor therefore pleads for life underta-es to struggle against servitude falsehood and terror and affirms in a flash that these three affli!tions are the !ause of silen!e #et"een men that they o#s!ure them from one another and prevent them from redis!overing themselves in the only value that !an save them from nihilism 0 the long !ompli!ity of men at grips "ith their destiny$ In a flash 0 #ut that is time enough to say provisionally that the most e/treme form of freedom the freedom to -ill is not !ompati#le "ith the sense of re#ellion$ Re#ellion is in no "ay the demand for total freedom$ On the !ontrary re#ellion puts total freedom up for trial$ It spe!ifi!ally atta!-s the unlimited po"er that authori6es a superior to violate the for#idden frontier$ <ar from demanding general independen!e the re#el "ants it to #e re!ogni6ed that freedom has its limits every"here that a human #eing is to #e found 0 the limit #eing pre!isely that human #eings po"er to re#el$ The most profound reason for re#ellious intransigen!e is to #e found here$ The more a"are re#ellion is of demanding a %ust limit the more infle/i#le it #e!omes$ The re#el undou#tedly demands a !ertain degree of freedom for himself4 #ut in no !ase if

he is !onsistent does he demand the right to destroy the e/isten!e and the freedom of others$ He humiliates no one$ The freedom he !laims he !laims for all4 the freedom he refuses he for#ids everyone to en%oy$ He is not only the slave against the master #ut also man against the "orld of master and slave$ Therefore than-s to re#ellion there is something more in history than the relation #et"een mastery and servitude$ Jnlimited po"er is not the only la"$ It is in the name of another value that the re#el affirms the impossi#ility of total freedom "hile he !laims for himself the relative freedom ne!essary to re!ogni6e this impossi#ility$ Every human freedom at its very roots is therefore relative$ A#solute freedom "hi!h is the freedom to -ill is the only one "hi!h does not !laim at the same time as itself the things that limit and o#literate it$ Thus it !uts itself off from its roots and 0 a#stra!t and malevolent shade 0 "anders hapha6ardly until su!h time as it imagines that it has found su#stan!e in some ideology$ It is then possi#le to say that re#ellion "hen it develops into destru!tion is illogi!al$ ,laiming the unity of the human !ondition it is a for!e of life not of death$ Its most profound logi! is not the logi! of destru!tion4 it is the logi! of !reation$ Its movement in order to remain authenti! must never a#andon any of the terms of the !ontradi!tion that sustains it$ It must #e faithful to the yes that it !ontains as "ell as to the no that nihilisti! interpretations isolate in re#ellion$ The logi! of the re#el is to "ant to serve %usti!e so as not to add to the in%usti!e of the human !ondition to insist on plain language so as not to in!rease the universal falsehood and to "ager in spite of human misery for happiness$

(ihilisti! passion adding to falsehood and in%usti!e destroys in its fury its original demands and thus deprives re#ellion of its most !ogent reasons$ It -ills in the fond !onvi!tion that this "orld is dedi!ated to death$ The !onse7uen!e of re#ellion on the !ontrary is to refuse to legitimi6e murder #e!ause re#ellion in prin!iple is a protest against death$ *ut in man "ere !apa#le of introdu!ing unity into the "orld entirely on his o"n if he !ould esta#lish the reign #y his o"n de!ree of sin!erity inno!en!e and %usti!e he "ould #e =od Himself$ E7ually if he !ould a!!omplish all this there "ould #e no more reasons for re#ellion$ If re#ellion e/ists it is #e!ause falsehood in%usti!e and violen!e are part of the re#els !ondition$ He !annot therefore a#solutely !laim not to -ill or lie "ithout renoun!ing his re#ellion and a!!epting on!e and for all evil and murder$ *ut no more !an he agree to -ill and lie sin!e the inverse reasoning "hi!h "ould %ustify murder and violen!e "ould also destroy the reasons for his insurre!tion$ Thus the re#el !an never find pea!e$ He -no"s "hat is good and despite himself does evil$ The value that supports him is never given to him on!e and for all4 he must fight to uphold it un!easingly$ Again the e/isten!e he a!hieves !ollapses if re#ellion does not support it$ In any !ase if he is not al"ays a#le not to -ill either dire!tly or indire!tly he !an put his !onvi!tion and passion to "or- at diminishing the !han!es of murder around him$ His only virtue "ill lie in never yielding to the impulse to allo" himself to #e engulfed in the shado"s that surround him and in o#stinately dragging the !hains of evil "ith "hi!h he is #ound to"ard the light of good$

If he finally -ills himself he "ill a!!ept death$ <aithful to his origins the re#el demonstrates #y sa!rifi!e that his real freedom is not freedom from murder #ut freedom from his o"n death$ At the same time he a!hieves honour in metaphysi!al terms$ Thus Kaliayev !lim#s the gallo"s and visi#ly designates to all his fello" men the e/a!t limit "here mans honour #egins and ends$

Historical 'urder Re#ellion also deploys itself in history "hi!h demands not only e/emplary !hoi!es #ut also effi!a!ious attitudes$ Rational murder runs the ris- of finding itself %ustified #y history$ The !ontradi!tion of re#ellion then is refle!ted in an apparently insolu#le !ontradi!tion of "hi!h the t"o !ounterparts in politi!s are on the one hand the opposition #et"een violen!e and nonEviolen!e and on the other hand the opposition #et"een %usti!e and freedom$ Let us try to define them in the terms of their parado/$ The positive value !ontained in the initial movement of re#ellion supposes the renun!iation of violen!e !ommitted on prin!iple$ It !onse7uently entails the impossi#ility of sta#ili6ing a revolution$ Re#ellion is in!essantly prey to this !ontradi!tion$ On the level of history it #e!omes even more insolu#le$ If I renoun!e the pro%e!t of ma-ing human identity respe!ted I a#di!ate in favour of oppression I renoun!e re#ellion and fall #a!- on an attitude of nihilisti! !onsent$ Then

nihilism #e!omes !onservative$ If I insist that human identity should #e re!ogni6ed as e/isting then I engage in an a!tion "hi!h to su!!eed supposes a !yni!al attitude to"ard violen!e and denies this identity and re#ellion itself$ To e/tend the !ontradi!tion still farther if the unity of the "orld !annot !ome from on high man must !onstru!t it on his o"n level in history$ History "ithout a value to transfigure it is !ontrolled #y the la" of e/pedien!y$ Histori!al materialism determinism violen!e negation of every form of freedom "hi!h does not !oin!ide "ith e/pedien!y and the "orld of !ourage and of silen!e are the highly legitimate !onse7uen!es of a pure philosophy of history$ In the "orld today only a philosophy of eternity !ould %ustify nonEviolen!e$ To a#solute "orship of history and of the histori!al situation it "ould as- "hen!e it had sprung$ <inally it "ould put the responsi#ility for %usti!e in =ods hands thus !onse!rating in%usti!e$ E7ually its ans"ers in their turn "ould insist on faith$ The o#%e!tion "ill #e raised of evil and of the parado/ of an allEpo"erful and malevolent or #enevolent and sterile =od$ The !hoi!e "ill remain open #et"een gra!e and history =od or the s"ord$ .hat then should #e the attitude of the re#el@ He !annot turn a"ay from the "orld and from history "ithout denying the very prin!iple of his re#ellion nor !an he !hoose eternal life "ithout resigning himself in one sense to evil$ If for e/ample he is not a ,hristian he should go to the #itter end$ *ut to the #itter end means to !hoose history a#solutely and "ith it murder if murder is essential to history) to a!!ept the %ustifi!ation of murder is again to deny his origins$ If the re#el

ma-es no !hoi!e he !hooses the silen!e and slavery of others$ If in a moment of despair he de!lares that he opts #oth against =od and against history he is the "itness of pure freedom4 in other "ords of nothing$ In our period of history and in the impossi#le !ondition in "hi!h he finds himself of #eing una#le to affirm a superior motive that does not have its limits in evil his apparent dilemma is silen!e or murder 0 in either !ase a surrender$ And it is the same again "ith %usti!e and freedom$ These t"o demands are already to #e found at the #eginning of the movement of re#ellion and are to #e found again in the first impetus of revolution$ The history of revolutions demonstrates ho"ever that they almost al"ays !onfli!t as though their mutual demands "ere irre!on!ila#le$ A#solute freedom is the right of the strongest to dominate$ Therefore it prolongs the !onfli!ts that profit #y in%usti!e$ A#solute %usti!e is a!hieved #y the suppression of all !ontradi!tion) therefore it destroys freedom$ 8In his Entretiens sur le bon usage de la libert, >$onversations on the 7ood 2se of &reedom? Lean =renier lays the foundation for an argument that !an #e summed up thus) a#solute freedom is the destru!tion of all value4 a#solute value suppresses all freedom$ Li-e"ise +alante) FIf there is a single and universal truth freedom has no reason for e/isting$G; The revolution to a!hieve %usti!e through freedom ends #y aligning them against ea!h other$ Thus there e/ists in every revolution on!e the !lass that dominated up to then has #een li7uidated a stage in "hi!h it gives #irth itself to a movement of re#ellion "hi!h indi!ates its limits and announ!es its !han!es of failure$ The

revolution first of all proposes to satisfy the spirit of re#ellion "hi!h has given rise to it4 then it is !ompelled to deny it the #etter to affirm itself$ There is it "ould seem an ineradi!a#le opposition #et"een the movement of re#ellion and the attainments of revolution$ *ut these !ontradi!tions only e/ist in the a#solute$ They suppose a "orld and a method of thought "ithout meditation$ There is in fa!t no !on!iliation possi#le #et"een a god "ho is totally separated from history and a history purged of all trans!enden!e$ Their representatives on earth are indeed the yogi and the !ommissar$ *ut the differen!e #et"een these t"o types of men is not as has #een stated the differen!e #et"een ineffe!tual purity and e/pedien!y$ The former !hooses only the ineffe!tiveness of a#stention and the se!ond the ineffe!tiveness of destru!tion$ *e!ause #oth re%e!t the !on!iliatory value that re#ellion on the !ontrary reveals they offer us only t"o -inds of impoten!e #oth e7ually removed from reality that of good and that of evil$ If in fa!t to ignore history !omes to the same as denying reality it is still alienating oneself from reality to !onsider history as a !ompletely selfEsuffi!ient a#solute$ The revolution of the t"entieth !entury #elieves that it !an avoid nihilism and remain faithful to true re#ellion #y repla!ing =od #y history$ In reality it fortifies the former and #etrays the latter$ History in its pure form furnishes no value #y itself$ Therefore one must live #y the prin!iples of immediate e/pedien!y and -eep silent or tell lies$ 3ystemati! violen!e or imposed silen!e !al!ulation or !on!erted falsehood #e!ome the inevita#le rule$ +urely histori!al thought is therefore

nihilisti!) it "holeheartedly a!!epts the evil of history and in this "ay is opposed to re#ellion$ It is useless for it to affirm in !ompensation the a#solute rationality of history for histori!al reason "ill never #e fulfilled and "ill never have its full meaning or value until the end of history$ In the mean"hile it is ne!essary to a!t and to a!t "ithout a moral rule in order that the definitive rule should one day #e reali6ed$ ,yni!ism as a politi!al attitude is only logi!al as a fun!tion of a#solutist thought4 in other "ords a#solute nihilism on the one hand a#solute rationalism on the other$ 8.e see again and this !annot #e said too often that a#solute rationalism is not rationalism$ The differen!e #et"een the t"o is the same as the differen!e #et"een !yni!ism and realism$ The first drives the se!ond #eyond the limits that give it meaning and legitima!y$ More #rutal it is finally less effi!a!ious$ It is violen!e opposed to for!e$; As for the !onse7uen!es there is no differen!e #et"een the t"o attitudes$ <rom the moment that they are a!!epted the earth #e!omes a desert$ In reality the purely histori!al a#solute is not even !on!eiva#le$ Lasperss thought for e/ample in its essentials underlines the impossi#ility of mans grasping totality sin!e he lives in the midst of this totality$ History as an entirety !ould e/ist only in the eyes of an o#server outside it and outside the "orld$ History only e/ists in the final analysis for =od$ Thus it is impossi#le to a!t a!!ording to plans em#ra!ing the totality of universal history$ Any histori!al enterprise !an therefore only #e a more or less reasona#le or %ustifia#le adventure$ It is primarily a ris-$ Insofar as it

is a ris- it !annot #e used to %ustify any e/!ess or any ruthless and a#solutist position$ If on the other hand re#ellion !ould found a philosophy it "ould #e a philosophy of limits of !al!ulated ignoran!e and of ris-$ He "ho does not -no" everything !annot -ill everything$ The re#el far from ma-ing an a#solute of history re%e!ts and disputes it in the name of a !on!ept that he has of his o"n nature$ He refuses his !ondition and his !ondition to a large e/tent is histori!al$ In%usti!e the transien!e of time death 0 all are manifest in history$ In spurning them history itself is spurned$ Most !ertainly the re#el does not deny the history that surrounds him4 it is in terms of this that he attempts to affirm himself$ *ut !onfronted "ith it he feels li-e the artist !onfronted "ith reality4 he spurns it "ithout es!aping from it$ He had never su!!eeded in !reating an a#solute history$ Even though he !an parti!ipate #y the for!e of events in the !rime of history he !annot ne!essarily legitimate it$ Rational !rime not only !annot #e admitted on the level of re#ellion #ut also signifies the death of re#ellion$ To ma-e this eviden!e more !onvin!ing rational !rime e/er!ises itself in the first pla!e on re#els "hose insurre!tion !ontests a history that is hen!eforth deified$ The mystifi!ation pe!uliar to the mind "hi!h !laims to #e revolutionary today sums up and in!reases #ourgeois mystifi!ation$ It !ontrives #y the promise of a#solute %usti!e the a!!eptan!e of perpetual in%usti!e of unlimited !ompromise and of indignity$ Re#ellion itself only aspires to the relative and !an only promise an assured dignity !oupled "ith relative %usti!e$ It

supposes a limit at "hi!h the !ommunity of man is esta#lished$ Its universe is the universe of relative values$ Instead of saying "ith Hegel and Mar/ that all is ne!essary it only repeats that all is possi#le and that at a !ertain point of the farthest frontier it is "orth ma-ing the supreme sa!rifi!e for the sa-e of the possi#le$ *et"een =od and history the yogi and the !ommissar it opens a diffi!ult path "here !ontradi!tions may e/ist and thrive$ Let us !onsider the t"o !ontradi!tions given as an e/ample in this "ay$ A revolutionary a!tion "hi!h "ishes to #e !oherent in terms of its origins should #e em#odied in an a!tive !onsent to the relative$ Jn!ompromising as to its means it "ould a!!ept an appro/imation as far as its ends are !on!erned and so that the appro/imation should #e!ome more and more a!!urately defined it "ould allo" a#solute freedom of spee!h$ Thus it "ould preserve the !ommon e/isten!e that %ustifies its insurre!tion$ In parti!ular it "ould preserve as an a#solute la" the permanent possi#ility of selfE e/pression$ This defines a parti!ular line of !ondu!t in regard to %usti!e and freedom$ There is no %usti!e in so!iety "ithout natural or !ivil rights as its #asis$ There are no rights "ithout e/pression of those rights$ If the rights are e/pressed "ithout hesitation it is more than pro#a#le that sooner or later the %usti!e they postulate "ill !ome to the "orld$ To !on7uer e/isten!e "e must start from the small amount of e/isten!e "e find in ourselves and not deny it from the very #eginning$ To silen!e the la" until %usti!e is esta#lished is to silen!e it forever sin!e it "ill have no more o!!asion to spea- if %usti!e reigns forever$ On!e more "e thus !onfide

%usti!e into the -eeping of those "ho alone have the a#ility to ma-e themselves heard 0 those in po"er$ <or !enturies %usti!e and e/isten!e as dispensed #y those in po"er have #een !onsidered a favour$ To -ill freedom in order to esta#lish the reign of %usti!e !omes to the same as resus!itating the idea of gra!e "ithout divine inter!ession and of restoring #y a mystifying rea!tion the mysti! #ody in its #asest elements$ Even "hen %usti!e is not reali6ed freedom preserves the po"er to protest and guarantees human !ommuni!ation$ Lusti!e in a silent "orld %usti!e enslaved and mute destroys mutual !ompli!ity and finally !an no longer #e %usti!e$ The revolution of the t"entieth !entury has ar#itrarily separated for overam#itious ends of !on7uest t"o insepara#le ideas$ A#solute freedom mo!-s at %usti!e$ A#solute %usti!e denies freedom$ To #e fruitful the t"o ideas must find their limits in ea!h other$ (o man !onsiders that his !ondition is free if it is not at the same time %ust nor %ust unless it is free$ <reedom pre!isely !annot even #e imagined "ithout the po"er of saying !learly "hat is %ust and "hat is un%ust of !laiming all e/isten!e in the name of a small part of e/isten!e "hi!h refuses to die$ <inally there is a %usti!e though a very different -ind of %usti!e in restoring freedom "hi!h is the only imperisha#le value of history$ Men are never really "illing to die e/!ept for the sa-e of freedom) therefore they do not #elieve in dying !ompletely$ The same reasoning !an #e applied to violen!e$ A#solute nonEviolen!e is the negative #asis of slavery and its a!ts of violen!e4 systemati! violen!e positively destroys the living !ommunity and the e/isten!e "e re!eive from it$ To #e fruitful these t"o ideas must

esta#lish final limits$ In history !onsidered as an a#solute violen!e finds itself legitimi6ed4 as a relative ris- it is the !ause of a rupture in !ommuni!ation$ It must therefore preserve for the re#el its provisional !hara!ter of effra!tion and must al"ays #e #ound if it !annot #e avoided to a personal responsi#ility and to an immediate ris-$ 3ystemati! violen!e is part of the order of things4 in a !ertain sense this is !onsolatory$ &;hrerprin3ip or histori!al Reason "hatever order may esta#lish it it reigns over the universe of things not the universe of men$ Lust as the re#el !onsiders murder as the limit that he must if he is so in!lined !onse!rate #y his o"n death so violen!e !an only #e an e/treme limit "hi!h !om#ats another form of violen!e as for e/ample in the !ase of an insurre!tion$ If an e/!ess of in%usti!e renders the latter inevita#le the re#el re%e!ts violen!e in advan!e in the servi!e of a do!trine or of a reason of 3tate$ Every histori!al !risis for e/ample terminates in institutions$ If "e have no !ontrol over the !risis itself "hi!h is pure ha6ard "e do have !ontrol over the institutions sin!e "e !an define them !hoose the ones for "hi!h "e "ill fight and thus #end our effort to"ard their esta#lishment$ Authenti! arts of re#ellion "ill only !onsent to ta-e up arms for institutions that limit violen!e not for those "hi!h !odify it$ A revolution is not "orth dying for unless it assumes the immediate suppression of the death penalty4 not "orth going to prison for unless it refuses in advan!e to pass senten!e "ithout fi/ed terms$ If re#el violen!e employs itself in the esta#lishment of these institutions announ!ing its aims as often as it !an it is the only "ay in "hi!h it !an #e really provisional$ .hen the end is a#solute histori!ally spea-ing and

"hen it is #elieved !ertain of reali6ation it is possi#le to go so far as to sa!rifi!e others$ .hen it is not only oneself !an #e sa!rifi!ed in the ha6ards of a struggle for the !ommon dignity of man$ 'oes the end %ustify the means@ That is possi#le$ *ut "hat "ill %ustify the end@ To that 7uestion "hi!h histori!al thought leaves pending re#ellion replies) the means$ .hat does su!h an attitude signify in politi!s@ And first of all is it effi!a!ious@ .e must ans"er "ithout hesitation that it is the only attitude that is effi!a!ious today$ There are t"o sorts of effi!a!y) that of typhoons and that of sap$ Histori!al a#solutism is not effi!a!ious it is effi!ient4 it has sei6ed and -ept po"er$ On!e it is in possession of po"er it destroys the only !reative reality$ Jn!ompromising and limited a!tion springing from re#ellion upholds this reality and only tries to e/tend it farther and farther$ It is not said that this a!tion !annot !on7uer$ It is said that it runs the ris- of not !on7uering and of dying$ *ut either revolution "ill ta-e this ris- or it "ill !onfess that it is only the underta-ing of a ne" set of masters punisha#le #y the same s!orn$ A revolution that is separated from honour #etrays its origins that #elong to the reign of honour$ Its !hoi!e in any !ase is limited to material e/pedien!y and final annihilation or to ris-s and hen!e to !reation$ The revolutionaries of the past "ent ahead as fast as they !ould and their optimism "as !omplete$ *ut today the revolutionary spirit has gro"n in -no"ledge and !learE sightedness4 it has #ehind it a hundred and fifty years of e/perien!e$ Moreover the revolution has lost its illusions of #eing a pu#li! holiday$ It is entirely on its o"n a prodigious and !al!ulated enterprise "hi!h

em#ra!es the entire universe$ It -no"s even though it does not al"ays say so that it "ill #e "orldE"ide or that it "ill not #e at all$ Its !han!es are #alan!ed against the ris- of a universal "ar "hi!h even in the event of vi!tory "ill only present it "ith an Empire of ruins$ It !an remain faithful to its nihilism and in!arnate in the !harnel houses the ultimate reason of history$ Then it "ill #e ne!essary to renoun!e everything e/!ept the silent musi! that "ill again transfigure the terrestrial hell$ *ut the revolutionary spirit in Europe !an also for the first and last time refle!t upon its prin!iples asitself "hat the deviation is "hi!h leads it into terror and into "ar and redis!over "ith the reasons for its re#ellion its faith in itself$

'oderation and E8cess *

The errors of !ontemporary revolution are first of all e/plained #y the ignoran!e or systemati! mis!on!eption of that limit "hi!h seems insepara#le from human nature and "hi!h re#ellion reveals$ (ihilist thought #e!ause it negle!ts this frontier ends #y pre!ipitating itself into a uniformly a!!elerated movement$ (othing any longer !he!-s it in its !ourse and it rea!hes the point

of %ustifying total destru!tion or unlimited !on7uest$ .e no" -no" at the end of this long in7uiry into re#ellion and nihilism that re#ellion "ith no other limits #ut histori!al e/pedien!y signifies unlimited slavery$ To es!ape this fate the revolutionary mind if it "ants to remain alive must therefore return again to the sour!es of re#ellion and dra" its inspiration from the only system of thought "hi!h is faithful to its origins) thought that re!ogni6es limits$ If the limit dis!overed #y re#ellion transfigures everything if every thought every a!tion that goes #eyond a !ertain point negates itself there is in fa!t a measure #y "hi!h to %udge events and men$ In history as in psy!hology re#ellion is an irregular pendulum "hi!h s"ings in an errati! ar! #e!ause it is loo-ing for its most perfe!t and profound rhythm$ *ut its irregularity is not total) it fun!tions around a pivot$ Re#ellion at the same time that it suggests a nature !ommon to all men #rings to light the measure and the limit "hi!h are the very prin!iple of this nature$ Every refle!tion today "hether nihilist or positivist gives #irth sometimes "ithout -no"ing it to standards that s!ien!e itself !onfirms$ The 7uantum theory relativity the un!ertainty of interrelationships define a "orld that has no defina#le reality e/!ept on the s!ale of average greatness "hi!h is our o"n$ The ideologies "hi!h guide our "orld "ere #orn in the time of a#solute s!ientifi! dis!overies$ Our real -no"ledge on the other

hand only %ustifies a system of thought #ased on relative dis!overies$ FIntelligen!e G says La6are *i!-el Fis our fa!ulty for not developing "hat "e thin- to the very end so that "e !an still #elieve in reality$G Appro/imative thought is the only !reator of reality$ 83!ien!e today #etrays its origins and denies its o"n a!7uisitions in allo"ing itself to #e put to the servi!e of 3tate terrorism and the desire for po"er$ Its punishment and its degradation lie in only #eing a#le to produ!e in an a#stra!t "orld the means of destru!tion and enslavement$ *ut "hen the limit is rea!hed s!ien!e "ill perhaps serve the individual re#ellion$ This terri#le ne!essity "ill mar- the de!isive turningEpoint$; The very for!es of matter in their #lind advan!e impose their o"n limits$ That is "hy it is useless to "ant to reverse the advan!e of te!hnology$ The age of the spinningE"heel is over and the dream of a !ivili6ation of artisans is vain$ The ma!hine is #ad only in the "ay that it is no" employed$ Its #enefits must #e a!!epted even if its ravages are re%e!ted$ The tru!driven day and night does not humiliate its driver "ho -no"s it inside out and treats it "ith affe!tion and effi!ien!y$ The real and inhuman e/!ess lies in the division of la#our$ *ut #y dint of this e/!ess a day !omes "hen a ma!hine !apa#le of a hundred operations operated #y one man !reates one sole o#%e!t$ This man on a different s!ale "ill have partially redis!overed the po"er of !reation "hi!h he possessed in the days of the artisan$ The anonymous produ!er then more nearly approa!hes the !reator$ It is not !ertain naturally that industrial e/!ess "ill immediately em#ar- on this path$ *ut it already demonstrates #y the "ay it fun!tions the

ne!essity for moderation and gives rise to refle!tions on the proper "ay to organi6e this moderation$ Either this value of limitation "ill #e reali6ed or !ontemporary e/!esses "ill only find their prin!iple and pea!e in universal destru!tion$ This la" of moderation e7ually "ell e/tends to all the !ontradi!tions of re#ellious thought$ The real is not entirely rational nor is the rational entirely real$ As "e have seen in regard to surrealism the desire for unity not only demands that everything should #e rational$ It also "ishes that the irrational should not #e sa!rifi!ed$ One !annot say that nothing has any meaning #e!ause in doing so one affirms a value san!tioned #y an opinion4 not that everything has a meaning #e!ause the "ord everything has no meaning for us$ The irrational imposes limits on the rational "hi!h in its turn gives it its moderation$ 3omething has a meaning finally "hi!h "e must o#tain from meaninglessness$ In the same "ay it !annot #e said that e/isten!e ta-es pla!e only on the level of essen!e$ .here !ould one per!eive essen!e e/!ept on the level of e/isten!e and evolution@ *ut nor !an it #e said that #eing is only e/isten!e$ 3omething that is al"ays in the pro!ess of development !ould not e/ist 0 there must #e a #eginning$ *eing !an only prove itself in development and development is nothing "ithout #eing$ The "orld is not in a !ondition of pure sta#ility4 nor is it only movement$ It is #oth movement and sta#ility$ The histori!al diale!ti! for e/ample is not in !ontinuous pursuit of an un-no"n value$ It revolves around the limit "hi!h is its prime value$ Hera!litus the dis!overer of the !onstant !hange of things nevertheless set a limit to this perpetual

pro!ess$ This limit "as sym#oli6ed #y (emesis the goddess of moderation and the impla!a#le enemy of the immoderate$ A pro!ess of thought "hi!h "anted to ta-e into a!!ount the !ontemporary !ontradi!tions of re#ellion should see- its inspiration from this goddess$ As for the moral !ontradi!tions they too #egin to #e!ome solu#le in the light of this !on!iliatory value$ Virtue !annot separate itself from reality "ithout #e!oming a prin!iple of evil$ (or !an it identify itself !ompletely "ith reality "ithout denying itself$ The moral value #rought to light #y re#ellion finally is no farther a#ove life and history than history and life are a#ove it$ In a!tual truth it assumes no reality in history until man gives his life for it or dedi!ates himself entirely to it$ La!o#in and #ourgeois !ivili6ation presumes that values are a#ove history and its formal virtues then lay the foundation of a repugnant form of mystifi!ation$ The revolution of the t"entieth !entury de!rees that values are intermingled "ith the movement of history and that their histori!al foundation %ustify a ne" form of mystifi!ation$ Moderation !onfronted "ith this irregularity tea!hes us that at least one part of realism is ne!essary to every ethi!) pure and unadulterated virtue is homi!idal$ And one part of ethi!s is ne!essary to all realism) !yni!ism is homi!idal$ That is "hy humanitarian !ant has no more #asis than !yni!al provo!ation$ <inally man is not entirely to #lame4 it "as not he "ho started history4 nor is he entirely inno!ent sin!e he !ontinues it$ Those "ho go #eyond this limit and affirm his total inno!en!e end in the insanity of definitive !ulpa#ility$ Re#ellion on the !ontrary sets us on the path of !al!ulated !ulpa#ility$ Its

sole #ut invin!i#le hope is in!arnated in the final analysis in inno!ent murderers$ At this limit the F.e areG parado/i!ally defines a ne" form of individualism$ F.e areG in terms of history and history must re!-on "ith this F.e are G "hi!h must in its turn -eep its pla!e in history$ I have need of others "ho have need of me and of ea!h other$ Every !olle!tive a!tion every form of so!iety supposes a dis!ipline and the individual "ithout this dis!ipline is only a stranger #o"ed do"n under the "eight of an inimi!al !olle!tivity$ *ut so!iety and dis!ipline lose their dire!tion if they deny the F.e are$G I alone in one sense support the !ommon dignity that I !annot allo" either myself or others to de#ase$ This individualism is in no sense pleasure4 it is perpetual struggle and sometimes unparalleled %oy "hen it rea!hes the heights of proud !ompassion$

Thought at the style122'eridian As for -no"ing if su!h an attitude !an find e/pression in the !ontemporary "orld it is easy to evo-e 0 and this is only an e/ample 0 "hat is traditionally !alled revolutionary tradeEunionism$ ,annot it #e said that even this tradeEunionism is ineffe!tual@ The ans"er is simple) it is this movement alone that in one !entury is responsi#le for the enormously improved !ondition of the "or-ers from the si/teenEhour day to the fortyEhour "ee-$ The ideologi!al Empire has turned so!ialism #a!- on its

tra!-s and destroyed the greater part of the !on7uests of tradeEunionism$ It is #e!ause tradeEunionism started from a !on!rete #asis the #asis of professional employment >"hi!h is to the e!onomi! order "hat the !ommune is to the politi!al order? the living !ell on "hi!h the organism #uilds itself "hile the ,Rsarian revolution starts from do!trine and for!i#ly introdu!es reality into it$ TradeEunionism li-e the !ommune is the negation to the #enefit of reality of #ureau!rati! and a#stra!t !entralism$ 8Tolain the future ,ommunard "rote) FHuman #eings eman!ipate themselves only on the #asis of natural groups$G; The revolution of the t"entieth !entury on the !ontrary !laims to #ase itself on e!onomi!s #ut is primarily politi!al and ideologi!al$ It !annot #y its very fun!tion avoid terror and violen!e done to the real$ 'espite its pretensions it #egins in the a#solute and attempts to mould reality$ Re#ellion inversely relies on reality to assist it in its perpetual struggle for truth$ The former tries to reali6e itself from top to #ottom the latter from #ottom to top$ <ar from #eing a form of romanti!ism re#ellion on the !ontrary ta-es the part of true realism$ If it "ants a revolution it "ants it on #ehalf of life not in defian!e of it$ That is "hy it relies primarily on the most !on!rete realities 0 on o!!upation on the village "here the living heart of things and of men is to #e found$ +oliti!s to satisfy the demands of re#ellion must su#mit to the eternal verities$ <inally "hen it !auses history to advan!e and alleviates the sufferings of man-ind it does so "ithout terror if not "ithout violen!e and in the most dissimilar politi!al !onditions$ 83!andinavian so!ieties today to give only one e/ample demonstrate ho" artifi!ial and destru!tive are purely politi!al opposites$ The most

fruitful form of tradeEunionism is re!on!iled "ith !onstitutional monar!hy and a!hieves an appro/imation of a %ust so!iety$ The first preo!!upation of the histori!al and natural 3tate has #een on the !ontrary to !rush forever the professional nu!leus and !ommunal autonomy$; *ut this e/ample goes farther than it seems$ On the very day "hen the ,Rsarian revolution triumphed over the syndi!alist and li#ertarian spirit revolutionary thought lost in itself a !ounterpoise of "hi!h it !annot "ithout de!aying deprive itself$ This !ounterpoise the spirit "hi!h ta-es the measure of life is the same that animates the long tradition that !an #e !alled solitary thought in "hi!h sin!e the time of the =ree-s nature has al"ays #een "eighed against evolution$ The history of the <irst International "hen =erman 3o!ialism !easelessly fought against the li#ertarian thought of the <ren!h the 3panish and the Italians is the history of the struggle of =erman ideology against the Mediterranean mind$ 83ee Mar/s letter to Engels >style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Luly 9: AUT:? hoping for the vi!tory of style12fontE si6e) ACpt42+russia over style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42<ran!e) FThe preponderan!e of the =erman proletariat "ould #e at the same time the preponderan!e of our theory over +roudhons$; The !ommune against the 3tate !on!rete so!iety against a#solutist so!iety deli#erate freedom against rational tyranny finally altruisti! individualism against the !oloni6ation of the masses are then the !ontradi!tions that e/press on!e again the endless opposition of moderation to e/!ess "hi!h has animated the history of the O!!ident sin!e the time of the an!ient "orld$ The profound !onfli!t of this !entury is perhaps

not so mu!h #et"een the =erman ideologies of history and ,hristian politi!al !on!epts "hi!h in a !ertain "ay are a!!ompli!es as #et"een =erman dreams and Mediterranean traditions #et"een the violen!e of eternal adoles!en!e and virile strength #et"een nostalgia rendered more a!ute #y -no"ledge and #y #oo-s and !ourage reinfor!ed and enlightened #y the e/perien!e of life 0 in other "ords #et"een history and nature$ *ut =erman ideology in this sense has !ome into its inheritan!e$ It !onsummates t"enty !enturies of a#ortive struggle against nature first in the name of a histori! god and then of a deified history$ ,hristianity no dou#t "as only a#le to !on7uer its !atholi!ity #y assimilating as mu!h as it !ould of =ree- thought$ *ut "hen the ,hur!h dissipated its Mediterranean heritage it pla!ed the emphasis on history to the detriment of nature !aused the =othi! to triumph over the roman!e and destroying a limit in itself has made in!reasing !laims to temporal po"er and histori!al dynamism$ .hen nature !eases to #e an o#%e!t of !ontemplation and admiration it !an then #e nothing more than material for an a!tion that aims at transforming it$ These tenden!ies 0 and not the !on!epts of mediation "hi!h "ould have !omprised the real strength of ,hristianity 0 are triumphing in modern times to the detriment of ,hristianity itself #y an inevita#le turn of events$ That =od should in fa!t #e e/pelled from this histori!al universe and =erman ideology #e #orn "here a!tion is no longer a pro!ess of perfe!tion #ut pure !on7uest is an e/pression of tyranny$ *ut histori!al a#solutism despite its triumphs has never !eased to !ome into !ollision "ith an irrepressi#le

demand of human nature of "hi!h the style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Mediterranean "here intelligen!e is ultimately related to the #linding light of the sun guards the se!ret$ Re#ellious thought that of the !ommune and of revolutionary tradeEunionism has not !eased to deny this demand in the presen!e of #ourgeois nihilism as "ell as of ,Rsarian so!ialism$ Authoritarian thought #y means of three "ars and than-s to the physi!al destru!tion of a revolutionary elite has su!!eeded in su#merging this li#ertarian tradition$ *ut this #arren vi!tory is only provisional4 the #attle still !ontinues$ style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe has never #een free of this struggle #et"een dar-ness and light$ It has only degraded itself #y deserting the struggle and e!lipsing day #y night$ The destru!tion of this e7uili#rium is today #earing its #itterest fruits$ 'eprived of our means of mediation e/iled from natural #eauty "e are on!e again in the "orld of the Old Testament !rushed #et"een a !ruel +haraoh and an impla!a#le heaven$ In the !ommon !ondition of misery the eternal demand is heard again4 nature on!e more ta-es up the fight against history$ (aturally it is not a 7uestion of despising anything or of e/alting one !ivili6ation at the e/pense of another #ut of simply saying that it is a thought "hi!h the "orld today !annot do "ithout for very mu!h longer$ There is undou#tedly in the Russian people something to inspire style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe "ith the poten!y of sa!rifi!e and in style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Ameri!a a ne!essary po"er of !onstru!tion$ *ut the youth of the "orld al"ays find themselves standing on the same shore$ Thro"n into the un"orthy meltingE pot of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe deprived of #eauty

and friendship "e Mediterraneans the proudest of ra!es live al"ays #y the same light$ In the depths of the European night solar thought the !ivili6ation fa!ing t"o "ays a"aits its da"n$ *ut it already illuminates the paths of real mastery$ Real mastery !onsists in refuting the pre%udi!es of the time initially the deepest and most malignant of them "hi!h "ould redu!e man after his deliveran!e from e/!ess to a #arren "isdom$ It is very true that e/!ess !an #e a form of san!tity "hen it is paid for #y the madness of (iet6s!he$ *ut in this into/i!ation of the soul "hi!h is e/hi#ited on the s!ene of our !ulture al"ays the madness of e/!ess the folly of attempting the impossi#le of "hi!h the #rand !an never #e removed from him "ho has on!e at least a#andoned himself to it@ Has +rometheus ever had this fanati!al or a!!using aspe!t@ (o our !ivili6ation survives in the !ompla!en!y of !o"ardly or malignant minds 0 a sa!rifi!e to the vanity of aging adoles!ents$ Lu!ifer also has died "ith =od and from his ashes has arisen a spiteful demon "ho does not even understand the o#%e!t of his venture$ In ABD: e/!ess is al"ays a !omfort and sometimes a !areer$ Moderation on the one hand is nothing #ut pure tension$ It smiles no dou#t and our ,onvulsionists dedi!ated to ela#orate apo!alypses despise it$ *ut its smile shines #rightly at the !lima/ of an intermina#le effort) it is in itself a supplementary sour!e of strength$ .hy do these pettyEminded Europeans "ho sho" us an avari!ious fa!e if they no longer have the strength to smile !laim that their desperate !onvulsions are e/amples of superiority@

The real madness of e/!ess dies or !reates its o"n moderation$ It does not !ause the death of others in order to !reate an ali#i for itself$ In its most e/treme manifestations it finds its limit on "hi!h li-e Kaliayev it sa!rifi!es itself if ne!essary$ Moderation is not the opposite of re#ellion$ Re#ellion in itself is moderation and it demands defends and reE!reates it throughout history and its eternal distur#an!es$ The very origin of this value guarantees us that it !an only #e partially destroyed$ Moderation #orn of re#ellion !an only live #y re#ellion$ It is a perpetual !onfli!t !ontinually !reated and mastered #y the intelligen!e$ It does not triumph either in the impossi#le or in the a#yss$ It finds its e7uili#rium through them$ .hatever "e may do e/!ess "ill al"ays -eep its pla!e in the heart of man in the pla!e "here solitude is found$ .e all !arry "ithin us our pla!es of e/ile our !rimes and our ravages$ *ut our tas- is not to unleash them on the "orld4 it is to fight them in ourselves and in others$ Re#ellion the se!ular "ill not to surrender of "hi!h *arrSs spea-s is still today at the #asis of the struggle$ Origin of form sour!e of real life it -eeps us al"ays ere!t in the savage formless movement of history$

Beyond ihilism %

There does e/ist for man therefore a "ay of a!ting and of thin-ing "hi!h is possi#le on the level of moderation to "hi!h he #elongs$ Every underta-ing that is more am#itious than this proves to #e !ontradi!tion$ The a#solute is not attained nor a#ove all !reated through history$ +oliti!s is not religion or if it is then it is nothing #ut the In7uisition$ Ho" "ould so!iety define an a#solute@ +erhaps everyone is loo-ing for this a#solute on #ehalf of all$ *ut so!iety and politi!s only have the responsi#ility of arranging everyones affairs so that ea!h "ill have the leisure and the freedom to pursue this !ommon sear!h$ History !an then no longer #e presented as an o#%e!t of "orship$ It is only an opportunity that must #e rendered fruitful #y a vigilant re#ellion$
FO#session "ith the harvest and indifferen!e to

history G "rites RenV ,har admira#ly Fare t"o e/tremities of my #o"$G If the duration of history is not synonymous "ith the duration of the harvest then history in effe!t is no more than a fleeting and !ruel shado" in "hi!h man has no more part$ He "ho dedi!ates himself to this history dedi!ates himself to nothing and in his turn is nothing$ *ut he "ho dedi!ates himself to the duration of his life to the house he #uilds to the dignity of man-ind dedi!ates himself to the earth and reaps from it the harvest that so"s its seed and sustains the "orld again and again$ <inally it is those "ho -no" ho" to re#el at the appropriate moment against history "ho really advan!e its

interests$ To re#el against it supposes an intermina#le tension and the agoni6ed serenity of "hi!h RenV ,har also spea-s$ *ut the true life is present in the heart of the di!hotomy$ Life is this di!hotomy itself the mind soaring over vol!anoes of light the madness of %usti!e the e/tenuating intransigen!e of moderation$ The "ords that rever#erate for us at the !onfines of this long adventure of re#ellion are not formulas for optimism for "hi!h "e have no possi#le us in the e/tremities of our unhappiness #ut "ords of !ourage and intelligen!e "hi!h on the shores of the eternal seas even have the 7ualities of virtue$ (o possi#le form of "isdom today !an !laim to give more$ Re#ellion indefatiga#ly !onfronts evil from "hi!h it !an only derive a ne" impetus$ Man !an master in himself everything that should #e mastered$ He should re!tify in !reation everything that !an #e re!tified$ And after he has done so !hildren "ill still die un%ustly even in a perfe!t so!iety$ Even #y his greatest effort man !an only propose to diminish arithmeti!ally the sufferings of the "orld$ *ut the in%usti!e and the suffering of the "orld "ill remain and no matter ho" limited they are they "ill not !ease to #e an outrage$ 'imitri Karama6ovs !ry of F.hy@G "ill !ontinue to resound4 art and re#ellion "ill die only "ith the last man$ There is an evil undou#tedly "hi!h men a!!umulate in their fantasti! desire for unity$ *ut yet another evil lies at the roots of this inordinate movement$ ,onfronted "ith this evil !onfronted "ith death man from the very depths of his soul !ries out for %usti!e$ Histori!al ,hristianity has only replied to this

protest against evil #y the annun!iation of the -ingdom and then of eternal life "hi!h demands faith$ *ut suffering e/hausts hope and faith and then is left alone and une/plained$ The toiling masses "orn out "ith suffering and death are masses "ithout =od$ Our pla!e is hen!eforth at their side far from tea!hers old and ne"$ Histori!al ,hristianity postpones to a point #eyond the span of history the !ure of evil and murder "hi!h are nevertheless e/perien!ed "ithin the span of history$ ,ontemporary materialism also #elieves that it !an ans"er all 7uestions$ *ut as a slave to history it in!reases the domain of histori! murder and at the same time leaves it "ithout any %ustifi!ation e/!ept in the future 0 "hi!h again demands faith$ In #oth !ases one must "ait and mean"hile the inno!ent !ontinue to die$ <or t"enty !enturies the sum total of evil has not diminished in the "orld$ (o paradise "hether divine or revolutionary has #een reali6ed$ An in%usti!e remains ine/tri!a#ly #ound to all suffering even the most deserved in the eyes of men$ The long silen!e of +rometheus #efore the po"ers that over"helmed him still !ries out in protest$ *ut +rometheus mean"hile has seen men rail and turn against him$ ,rushed #et"een human evil and destiny #et"een terror and the ar#itrary all that remains to him is his po"er to re#el in order to save from murder him "ho !an still #e saved "ithout surrendering to the arrogan!e of #lasphemy$ Then "e understand that re#ellion !annot e/ist "ithout a strange form of love$ Those "ho find no rest in =od or in history are !ondemned to live for those "ho li-e themselves !annot live) in fa!t for the humiliated$ The most pure form of the movement of

re#ellion is thus !ro"ned "ith the heartErending !ry of Karama6ov) if all are not saved "hat good is the salvation of only one@ Thus ,atholi! prisoners in the prison !ells of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt423pain refuse !ommunion today #e!ause the priests of the regime have made it o#ligatory in !ertain prisons$ These lonely "itnesses to the !ru!ifi/ion of inno!en!e also refuse salvation if it must #e paid for #y in%usti!e and oppression$ This insane generosity is the generosity of re#ellion "hi!h unhesitatingly gives the strength of its love and "ithout a moments delay refuses in%usti!e$ Its merit lies in ma-ing no !al!ulations distri#uting everything it possesses to life and to living men$ It is thus that it is prodigal in its gifts to men to !ome$ Real generosity to"ard the future lies in giving all to the present$ Re#ellion proves in this "ay that it is the very movement of life and that it !annot #e denied "ithout renoun!ing life$ Its purest out#urst on ea!h o!!asion gives #irth to e/isten!e$ Thus it is love and fe!undity or it is nothing at all$ Revolution "ithout honour !al!ulated revolution "hi!h in preferring an a#stra!t !on!ept of man to a man of flesh and #lood denies e/isten!e as many times as is ne!essary puts resentment in the pla!e of love$ Immediately re#ellion forgetful of its generous origins allo"s itself to #e !ontaminated #y resentment4 it denies life dashes to"ard destru!tion and raises up the grima!ing !ohorts of petty re#els em#ryo slaves all of them "ho end #y offering themselves for salve today in all the mar-etpla!es of Europe to no matter "hat form of servitude$ It is no longer either revolution or re#ellion #ut ran!our mali!e and tyranny$

Then "hen revolution in the name of po"er and of history #e!omes a murderous and immoderate me!hanism a ne" re#ellion is !onse!rated in the name of moderation and of life$ .e are at that e/tremity no"$ At the end of this tunnel of dar-ness ho"ever there is inevita#ly a light "hi!h "e already divine and for "hi!h "e only have to fight to ensure its !oming$ All of us among the ruins are preparing a renaissan!e #eyond the limits of nihilism$ *ut fe" of us -no" it$ Already in fa!t re#ellion "ithout !laiming to solve everything !an at least !onfront its pro#lems$ <rom this moment high noon is #orne a"ay on the fastEmoving stream of history$ Around the devouring flames shado"s "rithe in mortal !om#at for an instant of time and then as suddenly disappear and the #lind fingering their eyelids !ry out that this is history$ The men of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe a#andoned to the shado"s have turned their #a!-s upon the fi/ed and radiant point of the present$ They forget the present for the future the fate of humanity for the delusion of po"er the misery of the slums for the mirage of the eternal !ity ordinary %usti!e for an empty promised land$ They despair of personal freedom and dream of a strange freedom of the spe!ies4 re%e!t solitary death and give the name of immortality to a vast !olle!tive agony$ They no longer #elieve in the things that e/ist in the "orld and in living man4 the se!ret of style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe is that it no longer loves life$ Its #lind men entertain the puerile #elief that to love one single day of life amounts to %ustifying "hole !enturies of oppression$ That is "hy they "anted to effa!e %oy from the "orld and to

postpone it until a mu!h later date$ Impatien!e "ith limits the re%e!tion of their dou#le life despair at #eing a man have finally driven them to inhuman e/!esses$ 'enying the real grandeur of life they have had to sta-e all on their o"n e/!ellen!e$ <or "ant of something #etter to do they deified themselves and their misfortunes #egan4 these gods have had their eyes put out$ Kaliayev and his #rothers throughout the entire "orld refuse on the !ontrary to #e deified in that they refuse the unlimited po"er to infli!t death$ They !hoose and give us as an e/ample the only original rule of life today) to learn to live and to die and in order to #e a man to refuse to #e a god$ At this meridian of thought the re#el thus re%e!ts divinity in order to share in the struggles and destiny of all men$ .e shall !hoose style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Itha!a the faithful land frugal and auda!ious thought lu!id a!tion and the generosity of the man "ho understands$ In the light the earth remains our first and our last love$ Our #rothers are #reathing under the same s-y as "e4 %usti!e is a living thing$ (o" is #orn that strange %oy "hi!h helps one live and die and "hi!h "e shall never again postpone to a later time$ On the sorro"ing earth it is the unresting thorn the #itter #re" the harsh "ind off the sea the old and the ne" da"n$ .ith this %oy through long struggle "e shall rema-e the soul of our time and a style12fontEsi6e) ACpt42Europe "hi!h "ill e/!lude nothing$ (ot even that phantom (iet6s!he "ho for t"elve years after his do"nfall "as !ontinually invo-ed #y the .est as the #lasted image of its loftiest -no"ledge and its nihilism4 nor the prophet of %usti!e "ithout mer!y "ho lies #y mista-e in the un#elievers

plot at Highgate ,emetery4 nor the deified mummy of the man of a!tion in his glass !offin4 nor any part of "hat the intelligen!e and energy of Europe have !easelessly furnished to the pride of a !ontempti#le period$ All may indeed live again side #y side "ith the martyrs of AB:D #ut on !ondition that it is understood that they !orre!t one another and that a limit under the sun shall !ur# them all$ Ea!h tells the other that he is not =od4 this is the end of romanti!ism$ At this moment "hen ea!h of us must fit an arro" to his #o" and enter the lists ane" to re!on7uer "ithin history and in spite of it that "hi!h he o"ns already the thin yield of the fields the #rief love of this earth at this moment "hen at last a man is #orn it is time to forsa-e our age and its adoles!ent furies$ The #o" #ends4 the "ood !omplains$ At the moment of supreme tension there "ill leap into flight an uns"erving arro" a shaft that is infle/i#le and free$