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IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
The IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid is intended to be
a cross disciplinary and internationally archival journal
aimed at disseminating the results of research on smart
grid that relates to energy generation, transmission,
distribution and delivery. The journal will publish original
research on theories, technologies, design, policies,
and implementation of smart grid. The Transactions
will welcome manuscripts on design, implementation
and evaluation of energy systems that include smart grid technologies and applications.
Surveys of existing work on smart grid may also be considered for publication when they
propose a challenging perspective on the future of such technologies and systems.
Topical issues considered by the Transactions include:
> Smart sensing, communication and control in energy systems
> Wireless communications and advanced metering infrastructure
> Smart grid for energy management in buildings and home automation
> Phasor measurement unit applications for smart grid
> Smart grid for plug-in vehicles and low-carbon transportation alternatives
> Smart grid for cyber and physical security systems
> Smart grid for distributed energy resources
> Smart grid for energy savings and nancial management
> Smart grid in interdependent energy infrastructures
> Smart grid for intelligent monitoring and outage management
If you are interested in reviewing papers for this journal, please sign up
as a reviewer on the Manuscript Central site at:
http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/pes-ieee.
The Transactions on the Smart Grid can be accessed via the drop down menu on the PES portal
site. If you are interested in reviewing papers for our new Transactions and you are currently a
reviewer for PES Transactions, you can access your account in Manuscript Central and add smart
grid to your keywords or areas of expertise. If you have an account in Manuscript Central and
are not currently a reviewer for PES Transactions and would like to become a reviewer for PES
Transactions, access your account and you will automatically be given a reviewer center, then
update your areas of expertise. If you do not have an account, create a new user account and
complete all the required elds, you will then be given an author center and a reviewer center.
About the Editor-in-Chief: If you are interested in participating in the publication activities,
please contact the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Mohammad Shahidehpour at: [email protected].
Prof. Shahidehpour (Fellow 01) has been af liated with IEEE for the last thirty years. His is
currently the Carl Bodine Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at
Illinois Institute of Technology. Dr. Shahidehpour is an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer who has
lectured in 30 countries on issues related to power system operation and control. He has served
as the Vice President of Publications for the IEEE Power & Energy Society and an Editor of the
Transactions on Power Systems.
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THE WORLDS NEWSSTAND
MAGAZINE
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Previous Page Contents Zoom in Zoom out Front Cover Search Issue Next Page | | | | | |
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MAGAZINE
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VOL. 1, NO. 1 SEPTEMBER 2013 ISSN 2325-5987
WWW.IEEE-PES.ORG/
MAGAZINE
IEEE
IEEE Electrification Magazine (ISSN 2325-5987) (IEMECM) is published
quarterly by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Headquarters: 3 Park Avenue, 17th Floor, New York, NY 10016-5997
USA. Responsibility forthe contents rests upon the authors and not upon
the IEEE, the Society, or its members. IEEE Operations Center (for orders,
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USA. Telephone: +1 732 981 0060, +1 800 678 4333. Individual
copies: IEEE members US$20.00 (first copy only), nonmembers
US$123.00 per copy. Subscription Rates: Society members included with
membership dues. Subscription rates available upon request. Copyright
and reprint permissions: Abstracting is permitted with credit to the
source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S.
Copyright law for the private use of patrons 1) those post-1977 articles
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of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reser ved.
Periodicals postage pending at New York, NY, and at additional mailing
offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to IEEE Electrificaton
Magazine, IEEE Operations Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854
USA. Canadian GST #125634188 PRINTED IN U.S.A.
MISSION STATEMENT: IEEE Electrification Magazine is dedicated
to disseminating information on all matters related to
microgrids onboard electric vehicles, ships, trains, planes, and
off-grid applications. Microgrids refer to an electric network in a
car, a ship, a plane or an electric train, which has a limited num-
ber of sources and multiple loads. Off-grid applications include
small scale electricity supply in areas away from high voltage
power networks. Feature articles focus on advanced concepts,
technologies, and practices associated with all aspects of elec-
trification in the transportation and off-grid sectors from a tech-
nical perspective in synergy with nontechnical areas such as
business, environmental, and social concerns.
The Dependance on
Mechanical Design in
Railway Electrification
Focusing on the
ac perspective.
4
Shipboard
Solid-State
Protection
Overview
and applications.
32
Cutting Campus
Energy Costs
with Hierarchical
Control
The economical and reliable
operation of a microgrid.
40
2 ABOUT THIS ISSUE
3 TECHNOLOGY LEADERS
66 DATES AHEAD
68 NEWSFEED
72 VIEWPOINT
Courting and Sparking
Wooing consumers
interest in the
EV market.
21
Faster than
a Speeding Bullet
An overview of Japanese
high-speed rail
technology
and electrification.
11
Jacovides wins 2014 IEEE
Tansportation Technologies
Award. Page 68
Cutting the Cord
Static and dynamic inductive
wireless charging of electric
vehicles.
57
Evaluating EV market interest. Page 21
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MELE.2013.2280833
F E AT U R E S
D E PA R T ME N T S & C O L U MN S
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A B O U T T H I S I S S U E
I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 2
By Saifur Rahman
A Global View
of Electrification
Date of publication: 23 October 2013
ELCOME TO THE INAUGURAL ISSUE OF IEEE
Electrification Magazine. This is a quarterly magazine to
be published in March, June, September, and December
of each year. This magazine, which has a global view of electrifica-
tion in all types of transportation and off-grid applications, is
designed to fill the need of engineers in the industry as well as
policymakers who require information on technology, use cases,
and field experience in electrification in the 21st century.
This magazine is financially cosponsored by three IEEE
technical Societiesthe IEEE Power & Energy Society, the IEEE
Industry Applications Society, and the IEEE Power Electronics
Society. In addition, it is technically cosponsored by three
other IEEE Societiesthe IEEE Industrial Electronics Society,
the IEEE Vehicle Transportation Society, and the IEEE Intelligent
Transportation Systems Societyas well as the IEEE Transpor-
tation Electrification Initiative (TEI). We have assembled a
highly qualified editorial board comprised of ten members
from academia, government, and industry in different parts of
the world. Each topic of the magazineelectric vehicles, elec-
tric ships, electric trains, electric planes, and off-grid electrifi-
cationis looked after by one editor and one coeditor. Their
contact information is provided to the right. They are the pri-
mary points of contact for authors who wish to submit articles
for consideration in IEEE Electrification Magazine.
This first issue of the magazine has the following six arti-
cles covering electric trains, electric ships, electric vehicles,
and microgrids. The authors of these articles, who are from
industry as well as academia, are experts in their fields and
provide great insight into the technology, best practices, and
customer acceptance issues:
1) The Dependence on Mechanical Design in Railway Elec-
trification: Focusing on the AC Perspective
EDI TORI AL BOARD
Saifur Rahman
Editor-in-Chief
Virginia Tech
Virginia, USA
[email protected]
Iqbal Husain
Editor, Electric Vehicles
North Carolina State
University
North Carolina, USA
[email protected]
Eduard Muljadi
Coeditor, Electric Vehicles
NREL: Wind Research
Colorado, USA
[email protected]
Herb Ginn
Editor, Electric Ships
Universitiy of
South Carolina
South Carolina, USA
[email protected]
Robert Cuzner
Coeditor, Electric Ships
DRS Power and Control
Technologies
Wisconsin, USA
RobertMCuzner@drs.
com
Eduardo Pilo de la
Fuente
Editor, Electric Trains
EPRail Research
and Consulting
Spain
[email protected]
Jose Conrado Martine
Coeditor, Electric Trains
Directcion de Estrategia
y Desarrollo
Spain
[email protected]
Bulent Sarlioglu
Editor, Electric Planes
University of
Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, USA
[email protected]
Christine Ross
Coeditor, Electric Planes
Rolls-Royce Corp
Indiana, USA
Christine.AH.Ross@
rolls-royce.com
Mohammad
Shahidehpour
Editor, Off-Grid
Illinois Institute
of Technology
Chicago, USA
[email protected]
Steve Pullins
Coeditor, Off-Grid
Horizon Energy Group
Tennessee, USA
spullins@horizonenergy
group.com
I EEE PERI ODI CALS
MAGAZI NES
DEPARTMENT
445 Hoes Lane,
Piscataway, NJ 08854
USA
Craig Causer
Managing Editor
Janet Dudar
Senior Art Director
Gail A. Schnitzer
Assistant Art Director
Theresa L. Smith
Production Coordinator
Felicia Spagnoli
Advertising Production
Manager
Peter M. Tuohy
Production Director
Dawn Melley
Editorial Director
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Staff Director,
Publishing Operations
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W
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T E C H N O L O G Y L E A D E R S
By Noel Schulz
ELCOME TO THE INAUGU-
ral issue of IEEE Electrifica-
tion Magazine! We are
excited to get this first issue out the
door and online for our professional
community. This publication is a
result of collaboration and coopera-
tion between the three IEEE Societ-
ies: the Power and Energy Society
(PES), the Power Electronics Society
(PELS), and the Industry Applications
Society (IAS). We hope readers will
enjoy our articles and share them
with their colleagues.
One of the benefits for our Society
members is our work to provide
summaries and overviews of best
practices around our industry on key
topics of interest. The PES has been
publishing our award-winning IEEE
Power & Energy Magazine for 11 years,
and we find that this format is a great
dissemination tool for professionals
on the state-of-the-art topics in the
power and energy field. With the
expansion in electrification in techni-
cal areas related to renewable energy,
smart grid technologies, electrification
of transportation, and remote electri-
fication using microgrids, we have
seen an increased interest in publica-
tions related to these topics including
the addition of several new IEEE trans-
actions over the last several years. Our
PES, PELS, and IAS leadership groups
wanted to provide additional profes-
sional development support for
practicing engineers on many of these
topics in a magazine format that
highlights current trends, challenges,
and opportunities.
Our first issue of IEEE Electrifica-
tion Magazine covers several hot top-
ics in our field. While many people
think of electric cars when we dis-
cuss the electrification of transporta-
tion, railway electrification provides
an excellent platform for developing
infrastructure and systems that can
be used worldwide. Three of our arti-
cles in this issue discuss best practices
and opportunities for railway trans-
portation and its electrification,
including one on storage.
In addition to trains, shipboard
electrification provides some
unique challenges and opportuni-
ties for engineers, and one article
discusses how solid-state protec-
tion is impacting the shipboard
power system. We have also includ-
ed an article on electric vehicles
and how consumer interest and
acceptance is impacting the engi-
neering of electric cars and systems
to support them.
Over the last five to ten years, we
have seen a migration from tradi-
tional, interconnected power sys-
tems to discussions of distributed
generation and microgrids. In our
global society, it does not always
make sense economically to build
large, centrally located generation
stations and long transmission lines
to deliver electricity. Small-scale
electricity supply in areas away from
high-voltage power networks has
gained momentum, and efforts are
underway to use local fuel resources,
such as renewable energy in
microgrids, to provide electricity in
remote areas.
The microgrid systems bring a
new paradigm to the economics, reli-
ability, and operational activities of
the power system. Our last article in
this issue discusses the control strat-
egies related to microgrid economics
and reliable operation. Developing
strategies for these systems will be
essential for sustainable solutions for
rural and off-grid locations without
reliable power.
There are also opportunities for
you to participate in this publica-
tion. Authors, reviewers, and sug-
gestions are welcome. Please send
an e-mail to electrification@ieee.
org or check out the publication
Web site at http://www.ieee-pes.
org/publications/electrification-
magazine.
Like any IEEE activity, this publi-
cation is the result of hard work and
cooperation between IEEE volun-
teers and staff. I would like to per-
sonally recognize Dr. Saifur Rahman,
W
Unique Challenges
and Opportunities
(continued on page 70)
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4
LECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAY SYSTEMS
becomes a very tricky topic when designing
overhead contact lines (OCLs). This article
highlights the strong dependence of the
mechanical design on the railway electrifi-
cation. Indeed, only the high sensitivity of the quality of
service to the mechanical performance of the OCL can
explain the complex designs of the existing railway lines.
The interoperability framework of the European Union
together with the standards that tackle gauges and clear-
ance calculations are briefly introduced, both for the static
and dynamic analyses of the pantograph and catenary.
A railway electrification system is comprised of all of
the facilities that are built to transport electricity from the
high-voltage power network to anywhere on the railway
line capable of providing power. This system includes an
installation of lines, usually for transport or delivery, con-
necting tothe network; traction substations, which set up
the network voltage to the required voltages; autotrans-
formers; and the OCL, also known as catenary, which runs
along the whole line, supplying electricity to the railway
rolling stock.
The main difference
between the railway elec-
trification system and
power transmission or
distribution lines is its
inherent difficulty of
feeding the rolling stock
as a moving load. This
feature has yielded dif-
ferent electrification
options, such as cable-
based OCLs, third rails, or
rigid OCLs, instead of using the widespread cable struc-
tures. Undoubtedly, there is a very strong coupling
between the mechanical design and the electrical feeding
of the rolling stock, using the commonly known catenary
pantograph interaction. Because of the key influence of
the speed of the vehicles on this dynamic interaction and
the rapid proliferation of high-speed lines, the research
on the design and improvement of this kind of line has
taken off.
Railway Electrification System
Since alternating current (ac) electrification is the most
common in high-speed lines, this article will focus
predominantly on this perspective even though the
By Jesus R. Jimenez-Octavio, Cristina
Sanchez-Rebollo, and Alberto Carnicero
E
CAN STOCK PHOTO/ZHANGYUANGENG
Focusing on the ac perspective.
2325-5987/13/$31.002013IEEE
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conclusions of this work can be directly extrapolated to
direct current (dc). Figure 1 shows the structure of the
electrification of a railway line in ac.
From an electrical standpoint, the railway line is
divided into sections that are electrically separated
from each other by short lengths without feeding,
which are called neutral zones. Generally, the high-
speed lines are fed from the three-phase, high-voltage
network through traction substations, which usually
feed to two subsectors by separate transformers, as
depicted in Figure 1. Along the line, the phases, which
feed the consecutive subsectors, are swapped to reduce
imbalances in the grid. As previously stated, a sector is
defined as the extension of railway line fed by the same
traction substation. For the sake of reliability, the trac-
tion substations are designed to allow simultaneous
feeding to two subsectors using a unique transformer
so that each subsector supports the adjacent subsec-
tors. In failure situations, the control center may per-
form the appropriate maneuvers to change the topology
of the electrification and thus isolate the fault. Regard-
ing the magnitude of the consumption of the high-
speed lines, the railway electrification is connected
to the transmission or delivery network (132, 220, or
400 kV depending on the national system) to reduce the
impact of railway loads on the network.
In the case of ac electrification, each of the subsectors
can employ either mono- or bivoltage feed systems. The
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monovoltage system shown in Figure 2(a) uses a set of
conductors at the voltage of the rolling stock and a sec-
ond set of grounded conductors for the return circuit. In
the literature, this system is called a monovoltage sys-
tem, or 1 25 # kV, because of the use of 25 kV. In this sys-
tem, all the current consumption of a certain train covers
the section between the substation and the train.
On the contrary, bivoltage systems are used to trans-
port voltage higher than the supplying voltage of the roll-
ing stock, which is reduced by using autotransformers
scattered along the OCL, as shown in Figure 2(b). In certain
technical publications, this system is called bivoltage, or
25 2 # kV, because of the use of 25 kV and because it
involves the use of two different levels of voltage in the
catenary, requiring the use of a third set of conductors.
This system reduces the electric current in most of the
stretch between the traction substation and the rolling
stock; in fact, only part of the consumption current has to
go over the whole distance. Thus, it is possible to reduce
electrical losses and voltage drops in the catenary, increas-
ing the length of the sectors with the expected reduction
of the number of substations.
Because intermediate conductors are
connected to ground potential, i.e.,
they are set to zero, negative voltages
appear in lower conductors, as illus-
trated in Figure 2(b). The relationship
between the voltage of the positive
and negative conductors allows us to
call them bivoltage symmetrical sys-
tems when they have the same ratio
in both autotransformers; they are
called bivoltage asymmetrical sys-
tems otherwise. The autotransform-
ers mentioned earlier reduce the
voltage to theallowable range of val-
ues for the rolling stock, while the
return current is forced to go through
the negative feeders.
The traction substations are those parts of the instal-
lation that carry out the connection of any electrified
OCL sector to the three-phase network, performing the
suitable transformation from one voltage to another. The
most common topology in the traction substations is the
simple bar, which is less expensive but offers reduced
operating flexibility. However, in cases where a unique
substation feeds several OCLs, the use of more complex
topologies such as rings or double bars is recommended.
In some cases, it is even possible to join the traction and
transportation substations in a single facility. The topolo-
gy of the substation can be slightly varied depending on
the type of connection of the transformers and to
maneuver coordinately several substations via remote-
control systems to adapt the topology of electrification to
specific necessities. Regarding the connections common-
ly used to connect the single-phase loads to the three-
phase network, different publications remark that the
factors that tip the choice toward one or another form of
connection are simplicity, cost, and imbalances in the
three-phase network.
Sector n
Subsector n-Right Subsector n-Left
Sector 1
Subsector 1-Right Subsector 1-Left
Traction
Substation n
Traction
Substation 1
Three-Phase High-Voltage Network
Figure 1. A general view of a railway electrification system.
(a) (b)
Positive-Phase Conductor
High-Voltage Network
Negative-Phase Conductor
Positive-Phase Conductor
High-Voltage Network
Figure 2. (a) Monovoltage and (b) bivoltage system configurations.
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Overhead Catenary Line
The last element of the electrification system, which is
crucial in the railway context, is the OCL or the catenary.
This is the cable structure used to supply electricity to the
trains by means of the dynamic interaction between the
contact wire and the pantograph, i.e., a mechanical device
located in the upper part of the locomotive. Figure 3
shows photographs of (a) an OCL and (b) a pantograph. One
of the key aspects of designing a railway catenary is
ensuring certain margins of its behavior when the panto-
graph is in contact; overall, the design of the OCL must
avoid any loss of contact between the contact wire and
the strips of the pantograph. Loss of contact is very unde-
sirable since it can result in electric arcs, which increase
the wear of both elements and the mechanical stresses
when contact is restored.
Ensuring uniform contact forces require that the con-
tact wire does not present large variations in height above
the rails. In situations where the train speed is not high,
close to 50 km/h, it may be sufficient to build only the con-
tact wire. However, if the train speed increases, the lowest
uplift along any point of the contact wire is highly desir-
able, which is not possible with the simple contact wire
tension. A high-speed system should, therefore, use a cat-
enary configuration with two cables, one for providing the
electric energy and the other for supporting the first one.
Besides these main components, a high-speed catenary is
comprised of other elements that also have their influ-
ence on the behavior of the cable system, which is
described below.
As discussed earlier, it is typical to distinguish
between high-speed catenaries, metropolitan railway
catenaries, etc., depending on the characteristics of the
railway system. The most common and widespread OCL
is similar to that shown in Figure 4, which consists of
three basic elements: 1) the messenger wire, which sup-
ports the cable system; 2) the contact wire, which feeds
the vehicles; and 3) the droppers, vertical cables that
connect electrically and link mechanically by means of
clamps on the messenger and contact wires. The initial
equilibrium of the cable system is not a trivial problem
but a very complex one, and some mathematical algo-
rithms have been developed for this purpose.
Electrically speaking, additional feeders are sometimes
needed, depending on the system configuration and the
energy demand, as depicted in Figure 5. On the other
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) OCL and (b) pantograph photographs.
Span
Dropper Messenger Wire
Contact Wire
Pantograph
Catenary
Vehicle
Figure 4. An OCL and pantograph scheme.
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hand, the pantograph consists of a
sliding collector equipped with the
contact strips, called skates or pads,
located on an articulated frame,
which tries to follow the contact wire.
Pantographs can be classified
depending on their mode of operation
(passive versus active) or the charac-
teristics of the line (ac versus dc).
While the force that pushes the
strips of a passive pantograph against
the contact wire is constant in time,
this force varies within an active one
due to its integrated and complicated
control systems. Although passive
pantographs are the most inexpen-
sive and widespread, technical devel-
opments in recent years have begun
to put active pantographs on the
market at competitive prices. Indeed, the monitoring and
control of contact forces is becoming an effective way
to face the problems associated with the catenarypanto-
graph interaction at high speeds.
The electric nature of the line, ac or dc, leads to the
mechanical design of the catenary and pantograph,
resulting in almost antagonistic technical solutions. AC
pantographs work with higher voltages, which is mainly
because the locomotives running within this type of sys-
tem do not need large current intensities. Therefore, ac
catenaries are consequently lighter, implying that the
force applied by the pantograph must be as low as possi-
ble to prevent excessive displacements of the contact
wire. On the contrary, dc pantographs are designed to
exert a significantly stronger force because it is believed
that the current can be interrupted if the contact force
falls below a reasonable level.
For the sake of safe interoperability, the European Com-
mittee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) was
asked by the European Commission (EC) to prepare
exhaustive norms for railway systems
and, particularly, for OCLs. Clearly, the
combination of diverse OCLs and pan-
tographs provides different interac-
tion performances. Regarding this
diversity, the European Standard EN
50367 defines the parameters for
interoperability in the field of interac-
tion between both of the subsystems.
The infrastructure manager must
ensure that the values for the geomet-
rical characteristics of the OCL and
the pantographs fulfill those specified
in the norm, according to the type of
infrastructure. The same document
also specifies the interface require-
ments of infrastructure and rolling
stock to reach free access to the Euro-
pean railway network. However, the
aim of Standard EN 15273 is specifically to define the
space to be maintained and cleared to allow the running
of rolling stock. Moreover, the rules for the calculation and
verification of the sizing of the rolling stock to run on a
single infrastructure or on different infrastructures with-
out any interference risk are also established. Finally, the
European Standard EN 50119 specifies the structural
requirements and tests for the design assemblies and
individual parts of any OCL.
CatenaryPantograph Dynamic Interaction
The limitation on the top velocity of high-speed trains is
related to the ability to supply the proper amount of
energy required to run their engines through the
catenarypantograph interface. When there is a loss of
contact, not only is the energy supply interrupted but arc-
ing between the collector bow of the pantograph and the
contact wire of the catenary also appears, leading to the
deterioration of the functional conditions of the two sys-
tems and causing an important injection of high-frequency
harmonic currents. An alternative
would be to increase the contact
force between the two systems. But
such an increase in force would lead
to rapid wear of the contact strip of
the pantograph and of the contact
wire, with negative consequences on
the durability of the system. These
situations require that the dynamics
of the catenarypantograph interface
are properly modeled and that the
software used for analysis, design, or
to support maintenance decisions is
not only accurate and efficient but
also allows the modeling of all
details relevant to the train overhead
energy collector operation.
Positive-Phase Wires
Negative-Phase Wires
Neutral Wires
Messenger Wire
Contact Wire
Positive Feeder
Negative Feeder
Return Wire
Rail
Cross Section
Longitudinal Section
Figure 5. A cross section of an OCL.
The main difference
between the railway
electrification system
and power
transmission or
distribution lines is
its inherent difficulty
of feeding the
rolling stock as a
moving load.
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The last version of the technical specification for
interoperability (TSI) gives great importance to the
catenarypantograph dynamic interaction, requiring sim-
ulations for the award of the EC certificate of interopera-
bility of the OCLs.
Simulation and Modeling
Currently, there are several software programs that allow
the computation of the catenarypantograph interaction
based on different methods, from analytic to finite ele-
ments, among others. Some of them are commercially
distributed, and others are either under development or
have been developed only for research purposes. However,
the technicalscientific community has not yet reached a
consensus on the best technique or formulation to per-
form these kinds of simulations. This is mainly because of
the complexity of the comparison with the experimental
values, which are influenced by many factors (tempera-
ture, wind, assembly tolerances, etc.) that are really diffi-
cult to take into account within numerical simulations.
To establish a regulatory framework that would deter-
mine the reliability of the simulation results, the European
Standard EN 50318 was adopted on 1 April 2002 on the vali-
dation of the simulation of the catenarypanto-
graph dynamic interaction. This refers explicitly
to the TSI on subsystem energy of the Trans-
European High-Speed Railway System, Chapter 6,
paragraph 1 of Directive 96/48/EC of 30 May 2002.
Thus, this TSI of the power subsystem in the Offi-
cial Journal of the European Community 2002/732/
EC was published, and now it has been repealed
by Decision 2008/217/CE of the new TSI.
According to this standard, the first step of val-
idation for a simulation method should be the
comparison of the results obtained within a given
benchmark to assess the confidence in the
accuracy of the simulation. Broadly speaking, the
two basic elements of contact can be briefly
described as a discrete model massspring
damper for the pantograph and a simple catenary
with ten identical spans and a single contact wire.
The dynamic interaction should be evaluated at
two speeds of the train, 250 and 300 km/h. If the
results obtained in the two central spans are
within the ranges established in the regulations,
then the simulation method would be validated
against this first step, and the second part of the
validation could be tackled: comparison with the
experimental measurements. The numerical
results, which must be compared with the refer-
ence model along the two central spans of a ten-
span stretch, are the mean contact force, its stan-
dard deviation, the real minimum and maximum,
and the statistical minimum and maximum for
the mean force with three times standard devia-
tions. The value of the maximum uplift of the
contact wire on each support (within the analysis stretch)
and the existence of loss of contact must also be checked.
To illustrate the results obtained within the reference
EN 50318, Figure 6 presents the OCLs behavior when a pan-
tograph is running at 300 km/h. The dynamic simulation
for this purpose has been carried out using the models
developed by the authors of this article, which have been
validated against the abovementioned norm and used to
certify the high-speed line MadridBarcelona in 2008. Fig-
ure 6 depicts (a) the contact force evolution and (b) the
uplift of the pantograph and contact wire at the masts
along the central spans. Different diagramsthe assembly
state of the catenary, the curve of contact force, and the
uplift of catenaryhave been overlapped in each figure.
Thus, for the abscissa axis, the same scale was applied,
while different ordinate axes have been used in the same
figure for each diagram to superimpose and compare them
without scaling problems.
Assuming that the first requirement of the validation
against the reference model was achieved, the simulated
results are compared with the experimental measure-
ments. Thus, the standard deviation of the contact force,
the uplift of the contact wire on the masts, and the uplift
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.4
1.7
2
2.3
200 250 300 350 400
10
40
70
100
130
160
190
220
C
o
n
t
a
c
t

F
o
r
c
e

(
N
)
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.7
1
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
Distance (m)
(b)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Distance (m)
(a)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
20
Contact Force
U
p
l
i
f
t

(
m
)
Mast 1
Mast 2
Mast 3
Pantograph
Figure 6. (a) The contact force and (b) uplifts of the EN 50318 OCL running
at 300 km/h.
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of the point of contact with the pantograph must be with-
in a range of 20% around the experimental values of the
same parameters. Finally, once a particular simulation
model fulfills the abovementioned requirements, it can be
considered validated against the standard and can be
used to perform the required simulations to obtain the
certificate of interoperability for any catenary.
The modeling of the two subsystems of interaction, the
catenary and pantograph, is a trendy research topic around
the world. On the one hand, because of the inherent geo-
metric nonlinearity of cable structures, the catenary can be
considered a wide and complex field of research. On the
other hand, the modeling and active control of the panto-
graph has become one of the most promising objects of
study in high-speed railway systems. Although finite ele-
ment models are the most unique ones that have prolifer-
ated in recent years, certain other purely mathematical
models or lumped systems have also been published. Nev-
ertheless, the European Standard EN50318 does not declare
any preference in this regard. On the contrary, the theoreti-
cal validation step specifically refers to a pantograph mod-
eled by a system of masses and springs with two degrees of
freedom. Such lumped models are commonly used to sim-
ulate the dynamic behavior of the pantograph. Despite
their simplicity, these models are accurate enough to col-
lect the dynamics and are much more computationally effi-
cient than other models based on multibody techniques,
either with flexible or rigid elements. However, the model
with two degrees of freedom is too simple so the simula-
tion of real pantographs is commonly carried out by means
of models with at least three degrees of freedom.
Despite the described validation standard, there remain
doubts about the results of different simulation methodol-
ogies. The proof of this is the current interest at the Euro-
pean levelseveral public and private institutions have
carried out a comparison between different simulation
models against a benchmark of the catenarypantograph
dynamic interaction. This analysis, presented at the 23rd
International Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on
Roads and Tracks in Qingdao (China), reveals the possible
scatter in the results obtained with the standard method-
ologies validated against EN 50318.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support
of the of the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacin
by means of the Plan Nacional TRA2009-13912 and the
Spanish Ministerio de Economa y Competitividad by
means of the Plan Nacional TRA2012-37940.
For Further Reading
F. Kieling, R. Puschmann, and A. Schmieder, Contact
lines for electric railways, SIEMENS, 2001.
C. Sanchez-Rebollo, J. R. Jimenez-Octavio, and A.Carnicero,
Active control strategy on a catenarypantograph validated
model, Veh. Syst. Dyn., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 554569, 2013.
M. Such, J. R. Jimenez-Octavio, A. Carnicero, and
O.Lopez-Garca, An approach based on the catenary equa-
tion to deal with static analysis of three dimensional cable
structures, Eng. Struct. vol. 31, no. 9, pp. 21622170, 2009.
G. Poetsch, J. Evans, R. Meisinger, W. Kortm, W. Baldauf,
A. Veitland, and J. Wallaschek, Pantograph-catenary
dynamics and control, Veh. Syst. Dyn., vol. 28, no 23,
pp. 159195, 1997.
S. Bruni, J. Ambrosio, A. Carnicero, Y. H. Cho, L. Finner,
M. Ikeda, S. Y. Kwon, J. P. Massat, S. Stichel, M. Tur, and
W. Zhang, The pantograph-catenary interaction
benchmark, presented at the 23rd Int. Symp. Dynamics of
Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Qingdao, China, 1923
Aug. 2013.
Biographies
Jesus R. Jimenez-Octavio ([email protected])
received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees (2009, Best Ph.D.
Thesis in Engineering Award) in mechanical engineering
from the Universidad Pontificia Comillas (UPCo), Madrid,
Spain. He is currently an assistant professor at the Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering and a researcher of the
Applied Research Institute at UPCo, where he works on
different projects related to continuum mechanics. He has
received the Talgo Award for Technological Innovation
2010 for the project Simulation, Calculation, and Optimi-
zation of Railways, and he is currently a member of the
Overhead Contact Line Survey Group chaired by the
European Railway Agency.
Cristina Sanchez-Rebollo (cristina.sanchez@upcomillas.
es) received her M.Sc. degrees from the Universidad Pontifi-
cia Comillas (UPCo) (2010, Best M.Sc. Degree in Mechanical
Engineering Award) and the Universidad Carlos III
(mechanical engineering), both in Madrid, Spain. She is cur-
rently a Ph.D. student of the Applied Research Institute at
UPCo, granted by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Inno-
vacion, and she is also member of the Overhead Contact
Line Survey Group chaired by the European Railway Agency.
Alberto Carnicero ([email protected])
received his Ph.D. degree in industrial engineering. He is
currently a professor at the Department of Mechanical
Engineering (focusing on the topic of mechanics of mate-
rials) and a researcher of the Applied Research Institute
at the Universidad Pontificia Comillas in Madrid. He has
worked in numerical simulation of different engineering
topics, such as electromagnetic field simulation, electric
field simulation, or elastodynamics in active materials.
He specializes in numerical simulation on cable struc-
tures, mainly applied to catenary-pantograph dynamic
interaction. He has received the Talgo Award for Techno-
logical Innovation 2010 for the project Simulation, Cal-
culation, and Optimization of Railways, and he is
currently a member of the Overhead Contact Line Survey
Group chaired by the European Railway Agency.
______________________
_
___________________
____________________
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2325-5987/13/$31.002013IEEE I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 11
ORTUNATELY, JAPANS BIG CITIES HAVE EMBRACED
electrified railways as a major method of transportation
since the early 20th century. According to the results of
Japanese government research, electric railways con-
vey more than 90% of the total person trips of the
whole railway system, which carries about 30% of all the
person trips in Japan (with the remainder carried 54% by
car, 7% by bus, and 7% by air). Thus, we can consider
the electric railway to be one of the backbone tech-
nologies of Japanese life.
In 1964, the worlds first dedicated high-
speed rail (HSR) linethe Shinkansenwas
built between Tokyo and Osaka (Figure 1).
The Shinkansen opened the door for
todays HSR age. Japanese electrified rail-
ways are characterized by their dense traf-
fic and variety of systems. This article
provides an overview of the electrification
technology and infrastructure of Japanese
HSR lines.
Dense Traffic
Figure 2 shows the regions of the Japan Rail-
ways (JR) companies and direct current (dc)/
alternating current (ac) lines. The statistical
data of Japan and JR are shown in Table 1. The
high population density in Japan results in
intense rail traffic. For example, up to 187 Tokaido
Shinkansen trains can depart from Tokyo Station in
one day. Under these conditions, rail operators such as
An overview of Japanese high-speed
rail technology and electrification.
By Tetsuo Uzuka
F
CAN STOCK PHOTO/TOMWANG
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JR companies need to keep punctuality,
reliability, and availability at a high
level to guarantee effective operation.
To keep a mass transit system like the
Japanese system running, some
redundancy for fixed installations
is required.
Variety of Systems
Japan is a country of islands and has
no land borders. However, in the early
20th century, several railway compa-
nies and electric power companies imported from both
Europe and the United States. The Japanese government
wanted to unite the systems but failed. Hence, JR run on
various systems:
the frequencies 50 Hz (eastern Japan) and 60 Hz (west-
ern Japan)
the gauges 1,435 mm (Shinkansen and some com-
muter lines) and 1,067 mm (conventional lines)
three power typesac 25 kV (Shinkansen), ac 20 kV
(conventional), and dc 1.5 kV (conventional).
In Tokyo Station, several types of power supply meet
each other. The Tokaido and Tohoku Shinkansen use
25 kV, 60 Hz, 1,435-mm gauge, and 60 and 50 Hz,
respectively. Commuter lines use dc 1.5 kV and
1,067-mm gauge. The Metro supplied by dc 600 V via
third rails running on 1,435-mm tracks should also be
mentioned.
History and Statistics
DC Traction, History, and Today
Table 2 shows a brief history of Japanese electrification.
The electrification of the former Japanese National Rail-
ways (JNR) started with dc 600 V in 1904 and was
upgraded to 1.2 kV in 1914. Then, JNR
decided on dc 1.5-kV traction as
standard in 1925. In the early days, all
electrification-related devices needed to
be imported from Europe or the United
States and were very expensive. There-
fore, JNR and Japanese electric indus-
tries began to manufacture devices in
Japan. Before World War II, JNR and
many private railway companies had
about 6,000 km of electrified lines. After
the war, JNR began to electrify all trunk
and commuter lines around big cities. Also, many cities
expanded metro rail lines in their area.
As of April 2013, JR commuter lines in Tokyo, Osaka,
and the Nagoya area and the trunk line from Tokyo to
Osaka and other lines use dc 1.5 kV on a total length of
6,363.7 km. Bigger private railways with approximately
2,600 km of dc 1.5-kV lines convey many commuters
from suburban areas to city centers, and ten cities
have a total combined metro line length of 857 km.
About 1,650 substations with about 2,700 rectifiers
support 49,000 electrical multiple unit (EMU) cars for
all JR.
Beginning in the 1970s, Japanese dc EMUs used
chopper control technology for dc traction motors,
enabling regenerative braking. After the 1980s,
asynchronous traction motors with voltage-fed inverter
technology were adopted. Now, more than 80% of
Japanese EMUs can use regenerative braking. New
materials such as aluminum and stainless steel help to
save weight in the bodies. After the Tohoku Earthquake off
the Pacific coast on 11 March 2011 and the resulting power
shortages, JR had to save more energy. Thus, several
railway companies installed energy-storage systems with
lithium-ion batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels.
AC Traction
In 1953, Sounosuke Nagasaki, the presi-
dent of JNR, went to France to learn the
state of the art of ac traction from the
Socit Nationale des Chemins de Fer
Franais. After that, he decided to test
commercial frequency ac traction as a
more economical and powerful electrifi-
cation scheme than dc. The first experi-
mental ac feeding circuit was electrified
in 1954 on the Senzan line in the north
of Japan. The equipment such as rolling
stock and fixed installations were devel-
oped in Japan. JNRs conventional lines
use a narrower gauge (1,067 mm) and
smaller infrastructure gauges compared
with those of Europe, especially in tun-
nels. Most power lines used 20 kV in
those days. So, JNR adopted 20 kV.
The worlds first
dedicated high-
speed rail line
the Shinkansen
was built between
Tokyo and Osaka.
Figure 1. The departure of the first Shinkansen in 1964.
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Today, a total of 3,667 km of conventional lines are
electrified with ac 20 kV.
Shinkansen
AC traction showed its effectiveness, and JNR then decided
to apply ac traction for the Shinkansen project in 1958.
Shinkansen means new trunk line. In those days, the
Tokaido conventional trunk line from Tokyo to Osaka had
reached its limit of capacity. JNR specified the Shinkansen
as a system completely different from conventional lines,
with speeds faster than 200 km/h, a standard gauge, larger
clearance that enabled five seats in row, and no level cross-
ings. The high speed and larger bodies needed high power,
and ac traction was suitable to supply the Shinkansen.
After the Tokaido Shinkansen, JNR engineers devel-
oped autotransformer (AT) supplies for commercial fre-
quency, fed by the national ultrahigh-voltage (UHV) grid
for the success of the Shinkansen. In 1987, JNR was
divided and privatized into six passenger regional com-
panies, one freight company, one seat reservation com-
pany, one telecommunication company, and one
research institute.
As of 2012, the Shinkansen had been extended to a
2,388-km-long network. It carries 369 million passengers
per year. In December 2010, the northern part of the
Tohoku Shinkansen from Hachinohe to Aomori was
opened. In March 2011, the Kyushu Shinkansen was fully
opened from Hakata to Yatsushiro. This connects Aomori,
the northernmost city of Honshu Island, and Kagoshima,
the southernmost city of Kyushu Island, by a 1,870.8-km-
long high-speed line.
AT Supply
The AT supply, sometimes written as 2 25 kV, was
invented in the United States in 1911 by Prof. Charles
F. Scott and planned for use in the Tokaido Shinkansen at
first. However, in those days, the JNR engineers could not
grasp phenomena in AT configuration with commercial
frequency. They investigated the features carefully with
computers, and after some field tests, the first AT supply
with a 10-km AT interval began revenue service in 1970 on
the Kagoshima conventional line (Figure 3). This interval
resulted from the calculations made to ensure that the AT
systems induction was equivalent to that of the booster
transformer (BT) system. AT systems provide a powerful
supply with less induced voltage. Now, AT with commer-
cial frequency supplies most high-speed trains.
Since the Tokaido Shinkansen caused some trouble
with imbalances in the high-voltage (HV) power grid,
the later Sanyo Shinkansen used an AT system and
received power from 275-kV grids in 1972. After the
Sanyo Shinkansen and to date, a combination of an AT
system and a UHV supply has been standard for
Shinkansen. The Tokaido Shinkansen was also updat-
ed to an AT supply between 1984 and 1991, still sup-
plied by the HV grid.
Technology of Japanese AC Power Supply Today
Basic Configuration
Figure 4 shows a typical installation of a Japanese ac feed-
ing circuit. Receiving power from the three-phase high-
voltage, and supplied by paired single-phase circuits,
known as a center feed system are popular in Japan. In
subsations, Scott-connected traction transformers are
used for resistor grounded power grid. Also, modified
Woodbridge connected traction transformers are used to
receive the ultrahigh-voltage, directly grounded power
grid. Substations feed the contact line until sectioning
posts. The spacing of substations is 4050 km.
Equipment to Suppress Harmonic Resonance
When the first commercial AT feeding was tested on
the Kagoshima line in 1969, the JNR engineers faced a
serious harmonic resonance problem. Large stray cap-
acitance between conductors and earth on a 65-km-
long circuit was the reason. Then, the capacitors and
resistors were installed in sectioning posts to diminish
the resonance before opening the service in 1970. The
installed capacitors increased the capacitance and
lowered the peak resonance frequency. The resistors
terminated the feeding circuit to stop the reflection of
harmonics by matching the surge impedance of the
feeding circuit being between 200 and 300 . Later, a
reactor was added in parallel with the resistor to
reduce Joule loss at basic frequency. Figure 5 shows the
ac 20 kV, 50/60 Hz
dc 1.5 kV
ac 25 kV, 50/60 Hz
Nonelectrified
50 Hz
60 Hz
Tokyo
ac 20 kV, 50/60 Hz
dc 1.5 kV
ac 25 kV, 50/60 Hz
Nonelectrified
50 Hz
60 Hz
Tokyo
Figure 2. JR electrified lines in 2013.
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higher harmonic resonance suppression through
matching characteristic impedance with capacitance
and resistor (HMCR) equipment. The HMCR equipment
is installed on most conventional AT lines and some
Shinkansen lines.
Catenary and Pantographs for HSR
The pantograph/contact-line system of the Shinkansen
has 49 years of history. This system was improved by
many technical innovations and today is characterized by
several unique features, which will be described here in
comparison with those of European systems from a point
of view of dynamic interaction between the pantograph
and the contact line.
The Tokaido Shinkansen started commercial service
with a maximum speed of 210 km/h. An ac 25-kV, 60-Hz
feeding system with BTs was adopted. This feeding sys-
tem required a complex contact-line design at insulated
overlaps to prevent arcing, which caused maintenance
and other technical problems. Therefore, an AT feeding
system was introduced on the Sanyo Shinkansen line in
1972, which was the second Shinkansen line to open.
This system allows for simple insulated overlaps,
resulting in a reduction of risk for serious contact-line
accidents.
On the early Shinkansen lines, such as the Tokaido
Shinkansen, a compound contact-line design was
installed [Figure 6(a)]. These Shinkansen lines connect
metropolitan areas, where high-density operations
were demanded. In the case of the Tokaido Shinkansen,
up to 14 trains depart from Tokyo Station in 1 h, and
each train has 1,323 seats. The compound contact-line
system is suitable such mass transit lines because of
its large current capacity.
On the other hand, a simple contact-line system with-
out a stitch wire was used on the newer lines [Figure
6(b)]. These lines link provincial cities, where high-densi-
ty operations are not required. The simple contact-line
system, whose current capacity is lower than that of a
compound contact line, is adopted as a standard over-
head catenary system of these lines. This contact line
consists of fewer components than the compound con-
tact line does, resulting in lower costs for installation and
maintenance.
The pantographs of Shinkansen trains can be classified
roughly into two categories. One is a traditional diamond-
shaped pantograph, and the other is a low-noise panto-
graph. Until 1997, trains had been
equipped with the former panto-
graphs, but after that the low-noise
pantographs were generally used.
Since Japan is a mountainous
island country and the routes of
Shinkansen lines pass through
many populated areas, the railway
operators have to solve serious
trackside environment problems.
In particular, wayside noise has
been one of the most serious prob-
lems, also impacting the high-
speed pantograph/contact-line
system. That is because the panto-
graph is one of the most intense
noise sources. Figure 7 shows the
development of pantographs for
Year Event
1872 Start of rail in Tokyo
1895 First electrified tram
1927 First Japanese-made mercury rectifier
1954 AC feeding test on Senzan line
1964 Tokaido Shinkansen, 210 km/h, 60-Hz ac supply
1970 AT feeding system applied
1987 Privatization and splitting of JNR
1997 300 km/h on the Sanyo Shinkansen with 500
train series
2013 320 km/h on the Tohoku Shinkansen with E5 train
series
TABLE 2. The History of Japanese Electric
Traction.
Negative Feeder
BT
25 kV
Substation
Section
CNF
Contact Line
0 kV
4 km
NF Capacitor
Rail
AT
Contact Line
50 kV
+25 kV ATP
Sectioning Post
10 km
Rail
Feeder
0 kV
25 kV
Substation
CPW
Protective Wire
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. AC feeding circuits: (a) BT circuit and (b) AT circuit. (CNF: connection for negative
feeder; NF: negative feeder.)
TABLE 1. Statistics of JR in 2012.
Land Area km
2
Italic
Population Million 127.5
Population density People/km
2
343
JR lines km 20,124
JR double track km 12,161 (60.2%)
JR electrified km 9,841 (41.1%)
Passenger transport MPkm 404.3
Shinkansen MPkm 81.4
Freight transport Mtkm 20.4
EMU Cars 49,563 (JR22,776)
EL Cars 675 (JR578)
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Shinkansen vehicles. The configu-
ration of the pantograph has dras-
tically changed, reflecting strong
demands for noise reduction of
the pantograph. As a result, panto-
graphs for Shinkansen have
unique features, differing from the
pantographs of European systems.
Catenary
Figure 6 shows the specifications of
some typical catenary systems for
Shinkansen lines. As mentioned
previously, compound catenary sys-
tems have been used on the early
Shinkansen lines, that is, the Tokaido, Sanyo, Tohoku
(southern part), and Joetsu lines. On the other hand, simple
catenary systems have been used on the newer Shinkans-
en lines, that is, the Nagano, Kyushu, and Tohoku (north-
ern part) lines.
The compound catenary system for the Shinkansen
has a relatively long history; its specification was
upgraded several times to adapt to the increase in traf-
fic and maximum velocity. When the oldest Tokaido
Shinkansen was opened, composed compound caten-
ary, which was designed for uniformity of static push-
up characteristics in a span, was installed. This catenary
employs a dropper with a damping device (composed
element) near a support point, and its total tension is
29.4 kN. This catenary led to many troubles because the
dropper with the damping device causes high uplift of
the contact wire, resulting in excessive abrasions or
large stress on wires or components of the catenary. To
combat this situation, a heavy compound catenary sys-
tem was developed as the standard catenary of the
Sanyo Shinkansen in 1972. The total tension of this
catenary increased to 53.9 kN, and the cross section of
each wire (contact wire, messenger wire, and auxiliary
wire) increased to suppress the amplitude of contact
wire vibration. No damping device was used for this
catenary. This catenary has ensured stable operation of
the pantograph/catenary system of the Shinkansen. The
catenary of the Tokaido Shinkansen was replaced by the
heavy compound catenary in 1989.
As maximum operation speed has been increased, the
wave propagation velocity of the contact wire had to be
improved. The distribution of tension for the three wires
was altered or total tension was increased to 58.8 kN to
increase the tension of the contact wire. This is named a
high-tensile heavy compound catenary.
The simple catenary system for Shinkansen lines has
been used since the Nagano Shinkansen opened in 1997.
This catenary is equipped with coppersteel contact wire
(copper contact wire with a steel core) with a cross section
of 110 mm
2
; thus, this is named CS simple catenary. This
contact wire is lightweight but possesses high strength
because it is metal composite. This wire can be stretched by
a tension of 19.6 kN, resulting in a high propagation velocity
of 521 km/h.
This catenary system was also installed on the south-
ern part of the Kyushu Shinkansen and the northern
part of the Tohoku Shinkansen. However, use of the
metal composite wire has come to be widely recognized
as a problem due to low recyclability. Accordingly, a
precipitation-hardened copper alloy (PHC) contact wire
was developed as an alternative to the CS contact wire.
The simple catenary with the PHC contact wire, named
PHC simple catenary, has been adopted on the most
recently opened Shinkansen lines.
Pantograph
The first-generation Shinkansen vehicle was equipped
with a lower-arm crossed diamond-type pantograph (Type
PS200). This pantograph is small and light to achieve high
contact performance in high-speed regions.
As the number of Shinkansen trains has increased,
wayside noise has become a serious problem. Diligent
research on wayside noise showed that aerodynamic
Three Phase to Two Phase
Subsectioning Post Sectioning Post
Substation
AT
CB
20 km
Figure 4. A typical arrangement of ac feeding circuits. (CB: circuit breaker.)
HMCR Equipment
Contact Line
Down Line
C:1uF
X:50
AT
R:250
Rail
Tie
Contact Line
Contact Line
Rail
Tie
Up Line
Feeder
AT
Figure 5. The harmonic suppression equipment for sectioning posts.
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noise caused by the pantograph was one of the most ser-
ious noise sources of the Shinkansen train set. Therefore,
a pantograph shield was developed as an effective coun-
termeasure against aerodynamic noise of the panto-
graph [Figure 7(c)]. It was installed around the panto-
graph to reduce flow velocity around the pantograph,
resulting in effective reduction in aerodynamic noise, as
the energy of aerodynamic noise is proportional to the
sixth power of the flow velocity.
The pantograph shield was very effective in reducing
wayside noise emitted from the pantograph; it helped the
improvement of the maximum speed of Shinkansen
trains to 270 km/h in 1992. However, since the Japanese
noise regulations for wayside noise of high-speed trains
are very strict, the combination of the pantograph shield
with the conventional diamond-type pantograph was not
enough to achieve further speed-up. A low-noise panto-
graph was developed, consisting of a
single-membered and smooth-
shaped pantograph head and a
simple articulated frame. This panto-
graph, with an insulator cover or
low-noise insulators, achieves a
reduction of aerodynamic noise.
Since 1997, all new Shinkansen
trains operating at speeds over
240 km/h have been equipped with
low-noise pantographs. The low-noise
pantograph has contributed to the
further speed-up of Shinkansen
trains while keeping within the noise regulations. Today,
the maximum speed has increased to 320 km/h as of
March 2013.
Although the low-noise pantograph is very effective at
reducing aerodynamic noise, an improvement of its
contact performance has to be exchanged. Smoothing the
pantograph members makes the pantograph heavy, and
it is difficult to use a long stroke spring for a pantograph
head suspension because a large plunger generates sig-
nificant aerodynamic noise. Since a speed-up of
Shinkansen trains without assuring compliance with the
noise regulation cannot be implemented, pantograph
design must give high priority to noise reduction in Japan.
Design Policy of the Pantograph/Catenary
System for Shinkansen
Changeover Switches
There are about 30 substations and 30 sectioning posts in
the Tokaido Shinkansen. If Shinkansen trains had to coast
in front of each substation and sectioning post to change
electric phase, they would lose much time. JNR engineers
installed changeover switches to reduce the coasting time
to only 0.3 s. A pair of changeover
switches, a neutral section, and a track
circuit constitute the equipment. At
the beginning, in 1964, air-blast circuit
breakers and then vacuum circuit
breakers were introduced and have
been used until now. Figure 8 shows
the arrangement of a changeover
switch. The circuit breakers have to
work for each passing train. Therefore,
on the Tokaido Shinkansen, they have
to be replaced every five years.
Currently, the Central Japan Railway
Company is developing solid-state thyristor switches.
Since any pantograph only shunts sections in the same
feeding area in the case of the changeover section,
electrical connection between operating pantographs can
be permitted. Furthermore, trains can pass through the
changeover section without coasting.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) A compound catenary for the Shinkansen and (b) CS and PHC simple contact lines.
The high speed and
larger bodies needed
high power, and ac
traction was suitable
to supply the
Shinkansen.
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If a pantograph connected electrically with other panto-
graphs loses contact with the contact wire, no arc occurs as
long as some of other pantographs keep the contact. In
other words, mechanical contact loss of only one
pantograph does not cause intense arc. In general, the
Shinkansen train set is equipped with two pantographs
with electrical connection today.
Contact Force and Its Advantage
Pantograph operati on wi th
relatively low mean contact force
has an advantage in reliability of
the pantograph/catenary system.
The contact wire is bent strongly by
every passage of pantographs. This
causes fatigue of the contact wire,
and in the worst case, the contact
wire will break. Giving a higher
mean contact force should make it
more probable that high strain
occurs in the contact force. Even in
the case of Shinkansen with
relatively low mean contact force, measurement results of
the contact wire strain indicate little margin for error in
high-speed regions. Protection from intense strain of the
contact wire is essential for further speed-up.
In March 2011, a new series of Shinkansen trains was
in commercial operation with a maximum velocity of
Substation 1 Substation 2
Changeover Switch
Changeover Section (Neutral Section)
Changeover Switch
Air Section
Track Circuit
Automatic Power-Source Switching with 0.3-s Dead Time
Figure 8. Changeover switches for Shinkansen phase separations.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 7. The development of pantographs for the Shinkansen: (a) the diamond type (19642008), (b) the telescopic type (19972008), and
(c) the single-arm low-noise type with low-noise insulators and a noise barrier.
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320 km/h. This train set has two low-noise pantographs,
but only one is used at a time to keep within the noise
regulations by the reduction of the number of raised pan-
tographs. However, the Japanese criterion for strain of
the contact wire does not permit high mean contact
force. Therefore, this pantograph is equipped with lat-
erally segmented contact strips, which are elastically
supported individually to improve dynamic characteris-
tics of the pantograph. The extremely high contact per-
formance of this pantograph has been verified through
line tests.
Power Semiconductors Onboard
Electric railways include a wide variety of technologies,
such as motor driving, signaling, dispatcher systems,
ticketing and vendor machines, illuminating, distributed
information networks on the car, networks on the ground,
current collecting, and fixed power supply installations on
the ground. For each technology, power semiconductors
occupy a central position. Fortunately, the Japanese electric
railway is supported by a strong national power
semiconductor industry.
Topology of Power Semiconductors Onboard HSR
Figure 9 shows the typical topology of an HSR main circuit
onboard the rolling stock. Cars derive ac HV power from
the catenary and convert it into dc by the pulsewidth
modulation (PWM) control method of rectifying with an
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power device.
Then, dc will be converted into ac again to drive the asyn-
chronous motors, also with a PWM and IGBT combination.
At first, in 1964, the Shinkansen was driven by 200-kW
dc motors onboard and fed by ac 25-kV, 60-Hz catenary.
There were also silicon diode rectifiers onboard the train.
The total power for one train set (12 cars with four motors
for each) was about 20 MW. In those days, nominal voltage
and current of diodes were so small that many diodes were
used in parallel and serially instead. The transformer tap
control method was used for voltage/speed control of
dc motors.
In the 1980s, trains adopted the thyristor Ward Leonard
control method with a combination of phase-controlled
thyristors and dc motors. Thyristors made the main cir-
cuit very simple.
In the 1990s, gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors such as
4,500 V/3,000 A and a microprocessor lead a PWM-
controlled voltage source inverter (VSI)-based converter
and inverter system for rectifying and controlling asyn-
chronous motors. It was a kind of revolution for rail oper-
ator companies, since dc motors have some maintenance
problems with their brushes and commutators. In addi-
tion, the power factor of the feeding circuit became about
1.0 (formerly 0.750.8), allowing the feeding circuit to send
more power to HSR lines.
In the 2000s, IGBT devices played a major role. IGBTs
offer faster switching speeds (12 kHz) than GTOs (400
500 Hz) that realize precise control of motors and lead
an electromagnetic compatibility problem easier. At
first, the withstand voltage of early generation IGBTs
was not high enough (up to 23
kV), so three-level VSI converters
were i ntroduced. Then, the
withstand voltage of latter gener-
ations of IGBTs rose to 46 kV,
enabling two-level VSI circuits. In
addition, the generation change
of IGBTs ensures less loss and a
simpler drive circuit so that con-
verters are smaller than GTOs or
early IGBT sets.
Therefore, some next-genera-
tion HSR rolling stock will adopt
permanent magnet synchronous
motors (PMSMs) for higher speed.
PMSMs have to control with one
motor by one inverter combination.
Figure 9. Traction main circuit for the Shinkansen.
Air
Condenser
Power Device
IGBT
Independent Cooling
IGBT
Simple Structure
Forced Air
Perfluorocarbon
Aluminum Fin
Evaporator
GTO
Ebullient Cooling
IGBT Fin
Natural Air
Figure 10. Cooling generation.
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Some manufacturers propose a
power set with an injection-enhanced
gate transistor (IEGT) or integrated
gate commutated turn-off thyristor
devices.
The HSR industry is now waiting
for new power devices with lower
loss and more switching speed than
silicon devices to reduce the weight
and size of power converters. Among
the several wide-gap devices under
development, the silicon carbide
(SiC) shot-key barrier diode might be
the closest to the application, accord-
ing to the latest papers. For example, Mitsubishi Electric
reported 28% maximum improvement of total loss and
18% average improvement with 300-kW inverter set.
Besides drive systems, the rolling stock carries auxiliary
power sources of several hundred kilowatts for air condi-
tioning and lighting for passengers and controlling and
cooling. We also have to count information processing sys-
tems, telecommunication systems, and signal systems.
Every system is full of semiconductors.
Packaging and Cooling
The packaging and cooling technique of the power circuit
is one of the key technologies of HSR. From the beginning,
each car in the trainset of Japanese Shinkansen had trac-
tion motors. This type of system is called a distributed
power train or EMU. In this case, although rated power is
smaller than concentrated type, every power component
should be set within the limited space
under the floor.
The cooling system began with
forced air driven by a blower. There are
several approaches available today,
such as forced air, heat pipes, ebullient
cooling with perfluorocarbon, natural
air, and water cooling. Figure 10 shows
the history of cooling.
In any case, all of the power compo-
nents are integrated in limited space.
When engineers design the onboard pro-
pulsion system, they should carefully
consider a total balance of power flow,
thermal flow, air flow, mass balance, ease of manufacturing
and maintenance, and cost. The specification of the recent
power converter/inverter set for N700 type Shinkansen using
3,300-V, 1,200-A IGBTs with natural air flow cooling is
1,600 kW/1,320 kg.
The expected direction of future HSR improvements
might be higher speed and more comfort. Thus, expected
power devices for HSR should be higher voltage, larger
current, with faster switching and more efficient power
devices. Of course, cost is an important problem; how-
ever, the market for HSR is growing, and we can hope for
a volume efficiency effect.
Since new wide-gap power semiconductors such as SiC
or gallium nitride will improve the efficiency of onboard
power converters, trains can reduce the weight and size of
converters. For example, one of the expected applications of
an SiC device is a medium frequency propulsion convertor,
Source (Three Phase)
Scott Connected Feeding Transformer
Source Impedance
Main Phase
Bus
Teaser Bus
Teaser
Feeding
Circuit
Inverter
Main
Phase
Feeding
Circuit
Inverter
Transformer
dc Side
Capacitor
RPC
Figure 11. A railway static power conditioner (power balancer).
The configuration of
the pantograph has
drastically changed,
reflecting strong
demands for noise
reduction of the
pantograph.
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which enables to omit transformer
onboard, the heaviest parts of propul-
sion, and can reduce the total mass.
This composition is attractive, espe-
cially for 16.7-Hz feeding frequency
countries.
We should consider a compromise
between reliability, availability, and
redundancy of power units with new
devices. New devices have to improve
their reliability of course. However, for
some HSR onboard application, a cer-
tain redundancy will prove to introduce new devices in
early stage. The medium frequency propulsion convertor
is one of the candidates.
Power Semiconductors
for Fixed Installations
Use of Flexible AC Transmission Systems
In Japan, some traction substations or sectioning posts
have been equipped with flexible ac transmission systems
(FACTS) such as static var compensators (SVCs) or static
compensators (STATCOMs) for balancing power or sup-
pressing voltage fluctuation of both power grid and feed-
ing circuit, which have been in use since 1987.
As the first Shinkansen, the Tokaido Shinkansen had
to use relatively weak 66-, 77-, and 154-kV grids as its
power source. The heavy load of the Shinkansen caused
a voltage imbalance in the power grid in the early days,
so the Tokaido Shinkansen had to deal with this problem
carefully. FACTS devices were one of the answers. Now,
railways are one of the biggest users of FACTS devices.
The rated power of each HSR line is about 1020 MW;
thus, the scale of FACTS equipment should also be 1060
MVA to compensate for the HSRs.
SVCs and STATCOMs
Simple SVCs have been a countermeasure for compensat-
ing for the reactive power from loads using ex-commutated
thyristors since 1990. There are 23 sets available in the
Tokaido Shinkansen.
A self-commutated STATCOM, sometimes called a
static var generator, is a countermeasure for voltage fluc-
tuation by balancing actual power and compensating
reactive power at three-phase side, using GTOs or IGBTs
since 1993. Five sets of 3460-MVA STATCOMs are avail-
able in the Tokaido Shinkansen. A railway static power
compensator (RPC) is a countermeasure for voltage fluctu-
ation by balancing actual power and compensating react-
ive power at feeding side, using GTOs, gate commutated
turn-off thyristors, or IGBTs (Figure 11). In the case of
extended feeding, an RPC can compensate reactive power
at the end of the feeding circuit. In addition, the RPC can
act as an active filter for lower harmonics. Two sets of
20-MVA RPCs in the Tohoku Shinkans-
en and six sets of 2060-MVA RPCs in
the Tokaido Shinkansen are available.
The combination of a long feeding
circuit and large train load, especially
thyristor-phase control units, causes
severe voltage drop at the end of feed-
ing circuit. An SVC at the sectioning
post can compensate this problem
with Ferranti effect. The Tokaido Shin-
kansen has 15, the Sanyo Shinkansen
has one, and several conventional lines
have several SVCs in sectioning posts.
Frequency Converter
The Tokaido Shinkansen also uses 60 Hz throughout the
50-Hz area around Tokyo to reduce the weight of the
rolling stock. There are four frequency-changer stations
along the Tokaido Shinkansen. Most of the 60-Hz electric
power is generated from 60-MW sets consisting of a
50-Hz three-phase synchronous motor and a 60-Hz
three-phase synchronous generator. Since 2003, JR cen-
tral company has introduced 60-MVA static frequency
converters using GTO thyristors. Another 60-MVA three-
phase 50-Hz to single-phase 60-Hz static frequency con-
verter using IEGTs has been available since January 2009.
Electrified rail in Japan is one of the best examples in
the world for efficient urban transportation as well as
intercity transportation. Huge demands lead rail compan-
ies to use sophisticated technologies, with great help from
the rail industry. Now, we have to brush up our technol-
gies to welcome the Olympic games to Tokyo in 2020.
For Further Reading
T. Uzuka and H. Nagasawa, AC power supply for railways
in Japan, Elektrische Bahnen, vol. 107, no. 5, pp. 232240,
2009.
M. Ikeda and T. Uzuka, AC power supply for railways in
Japan, Elektrische Bahnen, vol. 109, no. 7, pp. 338343,
2011.
T. Uzuka, Trends in high-speed railways and the impli-
cations on power electronics and power devices, in Proc.
23rd Int. Symp. Power Semiconductor Devices and ICs
(ISPSD 2011).
Biography
Tetsuo Uzuka ([email protected]) received his masters of
engineering degree in instrumentation engineering from
Keio University in Yokohama, Japan. Since 1989, he has
been engaged in the development of feeding systems at
the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) in
Kokubunji, Japan. He is the director of the Power Supply
Division of RTRI.
A precipitation-
hardened copper
alloy contact wire
was developed as
an alternative to
the CS contact wire.
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HE CONCEPT OF ELECTRIFIED VEHICLES
(EVs) is the best old new idea that has
been around for the last century. Designs
have changed to make EVs popular, but
until now, no design has captured the pub-
lics imagination or gained market traction. This is because
consumers need more than facts about EVs; they need to
be wooed into making a bigger commitment to the EV.
We all know that EVs are good for us. The fact that we
all dont have more of them in our daily diet of transporta-
tion is not the fault of automakers or consumers.
Consumers know that, like fiber, EVs make economic
sense, benefit the environment, and are enhanced with
vitamins like the latest technologies. All the ingredients
necessary for a healthy and significant EV penetration are
already in the marketplace.
What is missing is a certain je ne sais quoia winning
combination of technology, desire, and marketing to make
EVs indispensable to the average North American. Togeth-
er engineers and policy makers can make this a reality,
but they need to lead with more than just the headthey
need to appeal to the heart of the consumer as well.
Wooing consumers interest
in the EV market.
By Narayan C. Kar, K.L.V. Iyer,
Anas Labak, Xiaomin Lu, Chunyan Lai,
Aiswarya Balamurali, Bryan Esteban,
and Maher Sid-Ahmed
T
CAN STOCK PHOTO/TOMWANG
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We Need to Talk
To move forward, sometimes you have to look back and
reassess past failures and achievements. Past generations
of EV designs grabbed the publics attention. Innovation
and evolution are the mainstays of EV development. As
shown in Figure 1, the evolution of the EV can be traced
back to the 1830s. Scotlands Robert Anderson built the
first prototype of an electric-powered carriage, and during
the same time period, German engineer Andreas Flocken
built the first four-wheel electric car. Pope Manufacturing
Co., Hartford, Connecticut, the first large-scale EV maker in
North America, made electric cars for the New York City
taxi fleet. These innovations propelled EV technology into
a booming industry in the United States that, by 1900, had
encompassed 28% of the road vehicle market. This
momentum was seriously dampened with the introduc-
tion of the petroleum-powered Ford Model T car. The EV
market plummeted down to near extinction because of
the predominance of internal combustion engines (ICEs)
and the availability of cheap petroleum.
Recent years have seen a rekindled interest in EVs
because of rising oil prices as well as research and devel-
opment programs that have significantly improved the
technology. Government initiatives such as the zero-
emission vehicles program in California, which has made
the technology more attractive for automakers, have also
energized the EV market. Toyota was the first automaker
to release a commercial hybrid vehicle, selling 18,000 units
in 1997. Since then, oil prices have increased steadily,
peaking at more than US$145 per barrel. Major automak-
ers have responded by developing and commercializing a
new generation of energy-efficient vehicles called plug-in
hybrid EVs (PHEVs) and all-battery EVs (BEVs).
Does Our Relationship Have a Future?
Today, conventional ICE vehicles are a modern necessity on
which society relies. However, large numbers of automobiles
in use around the world have caused and continue to cause
serious health and environmental problems. Air pollution,
global warming, and the rapid depletion of the Earths petro-
leum resources are problems of paramount concern.
According to Navigant Research, The average price of
fuel for conventional vehicles will likely continue to rise
through the remainder of this decade, driving demand for
electrified (hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and all electric) vehicles
[1]. So far, this prediction is being fulfilled. This is corrobo-
rated by Pike Researchs findings of increasing EV sales
and market penetration around the world, as noted in Fig-
ure 2. In 2012, Japan led sales of pure electric cars with a
28% market share of global sales, followed by the United
States with a 26% share, China
with 16%, France with 11%, and
Norway with 7%. Plug-in hybrid
sales in 2012 were led by the Unit-
ed States with a 70% share of
global sales, followed by Japan
with 12% and The Netherlands
with 8%. According to a recent
report from Navigant Research, a
total of 21.9 million EVs will be
sold worldwide during the period
from 2012 to 2020.
Making a Long-Term
Policy Commitment
The significant reduction in fossil
fuel usage and CO
2
emissions is a
well-known and attractive feature
of EVs that has enabled their mar-
ket penetration. The public and the
industry understand the impor-
tance of reducing carbon foot-
prints. They know that the trans-
portation sector, as a whole, has a
significant carbon footprint, and
only governments, at various lev-
els, have the power to regulate that
footprint through legislation. In
the United States, for example, the
Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAF) regulation compels, or you
18011900
EVs Enter the
Marketplace
19011950
EV
Production inks
19511999
High Oil Prices
Renewed
Interest in EVs
Since 2000
Increased
Interest in EVs
Figure 1. The evolution of EVs.
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

V
e
h
i
c
l
e
s
2011 2012 2013 2014
Year
2015 2016 2017
Africa/Middle East
Western Europe
North America
Asia Pacific
Latin America
Western Europe
Figure 2. Global annual light-duty vehicle sales through 2017, as forecasted by Pike Research.
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could even say drives, automakers
to improve their motor vehicles
mileage capabilities every year. Ulti-
mately, this will encourage manufac-
turers to introduce more EVs into
their product lineup because meet-
ing the standard will become
increasingly difficult with standard
ICE vehicles. Figure3 shows the CAF
standards put forward by the U.S.
government from 2011 through 2025,
as documented in 20172025 Model
Year Light-Duty Vehicle GHG Emis-
sions and CAF Standards. Figure 4
shows a short-term forecast of the
EV market through individual com-
pany shares. On the basis of this
forecast, Toyota is predicted to lead
the market with a 38.5% share fol-
lowed by Ford, Nissan, Honda, and
General Motors. It is estimated that
EV sales will begin to grow rapidly
after 2015 and reach a combined 7
million per year by 2020 and 100 mil-
lion by 2050.
The International Energy Agency
has put forward a positive and
ambitious road map to achieve
widespread adoption and use of EVs
and PHEVs worldwide by 2050. The
road map targets a 30% reduction in
global CO
2
levels by 2050 relative to
2005. The reduction is to be imple-
mented through efficiency improve-
ments and electrified transporta-
tion, with an EV share of at least
50% of the global light-duty vehicle
sales. To achieve that target, policy
support is critical to ensure that the
initial cost is as affordable as possible
and that an adequate charging infra-
structure exists. Furthermore, collabo-
ration between public and private sec-
tor companies must be established
and strengthened through research
programs, standards, and infrastructure development.
Electric Machines
More than Just a Pretty Face
Electric machines have proved their ability to provide equal
mechanical power at relatively high efficiencies when
compared with ICEs over the past few decades. This, along
with their ability to mitigate fuel consumption and green-
house gas emissions, is a substantial reason to replace ICEs
with electric machines. This has created a demand for a
new generation of electric machines that meet electrified
transportations specific needs. Every EV has at least one
electric machine, and some have multiple motors depend-
ing on their drivetrain architecture. The annual production
of e-motors for EVs is forecasted to reach millions this
decade, based on forecasts by analysts who track hybrid
and EV production plans. Navigant Research predicts the
global market for electric drive motors in light-duty vehi-
cles to grow from a little less than US$1 billion in annual
revenue in 2013 to more than US$2.8 billion in 2020.
The traction motor is key to the synergy of the electric
powertrain. Selecting a suitable existing motor is a
70
60
50
40
30
20
C
A
F
Small Passenger Cars

Regular Passenger Cars
Light-Duty Trucks and Vans
Heavy-Duty Trucks
10
0
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
3
2
0
2
4
2
0
2
5
Year
Small Passenger Cars
Regular Passenger Cars
Light-Duty Trucks and Vans
Heavy-Duty Trucks
Figure 3. CAF standards for each model year in miles per gallon through 2025. (Data courtesy of
the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency.)
Toyota38.5%
Ford12.3%
Nissan10.6%
Honda9%
GM8.9%
Fisker5.5%
Tesla2.5%
Hyundai2.5%
Volkswagen2.4%
BMW1.5%
Diamler1.4%
Meyers Motors1.2%
Other3.8%
38.5
3.8
1.2
1.4
1.5
2.5
2.4
2.5
5.5
8.9
9
10.6
12.3
Figure 4. EV market shares by company, forecasted by Ceres/Citi Investment.
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challenge for designers. It is important to recognize that
motor choice cannot be made without careful consider-
ation of the integration of its controller and associated
power electronics. Some automakers have decided to
confront this issue by designing, developing, and
producing their traction motors in-house, rather than
purchasing off-the-shelf machines from specialist suppli-
ers. The off-the-shelf motors, no matter how extensively
they are adapted for a specific application, can compro-
mise the efficiencies of the propulsion system.
As in Any Relationship,
There Must Be Compatibility
Proper selection of electric machine type is based on key
features such as the energy source in the vehicle, space
and vehicle dynamics, efficiency, reliability, cost, and the
major operating requirements of the machine. The major
operating requirements of the traction motor include a
wide speed range, impulsive response, high efficiency over
a wide torque and speed, high torque at low speeds, fault
tolerance, and high power density. Among the major auto-
makers, there is no general consensus as to the type of
electric machine best suited for vehicles, but induction and
permanent magnet (PM) machines are the two types cur-
rently used in EVs and are expected to continue to domi-
nate the market.
These machines fundamentally vary in their rotor
architecture (Figure 5). The induction machine rotor con-
tains conducting bars that cut the stator field and develop
a voltage that drives a current and produces a secondary
field. The rotors in PM machines use magnets to generate
the rotors magnetic field exclusively, without the need
for excitation current or any of the losses associated with
it. These machines are found to have higher efficiency,
torque density, and heat dissipation capability than their
induction machine counterparts. PM motors are widely
used in todays EVs, including the Ford Focus, Toyota Prius
(Figure 6), Chevy Volt, and Nissan Leaf, because of their
superior performance over the induction machines. Remy
is one of the PM e-motor manufacturers whose motors
are used by GM, BMW, and Mercedes two-mode hybrids,
as well as a growing list of commercial vehicles. Active
areas of research on PM machines include studying the
effect of rotor and stator configurations on harmonics
and the causes and mitigation of demagnetization.
The advantages of PM machines are offset by the
increasing price and supply disruptions of magnets due to
geopolitical issues. This challenge has inspired companies
such as Tesla and Remy to develop next-generation induc-
tion machines for vehicles that will be lighter and more
efficient than the magnet-type machines. The convention-
al induction motors use aluminum rotors. However, the
electrical conductivity of copper is 60% more than alumi-
num, making it an enticing substitute. Using copper mate-
rial can also reduce the motor operating temperatures by
532 C. These data suggest that the lifetime of motors
using copper rotors may be extended by 50% or more. An
example of the use of the copper rotor induction
machines is in the latest generation of U.S. Army heavy-
duty hybrid EVs (HEVs) powered by four 520-V, 140-hp
induction machines with die cast copper rotors.
Another Innovation Suitor on the Horizon
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is another candi-
date for traction motors, apart from the widely used
induction and PM types. To date, SRMs have been
applied in heavy-duty vehicles, and research is in prog-
ress to implement them into the lightweight vehicles.
The SRM is a doubly salient machine with no winding
or magnet on the rotor. It features a simple, rugged
structure with fault-tolerance ability, high-speed opera-
tion capability, high power density, and relatively low
manufacturing cost. Despite these advantages, SRMs do
present some challenges. For example, torque ripple
and acoustic noise need to be addressed through funda-
mental design improvements to develop a viable SRM-
based electric propulsion system.
The Power Couple: Torque and Input
Regardless of the type of machine selected, to achieve the
performance desired, a suitable drive is required. The drive
consists of a bidirectional converter and its control. At the
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Cross sections of the various traction motor technologies:
(a) an induction motor and (b) an axial flux SRM.
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machine level, during motoring, the goal is to provide the
terminals with the proper voltages to meet the torque com-
mands that the driver is imposing through the action of the
pedal. Additionally, many vehicles employ regenerative
breaking, which uses the electric machine as a generator to
convert the energy produced by the action of slowing the
vehicle and using it to charge the battery pack. With hybrid
vehicles, a supervisory control is necessary to determine
the power flow through the system as there are multiple
energy sources, the battery, and ICE that work differently
during various modes.
To control any machine, a relationship must be estab-
lished between the input excitation and the resulting
torque. The torque in an electric machine arises from the
interaction of magnetic fields in the stator and rotor, and
the generation of these fields depends on a coupled and
complicated interaction of the current and flux linkage of
the internal windings. The most commonly adopted ac
electric motor control in EVs is the vector-control technique,
which is capable of mathematically
separating the component of cur-
rent directly responsible for torque
generation (Figure 7). This is done by
projecting all the three-phase quan-
tities along two axes: the direct (d)
axis, which is in line with the field,
and the quadrature (q) axis, which is
perpendicular to it. To find these
axes, it is necessary to determine
the position of the rotor online.
In a PM motor drive, when the
motor operates under base speed,
the controller calculates the refer-
ence d- and q-axis current using a
maximum torque-per-ampere tech-
nique to ensure the efficiency and
torque production of the motor.
Over base speed, a field-weakening
method is used to estimate the cur-
rent reference and ensure the
power limit is not exceeded. The
reference d- and q-axis voltage is
generated taking into consideration cross-coupling terms,
which arise from the aforementioned coupled electrical
interaction, and then converted back to the three-phase
quantities. Pulse-width modulation is used to generate a
gate signal for the power electronic switches to create the
required voltage waveforms (Figure 8).
To meet the advanced requirements of fast dynamics,
field-oriented vector or direct-torque control is also the
solution for induction machines. With rotor-flux-oriented
control in a squirrel cage induction motor, the unstable
portion of the natural speedtorque characteristics vanish-
es, and hence, there is no chance of instability due to cer-
tain types of load torques. The additional advantage is the
fact that the maximum torque-producing capability of the
machine is dictated by thermal considerations only. The
electromagnetic torque response becomes as fast as a sep-
arately excited dc machine of identical torque rating but
with a reduced size and weight. The only disadvantage
in a field-oriented controlled induction motor drive is the
dc-dc Converter Motor Inverter Generator Inverter
Generator
Motor
Filter
Capacitors
Inductor
B
a
t
t
e
r
y
IPM
+
Figure 6. A block diagram of the Toyota Prius e-motor drive system [5].
ac Motor
Current
Sensors
Powertrain EV Battery
Encoder/
Resolver
Position/Speed
Calculation
MTPA/FW
Hysteresis
Current/Sine
PWM
Voltage
Power
T
1
T
6
i
c
i
d
T
abcdq
i
q
i
d
i
q
T
e
i
b
i
a
Signal
e
Figure 7. Overall schematic of three-phase ac traction motor drive.
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higher cost in realizing and
implementing the complex control
strategies in real-time field applica-
tions. Indirect rotor field-oriented or
vector-controlled induction motor
drives, where rotor position is esti-
mated instead of measured, are
widely used in EVs/HEVs for high-
performance applications.
An SRM requires special convert-
er topology, as it is fundamentally
different in structure from other ac
machines. Variable-frequency con-
trol, such as the hysteresis current
controller, and current control based
on fixed switching frequency, such
as the propotionalintegral control,
have been developed and employed
widely. Researchers have also pro-
posed adaptive/intelligent control-
lers employing artificial intelligence
techniques such as fuzzy logic, slid-
ing mode control, emotional control,
neural networks, and evolutionary
algorithms and their combinations. These methods have
proven effective in applications that require four quadrant
operations, tracking capability, robustness to load distur-
bance, and less steady-state error, such as HEVs or EVs
traction applications [6] (Figure 9).
Multifaceted Technology for Power Electronics:
Integrated Motor Drive and Battery Charger
Conventional battery chargers have been either on- or off-
board chargers. The onboard chargers have limitations of
cost, power handling capacity, and charging time. An inte-
grated charger topology using the power electronics
already available on board can be used for battery charging
when they are not used for traction, and this can lead to
fast-charging technology [7]. The challenge is to design
power electronic converters that are compatible with the
motor and the battery pack, which usually are manufac-
tured by two different companies. The companies design-
ing the motor-drive system and the battery pack for the
same vehicle can be coordinated by the original equip-
ment manufacturer (OEM) in such a case. Because the bat-
tery is only charged when the vehicle is parked using the
same power electronics converter, reduction in the initial
vehicle cost and space used can be achieved. Moreover, in
such a case, the motor windings can also be used as filters
to improve power quality issues. Figure 10 shows a futuris-
tic system that is expected to be on board vehicles for fast
charging and traction application.
Gaining Traction in a Relationship
One idea to improve the performance of the EV drivetrain is
to add multiple machines. It then becomes a matter of
Current
Sensors
SRM Powertrain EV Battery
Position
Signal
Signal
Processing
Voltage
Regulation
Parameters
Adjustment
Power
PWM
D
i
c
T
e

I
e
i
b
i
a
Signal
e
Figure 8. An overall schematic of the three-phase switched reluctance motor drive.
Figure 9. The development of a motor control algorithm.
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determining if the advantages of having multiple machines
outweigh the cost of adding them in. The main advantage
is expected to be a significant increase in vehicle efficiency,
especially in heavy-duty vehicles such as buses where
space is less of a concern. One motor can be used when the
transit bus is empty, and the other motors can be added
when the load on the bus exceeds the rating of the other
machine(s). Such a motor-drive system will result in sym-
metric loading of all machines, operating them near their
rated conditions, which can yield better motor efficiency.
The added complexity to the system amounts to the neces-
sity of adaptive-control strategies and planetary gear sys-
tems and clutches for the mechanical connections.
Multimotor technology is currently being used in the
Mercedes SLS AMG electric drive. Four compact PM syn-
chronous motors with combined ratings of 552 kW and
1,000 Nm, weighing 45 kg and a reaching a maximum
speed of 13,000 r/min, make up the drivetrain. It uses a
unique concept of transmission, allowing each motor to
selectively drive all four wheels. This helps in individual
wheel torque distribution; however, it is only achievable
under the significant disadvantage of unsprung masses
with wheel hub motors.
Another recent innovation under investigation is the
integration of the traction motor housing inside the wheel
rim. This in-wheel motor design (Figure 11) saves signifi-
cant space and eliminates the need for a transmission,
differential, and related mechanical parts. This reduces
energy losses due to friction. The in-wheel motors also
improve traction by allowing precise control over each
wheel, and they allowed greater flexibility in vehicle
design since there is no need to mechanically link the
wheels to a common driveshaft. They show great promise
in increasing the overall efficiency.
In Innovation, Marketing, and Consumer
Wooing, It Always Comes Down to
Chemistry: The Li-Ion Battery
The successful deployment and mass adoption of EVs
depends greatly on cost and performance. One of the big
hurdles presently faced by EV manufacturers is the
disproportionately high manufacturing cost associated
with the EV battery pack. For instance, Allan Mulally, CEO
of Ford Motors, indicated that the manufacturing cost of a
battery pack for a Ford EV could range anywhere between
US$12,000 and US$15,000 per car, while the car itself sells
for US$22,000. Clearly, to achieve long-term competitive-
ness, this battery problem needs to be solved.
From lead-acid battery technology, with specific energy
as low as 30 Wh/kg in the late 19th century, to the currently
used lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries, various battery
chemistries chosen as energy storage systems (ESSs) for the
transportation sector are numerous. The main require-
ments of a battery are: 1) high power density to ensure
rapid vehicle acceleration and the ability to use regenera-
tive braking power; and 2) high energy density to ensure an
extended drive range. Low cost, extensive cycle life, and
safety are other key requirements.
Li-ion batteries are the latest trend in battery chemis-
try. With the nominal values of cell voltage of 3.23.65 V,
specific energy of 130150 Wh/kg and power density of
2,3002,400 W/kg, these batteries are considere d to be one
of the best performers for automotive applications to date.
Li-ion batteries contain multiple anodes and cathodes. By
choosing the structure carefully, power and energy appli-
cation requirements can be well satisfied. Despite its
many advantages, there is always a tradeoff between per-
formance and cost. The major disadvantage of Li-ion bat-
teries is their high cost, which accounts for more than
one-third of the total vehicle cost. Other disadvantages are
aging, requirement of thermal protection, and immature
technology compared to lead-acid or nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries.
Battery Technology Roadmap
The quest for improved EV battery technologies goes as far
back as the 1970s. One of the first commercially feasible
technologies adopted by automakers was the NiMH bat-
tery. NiMH batteries became the choice for early hybrid
vehicles because they have a higher energy density and
Battery Pack
dcdc
Converter
Motor Inverter
and Battery
Charger
ac Motor/
Filter
Charging Inlet
from ac Grid
Figure 10. Futuristic integrated power electronics for a traction motor drive and an on-board fast battery charger.
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are lighter than lead-acid batteries of comparable power.
They are commonly used in many hybrid vehicles today,
including the Toyota Prius and Honda Insight. After testing
several alternatives, Toyota announced in 2009 its contin-
ued use of NiMH batteries in many of its hybrid vehicles.
Recently, manufacturers have extensively started using
Li-ion as the preferred energy source, especially in EV and
PHEV applications.
In 2008, Li-ion batteries were considered too costly to
be used on a wide scale, costing around US$1,200/kWh to
deliver specific energy of 110 Wh/kg and power density of
1,000 W/kg. However, with the invention of new electrode
and electrolyte materials, the technology was advanced
and the cost reduced to US$700800/kWh in 2011. The
specific energy and power density increased significantly
to more than 120 Wh/kg and 1,800 W/kg, respectively.
Currently, these batteries cost about US$400500/kWh
and have a specific energy of 130140 Wh/kg and a
power density of 2,400 W/kg. Their life is around 3,500
cycles. In 2015, the target cost for Li-ion batteries is
US$200300/kWh for a PHEV. Specific energy and power
density targets are as high as 250300 Wh/kg and
3,500 W/kg, respectively, in 2020, with a cost target of
US$100150/kWh. The electric range targeted is approxi-
mately 150 mi in 2020. As of now, the range is approxi-
mately 3840 mi for a midsize PHEV like the Chevy Volt
and approximately 100 mi for a full EV like the Mitsubishi
i-MiEV. Figure 12 explains the technological advancement
and future targets for Li-ion batteries from 2008 to 2020.
Harvesting Energy: Lessening Burden on the Battery Pack
Energy harvesting is another answer to reduce the load
on the battery pack. The generation of electricity on
board a vehicle without chemical conversion can sig-
nificantly enhance the autonomy of electric driving
and extend the life and improve the performance of
energy storage devices. The e-tire concept is one of the
energy harvesting methods using the deflection of the
tire while the vehicle is in motion [8]. More specifically,
this new concept uses local changes in pressure and
shape of a vehicle tire to generate
electricity. The idea uses the prin-
ciple of electromagnetism to gen-
erate electricity inside the tire of
a vehicle in a new way that is yet
to be exploited in electrification
of vehicles. The rolling of the
wheel on the road causes local
changes in the tires symmetric
shape and makes it flat at the
contact area with the road sur-
face, as shown in Figure 13(a).
The dynamic deflection changes
the radial distance between the
wheel axis and the circumfer-
ence area of the tire when it is in
contact with the ground. This
localized deflection in the tire
(a) (b)
Figure 11. An in-wheel motor layout: (a) the overall cross section of the in-wheel motor with the tire and (b) the various components of the in-
wheel motor.
Specific Energy (Wh/Kg)
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Year
Power Density (W/Kg) Cost (US$/kWh)
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
Year
Figure 12. The forecasted power density, specific energy, and cost of Li-ion batteries through 2020.
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can be utilized by adopting a
number of linear generators incor-
porated in a vehicle wheel, as
depicted in Figure 13(b).
How Fast Can You Charge?
Supported by government incentives,
the market for EVs can grow if ade-
quate fast-charging facilities are
placed in convenient permanent loca-
tions, such as gas stations. Such large-
scale installations of charging stations
will advance the charging infrastruc-
ture and technology for EVs. It will
also create a trend of charging the EVs
at permanent charging stations just
like filling up gasoline in the existing
gas stations for gasoline vehicles. The
advancement in charging technology
has to go hand in hand with the
advancement in battery technology,
as the battery should be able to han-
dle the high inrush of power from
such fast-charging dc stations.
These vehicles connected simul-
taneously to the grid consume a large
amount of electrical energy. This
demand for electrical power can lead
to extra-large and undesirable peaks. Also, power-quality
problems, such as poor power factor and higher total har-
monic distortion during charging and discharging, may
cause equipment malfunction and component failures. It
is an economic and safety concern to the utility compa-
nies as transformers and feeders are prone to overloads.
Hence, the effect of harmonics alone would be a reason to
shut down the power transfer between the grid and the
vehicle. Also, the effect of load increase and its inherent
low power factor on the distribution systems should be
considered. As the number of cars
increases, load increases and,
hence, it might worsen the current
trend of harmonic distortion.
Higher-efficiency Level 3 sus-
tainable charging stations are
expected to mitigate issues of
charging time, quantity of power
consumed, and power quality.
Moreover, the market for EVs can
expand if adequate fast-charging
facilities are provided in perma-
nent locations such as gas sta-
tions and provided with high-
amperage connections from a
mixed power system containing
onsite solar power generation and
the grid. Such large-scale installa-
tions of charging stations will
advance the charging infrastruc-
ture and technology for EVs and
create a trend of charging EVs at
permanent charging stations just
like filling up gasoline in the exist-
ing gas stations for gasoline vehi-
cles. Figure 14 shows one such
futuristic fast-charging station.
The utility companies can own/
manage these charging stations,
which will reduce their power-
quality concerns, as they will have
greater control over these moni-
tored charging stations. Level 3
charging infrastructure costs
between US$30,000 and US$160,000.
It is expected that commercially
available EVs will be charged within
1530min to approximately 80% of
the battery capacity using a dc fast-
charging station.
The Energy That Comes when
Couples, Transportation Policy,
and EV Charging Resonate
While some researchers are trying to
solve the EV battery problem
through improvements in battery chemistry, others are try-
ing to solve the problem by alternate means external to the
battery. Accordingly, recent studies have shown the feasibil-
ity of charging EVs wirelessly with greater than 90% effi-
ciency from utility supply to battery. This technology has
come to be broadly known as inductive power transfer (IPT),
and its application to electrified transportation for static
and in-motion charging is gaining much attention world-
wide from OEMs, government agencies, and academic insti-
tutions. The proponents of IPT-based EV charging aim to
reduce the battery size and, by
extension, its associated cost by
ensuring that it is charged more fre-
quently and seamlessly. The
increase in charge frequency would
be accomplished through opportu-
nity charging, whereby EVs could
easily charge up while stopped at a
stop sign, traffic light, bus stop, or
even while driving over an electri-
fied section of roadway.
At the heart of IPT-based EV
charging systems are two of the
oldest and most well-known laws
of classical electromagnetics:
Amperes law and Faradays law of
induction. The fundamental differ-
ence between the modern magnetic
(a)
(b)
Figure 13. Energy harvesting through
a novel e-tire concept. (a) An overall side
view of the e-tire with 16 linear generators in
the wheel. (b) A cross-sectional view show-
ing the linear generator.
Figure 14. Futuristic sustainable PV-based
fast-charging stations.
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induction and the conventional low-frequency magnetic
induction that has now been in use for nearly a century in
devices such as transformers and close proximity chargers
is the use of matched high-frequency (i.e., >60 Hz) reso-
nances at the source and receiver devices involved in the
energy exchange so as to facilitate efficient power transfer
across larger distances.
The distance and alignment between the primary
and secondary inductive structures plays a critical role
in all magnetically coupled systems but especially in
modern IPT systems. The magnetic coupling coefficient
is a figure of merit that quantifies the amount of mag-
netic energy generated at the primary that ends up
being captured by the secondary. Conventional induc-
tively coupled systems are tightly coupled, having cou-
pling coefficients in the range of 0.920.98. On the other
hand, in IPT-based wireless EV chargers, the large sepa-
ration and misalignment possible between primary and
secondary result in coupling coefficients that are typi-
cally in the range of 0.10.4, making such systems very
loosely coupled. In turn, this very loose magnetic cou-
pling results in very large leakage fields. These stray
fields are lost from the perspective of transferring power
from the primary to the secondary and also produce
large inductive reactances that can be modeled as being
in series with the windings of the primary and second-
ary magnetic structures. These large reactances severely
limit the flow of primary and secondary currents; con-
sequently, capacitive compensation of primary and
secondary and operation at resonance are necessary to
reduce the reactances to manageable levels.
From Figure 15, it can be seen that the design of a
practical contactless EV charging system based on loosely
coupled resonant IPT involves at least four main chal-
lenges: 1) the design of the low-loss and high-coupling
electromagnetic structures that will participate in the
magnetic energy exchange; 2) the design of an efficient
high-power and high-frequency circuit, known as the IPT
power supply, capable of driving the entire system; 3) the
processing and conditioning of the received power on the
secondary side; and 4) the automated control of the entire
system [9]. With a formal SAE standard (SAEJ2954) on
wireless charging due to be completed in 2015 [10], much
work is presently being undertaken by different institu-
tions to make wireless EV charging a practical and
attractive reality that has the potential of significantly
alleviatingif not eliminatingthe range anxiety that
has until now made consumers so reluctant to fully
embrace EVs [11]. Figure 16 shows one such 6-kW, 20-kHz
IPT system that was developed for conducting research
Primary Side
Magnetic Coupling
Secondary Side
Power Supply
Input
Voltage
Secondary
Controller
Magnetic
Field
Sink
Energy
Coupling
Network
Power
Processing/
Conditioning
Electrical
Load
High-
Frequency
Electrical
Energy
Source
Energy
Coupling
Network
Primary
Controller
Magnetic
Field
Source
Figure 15. A simplified system diagram of an IPT-based EV charger.
Inverter
Controller
Secondary Magnetic Pad
Primary Magnetic Pad
Test Load
Figure 16. The fully functional contactless EV battery charger. Figure 17. Electric machine testing in progress at the University of
Windsor.
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on the primary side power supply topologies most
commonly used for EV charging applications. The system
shown has been tested at 3 kW over a 7-in air gap and
achieved 93% efficiency as measured from the dc link of
the inverter to the load being energized.
Electric Powertrain Testing:
Measuring the Endurance of a Relationship
The accurate testing and validation of the components
and control algorithms is a major stage in research and
development of various technologies for electrified trans-
portation. Generally, the drivetrain tester is a regenera-
tive system that can be used to test the electric machine,
power electronics, control algorithms, and battery perfor-
mance by inputting the vehicle drive cycle and engine
characteristics. D&V, Horiba, AVL, and A&D Technologies
have all developed products specifically to test hybrid
and EV components, such as the one in Figure 17. The
centerpiece of the system is a powerful dynamometer
capable of applying the load torque for the drive cycle. To
support the dynamometer, all systems include a
variable-frequency drive, which feeds off a variable dc
link that can be used to model the battery. Most systems
are regenerative in nature; that is, when the machine
under test is braking and generating energy, it is fed back
to the dc link where it can be used to help power the
testing machine itself. This recycling of power means
less has to be pulled from the mains, which reduces the
cost of long tests. This is a big issue for an endurance test
that can last for days.
That missing je ne sais quoi to make EVs indispensable to
the average North American consumer can be found in
accessible charging infrastructures, reliable long-life batter-
ies, and increased mileage. Consumers want to be wooed
they want a relationship with EVs. Vehicle manufacturers
want a better-quality EV to offer consumers to increase mar-
ket penetration. Engineers and policy makers, to make this
relationship a reality, need to appeal to more than just con-
sumers minds and go beyond testing and performance sta-
tistics and test results. They also need to appeal to the hearts
of\consumers to woo them into making the long-term com-
mitment and the emotional and financial investment in EVs.
Consumers know that EVs are healthy and good for them
they just want a bit more romance in the relationship.
For Further Reading
Nearly 22 million electric vehicles will be sold from 2012 to
2020. [Online]. Available: www.navigantresearch.com/
newsroom/nearly-22-million-electric-vehicles-will-be-
sold-from-2012-to-2020
Corporate average fuel economy [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Average_Fuel_
Economy
Electric & plug-in vehicle roadmap [Online]. Available:
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
EV_PHEV_brochure.pdf
Y. Sato, S. Ishikawa, T. Okubo, M. Abe, and K. Tamai,
Development of high response motor and inverter sys-
tem for the Nissan Leaf electric vehicle, in Proc. SAE
World Congress, 2011-01-0350.
M. Olszewski, Evaluation of the 2010 Toyota Prius
hybrid synergy drive system, Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory, Washington, DC, Rep. FY2011, Mar. 2011.
C.-L. Tseng, S.-Y. Wang, S.-C. Chien, and C.-Y. Chang,
Development of a self-tuning TSK-fuzzy speed control
strategy for switched reluctance motor, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 21412152, Apr. 2012.
S. Haghbin, K. Khan, S. Zhao, M. Alakula, S. Lundmark,
and O. Carlson, An integrated 20-kW motor drive and
isolated battery charger for plug-in vehicles, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 40134029, 2013.
A. Labak, G. A. Nazri, and N. C. Kar, Novel design of
electric tire concept incorporating permanent magnet
linear generators arrangement, in Proc. IEEE Int.
Transportation Electrification Conf., pp. 16, 2013.
O. H. Stielau and G. A. Covic, Design of loosely coupled
inductive power transfer systems, in Proc. Int. Conf.
Power System Technology, 2000, pp. 8590.
C.-S. Wang, O. H. Stielau, and G. A. Covic, Design consid-
erations for a contactless electric vehicle battery charger,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 13081314, 2005.
H. H. Wu, A. Gilchrist, K. Sealy, P. Israelsen, and J.
Muhs, A review on inductive charging for electric vehicles,
in Proc. Int. Electric Machines & Drives Conf., pp. 143147.
Biographies
Narayan C. Kar is with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
Research and Green Energy (CHARGE), University of Wind-
sor, Canada.
K.L.V. Iyer is with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
sor, Canada.
Anas Labak is with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
sor, Canada.
Xiaomin Lu is with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
sor, Canada.
Chunyan Lai is with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive
sor, Canada.
Aiswarya Balamurali is with the Centre for Hybrid
Automotive Research and Green Energy (CHARGE), Univer-
sity of Windsor, Canada.
Bryan Esteban is with the Centre for Hybrid Automo-
tive Research and Green Energy (CHARGE), University of
Windsor, Canada.
Maher Sid-Ahmed is with the Centre for Hybrid Auto-
motive Research and Green Energy (CHARGE), University
of Windsor, Canada.
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_______________
______________________________________
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I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 32 32
By Rich Schmerda, Rob Cuzner,
Rodney Clark, Dan Nowak,
and Steve Bunzel
HIPBOARD ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS INCREASINGLY USE
dc distribution as an integral part of low-voltage (LV) ship
service power for direct connection of variable-frequency
drives (VFDs) and other mission loads to a dc feed, elimi-
nating space and weight overhead of front-end ac/dc
conversion. The future shipboard systems will have many of the same
characteristics and requirements as dc microgrids because they will
allow multiple generating sources and loads to interface into a common
bus. An overriding consideration for shipboard systems is survivability.
So dc systems have the advantage because they can readily interface
with energy storage systems, and they are able to connect redundant
buses through auctioneering diodes. The vision for power transmis-
sion from generation to electrical zones on future shipboard systems
is leaning toward medium-voltage dc (MVDC) systems.
Key design criteria for fault protection on any such system are
predictability of the system response to faults, the speed at which
the fault is removed from the system, and the continuity of ser-
vice to the loads. As with any electrical distribution system, ship-
board dc systems are architected so that faults can be isolated
between electrical zones and within a zone. Off-the-shelf solu-
tions that meet these objectives are limited. This has motivated
much research in the development and use of solid-state pro-
tective devices (SSPDs). In addition, new paradigms for fault
protection are needed where SSPDs are applied. This article pro-
vides an overview of the present art of dc protection using
SSPDs, including integrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT)
versus insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) solutions, for LV
and MVDC systems. This article also demonstrates a means of
achieving protective coordination between upstream and down-
stream SSPDs. Experimental results are provided, showing coordi-
nation between one IGBT-based and two IGCT-based SSPDs.
Zonal Electrical Distribution and Protection
The dc zonal electrical distribution system (dc ZEDS) concept uses a
static switch to isolate faulted section(s) of a dc bus that extends
S
2325-5987/13/$31.002013IEEE
PORTHOLE CAN STOCK PHOTO/LINA0486
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throughout the ship, while loads connected to the faulted bus are tem-
porarily switched to an opposite redundant dc bus during fault isola-
tion. Present techniques fold back the voltage on the faulted bus using
an upstream phase-controlled rectifier (PCR) to force currents to zero
while an electromechanical switch isolates the faulted part of the bus.
However, such systems are slow in response and jeopardize power
continuity. The application of SSPDs to dc ZEDS has received consider-
able attention because of their fast response speed.
Distribution and Protection
Within an Electrical Zone
Within an electrical zone and between sources and loads, there is an
additional challenge presented by the current-limiting nature of SSPDs.
Because the SSPD actively limits the current during the fault- isolation
process, the current is the same upstream and downstream from the
fault location. Therefore, conventional approaches to fault protection
and coordinationwhich rely on voltage droop to ensure that protective
devices closest to the fault trip off firstwill not work. Instead, the local
intelligence and speed of the SSPDs must be fully used to guarantee pre-
dictability in the response of the protection scheme to short circuits, no
matter where in the system they may occur.
System Overview
Figure 1 shows a hypothetical shipboard dc system that includes
aspects of both ZEDS protection and protection within electrical zones.
The system shown in Figure 1 achieves both bus seg-
mentation and isolation of faults from the bus for fault
management. Using SSPDs, this system implements
fault protection between electrical zones by using the
SSPDs to quickly drive fault currents to zero or low lev-
els and fold back the affected dc distribution bus (if
necessary) instead of allowing the PCRs to perform
that function. This enables electromechanical switches
(S1A, S2A, S2, S3, S3A) to open, isolating the fault from
the rest of the system. When faults occur internal to a
zone, cascaded SSPDs in combination with electrome-
chanical switches (S2B, S2C) perform coordinated pro-
tective functions with conventional circuit breakers
only being used for protection of single downstream
loads or load panels with low current ratings.
As suggested above, two fault-isolation paradigms
need to be considered.
The first is one where a fault occurs on the dc bus
itself. In this scenario, the SSPDs on the bus (i.e., SSPD
1A and SSPD 2, if the fault occurs on the bus in Zone 2)
in Figure 1 will limit fault current, assuming that shore
power is the only source. A fault-location algorithm
(such as the one described in [3]) determines the loca-
tion of the fault and which of the electromechanical
switches needs to be opened (i.e., S1A and S2). Mean-
while, as long as the fault is on this bus, the voltage supplied
to any loads connected to the bus is nearly zero, and many of the loads
will lose power continuity. Critical portions of the electrical zones will
be fed by dc/dc converters (CONV) or inverters (INV) whose inputs are
diode auctioneered with the opposite bus (according to the architec-
ture described in [2]). Because the SSPD limits the fault current to safe
Overview and applications.
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levels, which allows isolation in a time response on the
order of tens of microseconds (as opposed to several hun-
dred milliseconds if the PCR limits the fault current), the
loss of power continuity is minimized. The power inter-
ruption is limited only by the response time of the electro-
mechanical switch.
The second paradigm considers faults occurring down-
stream of the SSPDs feeding loads within an electrical
zone. For example, in Zone 2 of Figure 1, a fault occurs
downstream of SSPD 2C, but upstream of the circuit break-
ers. In this scenario, the upstream SSPDs will see the same
current as SSPD 2C. The desired reaction is for SSPD 2C to
isolate the fault without any upstream SSPD tripping and
commanding its associated switch
(i.e., S2A, S2B, or S3, assuming the
ship service TG and ship service bat-
tery are sources) to open. In this case,
it is assumed that the current rating
of SSPD 2C is low enough to enable
the galvanic isolation mechanism to
be built into the circuit breaker. For
higher-current-rated SSPDs, the elec-
tromechanical device is physically
too large to be incorporated into the
circuit breaker enclosure.
SSPD Device Architecture
SSPDs can be constructed using
many types of power semiconduc-
tors, including IGBTs and IGCTs. Both
types of SSPDs have been built and
tested.
The ratings of the SSPD are deter-
mined by the voltage and current rat-
ings of the semiconductor power
switches used in the circuit breaker.
Both IGCT-based SSPDs rated at 1,000
V, 1,000 A and IGBT-based SSPDs rated
at 1,000 V, 1,800 A are considered to be
single SSPD building blocks. A unidi-
rectional SSPD has one main current-
carrying semiconductor device, which
can interrupt current in only one
direction, whereas a bidirectional
SSPD has two main current-carrying
semiconductors and can interrupt
current regardless of direction. Figure
2 illustrates the unidirectional SSPD.
Adding another semiconductor to
the unidirectional SSPD in an anti-
series configuration yields the bidi-
rectional SSPD shown in Figure 3.
The main advantages of this SSPD
implementation include: 1) reduced
fault-current level due to the fast
device opening speed (operation in
microseconds instead of millisec-
onds), 2) limitation of arc-flash ener-
gy to a much lower level, also due to
the fast breaker opening speed, 3)
superior acoustic performance, and
4) lower maintenance costs.
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Service TG
Ship
Service
Battery
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3
Figure 1. DC system.
Device
Snubber
dc Bus + dc Bus +
dc Bus dc Bus
Local
Snubber
Local
Snubber
Device
Snubber
Power
Seniconductors
Figure 2. Unidirectional SSPD architecture.
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Galvanic Isolation Concept
Galvanic isolation of SSPDs is a vital feature for achieving
fault detection, isolation, and reconfiguration. To achieve gal-
vanic isolation in an SSPD, physical isolation must be pro-
vided, and therefore, a mechanical method is required,
which is shown in Figure 4. This method requires a main
mechanical switch or contactor for the high current through
the SSPD (which opens after the semiconductors have inter-
rupted the fault current) and a secondary mechanical switch
for interruption of the leakage current during isolation.
Protective Coordination Approach
The design concept for dc protective coordination using
IGCT- and IGBT-based SSPDs within a dc distribution sys-
tem is implemented using restraint signals between
SSPDs. Along with using different SSPD trip levels,
restraint signals provide the communication between
SSPDs, resulting in proper coordination of the system
during faults. Each SSPD makes coordination decisions
locally and then, through the use of these restraint signals,
communicates its decisions to other connected upstream
and/or downstream SSPDs. This ensures that maximum
power continuity is provided and that isolation only
occurs at the location of the fault. Note that the restraint
signals are mainly required when series SSPDs have the
same or similar current trip levels.
Hardware ValidationCoordination
A series arrangement of SSPDs was set up, as shown in
Figure 5, and tested to illustrate proper coordination between
upstream and downstream SSPDs with a simplified three-
stage system. The testing was performed using a combina-
tion of three SSPDs in series-two IGCT-based SSPDs with the
same current trip level and a third IGBT-based SSPD, which is
farthest downstream, with a lower current trip level than the
two upstream SSPDs. Testing was performed using a high
current pulse generator (HCPG) source to mimic the effect of
dynamically stiff upstream power sources (as will be the
case in converter-fed distribution systems).
For the test performed, the farthest downstream SSPD
had a current trip level lower than that of each of the
upstream SSPDs so that restraint signals were not needed
based on the large difference in current trip levels. Howev-
er, other testing (not described here) was performed on
two-series SSPDs with the same current trip level, and
proper coordination was demonstrated between these
two SSPDs, validating the protective coordination method
using restraint signals.
The test results of the fault interruption at the output of
the farthest downstream SSPD are shown in Figures 6 and 7.
The source inductance was 8 H, and the test voltage was
800 V dc, resulting in a rate of rise (di/dt) of the current of
approximately 100 A/s during the fault event. Based on the
test results, both series upstream SSPDs remained in the
conducting state when the farthest downstream SSPD was
closed into a fault at its output and tripped to interrupt the
fault current.
dc Bus + dc Bus +
dc Bus dc Bus
Local
Snubber
Device
Snubber
Power Semiconductor
Figure 3. Bidirectional SSPD architecture.
Mechanical Switch
(Leakage Current)
Mechanical Switch
(High Current)
SSPD
dc Bus
dc Bus
Figure 4. Galvanic isolation concept.
= Fiber Optic Cable
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Current
Restraint
Signals
HCPG
V
V
SSPD 3
Input
Voltage
SSPD 2 Bus
Snubber Voltage
SSPD 3 Bus Snubber Voltage SSPD 1
(IGCT)
SSPD 2
(IGCT)
SSPD 3
(IGBT)
SSPD 1
Control Board
SSPD 2
Control Board
dc + In
dc In
dc + In
dc In
dc + Out dc + In
dc +
Out
dc +
Out
SSPD 2
Current
SSPD 3
Current
SSPD 3
Control Board
dc Out
dc In dc Out
dc Out
V
+
Bus
Snubber
Bus
Snubber
Bus
Snubber
B
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B
a
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S
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Figure 5. DC coordination test setup.
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The testing demonstrates that dur-
ing the fault event, the HCPG current
continued to flow through both
upstream SSPDs, charging the bus
snubber networks, while the down-
stream SSPD3 interrupted the fault
current. As a result, the fault was prop-
erly isolated, and the power continuity
was maintained to the loads at the
output of each of the two upstream
breakers. During the fault interruption,
the downstream SSPD3 input tran-
sient voltage reached a peak value of
1,040 V because of the interruption of
the current and the source induc-
tance. Before the interruption, the
downstream SSPD 3 output current
reached a peak value of 1,220 A. Based
on these test results, it was shown
that the fault was isolated from the
coordinated distribution system sever-
al orders of magnitude faster than can
be done in an equivalent system using
conventional air circuit breakers.
SSPD Two-Pole Parallel
Architecture
The SSPD two-pole parallel architec-
ture consists of connecting two sin-
gle SSPDs in a parallel configuration.
Paralleling the SSPDs demonstrates
the ability to provide scalable, higher-
current SSPDs based on connecting
universal SSPD building blocks in
parallel. Two parallel SSPDs were test-
ed for fault-current interruption, with
each SSPD having a current trip set-
ting of 5,000-A peak. The testing illus-
trates the dynamic current-sharing
characteristics of two parallel IGBT-
based SSPDs during a fault event
with a current interruption level of
10,000 A. Testing was performed with
the SSPDs initially conducting, and
then the HCPG source was applied to
the SSPDs, which had a fault applied
to their output terminals. The test
setup is shown in Figure 8. The hard-
ware for the two-pole parallel archi-
tecture is shown in Figure 9.
Hardware ValidationParalleling
The test results of the fault interrup-
tion using two parallel SSPDs are
shown in Figure 10, which illustrates
balanced dynamic current-sharing
SSPD 3 Output
Current 1,220-A Peak
HCPG Output
Current
SSPD 2 Output
Current
2
4
SSPD 3 Input Voltage
1,040-V Peak
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40 s/Major Division
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Figure 6. Coordination test results of currents.
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Current
3
1
2
4
SSPD 2 Input Bus Snubber
Voltage
SSPD 3 Input Bus Snubber
Voltage
SSPD 3 Input Voltage
Figure 7. Coordination test results of voltages.
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and interruption capability throughout the fault event. For
this test, the source inductance was 8 H, and the test volt-
age was 800Vdc, resulting in a di/dt of the fault current of
approximately 100 A/s during the fault event, which is
50A/s per SSPD. The current reached 4,800-A peak through
SSPD 1 before it was interrupted by the breaker. In the
same test, the current reached 5,020-A peak through SSPD
2 before it was interrupted by that breaker. The test results
show that the fault currents through the two solid-state cir-
cuit breakers remained balanced within 5% of each other.
SSPD Device Considerations
The trend in shipboard power distribution systems is to
transition to higher system voltage levels, which reduces
the amount of current required to distribute a given
amount of power. DC power systems with line voltages up
= Fiber Optic Cable
High-Current Pulse
Local Bus
Snubber
Local Bus
Snubber
Device
Snubber
Device
Snubber
dc In
dc In
dc + In
One-Pole IGBT-Based SSPD 2
dc + In
dc Out
dc
Out
dc + Out
B
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B
a
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S
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dc +
Out
HCPG
+
Bus
Snubber
Bus
Snubber
IGBT Gate
Drive 1
IGBT Gate
Drive 2
SSPD 1
Output
Current
SSPD 2
Output
Current
SSPD
Control Board
Q1
D1
Q1
D1
Figure 8. DC interruption test setup for two IGBT-based parallel SSPDs-10,000 A.
IGCTs
HCPG
Pole 2
Pole 1
Figure 9. A dc interruption test setup for two IGBT-based parallel
SSPDs-10,000 A.
Figure 10. The interruption current (10,000-A peak) of two parallel-
pole SSPDs.
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to 6 kV dc are presently envisioned. Because of the
limitations in voltage capabilities of present power semi-
conductors, interrupting medium system voltages
requires multiple devices connected in series. Figure 11
shows a summary of the voltage and current ratings of sil-
icon power semiconductors presently available.
Much progress is being made in increasing the voltage
capability of silicon power semiconductors, particularly
because there is now much interest in using solid-state
power switching for MV power control applications in
the electrical utility industry. Typically, the semiconduc-
tor devices used for these applications are four-layer thy-
ristor devices, such as GTOs, ETOs, and IGCTs, but the
voltage capability of three-layer nonlatching devices,
such as IGBTs and metal-oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs), continues to increase.
The MVDC SSPDs can now be made by using multiple
series-connected power semiconductors. Note that many
types of power semiconductors can be used, such as
IGBTs, IGCTs, GTOs, and ETOs, taking into consideration
whether the device is capable of blocking voltage or car-
rying current in the reverse direction. Figure 12 shows a
generic example of a single-pole SSPD using three power
semiconductors connected in series, but the concept can
easily be expanded to have more devices in parallel to
accommodate feeds having a higher rating.
The higher-current SSPDs can be made by paralleling
series-connected groups of power semiconductor devices.
The multiple-pole SSPD breakers can be made with multi-
ple groups of series-/parallel-connected power semicon-
ductors, using one group for each pole.
Much progress is also being made in the voltage and
current ratings of power semiconductors using new semi-
conductor materials such as silicon-carbide (SiC) and galli-
um-nitride. For example, wide-band-
gap SiC MOSFETs are now available
in voltage ratings up to 1,700 V and
may soon be available in voltages up
to 10 kV. The current capabilities of
these devices are relatively low at
present, being about 1033 A, but they
are being paralleled into power mod-
ules for higher current capabilities.
Present research indicates that 10-kV
SiC MOSFETs are expected to cover
ratings up to the 100200-A range,
while 10-kV SiC IGBTs are expected
to handle ratings well beyond 1,000 A.
SiC Thyristors are being developed to
handle systems that require device
voltage ratings that exceed 10 kV
with ampere ratings that exceed
1,000 A.
Conclusions
This article presented an overview of
the present art of LV dc power distribution system protec-
tion using SSPDs. It described how IGBT- and IGCT-based
SSPDs are constructed and how the important feature of
galvanic isolation can be included in them. The article out-
lined the advantages of SSPDs, which include reduced
fault-current level, greatly reduced current interruption
time, limitation of arc-flash energy, improved acoustic per-
formance, and reduced maintenance. It also demonstrat-
ed protective coordination using three of these solid-state
circuit breakers and discusses new paradigms to consider.
Test results were presented validating the use of
restraint signals to aid in proper protective coordination in
a generic three-level power distribution system. The arti-
cle also showed test results for two paralleled SSPD build-
ing blocks used to make higher-current-rated solid-state
circuit breakers, showing very good dynamic current shar-
ing. Trends in shipboard power distribution systems were
discussed as well as the present and future capabilities of
silicon and silicon-carbide power semiconductor devices
used in SSPDs. The article concludes by showing a viable
approach for creating MV SSPDs by operating several
power semiconductors in series/parallel combinations.
For Further Reading
IEEE Standard for Power Electronics Open System Interfac-
es in Zonal Electrical Distribution Systems Rated Above
100 kW, IEEE Std 1826-2012, June 22, 2012, pp. 1, 46.
J. G. Ciezki and R. W. Ashton, Selection and stability
issues associated with a navy shipboard DC zonal electric
distribution system, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 15,
no. 2, pp. 665669, Apr. 2000.
R. Cuzner and A. Jeutter, DC zonal electrical system fault
isolation and reconfiguration, in Proc. IEEE Electric Ship
Technologies Symposium (ESTS) 2009, Apr. 2022, pp. 227234.
12,000
Thyristors
HVIGBTs
GTOs
IGCTs
11,000
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Figure 11. The current and voltage ratings of present silicon power semiconductors.
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O. Vodyakho, M. Steurer, D. Neumayr, C. S. Edrington, G.
Karady, and S. Bhattacharya, Solid-state fault isolation
devices: Application to future power electronics-based
distribution systems, IET Electric Power Applicat., vol. 5,
no. 6, pp. 521528, July 2011.
M. E. Baran, S. Teleke, and S. Bhattacharya, Overcurrent
protection in DC zonal shipboard power systems using
solid state protection devices, in Proc. IEEE Electric Ship
Technologies Symp. (ESTS) 2007, May 2123, pp. 221224.
R. F. Schmerda, S. Krstic, E. L. Wellner, and A. R. Bendre,
IGCTs vs. IGBTs for circuit breakers in advanced ship
electrical systems, in Proc. IEEE Electric Ship Technologies
Symp. (ESTS) 2009, Apr. 2022, pp. 400405.
Biographies
Rich Schmerda ([email protected]) is a senior elec-
trical engineer at DRS-PCT in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with 32
years of experience developing power converters, motor
drives, circuit breakers, and semiconductor power modules.
Rob Cuzner ([email protected]) is a staff systems
engineer at DRS-PCT with 25 years of experience design-
ing power conversion systems, VFDs systems, and their
controls.
Rodney Clark is a senior electrical engineer at DRS-PCT
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with 15 years of experience
developing analog and digital circuit board assemblies
and engineered components for applications including
power conversion systems, VFDs, and solid-state circuit
breakers.
Dan Nowak is a senior electrical engineer at DRS-PCT
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with 15 years of experience
designing power conversion systems, VFDs, and solid-
state protective systems.
Steve Bunzel is an engineering manager at DRS-PCT
with 15 years of experience designing high-speed protec-
tive relaying systems as well as power distribution and
power conversion systems.
+ Line
Bus-Clamp
Snubber Circuit
Local
Snubber Circuit
Power
Semiconductor
Switch 1 (IGBT,
IGCT, GTO,
ETO, etc.)
Power
Semiconductor
Switch 2 (IGBT,
IGCT, GTO,
ETO, etc.)
Power
Semiconductor
Switch N (IGBT,
IGCT, GTO,
ETO, etc.)
Anode/Collector/
Drain 1
Antiparallel
Diode 1
Device Snubber
Circuit 1
Device Snubber
Circuit 2
Device Snubber
Circuit N
Antiparallel
Diode 2
Antiparallel
Diode N
Anode/Collector/
Drain 2
Anode/Collector/
Drain N
Gate 1
Gate 2
Gate N
Cathode/Emitter/
Source 1
Cathode/Emitter/
Source 2
Cathode/Emitter/
Source N
Control Circuit
Line
Load
Free-
Wheeling
Diode
+Load
Figure 12. The topology of one-pole MV dc SSPD.
_________________
_____________
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I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 40 40
ITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SMART
grid, there is an intense interest in the inte-
gration of intelligent and flexible microgrids
in large-scale power systems. Microgrids
would be operated locally in grid-connected
and island modes and can provide black start operation, fre-
quency and voltage support, active and reactive power con-
trol, and better energy management through storage tech-
nologies. The proximity of power generation to microgrid
consumptions could result in improved power quality,
lower power losses, better voltage stability, and higher reli-
ability (fewer customer outages) by engaging fewer compo-
nents and eliminating additional transmission services.
Distributed energy resources (DERs), which include distrib-
uted generation (DG), distributed storage, and adjustable
load, are a key component in microgrid operations.
The economical and reliable operation
of a microgrid.
By Mohammad Shahidehpour
and Mohammad E. Khodayar
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Microgrids could be clustered at distribution levels to
enhance the economics and the reliability of small DGs
such as microturbines and wind-generation turbines as
well as DGs with power electronic (PE) interfaces such as
photovoltaic (PV) arrays and fuel cells. PE interfaces are fast,
enabling full control of transients by introducing virtual
inertia implemented through control loops known as
droops. The implementation of droops would enable adjust-
ments in frequency and voltage, which are in proportion to
real and reactive power at converter terminals. Microgrids
use small generators with low or no inertia, which are
mostly equipped with PE interfaces in resistive networks,
whereas the utility grid includes large synchronous
machines with high inertias and an inductive network.
The microgrid control architectures are offered in grid-
connected and island modes. Microgrids use two control
architectures: multiagent system control and hierarchical
control. The multiagent control system provides genera-
tion unit autonomy, reduces large data manipulation, and
increases the control system reliability; however, the
implementation would require a more complicated con-
trol infrastructure, which is not recommended for indus-
trial applications. The hierarchical control of microgrids
includes primary-, secondary-, and tertiary-level opera-
tions. The primary control would share the load among
DER units using droops while eliminating circulating cur-
rents. The secondary control would eliminate steady-state
errors imposed by primary control. The tertiary control
would ensure the economical and secure operation of the
microgrid and manage the microgrids energy imports/
exports with the utility grid. The hierarchical control of
microgrids would minimize operation costs and increase
the microgrid reliability and enhance the dynamic perfor-
mance of a highly nonlinear system through various con-
trol strategies. The hierarchical control of islanded
microgrids would use existing DERs for regulating the sys-
tem frequency in different time spans. In addition, using
microgrids would reduce communication requirements
among local DER units.
In this article, we discuss microgrid objectives and
present options for microgrid operations and their mon-
itoring and control in the context of a functional system
at the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in Chicago.
The microgrid represents a multitier hierarchical con-
trol of self-sustaining energy infrastructure with island-
ing and resynchronization, self-healing, and demand
response capabilities. The intelligent high-reliability dis-
tribution system (HRDS) at IIT is equipped with phasor
measurement units (PMUs) for real-time monitoring,
nondispatchable renewable energy production, as well
as conventional and dispatchable energy resources.
Status of a Typical Distribution Network
at a University Campus
IIT is located approximately 2.5 mi south of downtown
Chicago, bounded by 35th Street on the south, Michigan
Avenue on the east, 29th/30th Street on the north, and the
Metra Rock Island train line on the west. Starting with the
campus substations, IIT owns, manages, and operates its
underground electricity distribution system. A cross-tie
feeder between the substations allows for the seamless
operation of the microgrid in the case of a utility grid fail-
ure in the shared feeder or one of the individual feeders in
the North or the South Substation. The on-site generation
can also feed the northern part of the campus through the
cross-tie between the North and the South Substations.
In the decade preceding the implementation of the IIT
microgrid, the university experienced several outages
within the campus infrastructure and the utility feeders,
which resulted in partial or complete loss of loads in
buildings and research facilities. Several campus buildings
lost power, including laboratories, resulting in the loss of
experimental data and subjects. The substantial annual
loss of revenue as a result of the outages included the
replacement costs of damaged equipment due to
undervoltage or unbalanced voltages (campus facilities as
well as laboratories), the personnel and administrative
costs of restoring and sustaining research and educational
experiments, and the cost and aggravation associated
with disrupted academic classes and laboratories and any
other major campus events such as open houses and con-
ferences that were interrupted by the outages.
The IIT microgrid, funded mostly by a grant from the
U.S. Department of Energy, empowers the campus con-
sumers with the objective of establishing a microgrid that
is economically viable, environmentally friendly, fuel effi-
cient, robust, and resilient with a self-healing capability.
The IIT microgrid enhances its operation reliability by
applying a real-time reconfiguration of power distribution
assets, real-time islanding of critical loads, and real-time
optimization of power supply resources.
Objectives for Establishing a Microgrid
The IIT microgrid is powered by a master controller, which
offers the opportunity to eliminate costly outages and
power disturbances, supply the hourly campus load pro-
file, reduce daily peak loads, and mitigate greenhouse gas
production. The distribution system topology consists of
several loops, which provide redundant electricity supply
to the end consumers. The IIT microgrid would specifically:
demonstrate the higher reliability introduced by the
microgrid system at IIT
demonstrate the economics of microgrid operations
allow for a decrease of 50% of the grid electricity load
create a permanent 20% decrease in the peak load
from the 2007 level
defer a planned substation through load reduction
offer a distributed system design that can be repli-
cated in urban communities.
The criteria for achieving these objectives are short-term
reliability and economical operation. Figure 1 shows the
microgrid elements, functions, and control tasks associated
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with each criterion. To achieve the optimal economics,
microgrids apply coordination with the utility grid and eco-
nomical demand response in island mode. The short-term
reliability at load points would consider microgrid islanding
and resynchronization and apply emergency demand
response and self-healing in case of outages.
Campus Microgrid Components
In this section, the components of the IIT microgrid, includ-
ing DERs, HRDS switches, meters and PMUs, and building
controllers, are introduced. DER units include dispatchable
units such as natural-gas turbine generator and battery
storage units, and nondispatchable units such as solar PV
and wind turbine units. The storage unit includes a flow
battery and several lead-acid batteries. Building controllers
would provide control and monitoring functions for build-
ing loads on campus. Figure 2 depicts the seven-loop
configuration established at IIT in which three loops are
connected to the North Substation and four loops are con-
nected to the South Substation. The components of the IIT
microgrid are described in the remainder of this section.
Natural-Gas Turbine Synchronous Generation
The IIT microgrid is equipped with an 8-MW natural-gas-
fired power plant with two 4-MW Rolls Royce gas turbines.
The natural-gas turbine consists of five sections, including
air intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and exhaust.
The air sucked into the inlet is compressed by the com-
pressor and mixed with the fuel (natural gas) to form an
airfuel mixture. The mixture is burned in the combustor
to form a high-pressure air, which drives the turbine. The
synchronous generator installed on the turbine shaft will
convert the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Figure 3 shows the full-scale model of the natural-gas tur-
bine generator located at the IIT campus.
Solar PV Generation
A total of 140 kW of solar PV cells are installed on three
building rooftops, including a 20-kW solar canopy (shown
in Figure 4) installed at the electric vehicle charging station
to supply portions of the IIT campus load. The solar PV
units are not dispatchable and use the maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) control system shown in Figure 5 to
maximize the solar power output for a given insolation. A
solar PV cell is a controlled-current source with a nonlinear
currentvoltage relationship corresponding to a given inso-
lation and temperature. Generally, as the solar PV cell volt-
age increases, its output current will decrease. To achieve
the highest efficiency and capture maximum solar energy,
a solar PV array voltage-control mechanism is developed
for a given insolation. Here, the inverter output voltage Vo
of solar PV units is determined by the microgrid. The dc/ac
inverter uses an angle control to stabilize the dc bus voltage
Vdc based on the fixed Vo and also used a magnitude con-
trol to regulate the reactive power output at a reference
value (typically zero). Based on the stabilized Vdc , the dc/dc
converter adopts MPPT control to regulate the solar PV
array voltage VPV and reach the maximum real power out-
put. The objective of solar PV generation control is to with-
draw maximum real power without injecting any reactive
power to the microgrid.
Wind Turbine Unit
An 8-kW wind turbine unit is installed on the north side of
the campus in the Stuart soccer field, connected to Loop 1, as
shown in Figure 6. The wind turbine unit on the IIT campus
Economical Operation Short-Term Reliability
Economical
Demand
Response
Primary
Control
Islanding
and
Resynchronization
Emergency
Demand
Response
Unit
Commitment
and
Economical
Dispatch
IIT Microgrid (Optimal and Reliable Operation)
Gas
Turbines
Meters
and
PMUs
PV
Arrays
Wind
Turbine
Self-
Healing
Tertiary
Control
Microgrid Components
Secondary
Control
Coupling
Switch
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Gas
Turbines
HRDS
Switches
Control Commands
Monitoring Signals
Set Point Values
Battery
Storage
Battery
Storage
Battery
Storage
Building
Controllers
Figure 1. The objectives and functions for the control and operation of the IIT microgrid.
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uses a Viryd wind turbine unit. The wind turbine features
continuous variable transmission (CVT) technology, which
provides automatic and continuous variable ratio change
that maintains stable rotor speed for the generator as wind
speed changes. This would enable the generator to main-
tain high efficiency at all wind speeds. The CVT can also
precisely slow the rotor in high wind speed, curtailing the
excess wind power. Figure 7 shows the structure of the
CVT-based wind turbine unit. The role of the variable gear
ratio is to regulate the power output close to the rated value
when the wind speed is within the acceptable range. The
cut-in and cut-off wind speeds for this turbine are 4.5 and
25 m/s, respectively, and the turbine has an 8-m diameter
and 50-m
2
sweep area. Figure 8 shows the hourly power
output and the wind speed for the wind turbine unit on 20
May 2013. Here, the wind turbine unit would spin when the
wind speed is higher than 10 mi/h (4.47 m/s).
Battery Storage
The IIT microgrid is equipped with a 500-kWh battery
storage system (including ten 50-kWh battery cells)
with 250-kW power capacity, which is connected to
Loop 1. Figure 9 shows a stack of the flow battery and
the battery inverter, which can regulate the real and
reactive power output.
HRDS Switches
The HRDS at IIT uses underground closed-loop fault-
clearing Vista switchgear with SEL-351 directional over-
current protection relays. The fault isolation takes place in
a quarter of a cycle by automatic breakers. The communi-
cation via fiber-optic cables facilitates the coordination
between Vista switches. Figure 10 shows the underground
installation of a HRDS switch at IIT. In HRDS, at least two
simultaneous failures in the cable segments feeding a
building from both paths will lead to a complete outage in
the building. As the chances of two coincident failures is
far less than single failures in cables feeding, the interrup-
tion indices of the buildings are improved significantly by
the installation of HRDS. Figure 11 shows a loop configura-
tion in distribution system at IIT. Here, in Loop 1, any cable
failure between Vista switches 1C and 1D will be cleared,
and the Stuart and Life Sciences Buildings fed by the
switches will not face any interruptions.
Meters and PMUs
The IIT microgrid is equipped with building meters and
PMUs, which report building electricity consumptions to
the master controller. The master controller will receive an
energy consumption update every 15 min. The load data
recorded on 17July 2012 at the McCormick Tribune Campus
Center (MTCC) at the IIT microgrid are shown in Figure 12.
Approximately 30% of building consumptions at IIT are
shiftable loads, which can be served when the electricity
price is lower. The IIT microgrid is equipped with 12 PMUs
that monitor and record the real and reactive generation
and consumption in real time and provide the information
on instantaneous voltage and current of DER units (includ-
ing the magnitude and phase angle)
at a sampling rate of one signal per
cycle to the master controller.
Figure 13 shows a PMU installed at
the North Substation. Figure 14
shows the real and reactive power of
critical loads and DER units, which
are calculated by master controller
based on the instantaneous values.
Building Controllers
Building controllers facilitate the
building consumption manage-
Figure 3. The full-scale model of the natural-gas turbine at IIT.
Figure 4. The solar panel in IITs charging station.
Figure 5. The equivalent circuit and power output characteristics of a solar PV cell.
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ment in the IIT microgrid. The reduc-
tion in building consumption is
accomplished by defining several
operating modes representing con-
sumption levels in each building.
Once the operation mode for each
building is set by the master control-
ler, the building controller will send a
signal to the sub-building controllers
to set the requested load level associ-
ated with the selected mode and
feed back the confirmation signal to
the master controller to acknowledge
the mode change. Figure 15 shows
the buildings equipped with building
controllers in Loop 1, in which the
blue squares represent command
signals from the master controller,
and the green squares represent
acknowledgment signals originating
from the building controllers. The
building controllers are also able to
monitor and control the energy flow
within the buildings, including hot
and cold water flow, heating and cooling loads, and
monitoring the temperature of different spaces within
the building.
Microgrid Control
Figure 11 shows the DER units (including DG and
rechargeable storage) implemented
in the IIT microgrid. The IIT
microgrid integrates DG units,
which are classified into conven-
tional DGs and PE coupled DGs.
Table 1 shows that the DER control
schemes are categorized into grid-
following and grid-forming control.
In grid-forming control, DER
units maintain the microgrid volt-
age and frequency, while in the
grid-following control, the units
maintain their individual real and
reactive power dispatch. In other
words, DER units with grid-forming
control would act as the swing bus
in microgrids and should have ade-
quate real, reactive, and reserve
power capacity and fast response
to control microgrid voltage and
frequency. The DER unit using this
control scheme can either collabo-
rate with other microgrid units
(interactive control) or operate
autonomously (noninteractive con-
trol). Dispatchable DER units, which
follow set points determined by
their controllers, can interact with
other DER units using a grid-forming
interactive control scheme. DER
units with load-sharing capability,
which would collaborate in setting
their output real and reactive power
dispatch according to the microgrid
frequency and voltage, are an exam-
ple of gird-forming interactive con-
trolled DER units. Dispatchable units
can also use grid-forming noninter-
active control to maintain a fixed
set-point for microgrid voltage and
frequency. This control scheme can
be used in dispatchable units with
sufficient real and reactive power
capacity (such as microturbines) to
maintain nominal microgrid voltage
and frequency.
The grid-following control is used
when the DER unit is not required to
directly control the microgrid voltage
and/or frequency. In this control
scheme, the real and reactive power output of the DER is
maintained within permissible limits, and the voltage and
frequency is regulated by other DER units in the microgrid.
Similar to the grid-forming control scheme, DER units
using a grid-following control scheme can either collabo-
rate with other DER units in the microgrid or operate
Figure 6. The wind turbine unit at IIT.
Wind
Turbine
CVT
Input Disk Output Disk
Induction
Generator
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Figure 7. A CVT-based wind turbine unit with a fixed-speed induction generator.
8
Wind Generation Power Output (kW)
Wind Speed (mi/h)
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Figure 8. The wind power generation on 20 May 2013 at IIT.
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autonomously. Nondispatchable units
in a microgrid (such as solar PV units
with MPPTs or wind turbine units)
often apply a noninteractive control,
which maximizes their output power.
Dispatchable units apply a grid-follow-
ing interactive control in which the real
and reactive power output is deter-
mined by the respective set points. This
control scheme can be applied to PV
units equipped with storage in
microgrids, where the output real and
reactive power is regulated irrespective
of the control strategy for microgrid
voltage and frequency.
Depending on the microgrid operat-
ing mode, a proper DER control scheme,
shown in Table 1, is used. An interac-
tive grid-forming control can be used
either in island or grid-connected
mode. In island mode, DERs apply this control scheme to
share the load, while in the grid-connected mode, DERs
apply this control scheme to regulate the power exchange
between the microgrid and the utility grid. The noninter-
active grid-forming control can be used only in island
mode, as the frequency and voltage will be set by DER
units in the island mode. In the grid-connected mode, if
the utility frequency or voltage deviates from the DER set
point, the DER real or reactive power may reach its physi-
cal limit once its controller apply the set point voltage or
frequency. The DER unit with grid-following control fol-
lows the microgrid voltage and frequency, which is set by
the utility grid in grid-connected mode and other DER
units in island mode.
Table 1 shows that the natural-gas turbine and the bat-
tery storage at IIT are using interactive grid-forming control
and the wind turbine and PV units are using noninterac-
tive grid-following control. The interactive grid-forming
control scheme on the natural-gas
turbine and the battery storage units
would enable the microgrid to
operate in both island and grid-
connected modes.
The proper monitoring and control
of DERs at the IIT microgrid would
satisfy the following objectives:
load sharing among DERs
voltage and frequency regulation
in island mode
islanding and resynchronization
to the utility grid
optimal generation and consump-
tion at IIT microgrid
real-time monitoring of the distri-
bution system components.
Functionally, three control levels
(shown in Figure 1) are applied to
the IIT microgrid:
1) primary control, which is based on droop control for
sharing the microgrid load among DER units
2) secondary control, which performs corrective action
to mitigate steady-state errors introduced by droop
control
3) tertiary control, which procures the optimal dispatch of
DER units in the microgrid and manages the power flow
between the microgrid and the utility grid for optimizing
the grid-connected and island operation schemes.
The control levels at the IIT microgrid are discussed next.
Tertiary Control
Tertiary control is the upper most level of the control
system in Figure 1; it ensures the optimal operation of
the microgrid by determining the set points of genera-
tion and load entities at the IIT microgrid. The master
controller, which is regarded as the most important
control element of the IIT microgrid, is responsible for
applying the tertiary control. The master controller uses
the data supplied by the supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), which enables the real-time moni-
toring and control of microgrid elements including
HRDS controllers, on-site generation, storage, and indi-
vidual building controllers and meters. The master con-
troller signals, which are relayed through SCADA, will
adjust building loads and the generation dispatch for
economical operation.
Figure 16 shows a hierarchical operation within the
tertiary control that would provide generation and
load management at normal and emergency condi-
tions. The hierarchical tertiary control includes the fol-
lowing components.
The master controller determines the optimal and
reliable operation of the microgrid through optimal
generation dispatch and load signals. The generation
Figure 9. A battery storage unit and
inverter.
Figure 10. The installation of an underground HRDS switch.
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dispatch signals are sent to dispatchable DER units on
campus, and the load signals are sent to the building
controllers.
The building controllers are responsible for setting the
building loads according to the dispatch signal
received from the master controller.
The sub-building controllers
preform device-level load man-
agement by controlling the opera-
tion status of devices located in
buildings.
The hierarchical tertiary control
approach would receive the informa-
tion from loads and power supply
entities on campus as well as the
information on the status of campus
distribution network and procure the
optimal solution via an hourly unit
commitment and real-time economi-
cal dispatch for serving the campus
load in the normal operation mode
and contingencies. In Figure 16, the
monitoring signals provided to the
master controller indicate the status of DER and distribution
components, while the master controller signals provide set
points for DER units and building controllers. Building con-
trollers will communicate with sub-building controllers
through a ZigBee wireless control and monitoring system to
achieve a device-level rapid load management.
Utility Grid
12.47 kV
4.16 kV
VanderCook
Engineering 1
PV
L
o
o
p

1
V
i
s
t
a

l
E
V
i
s
t
a

l
A
V
i
s
t
a

l
B
V
i
s
t
a

l
D
Vista lC
L
o
o
p

2
L
o
o
p

3
L
o
o
p

7
Life Sciences
Battery
Stuart
Wind
PV
PV
PV
S
Machinery
CTA 1
CTA 2
Gas-Turbine
Synchronous
Generators
4.16 kV
North
Substation
South
Substation
PCC
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
S
=
S
=
S
=
=
=
S
=
Figure 11. The DER units and HRDS in the IIT microgrid.
380
360
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300
280
260
240
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200
Time
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.
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p
a
t
c
h

(
k
W
)
Figure 12. The MTCC load on 17 July 2012.
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Secondary Control
Secondary control in Figure 1 is the middle level control at
the IIT microgrid. Secondary control is used to eliminate
frequency and voltage deviations caused by lower control
level (primary control). As illustrated in the Figure 17, once
there is a sudden decrease in demand in microgrid, the
frequency and voltage increases. Once the frequency or
voltage increases, the operating point may slide from A to B
with primary control to decrease the generation dispatch
and match the generation with demand. As the frequency
or voltage is above the rated value, the secondary control is
used to lower the operating point from B to C, where the
frequency or voltage is restored to the rated values. As shown
in Figure 17, only the frequency or voltage is restored in sec-
ondary control, while the real or reactive power dispatch is
not changed. Thus, with secondary control, dispatchable
DER units would maintain the frequency and voltage at the
rated value while adjusting their dispatch according to the
tertiary control signal to serve the microgrid load. The sec-
ondary control is a centralized and performed by master
controller. The master controller will set the microgrid volt-
age and frequency and send the set points to primary
control at DER level. Restoration, load sharing, and manage-
ment can be performed in secondary control.
Primary Control
The primary control, shown in Figure 1, is the lowest level
of control in the IIT microgrid. The primary control is
mainly used for load sharing among controllable and dis-
patchable fast-response DER units, which have adequate
capacity to serve the microgrid load. The most widely used
primary control strategy is droop control, which is shown
in Figure 18. DER units equipped with droop control, which
are connected in parallel, would not need to communicate
with each other to perform load sharing; instead, individu-
al dispatch levels are calculated based on predefined droop
characteristics and microgrid frequency and voltage. In
Figure 13. The PMU at the North Substation.
PMU Information
Date 5/30/2013
ID No Building Name P (kW) Q (kVAr) Frequency Power Factor
1 Engineering 1 590.18 832.45 60.0150 0.5784
2 Life Sciences 302.70 289.27 60.0150 0.7230
3 Stuart Building 442.60 210.45 60.0180 0.9031
4 Gunsaulus 46.28 33.48 60.0150 0.8102
5 MTCC 335.25 234.14 60.0160 0.8198
6 Hermann Hall 447.39 18.12 60.0150 0.9992
7 Wishnick Hall 426.30 200.09 60.0150 0.9052
8 Siegel Hall 138.09 260.82 60.0170 0.4679
9 North Substation 7017.33 165.26 60.0160 0.9997
10 IIT Tower 628.78 312.70 60.0120 0.8954
11 IIT Tower (20th Floor) 1238.62 537.08 60.0160 0.9175
12 Power Plant 0.00 0.00 59.9600 0.0000
Time 3:01:51 PM
Figure 14. Real and reactive power based on PMUs on DER units.
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Figure 18, the DER dispatch P is at its rated value Prated at
the rated frequency frated , which are determined by the
master controller through tertiary control level. As the fre-
quency increases, there will be a slight decrease in power
dispatch to compensate the frequency deviation. Similarly,
as the microgrid voltage increases, the injected reactive
power decreases to compensate the voltage drop. In Figure
18(a) and (b), mp and mq , respectively, represent the slopes
of the f P - and v Q - curves. The DER units at the IIT
microgrid, which are equipped with primary and sec-
ondary control, are the natural-gas turbine synchro-
nous generator and the battery storage unit.
Natural-Gas Turbine Synchronous Generator
Figure 19 shows the control diagram for the natural-gas
turbine synchronous generator. Here, ~, rated ~ , V, and
Vrated are the measured speed, rated speed, measured volt-
age, and rated voltage of the synchronous generator,
respectively; P, Prated , Q, and Qrated are the measured real
power, rated real power, measured reactive power, and
rated reactive power of the generator, respectively; 2nd ~
and V2nd are the adjustment signals used for secondary
control. As shown in Figure 19, the natural-gas turbine
and exciter provide the input mechanical torque TM and
excitation to the generator. The primary and secondary
control modules for P ~- and v Q - generate signals to
the turbine and exciter, respectively, to regulate the real
and reactive power output and maintain the microgrid
frequency and voltage at the rated values. At steady state,
if the generator dispatch is deviated from the rated value
through primary droop control, the secondary control will
generate a nonzero adjustment signal shown in (1) to
restore the frequency or voltage back to the rated value.
Thus, the natural-gas turbine synchronous generator
would serve the campus load while maintaining the
microgrid frequency and voltage at the rated value.
m P P
V m Q Q
p
q
2
2
nd rated
nd rated
$
$
~ = -
= -
^
^
h
h. (1)
Battery Storage Unit
The control structure of the battery storage system is
shown in Figure 20, where the battery storage is connect-
ed to the microgrid through a bidirectional dc/ac inverter,
an ac filter, and a transformer. Here, the output real and
reactive power denoted by P and Q is calculated by
measuring the terminal voltage and current Vo and Io .
The measured real and reactive power are used in the
primary droop control to provide a reference voltage sig-
nal V
*
o . The voltage loop is used to stabilize the inverter
terminal voltage using the reference voltage signal and
to ensure that the DER output impedance is inductive at
E1.AH01.CURT
Engineering Building Life Science Building Stuart Building
Curtailment Points Will Keep the Fans Off
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
E1.AH02.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
E1.AH03.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
E1.AH04.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
E1.AH05.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
ME1SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME1RET
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME2RET
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME2SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME3SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME4SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
ME5SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS.AH02.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
LS.AH02.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
LS.AH03.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
SB.AH01.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
SB.AH02.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
SB.AH03.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
SB.AH01.SYS
SF South End
NONE
ON
SB.AH02.SYS
NORTH END
NONE
ON
SB.AH03.SYS
Basement
NONE
ON
LS.AH06.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
LS.AH07.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
LS.AH08.CURT
Curtailment
NONE
OFF
LS2SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS3SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS4SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS6SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS7SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
LS8SYS
Descriptor
Priority
Value N/A Units
Point:
Desc.:
Status:
Pri:
Value:
ExState:
Total:
MEIRET
Descriptor
Status
Priority
Value
State
Total
Figure 15. The building controllers showing the status of controllable loads in three buildings in Loop 1 at IIT.
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rated frequency, which is an important factor in imple-
menting f P - droop control. The current loop is used to
obtain a fast response in a wide frequency band. The
biloop block output (voltage and current loops) is the
pulsewidth modulation (PWM) ratio, which would trigger
dc/ac inverter switches. If the microgrid frequency fMG or
the microgrid voltage VMG deviates from the rated value,
the secondary control module will generate secondary
control signals f2nd or V2nd to restore the rated frequency
or voltage. The inverter power output is limited between
250 and 250 kW as enforced by primary control module.
In Figure20, the battery storage system would maintain
the rated frequency and voltage of microgrid in case of
any disturbances in the island mode. Moreover, the bat-
tery storage system would perform the following func-
tions:
contain abrupt load changes in island mode
help mitigate frequency deviations in island mode
participate in frequency regulation when the
microgrid operates in grid-connected mode
charge and discharge
periodically for the eco-
nomical operation of the
IIT microgrid.
Economical and
Reliable Operation
of the Microgrid
The hierarchical tertiary
control is used to ensure
the economical and reliable
operation of the microgrid.
In Figure 1, the economical
operation pertains to unit
commitment and econom-
ical dispatch as well as eco-
nomical demand response
in grid-connected and
island modes. Also, the
short-term reliability of
microgrid is satisfied
through islanding and
resynchronization, emer-
gency demand response,
and self-healing. In this
section, the economical
and reliable operations of
microgrid performed by the
hierarchical tertiary control
are discussed.
Economical Operation
The cost of economical
operation includes the cost
of utility grid energy trans-
actions (in both directions),
cost of microgrid energy
supply, and load curtail-
ment costs (value of lost
load.) Microgrid outages
Thermal Generation
Solar (PV)
Wind DAS
Generation Control System
Building Control System
Master
Controller
Distribution System Control
Storage Control
System
Charging Station
Battery Storage
Sub-Building
ZigBee Control
System
Figure 16. Architecture of master controller at IIT.
Grid-Following
Control
Grid-Forming
Control
Noninteractive
control
Power injection
(wind turbine,
solar PV)
Voltage and
frequency control
Interactive
control
Real and reactive
power dispatch
control
Load sharing
(battery storage,
natural-gas turbine)
TABLE 1. The Classification of DER Controls
and Units at the IIT Microgrid.
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could result in a loss of revenue estimated at US$80/kWh
(value of lost load), which covers the replacement cost of
damaged equipment, and personnel and administrative
cost of restoring and sustaining research and education at
IIT. Once the real-time price exceeds 68 cents/kWh (mar-
ginal cost of microgrid generation), the campus load is sup-
plied by the local microgrid generation. The master control-
ler uses a security-constrained unit commitment to calcu-
late the day-ahead optimal operation of microgrid. The
optimal hourly solution includes the dispatch of the
microgrid generation and renewable energy resources,
exchanges with the utility grid, charge/discharge schedule
of the battery storage unit, and adjustments to set points of
building loads.
To perform the tertiary control, the master controller
procures the day-ahead forecasts for building loads and
renewable energy resources. The forecasted price of elec-
tricity is procured by ComEd. The forecasted values are
calculated based on the historical data and forecasted
weather data using nonlinear regression methods. The
integration of renewable energy generation in microgrids
will reduce carbon footprints while decreasing the cost of
supplying the campus load. The drawback of integrating
renewable technologies is the variability of their genera-
tion portfolio. To overcome this challenge in the microgrid,
several approaches are used including the coordination of
dispatch with the utility grid and hourly demand
response. The economical operation of microgrid is imple-
mented by two master controller functions, which are
discussed below.
Unit Commitment and Economical Dispatch
To ensure the economical operation of the microgrid, the
master controller performs unit commitment and eco-
nomical dispatch in island and grid-connected modes to
procure the optimal generation scheduling of DER units as
well as the utility grid dispatch. In grid-connected mode,
the microgrid load is compensated by adjusting the power
generation exchange with the utility grid. Here, the prima-
ry and secondary controls of DER units will not respond to
disturbances, as the microgrid voltage and frequency are
set by the utility grid. Figure 21 shows the day-ahead
hourly control signals provided by the master controller
for supplying the campus load on 17 July 2012. On this
day, the campus reached its annual
peak load of 11.263 MW at hour 15.
The master controller dispatched
the microgrid generation once the
electricity price was higher than 6
cents/kWh. In Figure 21, the battery
storage was charged when the elec-
tricity price was lowered to 2.8 and
2.7 cents/kWh at hours 4 and 5,
respectively. In addition, the battery
storage was discharged as the price of
the electricity was increased to 22.4
and 24.5 cents/kWh at hours 16 and 17, respectively. The
cost of supplying the campus energy on this day was
US$15,524.
The real-time optimization is based on real-time infor-
mation, such as the price of electricity, campus load,
renewable energy generation, and the topology of the
campus microgrid including the state of Vista switches
and cables. The master controller will perform the campus
energy management by procuring the optimal 15-min
economical demand response and the dispatch and com-
mitment of campus generation.
Economical Demand Response
The master controller will adjust shiftable building load
schedules to calculate optimal generation schedules.
Shiftable loads can often be served at delayed hours with-
out jeopardizing the convenience of campus residents.
Moreover, the tertiary control will schedule the charging/
discharging sequence of battery storage to optimize the
supply of campus load with respect to the utility price of
electricity. In island mode, the microgrid load is supplied
by dispatchable DER units, which respond according to
their droop characteristics using primary and secondary
control scheme. The tertiary control would also set the
optimal operating point of dispatchable DER units. The
nondispatchable DER units including solar PV and wind
turbine units will not respond to deviations in real and
reactive campus loads. In Figure 22, the master controller
would apply demand response through tertiary control
f/V
B
Secondary
Control
P
r
im
a
r
y C
o
n
tr
o
l
A
P/Q
C
Rated
No Change
in Dispatch
Figure 17. The secondary control in DER units.
f
(f
1
, P
1
)
(V
1
, Q
1
)
(f
rated
, P
rated
) (V
rated
, Q
rated
)
P
V
f = m
p
.
P V = m
q
.
Q
Q
f
P
V
Q
m
p
m
q
(a) (b)
Figure 18. The (a) frequency and (b) voltage droop characteristics of a DER unit.
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signals when the price of electricity is high, which would
lower the cost of supplying the campus load. Here, the
building load is shifted from peak hours 1618 to off-peak
hours 46. The set points shown in Figure 22 are sent to
DER units and building controllers to set the campus load
and generation. The local microgrid generation is also
used to supply the peak demand at the utility grid.
Accordingly, the daily energy cost of the microgrid is
reduced from US$15,524 to US$13,715. Figure 23 shows the
economical load reduction at IIT on 19 August 2010, which
was recorded by ComEd. Here, the campus load is reduced
by 60% through curtailing building loads, shifting campus
loads, and dispatching the natural-gas turbine at IIT.
Short-Term Reliability
The IIT microgrid connects to the utility grid through
four 12.47-kV feeders located at the North and South
Substations. The IIT microgrid can operate in both grid-
connected and island (autonomous) modes. In the grid-
connected mode, the microgrid frequency and voltage
(
rated
)
2nd
V
2nd
V
rated
+
+
+
P-
Secondary
P-
Primary
Q-V
Primary
Q-V
Secondary
P
P
rated
V
Q
Q
rated
Tertiary
Control
Gas
Turbine
Sync.
Gen.
Exciter
+
+
T
M
Figure 19. The natural-gas turbine synchronous generator control module.
Inverter
PWM
Current
Loop
Voltage
Loop
Biloop
Tertiary
Control
Secondary
Control
Primary
Control
Power
Calculation
f
MG
, V
MG
P
rated
, Q
rated
P, Q
I
c
I
o
V
o
V
o
f
2nd
, V
2nd
V
o
ac Filter
M
i
c
r
o
g
r
i
d
Figure 20. The control structure of the battery storage system.
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are regulated by the utility grid. In
island mode, the natural-gas turbine
and battery storage would maintain
the microgrid frequency and voltage,
while solar PV and wind turbine units
serve portions of the campus load.
The short-term microgrid reliability is
enhanced by implementing three
major functions at IIT: islanding and
resynchronization, emergency
demand response, and self-healing,
which are discussed in this section.
Islanding and Resynchronization
The microgrid may increase its load
point reliability indices by setting up
its operation in island mode. Gener-
ally, there are two major reasons for
setting up a microgrid in island mode: 1) poor power
quality at the utility grid, such as frequency or voltage
deviations, and 2) major faults at the utility grid. PMUs
and voltage/current meters at the point of common cou-
pling (PCC) would report the utility grid malfunction to
the master controller, which will initiate the islanding
process at the tertiary control level. The master controller
will monitor building meters for supplying the local gen-
eration dispatch. At islanding, the master controller may
reduce the campus load through emergency demand
response to match the load with the local generation dis-
patch. The load reduction may entail shifting building
loads and reducing curtailable building loads. Matching
the load with generation at islanding will reduce tran-
sients and ensure a feasible microgrid operation consid-
ering the ramping limits of DER unit generation.
Figure 24 shows the campus load restoration in island
mode at the Engineering 1 and Stuart Buildings located
in Loop 1 on 19 July 2012. The load restoration started at
6:19 a.m. on both buildings and was fully restored at 6:29
a.m. Figure 24(b) shows the inrush
current of a switched-on transform-
er located in the Stuart Building. In
island mode, any abrupt changes in
the local microgrid load are served
by the battery storage through pri-
mary and secondary controls. Once
the normal operation at the utility
grid is restored, the microgrid will be
resynchronized with the utility grid.
In island mode, the microgrid could
be operated at a frequency and a
voltage magnitude that are different
than those of the utility grid, which
could cause transients during the
resynchronization process and dam-
age the substation equipment. The
master controller will send synchro-
nization signals to the campus DER units through sec-
ondary control for mitigating any possible transients.
The following criteria are to be satisfied for transition
from island to grid-connected mode:
1) The voltage magnitude difference at the PCC would be
small.
2) The frequency difference would be small to match the
voltage phase angles at the switching instance.
3) The voltage angle with the lower frequency should lag
behind that of the higher frequency. Figure 25 shows
the voltage angle difference between the microgrid and
the utility grid at resynchronization instance. Assuming
that the microgrid frequency is slightly smaller than
that of the utility grid if VMG leads Vgrid, then the power
flow will be from the microgrid to the utility grid and in
the reverse direction at steady state. The flow from the
microgrid to the utility grid at resynchronization may
result in the overloading of the microgrid DER units.
The IIT microgrid resynchronization process is present-
ed as follows. At first, the master controller will send the
13,000
11,000
9,000
7,000
5,000
3,000
1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (h)
P
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k
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5
10
15
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l
e
c
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y

P
r
i
c
e

(
c
e
n
t
s
/
k
W
h
)
20
25
30
1,000
Utility Grid Supply
Battery Supply
Microgrid Supply
Total Demand
Price of Electricity
Figure 21. The day-ahead storage, microgrid, and utility grid supply on 17 July 2012.
Figure 22. The day-ahead economical demand response by building controllers on 17 July 2012.
13,000
11,000
9,000
7,000
5,000
3,000
1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (h)
P
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)
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30
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Utility Grid Supply
Utility Grid Supply with Building Controllers
Total Demand
Price of Electricity
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frequency adjustment signal to the natural-gas turbine and
the battery storage unit to adjust the microgrid frequency
to less than nominal frequency (59.9 Hz). The secondary
control will maintain a lower microgrid frequency than that
of the utility grid before resynchronization. When the
microgrid voltage angle lags behind that of the utility grid
slightly (fewer than 10), the PCC switch will be closed, and
the IIT microgrid will be resynchronized with the utility.
Emergency Demand Response
The objective of emergency demand response is to main-
tain the microgrid voltage and frequency within accept-
able levels in island mode or to sup-
ply the utility grid partially in grid-
connected mode in case of an
emergency. In either case, the IIT
microgrid will perform emergency
demand response. In island mode,
the emergency demand response will
match the load with the generation
(e.g., dispatch the battery storage or
curtail building loads), while in grid-
connected mode, the microgrid
would curtail loads as required. The
master controller will communicate
with building controllers to curtail or
shift loads and monitor the updated
load level through building meters.
Once the campus load is reduced, DER units on campus
will be redispatched through primary and secondary con-
trols to maintain the nominal voltage and frequency. After
the completion of emergency demand response, the ter-
tiary control provided by master controller will procure
the steady-state optimal generation dispatch of dispatch-
able DER units.
Self-Healing
Self-healing relies on robust HRDS protection and switching
schemes as well as on-campus storage to supply the load
10,000
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7,000
6,000
5,000
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1,000
0
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00
Time (h)
16:00 20:00 24:00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
(
F
)
IIT Load
Temperature
Figure 23. The load reduction test at the IIT microgrid on 19 August 2010.
35
30
25
20
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) 6:19 a.m. 6:22 a.m.
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250
200
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r
r
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)
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100
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0 20 40 60 80
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
6:18 a.m. 6:21 a.m.
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200
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160
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100
80
60
40
20
0 50 100
Time (s) 6:28 a.m. 6:33 a.m.
150 200 250 300
Current Magnitude Curve (E1-500K-TR#1-IA)
Current Magnitude Curve (SB-PWR-1000K-IA) Inrush Current Magnitude Curve (SB-PWR-1000K-IA)
Figure 24. The load restoration at the (a) Engineering 1 and (b) Stuart Buildings in Loop 1 in island mode on 19 July 2012.
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duri ng campus conti ngenci es
(e.g., component outages). The integra-
tion of HRDS provides a looped distri-
bution network by integrating Vista
switches to automatically detect and
isolate microgrid faults while main-
taining the service to buildings through
redundant distribution paths. More-
over, the integration of battery storage
will serve critical campus loads in case
of generation deficiency or distribution
cable contingencies. The interruption
indices are calculated in for load points
on Loop 3 with and without Vista
switches, which show that the integra-
tion of HRDS will result in a dramatic
reduction in load interruption indices.
Rapid fault detection and clearance will
result in fewer transients in distribu-
tion systems.
Figure 26 shows two induction
motors in non-HRDS and HRDS systems. The response of
motor 1, located close to the Vista switch 1, to a nearby
cable fault is shown in Figure 27. As shown in this figure,
HRDS has cleared the fault in 0.1 s, which has retained the
normal motor speed quickly. In Figure 26(a), without the
HRDS system, the cable fault would lead to a dramatic drop
in the motor 1 speed as the fault clearing time is longer and
the fault clearance would lead to the loss of load down-
stream, i.e., motor 2.
Conclusions
This article discusses the hierarchical control of
microgrids and the role of primary, secondary, and ter-
tiary controls in enhancing the microgrid reliability
and economics and introduced the control applica-
tions to a functional microgrid at IIT. The IIT microgrid
is analyzed as a test bed, and the functions for imple-
menting microgrid objectives are
discussed. The functions include
unit commitment and economi-
cal dispatch, economical demand
response, islanding and resyn-
chronization, emergency demand
response, and self-healing. The
master controller applies tertiary
and secondary control to ensure
the economical and reliable oper-
ation of the microgrid. Primary
control is applied at the DER unit
level to respond to disturbances
i n a short ti me, whi l e the
secondary and tertiary control
signals eliminate errors intro-
duced by primary control to regu-
late the voltage and frequency
and mai ntai n the opti mal
dispatch of DER units. The func-
tions are performed by the
master controller, DER units,
building controllers, and meters,
which can achieve economical
and reliable operations of a
microgrid. The effect of HRDS
switches in reducing the tran-
sients that occur during distri-
bution network faults and com-
ponent failures in microgrids is
discussed. Transients occur
when switching a microgrid
between island and grid-con-
nected modes, and options such
as emergency demand response,
load restoration, and DER unit
response are considered in this
article to maintain steady-state
operations in microgrids.
Acknowledgment
This project was funded in part by the U.S. Department of
Energy Grant DE-FC26-08NT02875.
VM
G
L
e
a
d
s
Vgrid
V
M
G L
a
g
s
V
grid
V
MG
V
MG
V
grid
Figure 25. The voltages at the microgrid and the utility grid.
Generator
Motor 1
Motor 2
MV Breaker
Generator
Motor 1
Motor 2
Vista Switch 1 Vista Switch 2
(a)
(b)
Figure 26. Distribution networks (a) with and (b) without HRDS switches.
The microgrid
represents a
multitier hierarchical
control of self-
sustaining energy
infrastructure with
islanding and
resynchronization,
self-healing, and
demand response
capabilities.
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For Further Reading
M. Shahidehpour and J. F. Clair, A functional microgrid for
enhancing reliability, sustainability, and energy efficiency,
Electricity J., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 2128, Oct. 2012.
N. D. Hatziargyriou, A. Dimeas, and A. Tsikalakis, Cen-
tralized and decentralized control of microgrids, Int. J.
Distributed Energy Resources, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 197212, July
Sept. 2005.
J. M. Guerrero, M. Chandorkar, T. Lee, and P. C. Loh,
Advanced control architectures for intelligent
microgridsPart I: Decentralized and hierarchical
control, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 4, pp. 1254
1262, Apr. 2013.
J. Rocabert, A. Luna, F. Blaabjerg, and P. Rodrguez,
Control of power converters in acmicrogrids, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 47344749, Nov. 2012.
A. Bidram and A. Davoudi, Hierarchical structure of
microgrids control system, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3,
no. 4, pp. 19631976, Dec. 2012.
J. M. Guerrero, J. C. Vasquez, J. Matas, L. G. de Vicuna, and
M. Castilla, Hierarchical control of droop-controlled ac and
dc microgridsA general approach toward standardization,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 158172, Jan. 2011.
F. Katiraei and M. R. Iravani, Power management strat-
egies for a micro-grid with multiple distributed generation
units, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 18211831,
Nov. 2006.
North American Electric Reliability Corporation. (2011,
Jan.). Balancing and frequency control. [Online]. Available:
http://www.nerc.com/docs/oc/rs/NERC%20Balancing%20
and%20Frequency%20Control%20040520111.pdf
M. Shahidehpour (2012, Oct.). A world-class university-
industry consortium for wind energy research, education,
and workforce development. [Online]. Available: http://
www.iitmicrogrid.net/windconsortium.aspx
F. Katiraei, R. Iravani, N. Hatziargyriou, and A. Dimeas,
Microgrids management, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 6,
no. 3, pp. 5465, MayJune 2008.
R. H. Lasseter, MicroGrids, in Proc. IEEE Power Engi-
neering Society Winter Meeting, 2002, pp. 305308.
J. A. P. Lopes, C. L. Moreira, and A. G. Madureira, Defin-
ing control strategies for microgrids islanded operation,
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 916924, 2006.
J. F. Kelly, M. Meiners, and G. Rouse. (2007, Oct.). IIT Per-
fect Power Prototype, Final Report. Endurant Energy.
[Online]. Available: www.galvinpower.org
Y. Fu, M. Shahidehpour, and Z. Li, Security constrained
unit commitment with ac constraints, IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 15381550, Aug. 2005.
A. Mehrizi-Sani and R. Iravani, Potential function based
control of a microgrid in islanded and grid-connected
modes, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 18831891,
Nov. 2010.
A. Flueck and Z. Li, Destination: perfection, IEEE
Power Energy Mag., vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 3647, Nov. 2008.
ComEd residential real-time pricing. [Online]. Available:
https://rrtp.comed.com
R. H. Lasseter and P. Piagi, Control and design of
microgrid components, Final Report, Power Systems Engi-
neering Research Center (PSERC), PSERC Publication 0603,
Jan. 2006.
Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distrib-
uted Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Sys-
tems, IEEE 1547.4, 2011.
M. E. Khodayar, M. Barati, and M. Shahidehpour, Inte-
gration of high reliability distribution system in microgrid
operation, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 1977
2006, Dec. 2012.
Biographies
Mohammad Shahidehpour ([email protected]) is the Bodine
chair professor and director of the Robert W. Galvin Center
for Electricity Innovation at the Illinois Institute of Tech-
nology. He received an honorary doctorate in 2009 from
the Polytechnic University of Bucharest in Romania. He is
a research professor at King Abdulaziz University in Jed-
dah, Saudi Arabia; North China Electric Power University
in Beijing; and Sharif University in Tehran. He is an IEEE
Distinguished Lecturer, chair of the 2012 IEEE Innovative
Smart Grid Technologies Conference, chair of the 2012
Great Lakes Symposium on Smart Grid and the New Ener-
gy Economy, and editor-in-chief of IEEE Transactions on
Smart Grid. He was the recipient of the 2012 IEEE Power &
Energy Society Outstanding Power Engineering Educator
Award. He is a Fellow of the IEEE.
Mohammad E. Khodayar ([email protected])
received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering
from Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Poly-
technic) and Sharif University of Technology, respectively.
He received his Ph.D. degree in 2012 in electrical engineer-
ing and was a visiting faculty member in 2013 at the
Robert W. Galvin Center for Electricity Innovation at the
Illinois Institute of Technology. He is an assistant professor
in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at
Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas. He is a
Member of the IEEE.
Figure 27. The speed of induction motor 1 exposed to a cable fault
in Figure 26.
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time (s)
S
p
e
e
d

(
p
.
u
)
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Without HRDS
With HRDS
_______________
_______________________________
____
____________________________
________
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MID GROWING CONCERNS ABOUT ENERGY
security, environmental impacts, and resource
limitations, both public and private-sector
groups are calling for greater investments in
renewable energy and alternative energy sourc-
es. However, despite calls to reduce the nations dependence on
oil, moving away from petroleum as an energy source has prov-
en to be extremely difficult, especially in the energy-intensive
transportation sector. Petroleum, with its high energy and
power density, is ideally suited for transportation. To make mat-
ters worse, the number of vehicles worldwide is expected to
increase dramatically in the coming years because of increased
purchasing power in developing countries, leading to a higher
portion of air pollution and greenhouse gases coming from
transportation as well as greater competition for petroleum.
Transportation systems powered by electricity can help to
reduce the consumption of petroleum. In the case of personal
electric transportation, vehicles would be plugged into the
grid, and their onboard energy-storage systems would be
recharged using clean, renewable electricity. If properly
Static and dynamic
inductive wireless charging
of electric vehicles.
By Srdjan Lukic and Zeljko Pantic
A
SCISSORS/CORD: ISTOCK PHOTO.COM/
PASHALGNATOV
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managed, plug-in vehicles could be
charged during low demand periods
(at night) when there is excess capac-
ity on the grid, minimizing the strain
on the grid and obviating major gen-
eration and transmission infrastruc-
ture additions.
In this article, we present an
emerging technologyinductive
power transfer (IPT)that holds the key to more conve-
nient charging by means of contactless or wireless power
transfer through induction. We review the fundamentals of
the IPT technology and its history and also present some
considerations for designing IPT systems for static and
dynamic vehicle charging.
Moving Toward Better Electric Transportation
An electric transportation model requires on-the-vehicle
(onboard) energy storage capable of supplying the energy
and power demands of the vehicle. Unfortunately, the cur-
rently available energy-storage devices, with lithium-ion (Li-
ion) batteries being the most promising, need substantial
performance improvements to effectively compete with
petroleum. The main issues with the state-of-the art Li-ion
batteries are 1) their low energy density (200 Wh/kg versus
12,000 Wh/kg for petroleum), 2) their high initial cost (up to
US$1,000/kWh with a long-term goal of US$300/kWh), 3)
charge rate limitations due to their internal electrochemical
processes, 4)degradation that limits the acceptance of bat-
tery-powered vehicles due to hard-to-predict component
life, and 5) the environmental costs associated with produc-
ing and disposing of electrochemical batteries.
Given the limitations of onboard energy storage, drive-
train hybridization and battery swapping concepts have
been proposed as possible approaches
to mitigate the limitations of state-of-
the-art batteries. In the case of hybrid-
ization, an internal combustion
engine (ICE) is added to the electric
vehicle (EV) drivetrain to make a plug-
in hybrid EV (PHEV). The ICE is then
used only when the battery is suffi-
ciently depleted. While hybridization
enables a longer driving range, it also increases the vehicle
weight, cost, and complexity, in addition to introducing
the use of hydrocarbons. In the case of battery swapping,
the vehicle battery is exchanged at a specialized station
that stores an equivalent replacement battery. This con-
cept brings with it the issues of battery ownership and
standardization, the need for additional battery packs for
swapping, and significant swapping infrastructure costs.
An alternative hybridization method to extend the utili-
ty of PHEVs and EVs is to enable a power exchange
between the vehicle and the grid while the vehicle is mov-
ing. This concept has been referred to as dynamic charging,
move-and-charge, or roadway powered EVs. Dynamic charg-
ing can mitigate the high initial cost of plug-in EVs by
allowing the vehicle energy-storage system to be substan-
tially downsized. In addition, dynamic charging can pro-
vide a very effective utilization of the installed infrastruc-
ture, since a large number of vehicles use the same road
segments that can be dynamic-charge enabled. In essence,
dynamic charging would represent a hybridization of the
EV with the electric grid. Importantly, dynamic charging is
compatible with other methods of extending the EV range,
such as vehicle hybridization and battery swapping.
Wireless charging makes stationary EV charging more
convenient by allowing the charging to take place auto-
matically without the user having to
provide a physical contact path
between the utility power supply and
the vehicle battery. The longer-term
vision for wireless charging is to
enable the power transfer between
the grid infrastructure and the vehi-
cle while the vehicle is moving.
Some examples of dynamic charg-
ing systems are shown in Figure 1.
The stationary wireless charger can
replace the conductive charger used
today, with a single inverter powering
multiple charging pads. Contactless
charging can also be used to deliver
power to a bus while passengers
embark and disembark. The concept
can be used to continuously power a
lane of a highway or to power a sec-
tion of the roadway in the vicinity of
high-congestion areas, such as traffic
lights, where the vehicle speed is low.
PS
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
PS PS
PS
Bus Stop
Figure 1. IPT systems for vehicle applications: (a) an IPT-powered parking deck, (b) an IPT-
powered bus stop, (c) an IPT section placed at a traffic light in an urban environment, and
(d) a track section on a highway powering multiple vehicles (PS stands for IPT power supply).
Teslas experiments
demonstrate the
majority of modern
IPT design concepts.
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An Incomplete History of EV
Wireless Charging
The history of the wireless power
transfer began in 1891 when Nikola
Tesla invented his famous Tesla coil or
magnifying transmitter. The system
contains two loosely coupled and
tuned resonant circuits: a primary and
a secondary. The coils were built using
large, single-layer solenoids, which sig-
nificantly reduces the coil resistance
and increases the quality factor. The
primary and secondary coils were
tuned using an external capacitor and
the parasitic self-capacitance, respec-
tively. Periodic spark gap discharges
were used to short out the primary resonant circuit and
initiate the power transfer. Even with the significant spark
losses, the Tesla coil was able to transfer power with 85%
efficiency. Teslas experiments demonstrate the majority of
modern IPT design concepts: 1) Tesla applied the strongly
coupled resonant circuit to enhance the power transfer
capability of the system, 2) he used the self-capacitance to
tune the secondary and to obtain a high quality factor, and
3) he used the spark discharge over the air gap to control
the power in the resonant circuit, similar to how modern
resonant converters use electronic switches.
The next milestone in vehicle dynamic charging took
place in 1894, when Hutin and LeBlanc filed a patent that
describes a transformer for powering streetcars without
contact. The proposed system included a single-wire
elongated primary coil carrying 2-kHz ac and coupled by
multiple secondary windings. They used ferromagnetic
materials and suspension systems that lower the receiv-
ers to increase the coupling. Although the proposed
topology has some similarities to modern solutions,
because of component limitations at the time, the sys-
tem was not a commercial success.
In the 1990s, researchers at the University of California,
Berkeley, built a proof-of-concept roadway-powered
35-passanger electric bus. The complete infrastructure
was built for a 213-m-long test track with two 120-m
powered sections. The bipolar primary track was supplied
with 1,200-A, 400-Hz ac current and coupled to a receiver
with an area of 4.3 m
2
, at a distance
of 7.6 cm. The system efficiency was
around 60%. These results proved the
potential of the technology but were
limited by the size of the system due
to the very low operating frequency.
Researchers at Auckland University
laid the theoretical groundwork in the
1990s for much of the research that is
presently ongoing in the design of
wireless chargers. It is worth noting
their recent achievement in designing
the optimal pad for the stationary
charging of EVs. One of the designs is
a 766 mm 578 mm pad that delivers
7 kW of power with more than 90%
efficiency at a distance of 20 cm. They also proposed using
multicoil track designs for dynamic charging applications.
Starting in 2008, researchers at the Korea Advanced
Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have built
several prototypes of roadway powered EVs, which they
named online EVs. Three generations of IPT systems have
been developed, and three different vehicles have been
tested, with system efficiency peaking at about 70%. In
each generation, a different structure of the ferromagnetic
material and a different track layout has been designed.
Components of the IPT System
A typical IPT system consists of two physically detached
subsystems with power transfer through induction.
Typically, the system supplying the power is stationary
and is named the primary, transmitter, or source. The sys-
tem receiving the power is attached to a movable frame
and is named the secondary, pickup, or receiver. The power
is transferred via induction between two magnetically
coupled coils, much like in a transformer. The coupling
medium between the coils is air, which has a much high-
er magnetic reluctance than do the ferromagnetic mate-
rials used in transformers. As a result, the coupling coef-
ficient is in the range of 0.10.2 for stationary charging
applications and less than 0.1 for midrange resonant
applications. Therefore, these systems are usually
referred to as loosely coupled systems to distinguish
them from the tightly coupled transformer coils.
The longer-term
vision for wireless
charging is to enable
the power transfer
between the grid
infrastructure and
the vehicle while the
vehicle is moving.
Compensation
Tank
Compensation
Tank
High-Frequency
Power
Supply
Power
Conditioner
L
o
a
d
Ferromagnetic
Ferromagnetic
I
1
I
2
Figure 2. The typical topology of a high-power IPT system.
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The components of the state-of-the-art IPT system are
shown in Figure 2. The characteristics of each block are
discussed in detail in the following sections. In addition to
the components described below, the primary and
secondary are equipped with all necessary sensors and
control circuits to generate the firing signals for the
switches and to control the transferred power. Additionally,
communication modules are used to add a further level of
intelligence and controllability to
the system and ensure safe and effi-
cient power transfer.
Primary Converter and
Compensation Circuit
On the primary, a power supply
delivers high-frequency current and
voltage at its output by using mod-
ern switching elements and convert-
er topologies. Although direct acac
conversion from the grid input to the
high-frequency output is possible
through the use of matrix converters,
most topologies are based on the
well-known two-stage acdcac con-
version. A unity power factor stage or
three-phase line filters might be con-
sidered at the input to reduce the
reactive power exchange and harmonic pollution of the
grid. Modern IPT systems make use of voltage-fed full-
bridge resonant topologies, taking advantage of modern
metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOS-
FET) and insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches.
Although IGBTs are more suitable for high-power systems,
paralleling MOSFET devices can provide higher operating
frequencies and lower losses but typically at a higher price.
Since the primary coil is dominantly inductive, the
increase in the signal frequency will linearly increase the
voltampere (VA) ratings required to drive the current into
the unloaded coil, increasing the VA ratings of the inverter.
As a result, a compensation circuit is placed between the
inverter and the primary coil. The compensation circuit
consists of one or more reactive elements (inductors and
capacitors) that are arranged in a particular formation to
achieve different design goals. The commonly used primary
compensation topologies include series compensation with
matching transformer, series-parallel inductorcapacitor
(LC) compensation, and series-parallel inductorcapacitor
capacitor (LCC) compensation (Figure 3). The series com-
pensation with matching transformer, shown in Figure 3(a),
makes use of the series capacitor to eliminate the reactive
power flow, and the transformer for galvanic isolation and
impedance matching. The main limitations of the topology
are that it fails to keep the track cur-
rent constant in face of load varia-
tions and that the capacitor VA rating
is quite high. The series-parallel LC
compensation topology distributes
the VA rating over two elements,
reducing the stress on individual
components. In addition, the current
in the coil is controlled by the magni-
tude of the input voltage source,
making the coil current load inde-
pendent. Another variant of this
topology, shown in Figure 3(c),
includes a series capacitor that can
be used as an additional degree of
freedom to control the VA rating of
the inverter or to ensure zero-cur-
rent-switching in the inverter.
Inductively Coupled Coils
The design of the coupled coils has a profound impact
on system efficiency, and their design is therefore a critical
component of the IPT system. The coil conductors are
typically made using Litz wires because of their small
resistance at high frequencies. At very high frequencies
and for designs with special requirements, planar and
tubular conductors have also been considered. Ferro-
magnetic material is commonly used to improve the
coupling coefficient and to contain the magnetic flux. In
the case of stationary wireless chargers, a combination
of ferromagnetic material and aluminum is used to
maximize the coupling coefficient while ensuring that
the produced flux is fully contained underneath the
vehicle, even when there is a misalignment between
the source and the receiver. In the case of weakly cou-
pled coils, the use of ferromagnetic materials to
V
inv
V
t
I
t
C
p
I
inv
V
inv
V
t
I
t
C
p
C
s
L
s
I
inv
V
inv
N
1
N
2
V
t
I
t
I
inv
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. The IPT primary compensation circuits: (a) a series compensation circuit with matching transformer, (b) a series parallel LC compensa-
tion circuit, and (c) an LCC compensation circuit.
An alternative
hybridization method
to extend the utility
of PHEVs and EVs is
to enable a power
exchange between
the vehicle and the
grid while the vehicle
is moving.
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improve the coupling is relatively limited; however, it
may still be used to contain the flux in the vicinity of
the source and the receiver. The design of the magnetic
link is probably the most challenging part of the IPT sys-
tem optimization. Although the use of finite element
modeling software provides a method of evaluating the
system performance, it requires substantial time and
iterations to achieve a satisfactory design.
Secondary Compensation Circuit
and Power Conditioner
The power transferred to a receiver
coil of an IPT system is directly pro-
portional to the product of the open-
circuit voltage and its short-circuit
current. Since the open-circuit volt-
age increases proportionally, while
the short-current decreases propor-
tionally with the number of turns,
generally, changing the number of
turns does not directly lead to better
coupling or improved power trans-
fer capability. However, by using the
compensation circuit and the res-
onance phenomenon at the sec-
ondary, the power capability and
efficiency can be increased in pro-
portion to the quality factor of the
resulting resonant circuit. The typi-
cal configuration of the secondary compensation circuit
(resonant tank) is similar to that of the primary compen-
sation circuit, but the criteria that lead to an optimal
structure and design are different. Since the receiver load
is typically a battery, the high-frequency power is rectified
and controlled using a rectifier and a dc-voltage regulator.
The dc regulator essentially controls the quality factor of
the receiver and delivers a constant power to the load in
face of changes in the coupling coefficient between the
source and the receiver. The design of the dc regulator is a
function of the compensation circuit structure, with the
buck or boost topologies employed in most applications.
Health and Safety Concerns Related
to the Leaking Magnetic Flux
Because of concerns about the long-term health effects of
exposure to magnetic fields, wireless charging designs
must comply with the well-established standards on mag-
netic emissions. These standards
limit the maximum power and dis-
tance at which energy can be trans-
ferred using induction. For example,
for the 3100-kHz frequency range,
the International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
electromagnetic field exposure
guideline specifies the maximum
level for occupational exposure to be
100 T and the maximum level for
general public to be 27 T. In general,
minor system-design modifications
are needed to contain the magnetic
field to meet the pertinent stan-
dards. Frequently, aluminum metal
shields are used at the back of the
pickup pad to protect the interior of
the vehicle, while aluminum rings
are used on both the primary and secondary pads to limit
the stray field in the lateral direction.
IPT Systems for EV Charging
Stationary Wireless Charger for EVs
Although it is challenging to match the efficiency of the
conductive (wired) charger, which is a significant drawback,
If only 1% of the
roadway is powered
in urban
environments, most
vehicle types can
easily meet the
300-m target range
with the relatively
small battery pack.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. An implementation of the wireless charger receiver: (a) the coil winding made of Litz wire, (b) ferromagnetic material embedded in a
plastic holder above the coil, and (c) a cross section of the receiver design, showing the final assembly including the aluminum shield.
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stationary wireless charging has its merits. First,
stationary wireless charging systems can be completely
autonomous, requiring minimal action from the driver.
This feature can maximize opportunity charging since
the user often forgets or chooses not to charge when the
vehicle is parked for short periods of time. In addition to
convenience, wireless charging improves the safety of
the charging process. By removing cords and cables, the
trip hazard associated with wired chargers is nonexis-
tent. The chargers are vandal proof and have no risk of
electric sparks. Low maintenance requirements increase
the reliability of the charger. On the other hand, the elec-
tromagnetic emissions of the charger must be considered
in the system design. The magnetic field can present a haz-
ard when an object is placed in the magnetic link. There-
fore, the system must have a robust foreign-object iden-
tification system that turns the system off when there is an
obstruction in the magnetic link.
In addition to one-for-one replacements of conductive
chargers, wireless charging technology is ideally suited for
opportunity charging scenarios, where the vehicle is parked
at a predetermined location for a short period of time. The
concept is particularly well suited for mass transit applica-
tions, where the wireless charger can be installed at bus
stops, allowing the vehicle to charge while the passengers
are embarking and disembarking from the bus. This con-
cept is being used successfully for two lanes of public trans-
portation in Turin, Italy, and many other cities.
The design of a stationary charger consists of a primary
pad buried in the ground and a pickup pad mounted on the
underside of the vehicle. The primary pad is typically sealed
in rubber or covered with plastic to prevent the coil from
flooding and/or other hazardous situations. It frequently
contains ferromagnetic materials to shape the magnetic
field, and metal rings or plates that reduce the leakage
of the magnetic field. An implementation of the system
is shown in Figure 4, with a representation of the system in
Figure 5. A similar pad structure to the one shown in
Figure 4 is attached on the underside of the vehicle. The pri-
mary pad might sometimes be elevated by several centime-
ters to reduce the vertical distance between the coils. An
automatic guidance system can be installed in the vehicle
to help the driver align the vehicle directly above the prima-
ry pad. The charging station and the vehicle exchange data
by using the inductive link or other short-range communi-
cation methods. This feature allows the charging station to
adjust the charging procedure according to the condition of
the battery or the drivers preferences.
Dynamic Charging of EVs
First, we look at the infrastructure requirements for
dynamic wireless charging. These results were first report-
ed in a previous publication [1]. We considered three vehicle
types (compact car: Honda Insight; large car: Chevrolet
Impala; and SUV: Ford Explorer) fitted with small battery
packs (8, 11, and 15 kWh, respectively)
operating on three types of driving
cycles [low-demanding urban driving
cycle (UDDS), highway driving cycle
(HWFET), and highway driving in a
mountainous region (HW-MTN)]. Our
simulations show that the vehicles
have a very short driving range, never
exceeding 50 mi (see Table 1). We then
determined the section of the roadway
that needs to be IPT-enabled to extend
the vehicle range to 300 mi. The
results, when the optimization algo-
rithm tries to minimize the length of
the roadway that needs to be powered,
are summarized in Table 2. Figure 6
shows a graphical representation of
Vehicle Components
A) Vehicle Adapter
B) Vehicle Electronics Module
C) Battery Charger Connection
Station Components
D) Indicator Panel
E) Power Control Module Connected to 240-V Power
F) Parking Pad
C
B
A
F
D
E
Figure 5. An illustration showing the setup of stationary wireless chargers. (Image courtesy
of Evatran Inc.)
UDDS HWFET HW-MTN
Insight (8 kWh) 38.17 37.14 22.99
Explorer (15 kWh) 36.09 33.00 18.83
TABLE 1. Driving Range Without IPT (in Miles).
Insight Impala Explorer
UDDS
Coverage (%) 0.46 0.91 1
HWFET
Coverage (%) 17 27.3 43.8
HW-MTN
Coverage (%) 17.2 35.4 64.3
TABLE 2. IPT Coverage Required for 300-mi
Range (30 kW Delivered to Vehicle).
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the results of the third row of Table
2, depicting the IPT coverage
required on the UDDS drive cycle.
Figure 6 shows the velocity versus
time plot of the UDDS on the left
y-axis. On the right y-axis, the dis-
tance versus time plot is shown for
the same driving cycle, for the three
vehicles of interest. The three plots
are offset from each other for clear-
er viewing. The black lines on the
distance versus time plot signify the
sections of the driving cycle that
were chosen (using an optimization
routine) as optimal sites for install-
ing the dynamic charging system.
The power transfer to the vehicle is
considered to be 30 kW. The results
of this simplified study show prom-
ising results: if only 1% of the road-
way is powered in urban environments, most vehicle
types can easily meet the 300-m target range with the rel-
atively small battery pack described earlier. The assump-
tions and details of the study can be found in [1], along
with other interesting results that, for brevity, are not
repeated here.
Dynamic Charging System Implementation
As described earlier, a dynamic charging system consists
of a source coil embedded in the road, and a receiver sys-
tem attached to the vehicle chassis. As a result of the vehi-
cle movement, the receiver of a dynamic charging system
moves laterally and longitudinally in a plane parallel to
the source coil. The source coil designs can be categorized
as single-coil designs, where the source coil is substantially
larger than the receiver, or segmented coil designs where
the source is made of multiple lumped coils that are com-
measurable in size with the receiving coil.
Considering the single-coil designs, an obvious advan-
tage is a reduction in system complexity due to the sim-
plified system control, reduced number of converters, and
relatively constant coupling between the source and the
receiver. The demerits of the approach are that 1) the
resulting coupling coefficient between the source and
the receiver is relatively low because of the large uncou-
pled flux of the source coil; 2) field emissions in the
uncoupled sections of the coil need to be contained to
ensure safety; and 3) the large inductance of the coil for
which the distributed capacitors must compensate to
limit the voltage at the coil terminals.
Because of their simplicity, single-coil designs are quite
popular in practical implementations of dynamic charging
systems, as evidenced in the systems developed by
researchers at Bombardier and KAIST. An example of the
elongated track is illustrated in Figure 7. The receiver system
in this application is similar to the one used in stationary
chargers, with multiple receiver pads
used for higher-power applications.
For example, KAISTs second-genera-
tion IPT-supplied bus carries ten
6-kW pickups. On the source side,
however, the lumped coil used for
stationary wireless chargers is
replaced with an elongated conduc-
tive cable buried in the road. Some
implementations, including the ones
mentioned earlier, make use of ferro-
magnetic material at the primary to
direct the magnetic flux, reduce mag-
netic reluctance, and minimize the
field emissions when the receiver coil
does not couple with a section of the
source coil.
Although the systems using sin-
gle-coil designs achieve acceptable
efficiency, peaking at around 70%,
there is still substantial room for improvement, given that
stationary chargers attain 90% efficiency. Because of an
increased misalignment during dynamic charging, it is
reasonable to expect lower system-level efficiency com-
pared to stationary applications. In theory, the efficiency
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
S
p
e
e
d

(
m
i
/
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)
Time (s)
2,000
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
D
i
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t
a
n
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e

(
m
)
,

I
C
P
T

T
r
a
c
k
A
r
e
a
Area Covered with ICPT
(ICPT Power: 40 kW, Drive Cycle: UDDS)
Insight
Explorer
Impala
Figure 6. The area covered with IPToptimization for different cars.
(Reproduced from [1].)
Vehicle
Receiver
Magnetic Core
Coil
Primary Core
Primary Coil
Roadway
Figure 7. An illustration of the dynamic charging concept.
Currently available
energy-storage
devices, with lithium-
ion (Li-ion) batteries
being the most
promising, need
substantial
performance
improvements to
effectively compete
with petroleum.
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of the dynamic chargers could reach that of stationary
chargers if the optimized segmented source coils designed
for stationary charging are used, and the system transfers
power only when the misalignment is within prescribed
limits that guarantee 90% or higher efficiency.
Considering the segmented source coil design, the
issues of field containment, large sourcecoil self-
inductance, and difficulties with coil impedance compen-
sation are easily addressed. However, developing a strategy
for powering the coupled segments is challenging, since it
requires complex receiver position feedback as well as a
method to energize and de-energize coils as needed. Fur-
ther reduction in the size of each segment exacerbates
the issues and advantages associated with coil segmenta-
tion: small coils can further contain the leakage flux of
nonenergized coils, thus improving the coupling, but
result in a complicated design with many bypass switch-
es and sensors.
Figure 8 shows a test-bench implementation of a
dynamic charging system, built in North Carolina. The
system consists of three source coils, identical to the
receiver coil, with small indicator receivers placed on each
segment of the source coil that are used as qualitative
gauges of the strength of the magnetic field present in the
coil. The sourcecoil segments are powered by a common
inverter, with the compensation capacitors located at the
inverter. The goal of the test-bench demonstration was to
show the ability of a novel method of focusing the field
produced by the sourcecoil underneath the receiver. The
system uses a single inverter to power multiple coil seg-
ments, by connecting each segment in parallel to the
inverter. The power is limited by compensating the coil
segments so that the coil resonance occurs at a frequency
offset from the system operating frequency. Because of
the large reactive impedance, the current in given coil seg-
ments is limited when the coil is uncoupled, resulting in a
relatively weak field in the uncoupled segments of the
sectionalized source coil. By designing the receiver to
reflect a large reactance back onto the source coil section,
the magnetic field of the source coil is automatically
increased when the receiving coil becomes aligned with
that particular segment of the source coil. This way, the
field produced by the segmented source coil can be con-
trolled by the position of the receiver.
Conclusions
In this article, we have reviewed the state of the art of
IPT systems and have explored the suitability of the
technology to wirelessly charge battery powered vehicles.
The review shows that the IPT technology has merits
for stationary charging (when the vehicle is parked),
opportunity charging (when the vehicle is stopped for a
short period of time, for example, at a bus stop), and
dynamic charging (when the vehicle is moving along a
dedicated lane equipped with an IPT system). In the
case of stationary chargers, the products are reaching
maturity, with pertinent standardization initiatives tak-
ing place. The opportunity charging systems have also
been implemented in bus charging applications, with
systems installed on many commercial lines throughout
the world. Dynamic charging is a concept that is still in
its infancy, and there is a lot of work ahead that is need-
ed for the systems to reach their full potential. The
main stumbling blocks for this technology, beyond the
technical challenges and efficiency concerns, are safety
and infrastructure costs.
On the other hand, dynamic wireless charging holds
promise to partially or completely eliminate the overnight
charging through a compact network of dynamic chargers
installed on the roads that would keep the vehicle batter-
ies charged at all times, consequently reducing the range
anxiety and increasing the reliability of EVs. Dynamic
charging can help lower the price of EVs by reducing the
size of the battery pack. Indeed, if the recharging energy is
readily available, the batteries do not have to support the
whole driving range but only supply power when the IPT
system is not available. Depending on the power capabili-
ty, the use of dynamic charging may increase driving
range and reduce the size of the battery pack.
For Further Reading
Z. Pantic, S. Bai, and S. M. Lukic, Inductively coupled
power transfer for continuously powered electric vehicles,
in Proc. Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conf., 710 Sept.
2009, pp. 12711278.
Biographies
Srdjan Lukic ([email protected]) is with the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh.
Zeljko Pantic ([email protected]) is with the Depart-
ment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh.
Figure 8. A scaled-down testbed for dynamic wireless charging.
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N E WS F E E D
2013 IEEE Transportation Electrification
Conference and Expo
HE 2013 IEEE TRANSPORTA-
tion Electrification Confer-
ence and Expo (ITEC13)
was held at the Adoba hotel in Dear-
born/Detroit, 1619 June 2013. Thanks
to the ITEC13 Organizing Commit-
tees dedication and countless hours
of work as well as ITECs strategic and
business plans and the leadership of
the IEEE Power Electronics Society,
IEEE Industry Applications Society,
and IEEE Power & Energy Society for
making ITEC a great success.
ITEC has quickly become the
main global technical event for trans-
portation electrification. The aim of
the conference is to help the industry
in the transition from conventional
vehicles to advanced electrified
vehicles. ITEC is focused on compo-
nents, systems, standards, and grid
interface technologies related to effi-
cient power conversion for all types
of electrified transportation, includ-
ing electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid EVs
(HEVs), and plug-in HEVs, as well as
heavy-duty, rail, and off-road vehi-
cles, airplanes, and ships.
With about 600 attendees, the
conference featured world-class ple-
nary speakers, covering the current
status and future trends in transpor-
tation electrification. With 50% atten-
dance from industry, the conference
embraced a comprehensive program
including 200 presentations, numer-
ous panel discussions, a sold-out
industry exhibition, four educational
EV/HEV boot camps, and two short
courses offered by internationally
renowned industry experts. This
program was exceptionally attractive
to industries, government agencies,
and the general public, in addition to
academic researchers, students, and
educators. Furthermore, this year,
ITEC included a track, sponsored by
the U.S. Department of Energys elec-
tric drive vehicle engineering pro-
gram, known as E3Electrifying the
EconomyEducating the Workforce:
Taking Charge of the Electric Vehicle
Industrys Educational Needs.
If you are not part of the broader
organizing community of ITEC and
would like to be directly involved
with the conference, we welcome
you to join forces with us in improv-
ing ITEC and addressing the needs of
the industryafter all, ITEC is your
conference.
Alireza Khaligh
General Chair, ITEC13
T
INOS JACOVIDES (FIGURE 1)
was awarded with the
2014 IEEE Transportation
Technologies Award for his pioneering
contributions to the analysis and
design of electromechanical systems
and power electronics for transporta-
tion applications.
Jacovides has spent his entire
career developing and promoting the
practical use of electric technology for
transportation. His name is associat-
ed with almost all key developments
in transportation electrification dur-
ing the past 40 years, either as a per-
sonal contributor or as a manager
spearheading research in these
fields. The list includes early ac
2014 IEEE Transportation
Technologies Award
L
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I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 69 I EEE El ect ri f i cat i on Magazi ne / SEPTEMBER 2013 69
drives for motorized vehicles
(locomotives and cars), with the first
detailed digital simulations of a cyclo-
converter, and the first-ever motor
with rare-earth magnets in an auto-
mobile, a cranking motor.
Jacovides was the engineering
leader for the Electrovair project, Gen-
eral Motors first modern foray in
electric vehicles, placing him at the
earliest stages of modern drivetrain
electrification, years before the better-
known EV1, its eventual successor. He
led the development of high-efficiency
alternator and electric power steering
and had the vision to champion the
design of safety critical systems, with
particular application to electronic
throttle control. These techniques
have become the basis for interna-
tional standards for the design of
safety systems and validation. This
technology has been a key enabler for
electric power steering and is one of
the foundations for drive-by-wire sys-
tems. His involvement reaches to
traction control systems, magneto-
rheological fluid-activated shock
absorbers, numerous sensors and
electromecahnical components, and a
best-in-class diesel fuel injector.
Jacovides was elected to the
National Academy of Engineerng in
2010, and he is a Fellow of both the
IEEE and the Society of Automotive
Engineers. He retired as director of
Delphi Research Labs and has served
on six U.S. National Academies Com-
mittees for which he has written the
chapters on electric and hybrid vehi-
cles. He was president of the IEEE
Industry Applications Society in 1990.
Bruno Lequesne
Eaton Corporation and Past President,
IEEE-IAS
Figure 1. Linos Jacovides has spent his
career promoting the practical use of electric
technology for transportation.
IEEE Power and Energy Societys
Upcoming Elections
N AUGUST 2013, THE VOT-
ing membership of the
IEEE Power & Energy Soci-
ety (PES) once again opened up the
election process for the Societys
future leadership. There are many
accomplished candidates that will be
involved in the election. The first race
is for the position of president-elect
of the PES. Bruno Meyer, chief execu-
tive officer of ARTERIAa telecom
subsidiary of RTE (the French trans-
mission system operator)and
Damir Novosel, the president of
Quanta Technology, are in the run-
ning. Novosel is also an adjunct
professor at North Carolina State
University. The position of secretary
is open, and two very capable candi-
dates are running: Mini Shaji Thom-
as, who is a professor and former
head of the Department of Electrical
Engineering at Jamia Millia Universi-
ty, New Delhi, India, and Lina Bertling
Tjernberg, who is a professor in
power grid technologies with the
Royal Institute of Technology,
Sweden. The final available position
is that of treasurer. Both candidates
have had long and illustrious careers.
Jovica Milanovic has worked in Yugo-
slavia and Australia and is currently
a professor of electrical power engi-
neering and the director of external
affairs at the University of Manchester,
United Kingdom. Our next candidate
is Christopher Root, who recently
retired as senior vice president of
network strategy for National Grid
and has had a career split between
power system engineering and
operations.
Once again, the caliber of candi-
dates for all of the open positions is
remarkable, and the Society will
benefit from the candidates exper-
tise and contributions for years to
come. We wish all of the candidates
the best of luck in the upcoming
elections.
Maureen L. Dalton
IEEE PESSenior Manager of Marketing,
Communications, and Membership
I
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The PES Scholarship Plus
Initiative
HE IEEE POWER & ENERGY
Society (PES) Scholarship
Plus Initiative encourages
students to pursue a career in the
power and energy fields by providing
multiyear scholarships and career
experience opportunities to qualify-
ing U.S. and Canadian electrical engi-
neering undergraduate students. The
goal is to increase the number of well-
qualified, entry-level engineers in the
power and energy industry. Scholars
receive up to three years (US$7,000) of
funding interspersed with up to two
years of valuable, hands-on career
experience. Since 2011, the program
has supported a total of 265 scholars
attending 109 universities, including
Ivy League colleges, flagship state
universities, and prestigious engi-
neering colleges across the United
States. The list of 2013 scholarship
recipients will be announced in
October.
The program has provided
US$642,000 in scholarships and has
raised more than US$5 million in cash
and pledges from donors to the pro-
gram. The IEEE PES Scholarship Initia-
tive is made possible by donations to
the IEEE PES Scholarship Fund of the
IEEE Foundation (United States) and
the IEEE Canadian Foundation. Chari-
table contributions are tax deductible
to the fullest extent allowed by law in
the United States and/or Canada.
Information on how to support the
program or to make a donation is
available at http://www.ee-scholar-
ship.org/sponsorship/.
For more information, view the
list of PES Scholarship recipients, or
contribute to the program, please
visit http://www.ee-scholarship.org.
Daniel C. Toland
IEEE PES Scholarship Plus
Program Director
T
About This Issue (continued from page 2)
2) Faster than a Speeding Bul-
let: An Overview of Japanese
High-Speed Rail Technology
and Electrification
3) Courting and Sparking:
Wooing Consumers Inter-
est in the EV Market
4) Shipboard Solid-State Pro-
tection: Overview and
Applications
5) Cutting Campus Energy
Costs with Hierarchical
Control: The Economical
and Reliable Operation of a
Microgrid
6) Cutting the Cord: Static
and Dynamic Inductive
Wireless Charging of Elec-
tric Vehicles.
The September and December
2013 issues of the magazine will cover
multiple topics addressing various
transportation and off-grid issues.
Beginning in 2014, each issue will
focus on a particular topic. For exam-
ple, the first three issues in 2014 will
focus on electric vehicles, microgrids,
and electric ships. For future issues,
we welcome guest editors to propose
articles on particular themes covering
our topics of interest. Please contact
me or any of the other editors or
coeditors if you are interested in pro-
posing a topic for a special issue of
this magazine.
Technology Leaders (continued from page 3)
PES vice president for publications
and inaugural editor-in-chief for
IEEE Electrification Magazine, for his
leadership and perseverance in get-
ting this publication approved and
off the ground. Special thanks to the
editorial board of this magazine and
our PES staff for their efforts.
I encourage you to read these arti-
cles and learn about the happenings
in electrification in our engineering
space. It is an exciting time to be part
of the electrification solution.
______________
________________
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Innovation doesnt just happen.
Read rst-person accounts of
IEEE members who were there.
IEEE Global History Network
www.ieeeghn.org
S A L E S O F F I C E S
IEEE electrification magazine representative
Parker Marshall
James G. Elliott Co. Inc.
626 Wilshire Blvd., Ste 500
Los Angeles, CA 90017
Phone: +1 213 596 7209
Fax: +1 213 624 0997
[email protected]
___________________
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V I E WP O I N T
By Russell Lefevre
Promoting New and
Important Technologies
S THE MAJOR WORLDWIDE
professional society for
engineers and computer
scientists in the electrical and elec-
tronics fields, the IEEE is at the fore-
front of emerging technologies.
IEEE Electrification Magazine (EM) is
a major milestone in the process of
developing our position in the new
arena of transportation electrifica-
tion. As the chair of the EM Steering
Committee and the past chair of
the IEEE Transportation Electrifica-
tion Initiative (TEI), it has been one
of my goals to develop a publication
that would address this important
technology. The electrification of
the transportation sector offers the
future a reduction of the depen-
dence of the world on carbon-based
fuels with their attendant negative
effects on the environment.
An important observation is that
a microgrid can be thought of as
loads and energy sources within
electrical boundaries that act as a
single controllable entity with
respect to the grid. Using this defini-
tion, the electrical system on board
electric vehicles, electric ships, elec-
tric trains, and electric planes can
be considered a microgrid with a
limited number of sources and mul-
tiple loads. This enables the trans-
portation electrification community
to develop new insights into how
such entities can be integrated into
a modern transportation system.
EM is dedicated to providing a
forum for those developing related
concepts and disseminating infor-
mation on all matters related to
onboard microgrids.
This magazine is also intended to
address off-grid microgrid applica-
tions including small-scale electrici-
ty supply in areas far away from
high-voltage power networks. Fea-
ture articles will focus on advanced
concepts, technologies, and practic-
es associated with all aspects of
electrification in the transportation
and off-grid sectors from a technical
perspective in synergy with non-
technical areas such as business,
environmental, and social concerns.
EM is especially intended to provide
essential information to practitio-
ners in the microgrid fields.
The IEEE has a history of pro-
moting new and important technol-
ogies and methodology to promote
these technologies consists of con-
ferences and publications. A field
closely related to transportation
electrification, the smart grid, has
two influential transactions and a
very successful newsletter. Other
initiatives, including cloud comput-
ing and life sciences, have followed
this model. EM is the first publica-
tion in the field to provide a venue
for technologists. This first issue
begins to fulfill the goal of promot-
ing transportation electrification
technology. We look forward to a
continuing dialogue with practitio-
ners, academics, and other stake-
holders who enable a continuing
increase in the state of knowledge
in this very important field.
The magazine is sponsored by
the three IEEE Societiesthe
Power & Energy Society, the Power
Electronics Society, and the Indus-
trial Applications Societythat
have been the most active and
influential in the transportation
electrification community. The
technical co-sponsors are the IEEE
Industrial Electronics Society, the
IEEE Vehicle Transportation Soci-
ety, and the IEEE Intelligent Trans-
portation Systems Society. EM will
support the work of these Societ-
ies as well as the TEI. The editorial
board of the magazine includes
world-class acknowledged experts
in each of the fields of interest.
These Societies and the TEI intend
that EM will become the most
influential entity in the rapidly
developing field of transportation
electrification, especially as appli-
cations using microgrid concepts
come to the forefront.
A
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in tomorrow.
The IEEE PES Scholarship Plus Initiative
is attracting top engineering candidates to pursue power

engineering careers. The continued success of the initiative depends on leaders like you, who can
provide nancial support, career experience opportunities and mentoring.
To nd out how you can get involved, visit www.ee-scholarship.org today.
I am
Are you?
investing
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See all the layers of technology with Proceedings of the IEEE.
Every issue brings comprehensive, in-depth coverage on
technology breakthroughs. From outlining new uses for
existing technology to detailing cutting-edge innovations in
a variety of disciplines, youll nd the breadth of content and
depth of knowledge that only IEEE can provide.
Think you know about
the latest technology?
You havent even scratched
the surface.
Go beyond the surfacesubscribe today.
www.ieee.org/proceedings
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