Toxicology (1) - Ullmann

Toxicology, 1.
Fundamentals
WOLFGANG DEKANT, Institute of Toxicology, University of Wuerzburg, Germany SPIRIDON VAMVAKAS, Institute of Toxicology, University of Wuerzburg, Germany
1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.7.1. 1.8. 1.9. 1.9.1. 1.9.2. 1.9.3. 1.9.4. 1.10. 2.
2.1. 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4. 2.2.4.1. 2.2.4.2. 2.2.4.3. 2.3. 2.5. 2.6. 2.6.1. 2.6.2. 2.6.3. 2.6.4. 2.6.4.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denition and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminology of Toxic Effects . . . . . . . . . Types of Toxic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DoseResponse: a Fundamental Issue in Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graphics and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . DoseResponse Relationships for Cumulative Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Inuencing DoseResponse . . . . . Routes of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Species-Specic Differences in Toxicokinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous Factors Inuencing the Magnitude of Toxic Responses. . . . . . . . . Exposure to Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absorption, Distribution, Biotransformation and Elimination of Xenobiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disposition of Xenobiotics . . . . . . . . . . . Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Penetration of Membranes by Chemicals . Mechanisms of Transport of Xenobiotics through Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dermal Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gastrointestinal Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . Absorption of Xenobiotics by the Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Xenobiotics by Body Fluids Storage of Xenobiotics in Organs and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biotransformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase-I and Phase-II Reactions. . . . . . . . . Localization of the Biotransformation Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role of Biotransformation in Detoxication and Bioactivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase-I Enzymes and their Reactions . . . . Microsomal Monooxygenases: Cytochrome P450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128 128 129 131 132 134 135 136 138 140 141 142 143 143 145 145
2.6.4.2. 2.6.4.3. 2.6.4.4. 2.6.4.5. 2.6.5. 2.6.5.1. 2.6.5.2. 2.6.5.3. 2.6.5.4. 2.6.5.5. 2.6.5.6. 2.6.6. 2.6.6.1. 2.6.6.2. 2.6.6.3. 2.6.6.4.
145 145 147 147 147 148 149 149 151 153 155 158 159 159 160 160 160 160
2.6.6.5. 2.6.6.6. 2.6.7. 2.6.7.1. 2.6.7.2. 2.6.8. 2.6.8.1. 2.6.8.2. 2.6.8.3. 2.7. 2.7.1. 2.7.1.1. 2.7.1.2. 2.7.2. 3.
3.1.
Microsomal Monooxygenases: FlavinDependent Monooxygenases . . . . . . . . . . Peroxidative Biotransformation: Prostaglandin-synthase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonmicrosomal Oxidations . . . . . . . . . . . Hydrolytic Enzymes in Phase-I Biotransformation Reactions . . . . . . . . . . Phase-II Biotransformation Enzymes and their Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UDP-Glucuronyl Transferases . . . . . . . . . Sulfate Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methyl Transferases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N-Acetyl Transferases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amino Acid Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glutathione Conjugation of Xenobiotics and Mercapturic Acid Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . Bioactivation of Xenobiotics . . . . . . . . . . Formation of Stable but Toxic Metabolites Biotransformation to Reactive Electrophiles Biotransformation of Xenobiotics to Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formation of Reactive Oxygen Metabolites by Xenobiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detoxication and Interactions of Reactive Metabolites with Cellular Macromolecules Interaction of Reactive Intermediates with Cellular Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Modifying Biotransformation and Bioactivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Host Factors Affecting Biotransformation . Chemical-Related Factors that Inuence Biotransformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elimination of Xenobiotics and their Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Renal Excretion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hepatic Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xenobiotic Elimination by the Lungs . . . . Toxicokinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pharmacokinetic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-Compartment Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . Two-Compartment Model . . . . . . . . . . . . Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanisms of Acute and Chronic Toxicity and Mechanisms of Chemical Carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biochemical Basis of Toxicology . . . . . .
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DOI: 10.1002/14356007.b07_155.pub3
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3.2. 3.2.1. 3.2.2. 3.2.3.
Toxicology, 1. Fundamentals
Receptor-Ligand Interactions . . . . . . . . Basic Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interference with Excitable Membrane Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interference of Xenobiotics with Oxygen Transport, Cellular Oxygen Utilization, and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Binding of Xenobiotics to Biomolecules . Binding of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites to Cellular Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites with Lipid Constituents . . . . . Interactions of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites with Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . Perturbation of Calcium Homeostasis by Xenobiotics or their Metabolites . . . . . . Nonlethal Genetic Alterations in Somatic Cells and Carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . DNA Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . DNA Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transcription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 191 193 3.6.3. 3.6.4. 3.6.5. 3.7. 3.7.1. 3.7.2. 3.7.3. 3.7.4. 3.8. 3.8.1. 3.8.2.
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Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . DNA Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Molecular Mechanisms of Malignant Transformation and Tumor Formation . Mutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Causal Link between Mutation and Cancer Proto-Oncogenes and Tumor- Suppressor Genes as Genetic Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . Genotoxic versus Nongenotoxic Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis. . . . . . . . . Mechanisms of Chemically Induced Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity. Embryotoxicity, Teratogenesis, and Transplacental Carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . Patterns of DoseResponse in Teratogenesis, Embryotoxicity, and Embryolethality . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 202 202 203 203 204 205 205 206 206 207 208
3.3. 3.3.1. 3.3.2. 3.3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.6.1. 3.6.2.
194 196 196 197 198 198 198 200 200 201
Abbreviations Ah-R: AP: APS: CoA: DDT: DHHS: ECETOC: ED: FAD: GABA: arylhydrocarbon receptor apurinic/apyrimidinic site adenosine 50 -phosphosulfate Coenzym A 1,10 -(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene) bis-(4-chlorobenzene) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Centre effective dose avine adenine dinucleotide g -aminobutyrate
GSH: IPCS:
glutathione International Programme on Chemical Safety mRNA: messenger RNA NADPH: nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (H) NTP: National Toxicology Program rRNA: ribosomal RNA test T, or TCDD: 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin TD: tumor dose tRNA: transfer RNA UDP: uridine diphosphate UDPG: uridine diphosphate glucose UDPGA: uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid
1. Introduction
1.1. Denition and Scope
Chemicals that are used or of potential use in commerce, the home, the environment, and medical practice may present various types of harmful effects. The nature of these effects is determined by the physicochemical characteristics of the agent, its ability to interact with biological systems (hazard), and its potential to
come into contact with biological systems (exposure). Toxicology studies the interaction between chemicals and biological systems to determine the potential of chemicals to produce adverse effects in living organisms. Toxicology also investigates the nature, incidence, mechanisms of production, factors inuencing their development, and reversibility of such adverse effects. Adverse effects are dened as detrimental to the survival or the normal functioning of
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the individual. Inherent in this denition are the following key issues in toxicology: 1. Chemicals must come into close structural and/or functional contact with tissues or organs to cause injury. 2. All adverse effects depend on the amount of chemical in contact with the biological system (the dose) and the inherent toxicity of the chemical (hazard). When possible, the observed toxic effect should be related to the degree of exposure. The inuence of different exposure doses on the magnitude and incidence of the toxic effect should be quantitated. Such dose-response relationships are of prime importance in conrming a causal relationship between chemical exposure and toxic effect (for details, see Section 1.7). Research in toxicology is mainly concerned with determining the potential for adverse effects caused by chemicals, both natural and synthetic, to assess their hazard and risk of human exposure and thus provide a basis for appropriate precautionary, protective and restrictive measures. Toxicological investigations should permit evaluation of the following characteristics of toxicity: 1. The basic structural, functional, or biochemical injury produced 2. Dose-response relationships 3. The mechanisms of toxicity (fundamental biochemical alterations responsible for the induction and maintenance of the toxic response) and reversibility of the toxic effect 4. Factors that modify response, e.g., route of exposure, species, and gender For chemicals to which humans may potentially be exposed, a critical analysis, based on the pattern of potential exposure or toxicity, may be necessary in order to determine the risk-benet ratio for their use in specic circumstances and to devise protective and precautionary measures. Indeed, with drugs, pesticides, food additives, and cosmetic preparations, toxicology testing must be performed in accordance with government regulations before use.
1.2. Fields
Toxicology is a recognized scientic discipline encompassing both basic and applied issues. Although only generally accepted as a specic scientic eld during this century, its principles have been appreciated for centuries. The harmful or lethal effects of certain chemicals, mainly present in minerals and plants or transmitted venomous animals, have been known since prehistoric times. In many countries, toxicology as a discipline has developed from pharmacology. Pharmacology and toxicology both study the effect of chemicals on living organisms and have often used identical methods. However, fundamental differences have developed. Years ago, only the dependence on dose of the studied effects separated pharmacology and toxicology. Pharmacology focused on chemicals with benecial effects (drugs) at lower doses whereas toxicology studied the adverse health effects occurring with the same chemicals at high doses. Today, the main interest of research in toxicology has shifted to studies on the long-term effects of chemicals after low-dose exposure, such as cancer or other irreversible diseases; moreover, most chemicals of interest to toxicologists are not used as drugs. The variety of potential adverse effects and the diversity of chemicals present in our environment combine to make toxicology a very broad science. Toxicology uses basic knowledge from clinical and theoretical medicine and natural sciences such as biology and chemistry (Fig. 1). Because of this diversity, toxicologists usually specialize in certain areas. Any attempt to dene the scope of toxicology must take into account that the various subdisciplines are not mutually exclusive and frequently are heavily interdependent. Due to the overlapping mechanisms of toxicity, chemical classes, and observed toxic effects, clear divisions into subjects of equal importance are often not possible. The professional activities of toxicologists can be divided into three main categories: descriptive, mechanistic, and regulatory. The descriptive toxicologist is concerned directly with toxicity testing. Descriptive toxicology still often relies on the tools of pathology and clinical chemistry, but since the 1970s more mechanism-based test systems have been included in
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Figure 1. Scientic elds inuencing the science of toxicology
toxicity testing [1]. The appropriate toxicity tests in experimental animals yield information that is extrapolated to evaluate the risk posed by exposure to specic chemicals. The concern may be limited to effects on humans (drugs, industrial chemicals in the workplace, or food additives) or may encompass animals, plants, and other factors that might disturb the balance of the ecosystem (industrial chemicals, pesticides, environmental pollutants). The mechanistic toxicologist is concerned with elucidating the mechanisms by which chemicals exert their toxic effects on living organisms. Such studies may result in the development of sensitive predictive toxicity tests useful in obtaining information for risk assessment (see ! Toxicology, 2. Assessment Methods). Mechanistic studies may help in the development of chemicals that are safer to use or of more rational therapies for intoxications. In addition, an understanding of the mechanisms of toxic action also contributes to the knowledge of basic mechanisms in physiology, pharmacology, cell biology, and biochemistry. Indeed, toxic chemicals have been used with great success as mechanistic tools to elucidate mechanisms of physiological regulation. Mechanistic toxicologists are often active in universities; however, industry and govern-
ment institutions are now undertaking more and more research in mechanistic toxicology. Regulatory Toxicologists have the responsibility of deciding on the basis of data provided by the descriptive toxicologist and the mechanistic toxicologist if a drug or chemical poses a sufciently low risk to be used for a stated purpose. Regulatory toxicologists are often active in government institutions and are involved in the establishment of standards for the amount of chemicals permitted in ambient air in the environment, in the workplace, or in drinking water. Other divisions of toxicology may be based on the classes of chemicals dealt with or application of knowledge from toxicology for a specic eld (Table 1). Forensic Toxicology comprises both analytical chemistry and fundamental toxicologic principles. It is concerned with the legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on humans. The expertise of the forensic toxicologist is invoked primarily to aid in establishing the cause of death and elucidating its circumstances in a postmortem investigation. The eld of clinical toxicology recognizes and treats poisoning, both chronic and acute. Efforts are directed at treating patients
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Table 1. Areas of toxicology Field Forensic toxicology Pesticide toxicology Occupational toxicology Drug toxicology Regulatory toxicology Environmental toxicology Tasks and objectives
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diagnoses poisoning by analytical procedures studies the safety of pesticides, develops new pesticides assesses potential adverse effects of chemicals used in the workplace, recommends protective procedures studies potential effects of drugs after high doses, elucidates mechanisms of sideeffects develops and interprets toxicity testing programs and is involved in controlling the use of chemicals studies the effects of chemicals on ecosystems and on humans after low-dose exposure from the environment
poisoned by chemicals and at the development of new techniques to treat these intoxications. Environmental toxicology is a relatively new area that studies the effects of chemicals released by man on wildlife and the ecosystem and thus indirectly on human health. Drug Toxicology plays a major role in the preclinical safety assessment of chemicals intended for use as drugs. Drug toxicology also elucidates the mechanisms of side effects observed during clinical application. Occupational toxicology studies the acute and chronic toxicity of chemicals encountered in the occupational environment. Both acute and chronic occupational poisonings have exerted a major inuence on the development of toxicology in general. Occupational toxicology also helps in the development of safety procedures to prevent intoxications in the workplace and assists in the denition of exposure limits. Pesticide toxicology is involved in the development of new pesticides and the safety of pesticide formulations. Pesticide toxicology also characterizes potential health risks to the general population caused by pesticide residues in food and drinking water.
1.3. History
Toxicology must rank as one of the oldest practical sciences because humans, from the very beginning, needed to avoid the numerous toxic plants and animals in their environment. The presence of toxic agents in animals and plants was known to the Egyptian and Greek civilisations. The papyrus Ebers, an Egyptian papyrus dating from about 1 500 B.C., and the surviving medical works of HIPPOCRATES, ARISTOTLE, and THEOPHRASTUS, published during the period 400 250 B.C., all included some mention of poisons.
The Greek and Roman civilizations knowingly used certain toxic chemicals and extracts for hunting, warfare, suicide, and murder. Up to the Middle Ages, toxicology was restricted to the use of toxic agents for murder. Poisoning was developed to an art in medieval Italy and has remained a problem ever since, and much of the earlier impetus for the development of toxicology was primarily forensic. There appear to have been few advances in either medicine or toxicology between the time of GALEN (131200 A.D.) and PARACELSUS (14931541). The latter laid the groundwork for the later development of modern toxicology. He clearly was aware of the dose response relationship. His statement that All substances are poisons; there is none that is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy, is properly regarded as a landmark in the development of the science of toxicology. His belief in the value of experimentation also represents a break with much earlier tradition. Important developments in the 1700s include the publication of RAMAZZINIs Diseases of Workers, which led to his recognition as the father of occupational medicine. The correlation between the occupation of chimney sweepers and scrotal cancer by POTT in 1775 is also noteworthy. ORFILA, a Spaniard working at the University of Paris, clearly identied toxicology as a separate science and wrote the rst book devoted exclusively to it (1815). Workers of the later 1800s who produced treatises on toxicology include CHRISTISON, KOBERT, and LEWIN. They increased our knowledge of the chemistry of poisons, the treatment of poisoning, the analysis of both xenobiotics and toxicity, as well as modes of action and detoxication. A major impetus for toxicology in the 1900s was the use of chemicals for warfare. In World War I, a variety of poisonous chemicals were used in the battleelds of France. This provided stimulus for work on mechanisms of toxicity as well as medical
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countermeasures to poisoning. Since the 1960s, toxicology has entered a phase of rapid development and has changed from a science that was almost entirely descriptive to one in which the study of mechanisms has become the prime task. The many reasons for this include the development of new analytical methods since 1945, the emphasis on drug testing following the thalidomide tragedy, the emphasis on pesticide testing following the publication of Rachel Carsons Silent Spring and public concern over environmental pollution and disposal of hazardous waste.
W. A. Hayes, Principles and Methods of Toxicology, 3rd ed., Raven Press, New York, 2001. E. Hodgson (Ed.): Textbook of Modern Toxicology, 3rd ed., Wiley Interscience, 2004. T. A. Loomis, A. W. Hayes, Loomiss Essentials of Toxicology, 4th ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 1996. The huge volume by N. I. Sax and R. J. Lewis, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th ed.,Wiley, New York, 1999, contains basic toxicological data on a large selection of chemicals (almost 20 000) and may serve as a useful guide to the literature for compounds not covered in other publications. Monographs. The best summary information on toxicology is published in the form of series by governments and international organizations. Most of these series are summarizing the results of toxicity studies on specic chemicals. The selection of these chemicals is mainly based on the extent of their use in industry (e.g. trichloroethene), their occurrence as environmental contaminants (mercury) or their extraordinary toxicity (e.g. 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzodioxin): American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices (Cincinnati, OH). Published annually. MAK-Begr undungen, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany. This German series includes detailed information on the toxicity of chemicals on the German MAK list (ca. 150 reports are available; the series is continuously expanded). The Commission of the European Communities publishes the Reports of the Scientic Committee on Cosmetology and the Reports of the Scientic Committee for Food. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) publishes a huge number of reports and toxicological proles. They are indexed in EPA Publications. A Quarterly Guide. The European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Centre (ECETOC) issues Monographs (more than 20 have been published) and Joint Assessments of Commodity Chemicals.
1.4. Information Resources

Because of the complexity of toxicology as a science and the impact of toxicological investigations on legislation and commerce, a wide range of information on the toxic effects of chemicals is available. No single, exhaustive source of toxicological data exists; several sources are required to obtain comprehensive information on a particular chemical. Printed sources are often quicker and easier to use than computer data bases, but interactive online searching can rapidly gather important information from the huge number of sources present. The information explosion in toxicology has resulted in a comprehensive volume dedicated to toxicological information sources: P. Wexler, P. J. Hakkinen, G. Kennedy, Jr. F. W. Stoss, Information Resources in Toxicology, 3rd ed., Academic Press, 1999. Textbooks. The easiest way to obtain information on general topics in toxicology and secondary references are a range of textbooks available on the market. Only a few selected books are listed below: C. D. Klaasen, Casarett and Doulls Toxicology; The Basic Science of Poisons, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001. G. D. Clayton, F. E. Clayton (eds): Pattys Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Wiley, New York, 1993. J. G. Hardman, L. E. Limbird, Goodman and Gilmans, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001.
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The monographs of the International Agency for Research on Cancer are denitive evaluations of carcinogenic hazards. The Environmental Health Criteria documents of the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) assess environmental and human health effects of exposure to chemicals, and biological or physical agents. A related Health and Safety Guide series give guidance on setting exposure limits for national chemical safety programs. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), has published 50 Current Intelligence Bulletins on health hazards of materials and processes at work. The technical report series of the National Toxicology Program (NTP) reports results of their carcinogenicity bioassays, which include summaries of the toxicology of the chemicals studied. A status report indexes both studies that are under way and those that have been published. The program also issues an Annual Review of Current DHHS [U.S. Department of Health and Human Services], DOE [U.S. Department of Energy] and EPA Research related to toxicology. A large number of internet-based resources are also available to collect information on toxic effects of chemicals and methods for risk assessment. Some information sites containing large amounts of downloadable information are listed below: US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), http://www.epa.gov/iris/index.html US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ECOTOX Database, http://www.epa.gov/ ecotox/ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), test guidelines, http://www.oecd.org Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), toxicological prole information sheet http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ toxproles/ European Chemicals Bureau, http://ecb.jrc.it/ National Toxicology Programm, http://ntp-server. niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/liason/Factsheets/FactsheetList.html United Nations Environment Programm, Chemicals http://www.chem.unep.ch/
Journals Results of toxicological research are published in more than 100 journals. Those listed below mainly publish research closely related to toxicology, but articles of relevance may also be found in other biomedical journals: Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Archives of Toxicology Biochemical Pharmacology Chemical Research in Toxicology CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology Clinical Toxicology Drug and Chemical Toxicology Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Food and Chemical Toxicology Fundamental and Applied Toxicology Journal of the American College of Toxicology Journal of Analytical Toxicology Journal of Applied Toxicology Journal of Biochemical Toxicology Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Neurotoxicology and Teratology Pharmacology and Toxicology Practical In Vitro Toxicology Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology Reproductive Toxicology Toxicology Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology Toxicology and Industrial Health Toxicology In Vitro Toxicology Letters Databases and Databanks. Electronic sources, such as computer data bases or CDROM are a fast and convenient way to obtain references on the toxicity of chemicals. Since online searching of commercial data bases such as STN-International may be expensive, CD-ROMbased systems are increasingly being used. The major advantages are speed, the ability to rene searches and format the results, and non-text search options, such as chemical structure searching on Beilstein and Chemical Abstracts. Useful information about actual research on the toxicology of chemicals may be obtained by searching Chemical Abstracts or Medline with the appropriate keywords. Specic data banks covering toxicology are the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, which gives summary data, statistics, and structures; Toxline (available in DIMDI) gives access to the literature.
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Table 3. Reversible and irreversible interactions of chemicals with cellular macromolecules as a basis for toxic response Mechanism Irreversible inhibition of Esterase Covalent binding to DNA Reversible binding to Hemoglobin Toxic response neurotoxicity cancer Example tri-o-cresylphosphate dimethylnitrosamine
1.5. Terminology of Toxic Effects

Toxic effects may be divided according to timescale (acute and delayed), general locus of action (local, systemic, organ specic), or basic mechanisms of toxicity (reversible versus irreversible). Acute toxic effects are those that occur after brief exposure to a chemical. Acute toxic effects usually develop rapidly after single or multiple administrations of a chemical; however, acute exposure may also produce delayed toxicity. For example, inhalation of a lethal dose of HCN causes death in less than a minute, whereas lethal doses of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin will result in the death of experimental animals after more than two weeks. Chronic effects are those that appear after repetitive exposure to a substance; many compounds require several months of continuous exposure to produce adverse effects. Often, the chronic effects of chemicals are different from those seen after acute exposure (Table 2). For example, inhalation of chloroform for a short period of time may cause anesthesia; long-term inhalation of much lower chloroform concentrations causes liver damage. Carcinogenic effects of chemicals usually have a long latency period; tumors may be observed years (in rodents) or even decades (in humans) after exposure. Toxic effects of chemicals may also be classied based on the type of interaction between the chemical and the organism. Toxic effects may be caused by reversible and irreversible interactions (Table 3). When reversible interactions are responsible for toxic effects, the concentration of the chemical present at the site of action is the only determinant of toxic outcome. When the concentration of the xenobiotic is decreased by excretion or biotransformation, a parallel decrease of toxic effects is observed.
Table 2. Toxic effects of different chemicals categorized by time scale and general locus of action Exposure Acute Site local systemic local systemic local systemic Effect lung edema liver damage narcosis sensitization neurotoxicity bronchitis nasal carcinoma bladder carcinoma kidney damage Chemical chlorine gas carbon tetrachloride halothane toluene diisocyanate hexane sulfur dioxide formaldehyde 4-amino-biphenyl cadmium
Cholinesterase
oxygen deprivation in tissues neurotoxicity
carbon monoxide
carbamate pesticides
After complete excretion of the toxic agent, toxic effects are reduced to zero (see below). A classical example for reversible toxic effects is carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin and, due to the formation of the stable hemoglobincarbon monoxide complex, binding of oxygen is blocked. As a result of the impaired oxygen transport in blood from the lung, tissue oxygen concentrations are reduced and cells sensitive to oxygen deprivation will die. The toxic effects of carbon monoxide are directly correlated with the extent of carboxyhemoglobin in blood, the concentration of which is dependent on the inhaled concentration of carbon monoxide. After exhalation of carbon monoxide and survival of the acute intoxication, no toxic effect remains (Fig. 2). Irreversible toxic effects are often caused by the covalent binding of toxic chemicals to biological macromolecules. Under extreme conditions, the modied macromolecule is not repaired; after excretion of the toxic agent, the effect persists. Further exposure to the toxic agent will produce additive effects; many chemicals carcinogens are believed to act through irreversible changes (see Section 2.6.6).
Subchronic Chronic
Figure 2. Reversible binding of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin and inhibition of oxygen transport
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Another distinction between types of effects may be made according to the general locus of action. Local toxicity occurs at the site of rst contact between the biological system and the toxic agent. Local effects to the skin, the respiratory tract, or the alimentary tract may be produced by skin contact with a corrosive agent, by inhalation of irritant gases, or by ingestion of tissue-damaging materials. This type of toxic responses is usually restricted to the tissues with direct contact to the agent. However, life-threatening intoxications may occur if vital organs like the lung are damaged. For example, inhaled phosgene damages the alveoli of the lung and causes lung edema. The massive damage to the lung results in the substantial mortality observed after phosgene intoxication. The opposite to local effects are systemic effects. They are characterized by the absorption of the chemical and distribution from the port of entry to a distant site where toxic effects are produced. Except for highly reactive xenobiotics, which mainly act locally, most chemicals act systemically. Many chemicals that produce systemic toxicity only cause damage to certain organs, tissues, or cell types within organs. Selective damage to certain organs or tissues by systemically distributed chemicals is termed organ- or tissue-specic toxicity [2]; the organs damaged are referred to as target organs (Table 4). Major target organs for toxic effects are the central nervous system and the circulatory system followed by the blood and hematopoietic system and visceral organs such as the liver or the kidney. For some chemicals, both local and systemic effects can be demonstrated; moreover, chemicals producing marked local toxicity may
Table 4. Organ-specic toxic effects induced by chemicals that are distributed systemically in the organism Chemical Benzene Hexachlorobutadiene Paraquat Tri-o-cresylphosphate Cadmium 1,2-Dibromo3-chloropropane Hexane Anthracyclines Species humans rodents rodents, humans humans humans humans, rodents rodents, humans humans Target organ bone marrow damage to proximal tubules of the kidney lung nervous system kidney testes nervous system heart
also cause systemic effects as secondary responses to major disturbances in homeostasis of the organism.
1.6. Types of Toxic Effects

The spectrum of toxic effects of chemicals is broad, and their magnitude and nature depend on many factors such as the physiocochemical properties of the chemical and its toxicokinetics, the conditions of exposure, and the presence of adaptive and protective mechanisms. The latter factors include physiological mechanisms such as adaptive enzyme induction, DNA repair, and others. Toxic effects may be transient, reversible, or irrversible; some are deleterious and others are not. Toxic effects may take the form of tissue pathology, aberrant growth processes, or altered biochemical pathways. Some of the more frequently encountered types of injury constituting a toxic response are described in the following. Immune-mediated hypersensitivity reactions by antigenic materials are toxic effects often involved in skin and lung injury by repeated contact to chemicals resulting in contact dermatitis and asthma. Inammation is a frequently observed local response to the application of irritant chemicals or may be a component of systemic injury. This response may be acute with irritant or tissue damaging materials or chronic with repetitive exposure to irritants. Necrosis, that is, death of cells or tissues, may be the result of various pathological processes resulting from biochemical interactions of xenobiotics, as described in Chapter 3. The extent and patterns of necrosis may be different for different chemicals, even in the same organ. Chemical tumorigenesis or carcinogenesis (induction of malignant tumors) is an effect often observed after chronic application of chemicals. Due the long latency period and the poor prognosis for individuals diagnosed with cancer, studies to predict the potential tumorigenicity of chemicals have developed into a major area of toxicological research. Developmental and reproductive toxicology are concerned with adverse effects on the ability to conceive, and with adverse effects on the structural and functional integrity of the fetus. Chemicals may interfere with reproduction through direct effects on reproductive organs or indirectly by affecting their neural and endocrine
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control mechansims. Developmental toxicity deals with adverse effects on the conceptus through all stages of pregnancy. Damage to the fetus may result in embryo reabsorption, fetal death, or abortion. Nonlethal fetotoxicity may be expressed as delayed maturation, decreased birth weight, or structural malformation. The most sensitive period for the induction of malformation is during organogenesis; neurobehavioral malformations may be induced during later stages of pregnancy.
1.7. DoseResponse: a Fundamental Issue in Toxicology

In principle, a poison is a chemical that has an adverse effect on a living organism. However, this is not a useful denition since toxic effects are related to dose. The denition of a poison thus also involves quantitative biological aspects. At sufciently high doses, any chemical may be toxic. The importance of dose is clearly seen with molecular oxygen or dietary metals. Oxygen at a concentration of 21% in the atmosphere is essential for life, but 100% oxygen at atmospheric pressure causes massive lung injury in rodents and often results in death. Some metals such as iron, copper, and zinc are essential nutrients. When they are present in insufcient amounts in the human diet, specic disease patterns develop, but in high doses they can cause fatal intoxications. Toxic compounds are not restricted to man-made chemicals, but also include many naturally occurring chemicals. Indeed, the agent with the highest toxicity is a natural poison found in the bacterium Clostridium botulinum (LD50 0.01 m/kg). Therefore, all toxic effects are products of the amount of chemical to which the organism is exposed and the inherent toxicity of the chemical; they also depend on the sensitivity of the biological system. The term dose is most frequently used to characterize the total amount of material to which an organism is exposed; dose denes the amount of chemical given in relation to body weight. Dose is a more meaningful and comparative indicator of exposure than the term exposure itself. Dose usually implies the exposure dose, the total amount of chemical administered to an organism or incorporated into a test system.
However, dose may not be directly proportional to the toxic effects since toxicity depends on the amount of chemical absorbed. Usually, dose correctly describes only the actual amount of chemical absorbed when the chemical is administered orally or by injection. Under these circumstances, the administered dose is identical to the absorbed dose; other routes of application such as dermal application or inhalation do not dene the amount of agent absorbed. Different chemicals have a wide spectrum of doses needed to induce toxic effects or death. To characterize the acute toxicity of different chemicals, LD50 values are frequently used as a basis for comparisons. Some LD50 values (rat) for a range of chemicals follow:
Ethanol Sodium bicarbonate Phenobarbital sodium Paraquat Aldrin Sodium cyanide Strychnine 1,2-Dibromoethane Sodium uoroacetate 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin 12 500 4 220 350 120 46 6.4 5 0.4 0.2 0.01
Certain chemicals are very toxic and produce death after administration of microgram doses, while others are tolerated without serious toxicity in gram doses. The above data clearly demonstrate that the toxicity of a specic chemical is related to dose. The dependence of the toxic effects of a specic chemical on dose is termed doseresponse relationship. Before doseresponse relationships can be appropriately used, several basic assumptions must be considered. The rst is that the response is due to the chemical administered. It is usually assumed that the responses observed were a result of the various doses of chemical administered. Under experimental conditions, the toxic response usually is correlated to the chemical administered, since both exposure and effect are well dened and can be quantied. However, it is not always apparent that the response is the result of specic chemical exposure. For example, an epidemiologic study might result in discovery of an association between a response (e.g., disease) and one or more variables including the estimated dose of a chemical. The true doses to which individuals
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have been exposed are often estimates, and the specicity of the response for that chemical is doubtful. Further major necessary assumptions in establishing doseresponse relationships are:
.
A molecular site (often termed receptor) with which the chemical interacts to produce the response. Receptors are macromolecular components of tissues with which a chemical interacts and produces its characteristic effect. The production of a response and the degree of the response are related to the concentration of the agent at the receptor. The concentration of the chemical at the receptor is related to the dose administered. Since in most cases the concentration of an administered chemical at the receptor cannot be determined, the administered dose or the blood level of the chemical is used as an indicator for its concentration at the molecular site.
A further prerequisite for using the dose response relationship is that the toxic response can be exactly measured. A great variety of criteria or end points of toxicity may be used. The ideal end point should be closely associated with the molecular events resulting from exposure to the toxin and should be readily determined. However, although many end points are quantitative and precise, they are often only indirect measures of toxicity. For example, changes in enzyme levels in the blood can be indicative of tissue damage. Patterns of alterations may provide insight into which organ or system is the site of toxic effects. These measures usually are not directly related to the mechanism of toxic action. The doseresponse relationship combines the characteristic of exposure and the inherent toxicity of the chemical. Since toxic responses to a chemical are usually functions of both time and dose, in typical doseresponse relationships, the maximum effect observed during the time of observation is plotted against the dose to give time-independent curves. The timeindependent doseresponse relationship may be used to study doseresponse for both reversible and irreversible toxic effects. However, in risk assessments that consider the induction of irreversible effects such as cancer, the time factor plays a major role and has important inuences
on the magnitude or likelihood of toxic responses. Thus, for this type of mechanism of toxic action, dosetimeresponse relationships are better descriptors of toxic effects. The doseresponse relationship is the most fundamental concept in toxicology. Indeed, an understanding of this relationship is essential for the study of toxic chemicals. From a practical point of view, there are two different types of doseresponse relationships. Doseresponse relationships may be quantal (all or nothing responses such as death) or graded. The graded or variable response involves a continual change in effect with increasing dose, for example, enzyme inhibition or changes in physiological function such as heart rate. Graded responses may be determined in an individual or in simple biochemical systems. For example, addition of increasing concentrations of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzodioxin to cultured mammalian cells results in an increase in the concentration of a specic cytochrome P450 enzyme in the cells (for details of mechanisms, see Section 2.6.4.1). The increase is clearly dose related and spans a wide range (Fig. 3). An example for a graded toxic effect in an individual may be inammation caused by skin contact with an irritant material. Low doses cause slight irritation; as the amount increases, irritation turns to inammation and the severity of inammation increases. In doseresponse studies in a population, a specic endpoint is also identied and the dose required to produce this end point is determined for each individual in the population. Both dosedependent graded effects and quantal responses (death, induction of a tumor) may be investigated.
Figure 3. Dose-dependent induction of cytochrome P450 1A 1 protein in cultured liver cells treated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin [3]
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With increasing amount of a chemical given to a group of animals, the magnitude of the effect and/ or the number of animals affected increase. For example, if an irritant chemical is applied to the skin, as the amount of the material increases, the numbers of animals affected and the severity of inammation increases. Quantal responses such as death induced by a potentially lethal chemical will also be dose-dependent. The dose dependency of a quantal effect in a population is based on individual differences in the response to the toxic chemical. A specic amount of the potentially lethal xenobiotic given to a group of animals may not kill all of them, but as the amount given increases, the proportion of animals killed increases. Althought the distinctions between graded and quantal doseresponse relationships are useful, the two types of responses are conceptually identical. The ordinate in both cases is simply labeled response, which may be the degree of response in an individual, or the fraction of a population responding, and the abscissa is the range of administered doses. 1.7.1. Graphics and Calculations Even with a genetically homogenous population of animals of the same species and strain, the proportion of animals showing the effect will increase with dose (Fig. 4A). When the number of animals responding is plotted versus the logarithm of the dose, a typical sigmoid curve with a log-normal distribution that is symmetrical about the midpoint, is obtained (Fig. 4B). When plotted on a log-linear scale, the obtained normally distributed sigmoid curve approaches a response of 0% as the dose is decreased, and 100% as the dose is increased, but theoretically never passes through 0 or 100%. Small proportions of the population at the rightand left-hand sides of the curve represent hyposusceptible and hypersusceptible members. The slope of the dosereponse curve around the 50% value, the midpoint, gives an indication of the ranges of doses producing an effect. A steep doseresponse curve indicates that the majority of the population will respond over a narrow dose range; a shallow doseresponse curve indicates that a wide range of doses is required to affect the majority of the population. The curve depicted in
Fig. 4 B shows that the majority of the individuals respond about the midpoint of the curve. This point is a convenient description of the average response, and is referred to as the median effective dose (ED50). If mortality is the endpoint, then this dose is referred as median lethal dose (LD50). Death, a quantal response, is simple to quantify and is thus an end point incorporated in many acute toxicity studies. Lethal toxicity is usually calculated initially from specic mortality levels obtained after giving different doses of a chemical; the 50% mortality level is used most frequently since it represents the midpoint of the dose range at which the majority of deaths occur. This is the dose level that causes death of half of the population dosed. The LD50 values are usually given in milligrams of chemical per kilogram of body weight (from the viewpoint of chemistry and for comparison of relative potencies of different chemicals, giving the LD50 in moles of chemical per kilogram body weight would be desirable). After inhalation, the reference is to LC50 (LC lethal concentration), which, in contrast to LD50 values, depends on the time of exposure; thus, it is usually expressed as X-hour LC50 value. The LD50 or LC50 values usually represent the initial information on the toxicity of a chemical and must be regarded as a rst, but not a quantitative, hazard indicator that may be useful for comparison of the acute toxicity of different chemicals [3]. Similar doseeffect curves can, however, be constructed for cancer, liver injury, and other types of toxic responses. For the determination of LD50 values and for obtaining comparative information on doseresponse curves, plotting log dose versus percent response is not practical since large numbers of animals are needed for obtaining interpretable data. Moreover, other important information on the toxicity of a chemical (e.g., LD05 and LD95) cannot be accurately determined due to the slope of sigmoid curve. Therefore, the doseresponse curve is transformed to a log-probit (probit probability units) plot. The data in the Fig. 4B form a straight line when transformed into probit units (Fig. 4C). The EC50 or, if death is the end point, the LD50 is obtained by drawing a horizontal line from the probit unit 5, which is the 50% response point, to the dose effect line. At the point of intersection a vertical line is drawn, and this line intersects the abscissa
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Figure 4. Typical dose response curves for a toxic effect Plots are linear linear (A); log linear (B); and log probit (C) for an identical set of data
at the LD50 point. Information on the lethal dose for 90% or for 10% of the population can also be derived by a similar procedure. The condence limits are narrowest at the midpoint of the line (LD50) and are widest at the two extremes (LD05 and LD95) of the doseresponse curve. In addition to permitting determination of a numerical value for the LD50 of a chemical with few groups of dosed animals, the slope of the doseresponse curve for comparison between toxic effects of different chemicals is obtained by the probit transformation [4]. The LD50 by itself, however, is an insufcient index of lethal toxicity, particulary if comparisons between different chemicals are to be made. For this purpose, all available doseresponse
information including the slope of the dose response line should be used. Figure 5 demonstrates the doseresponse curves for mortality for two chemicals. The LD50 of both chemicals is the same (10 mg/ kg). However, the slopes of the doseresponse curves are quite different. Chemical A exhibits a at doseresponse curve: a large change in dose is required before a signicant change in response will be observed. In contrast, chemical B exhibits a steep doseresponse curve, that is, a relatively small change in dose will cause a large change in response. The chemical with the steep slope may affect a much larger proportion of the population by incremental increases in dose than chemicals having a shallow slope; thus, acute overdosing may
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1. 2. 3. 4.
Strain of animal used Species of animal used Route of administration Animal housing
and intrinsic factors limiting the use of LD50 values 1. 2. 3. 4. Statistical method No doseresponse curve Time to toxic effect not determined No information on chronic toxicity
Figure 5. Comparison of dose response relationships for two chemicals (log probit plot) Both chemicals have identical LD50 values, but different slopes of the dose response curve
be a problem affecting the majority of a population for chemicals with steeper slopes. Chemicals with shallower slopes may represent a problem for the hyperreactive groups at the left-hand side of the doseresponse curve. Effects may occur at signicantly lower dose levels then for hyperreactive groups exposed to chemicals with a steep dose response. While the LD50 values characterize the potential hazard of a chemical, the risk of an exposure is determined by the hazard multiplied by the exposure dose. Thus, even very toxic chemicals like the poison of Clostridium botulinum pose only a low risk; intoxications with this compound are rare since exposure is low. Moreover, acute intoxications with other highly toxic agents such as mercury salts are rarely seen, despite detectable blood levels of mercury salts in the general population, since the dose is also low. On the other hand, compounds with low toxicity may pose a denite health risk when doses are high, for example, constituents of diet or chemicals formed during food preparation by heat treatment. Therefore, for characterizing the toxic risk of a chemical, besides information on the toxicity, information on the conditions of exposure are necessary. When using LD50 values for toxicity characterisation, the limitations of LD50 values should be explicitly noted. These limitations include methodological pitfalls inuenced by
The most serious limitation on the use of LD50 values for hazard characterization are the lack of information on chronic effects of a chemical and the lack of doseresponse information. Chemicals with low acute toxicity may have carcinogenic or teratogenic effects at doses that do not induce acute toxic responses. Other limitations include insufcient information on toxic effects other than lethality, the cause of death, and the time to toxic effect. Moreover, LD50 values are not constant, but are inuenced by many factors and may differ by almost one order of magnitude when determined in different laboratories.
1.8. DoseResponse Relationships for Cumulative Effects

After chronic exposure to a chemical, toxic response may be caused by doses not showing effects after single dosing. Chronic toxic responses are often based on accumulation of either the toxic effect or of the administered chemical. Accumulation of the administered chemical is observed when the rate of elimination of the chemical is lower than the rate of administration. Since the rate of elimination is dependent on plasma concentrations, after long-term application an equilibrium concentration of the chemical in the blood is reached. Chemicals may also be stored in fat (polychlorinated pesticides such as DDT) or bone (e.g., lead). Stored chemicals usually do not cause toxic effects because of their low concentrations at the site of toxic action (receptor). After continuous application, the capacities of the storage tissues may become saturated, and xenobiotics may then be present in higher concentration in plasma and thus at the site of action; toxic responses result. Besides
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Figure 6. Accumulation of toxic chemicals based on their rate of excretion a) The rate of excretion is equal to the rate of absorption, no accumulation occurs; b) Chemical accumulates due to a higher rate of uptake and inefcient excretion; the plasma concentrations are, however, not sufcient to exert toxic effects; c) The plasma concentrations reached after accumulation are sufcient to exert toxicity
Figure 7. Time-dependent induction of tumors after different daily doses of 4-dimethylaminoazobenzene in rats [5]
cumulation of the toxic agent, the toxic effect may also cumulate (Fig. 6). For chemicals which irreversibly bind to macromolecules, the magnitude of toxic responses may be correlated with the total dose administered. In contrast to chemicals which act reversibly, the effect is not dependent on the frequency of dosing. Effect accumulation is often observed with carcinogens and ionizing radiation. In Figure 7 accumulation of effects is exemplied by the time- and dose-dependent induction of tumors by 4-(dimethylamino)azobenzene, a potent chemical carcinogen [5]. The TD50 values (50% of the treated animals carry tumors) are used to characterize the potency. Identical tumor incidences were observed after high doses and a short exposure time or after low doses and long exposure; the tumor incidence was only dependent on the total dose administered. Reversibility of toxic responses also depends on the capacity of an organ or tissue to repair injury. For example, kidney damage by xenobiotics is often, after survival of the acute phase of the intoxication, without further consequence due to the high capacity of the kidney for cell proliferation and thus the capacity to repair organ damage [6]. In contrast, injury to the central nervous system is largely irreversible since the differentiated cells of the nervous system cannot divide and dead cells cannot be replaced.
1.9. Factors Inuencing DoseResponse

In animals and humans, the nature, severity, and incidence of toxic responses depend on a large number of exogenous and endogenous factors [7]. Important factors are the characteristics of exposure, the species and strain of animals used for the study, and interindividual variability in humans [8]. Toxic responses are caused by a series of complex interactions of a potentially toxic chemical with an organism. The type and magnitude of the toxic response is inuenced by the concentration of the chemical at the receptor and by the type of interaction with the receptor. The concentration of a chemical at the site of action is inuenced by the kinetics of uptake and elimination; since these are time-dependent phenomena, toxic responses are also time-dependent. Thus, the toxic response can be separated into two phases: toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics (Fig. 8). Toxicokinetics describe the time dependency of uptake, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion of a toxic agent (a detailed description of toxicokinetics is given in Section 2.6). Toxicodynamics describes the interaction of the toxic agent with the receptor and thus specic interactions of the agent (see below). Toxicokinetics may be heavily inuenced by species, strain, and sex and the exposure characteristics [913]. Differences in
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Table 5. Toxicity of chemicals applied by different routes of exposure (data taken from [13]) Chemical DDT Species rat rat rat rat rat rat rat rabbit rat rat rat Route of application intravenous oral skin contact intravenous oral oral intraperitoneal skin contact oral intravenous skin contact LD50, mg/kg 68 113 1931 41 620 1070 280 130 46 9 10
Atropine sulfate 1-Chloro-2,4dinitrobenzene Dieldrin
Figure 8. Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics as factors inuencing the toxic response
toxic response between species, route of exposure, and others factors are often dependent on inuences on toxicokinetics. Since toxicodynamics (mechanism of action) are assumed to be identical between species, this provides the basis for a rational interspecies extrapolation of toxic effects when differences in toxicokinetics are dened. 1.9.1. Routes of Exposure The primary tissue or system by which a xenobiotic comes into contact with the body, and from where it may be absorbed in order to exert systemic toxicity, is the route of exposure. The frequent circumstances of environmental exposure are ingestion (peroral), inhalation, and skin contact. Also, for investigational and therapeutic purposes, intramuscular, intravenous, and subcutaneous injections may also be routes of exposure. The major routes by which a potentially toxic chemical can enter the body are in descending order of effectiveness for systemic delivery injection, inhalation, absorption from the intestinal tract, and cutaneous absorption. The relationship between route and exposure, biotransformation, and potential for toxicity, may be complex and is also inuenced by the magnitude and duration of dosing (Table 5). The route of exposure has a major inuence on toxicity because of the effect of route of exposure on the bioavailability of the toxic agent. The maximum tissue levels achieved, the time to maximum tissue levels, and thus the duration of the effect are determined by the rate of absorption and the extent of distribution within the system. Direct injection into veins is usually restricted to therapeutic applications, but it is important for the toxicology of intravenously injected drugs in addicts. Chemicals applied by intravenous injection are rapidly distributed to well-perfused organs
in the blood and thus may result in the rapid induction of toxic effects. The rapid dilution of a chemical after intravenous injection by venous blood permits even the injection of locally acting or corrosive chemicals which are well tolerated. The likelihood of toxicity from inhaled chemicals depends on a number of factors, of which the physical state and properties of the agent, concentration, and time and frequency of exposure are important. Major inuences on the absorption and disposition of xenobiotics are exerted by species peculiarities since the anatomy of the respiratory tract and the physiology of respiration show major differences between rodents and humans. The water solubility of a gaseous xenobiotic has a major inuence on penetration into the respiratory tract. As water solubility decreases and lipid solubility increases, penetration into deeper regions of the lung, the bronchioli, and the alveoli becomes more effective. Water-soluble molecules such as formaldehyde,are effectively scavenged by the upper respiratory tract and may have toxic effects on the eye and throat. In contrast, gases with low water solubility such as phosgene may penetrate through the bronchii and bronchioli to the alveoli. Damage to the alveolar surface may initiate a series of events that nally results in lung edema. The degree to which inhaled gases, vapors, and particulates are absorbed, and hence their potential to produce systemic toxicity, depend on their diffusion rate through the alveolar mebrane, their solubility in blood and tissue uids, the rate of respiration, and blood ow through the capillaries. Uptake through the alimentary tract represents an important route of exposure for xenobiotics accumulated in the food chain, for natural constituents of human diet, and, drugs. Absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is dependent on the
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lipophilicity of a chemical, the molecular mass of the xenobiotic, and the presence of certain dietary constituents may inuence the extent and rate of absorption. Chemicals absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract are transported to the liver via the portal vein; hepatic metabolism (hepatic rstpass effect) may efciently reduce the concentration of the xenobiotic available in the systemic circulation after oral uptake. Compounds undergoing bioactivation in the liver usually exhibit greater toxicity when given orally than when absorbed across the respiratory tract, due to the high proportion of material passing through the liver. In contrast, chemicals causing toxicity to extrahepatic, well-perfused organs such as the kidney often show a lower degree of toxicity to extrahepatic target organs when given orally. Skin contact is an important route of exposure in the occupational and domestic environments. Local effects may include acute inammation and corrosion, chronic inammatory responses, immune-mediated reactions, and neoplasia. The percutaneous absorption of materials may also be a signicant route for the absorption of systemically toxic materials. Factors inuencing the percutaneous absorption of substances include skin site, integrity of skin, temperature, formulation, and physicochemical characteristics, including charge, molecular mass, and hydro- and lipophilicity. 1.9.2. Frequency of Exposure The exposure of experimental animals may be categorized as acute, subacute, subchronic, and chronic. Acute exposures usually last less than 24 h, and all above-mentioned routes of exposure may be applied. With chemicals of low toxicity, repeated exposures may be used. Acute inhalation exposure is usually less than 24 h; frequently 48 h is chosen as timescale. Repeated exposure refers to application of the chemical for less than one month (subacute), one to three months (subchronic), and more than three months (chronic). Chronic exposures to detect specic toxic effects (carcinogenicity of a chemical) may span most of the lifetime of a rodent (up to two years). Repeated exposure may be by any route; the least labor intensive route is oral, by mixing the chemical with the diet; only for specic chemicals or to simulate likely routes of exposure for humans are application in drinking water, by gastric intubation, and by inhalation applied. These are more labor-intensive and require
Table 6. Comparative LD50 values for four different chemicals in different animal species and estimated LD50 for humans Chemical Paraquat Species rat mouse guinea pig human rat mouse guinea pig human rat mouse guinea pig human rat mouse guinea pig human LD50, mg/kg 134 77 41 32 48 12 500 8000 5500 3500 5000 3763 777 2968 42 800 1683 1769 1102 3492
Ethanol
Acetaminophen
Aspirin
skilled personnel and/or sophisticated techniques and thus are more expensive. The toxic effects observed after single exposure often are different form those seen after repeated exposure. For example, inhalation of high concentration of halothane causes anesthesia in animals and humans. In contrast, long-term application of halothane in lower doses causes liver damage in sensitive species The frequency of exposure in chronic studies is important for the temporal characterisation of exposure. Chemicals with slow rates of excretion may accumulate if applied at short dosing intervals, and toxic effects may result (see Section 1.6). Also, a chemical producing severe effect when given in a single high dose may have no detectable effects when given in several smaller doses. Interspecies and strain differences in susceptibility to chemical-induced toxicity may be due to heterogeneity of populations, species specic physiology (for example of the respiratory system), basal metabolic rate, size- and species-specic toxicokinetics and routes of metabolism or excretion (Table 6). In some cases, animal tests may give an underestimate, in others an overestimate, of potential toxicity to humans [14]. 1.9.3. Species-Specic Differences in Toxicokinetics Species-specic differences in toxic response are largely due to difference in toxicokinetics and biotransformation. Distribution and
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Table 7. Species and sex differences in the acute toxicity of 1,1dichloroethylene after oral administration and inhalation in rats and mice (data from World Health Organization, Geneva, 1990) Species Rat, male Rat, female Mouse, male Mouse, female Rat, male Rat, female Mouse, male Mouse, female Dosing criteria inhalation/4 inhalation/4 inhalation/4 inhalation/4 gavage gavage gavage gavage h h h h Estimated LD50/LC50 7000 32 000 mg/L 10 300 mg/L 115 mg/L 205 mg/L 1550 mg/kg 1500 mg/kg 201 235 mg/kg 171 221 mg/kg
elimination characteristics are quite variable between species. Both qualitative and quantitative differences in biotransformation may effect the sensitivity of a given species to a toxic response (Table 7). For example, the elimination half-live of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin in rats is 20 d, and in humans it is estimated to be up to seven years [15]. An example for quantitative difference in the extent of biotransformation as a factor inuencing toxic response is the species differences in the biotransformation of the inhalation anesthetic halothane. Both rats and guinea pigs metabolize halothane to triuoroacetic acid, a reaction catalyzed by a specic cytochrome P450 enzyme [1618]. As a metabolic intermediate, triuoroacetyl chloride is formed, which may react with lysine residues in proteins and with phosphatidyl ethanolamine in phospholipids (Fig. 9). This interaction initiates a cascade of events nally resulting in toxicity. The metabolism of halothane in guinea pigs occurs at much higher rates than in rats, so guinea pigs are sensitive to halothane-induced hepatotoxic effects and rats
are resistant. Qualitative differences in biotransformation are responsible for apparent differences in the sensitivity of rats and guinea pigs to the bladder carcinogenicity of 2-acetylamidouorene. In rats, 2-acetylamidouorene is metabolized by N-oxidation by certain cytochrome P450 enzymes. The N-oxide is further converted to an electrophilic nitrenium ion which interacts with DNA in the bladder; this biotransformation pathway explains the formation of bladder tumors in rats after long-term exposure to 2acetylamidouoren. In guinea pigs, 2-acetylamidouorene is metabolized by oxidation at the aromatic ring; since nitrenium ions cannot be formed by this pathway, guinea pigs are resistant to the bladder carcinogenicity of 2-acetylamidouorene (Fig. 10). With some chemicals, age may signicantly affect toxicity, likely due to age related differences in toxicokinetics. The nutritional status may modify toxic response, likely by altering the concentration of cofactors needed for biotransformation and detoxication of toxic chemicals. Diet also markedly inuences carcinogeninduced tumor incidence in animals [19] and may be a signicant factor contributing to human cancer incidence. The toxic response is inuenced by the magnitude, number, and frequency of dosing. Thus, local or systemic toxicity produced by acute exposure may also occur by a cumulative process with repeated exposures to lower doses; also, additional toxicity may be seen in repeated-exposure situations. The relationships for cumula-
Figure 9. Halothane metabolism by cytochrome P450 in rats, guinea pigs, and humans
Figure 10. Biotransformation pathways of 2-acetylamidouorene in rats and guinea pigs
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tive toxicity by repetitive exposure compared with acute exposure toxicity may be complex, and the potential for cumulative toxicity from acute doses may not be quantitatively predictable. For repeated-exposure toxicity, the precise proling of doses may signicantly inuence toxicity. 1.9.4. Miscellaneous Factors Inuencing the Magnitude of Toxic Responses A variety of other factors may affect the nature and exhibition of toxicity, depending on the conditions of the study, for example, housing conditions, handling, volume of dosing, vehicle, etc. Variability in test conditions and procedures may result in signicant interlaboratory variability in results of otherwise standard procedures. For chemicals given orally or applied to the skin, toxicity may be modied by the presence of materials in formulations which facilitate or retard the absorption of the chemicals. With respiratory exposure to aerosols, particle size signicantly determines the depth of penetration and deposition in the respiratory tract and thus the site and extent of the toxic effects.
1.10. Exposure to Mixtures

In experimental animals most data on the toxic effects of chemicals are collected after exposure to a single chemical; in contrast, human exposure normally occurs to mixtures of chemicals at low doses. Moreover, prior, coincidential, and sucessive exposure of humans to chemicals is likely. Interactions between the toxic effects of different chemicals are difcult to predict, effects of exposure to different chemicals may be independent, additive, potentiating (ethanol and carbon tetrachloride), antagonistic (interference with action of other chemical, e.g., as seen with antidotes administered in case of intoxications), and synergistic. Ethanol exerts a potentiating effect on the hepatotoxicity of carbon tetrachloride. In rats pretreated with ethanol, the hepatotoxic effects of carbon tetrachloride are much more pronounced than in control animals. This potentiation is due to an increased capacity for bioactivation (see Section 2.5) of carbon tetrachloride in pretreated rats due to increased
concentrations of a cytochrome P450 enzyme in the liver [20]. Thus, an important considerations for the assessement of potential toxic effects of mixtures of chemicals are toxicokinetics and toxicodynamic interactions. Toxicokinetic interactions of chemicals may inuence absorption, distribution, and biotransformation, both to active and inactive metabolites. Mixtures of solvents often show a competitive inhibition of biotransformation. Usually, one of the components has high afnity for a specic enzyme involved in its biotransformation, whereas another component has only a low afnity for that particular enzyme. Thus, preferential biotransformation of the component with the high afnity occurs. Different outcomes of enzyme inhibition are possible: if the toxic effects of the component whose metabolism is inhibited is dependent on bioactivation, lower rates of bioactivation will result in decreased toxicity; if the toxic effects are independent of biotransformation, the extent of toxicity will increase due to slower rate of excretion. Toxic effects of mixtures may also not be due to a major component, but to trace impurities with high toxicity. For example, many long-term effects seen in animal studies on the toxicity of chlorophenols are believed to be due to 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, which was present as a minor impurity in the samples of chlorophenols used for these studies.
2. Absorption, Distribution, Biotransformation and Elimination of Xenobiotics

2.1. Disposition of Xenobiotics
The induction of systemic toxicity usually results from a complex interaction between absorbed parent chemical and biotransformation products formed in tissues; the distribution of both parent chemical and biotransformation products in body uids and tissues; their binding and storage characteristics; and their excretion. The biological effects initiated by a xenobiotic are not related simply to its inherent toxic properties; the initiation, intensity, and duration of response are a function of numerous factors intrinsic to the biological system and the administered dose. Each factor inuences the ultimate
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interaction of the xenobiotic and the active site (Section 1.9). Only when the toxic chemical has reached the specic site and interacted with it can the inherent toxicity be realized. The route a xenobiotic follows from the point of administration or absorption to the site of action usually involves many steps and is termed toxicokinetics. Toxicokinetics inuence the concentration of the xenobiotic or its active metabolite at the receptor. In the doseresponse concept outlined in Section 1.7, it is generally assumed that the toxic response is proportional to the concentration of the xenobiotic at the receptor. However, the same dose of a chemical administered by different routes may cause different toxic effects. Moreover, the same dose of two different chemicals may result in vastly different concentrations of the chemical or its biotransformation products in a particular target organ. This differential pattern is due to differences in the disposition of a xenobiotic (Fig. 11).
The disposition of a xenobiotic consists of absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion, which are all interrelated. The complicated interactions between the different processes of distribution are very important determinants of the concentration of a chemical at the receptor and thus of the magnitude of toxic response. They may also be major determinants for organ-specic toxicity. For example, in the case of absorption of a xenobiotic through the gastrointestinal tract, the chemical proceeds from the intestinal lumen into the epithelial cells. Following intracellular transport, it passes through the basal membrane and lamina propria and enters the blood or lymph capillaries for transport to the site of action or storage. At that site, the xenobiotic is released from the capillaries, into an interstitial area, and nally through various membranes to its site of action, which may be a specic receptor, an enzyme, a membrane, or many other possible sites.
Figure 11. Possible fate of a xenobiotic in the organisms
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2.2. Absorption
The skin, the lungs, and the cells lining the alimentary tract are major barriers for chemicals present in the environment. Except for caustic chemicals, which act at the site of rst contact with the organism, xenobiotics must cross these barriers to exert toxic effects on one or several target organs. The process whereby a xenobiotic moves through these barriers and enters the circulation is termed absorption. 2.2.1. Membranes Because xenobiotics must often pass through membranes on their way to the receptor, it is important to understand membrane characteristics and the factors that permit transfer of foreign compounds. Membranes are initially encountered whether a xenobiotic is absorbed by the dermal, oral, or vapor route. These membranes may be associated with several layers of cells or a single cell. The absorption of a substance from the site of exposure may result from passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, or the formation of transport vesicles (pinocytosis and phagocytosis). The process of absorption may be facilitated or retarded by a variety of factors; for example, elevated temperature increases percutaneous absorption by cutaneous vasodilation, and surface-active materials facilitate penetration. Each area of entry for xenobiotics into the organism may have specic peculiarities, but a unifying concept of biology is the basic similarity of all membranes in tissues, cells, and organelles. All membranes are lipid bilayers with polar head groups (phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine). The polar groups predominate at the outer and inner surfaces of the membrane; the inner space of the membrane consists of perpendicularly arranged fatty acids [21]. The fatty acids do not have a rigid structure and are uid under physiological conditions; the uid character of the membrane is largely dominated by the fatty acid composition. The width of a biological membrane is approximately 79 nm. Figure 12 illustrates the concept of a biological membrane (uid-mosaic model). Proteins are intimately associated with the membrane and may be located on the surface or
Figure 12. Simplied model of the structure of a biological membrane
inside the membrane structure, or extend completely through the membrane. These proteins may also form aqueous pores. Hydrophobic forces are responsible for maintaining the structural integrity of both proteins and lipids within the membrane structure. The ratio of lipid to protein in different membranes may vary from 5:1 (e.g,. myelin) to 1:5 (e.g., the inner membrane of mitochondria). Usually, pore diameters in membranes are small and permit only the passage of low molecular mass chemicals. However, some specialized membranes such as those found in the glomeruli of the kidney, which can have pore sizes of up to 4 nm, also permit the passage of compounds with molecular mass greater than 10 000. The amphipathic nature of the membrane creates a barrier for ionized, highly polar compounds; however, changes in lipid composition, alterations in the shape and size of proteins, and physical features of bonding may cause changes in the permeability of membranes [22]. 2.2.2. Penetration of Membranes by Chemicals A chemical can pass through a membrane by two general processes: passive diffusion and active transport. Passive diffusion is described by Ficks law and requires no energy. Active transport processes involve the consumption of cellular energy to translocate the chemical across the
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membrane. Active transport may also act against a concentration gradient and result in the accumulation of a xenobiotic in a specic organ, cell type or organelle. Diffusion of Chemicals through Membranes. Many toxic chemicals pass membranes by simple diffusion. Their rates of diffusion depend on their lipid solubility and are often correlated with the partition coefcient (solubility in organic solvents/solubility in water). Lipophilic chemicals may diffuse directly through the lipid domain of the membrane. However, a certain degree of water solubility seems to be required for passage since many poorly lipid soluble chemicals have been shown to penetrate easily. Once initial penetration has occurred, the molecule must necessarily traverse a more polar region to dissociate from the membrane. Compounds with extremely high partition coefcients thus tend to remain in membranes and to accumulate there rather than pass through them. Polar compounds that are insoluble in the nonpolar, fatty-acid-containing inner space of the membrane often cannot penetrate membranes, although some low molecular mass polar chemicals may slowly penetrate through the aqueous pores of the membranes. The rates of movement of nonpolar xenobiotics through membranes can be predicted based on the assumptions from Ficks law of diffusion. Polar compounds and electrolytes of low molecular mass are believed to behave similarily. A rst-order equation appears to be applicable to the majority of xenobiotics. The rate of diffusion of a xenobiotic is related to its concentration gradient across the membrane (C1 C2), the surface area available for transfer A, the diameter of the membrane d, and the diffusion constant k. The latter is related to the size and structure of the molecule, the spatial conguration of the molecule, and the degree of ionization and lipid solubility of the xenobiotic.
Rate of diffusion k AC1 C2 d
calculation of the half-time of penetration t1/2, is useful. The rate constant of penetration k is derived from
k 0:693 t1=2
When the half-time of penetration after oral and dermal administration of several environmental contaminants were compared, rates were found to vary considerably. Clearly, rates of penetration by different routes in mammals show little or no correlation. Ionization becomes particularly important when xenobiotics are introduced into the gastrointestinal tract, where a variety of pH conditions are manifest (see Section 2.2.4.2). Although many drugs are acids and bases and thus potentially ionizable form, most xenobiotics are neither acids nor bases and thus are unaffected by pH. The amount of a xenobiotic in the ionized or unionized form depends upon the pKa of the xenobiotic and the pH of the medium. When the pH of a solution is equal to the pKa of the dissolved compound, 50% of the acid or base exists in the ionized and 50% in the unionized form. The degree of ionization at a specic pH is given by the HendersonHasselbalch equation:
pKa pH log nonionized ionized ionized nonionized
pKa pH log
Since the unionized, lipid-soluble form of a weak acid or base may penetrate membranes, weak organic acids diffuse most readily in an acidic environment, and organic bases in a basic environment. There is some degree of penetration even when xenobiotics are not in the most lipidsoluble form, and a small amount of absorption can produce serious effects if a compound is very toxic. 2.2.3. Mechanisms of Transport of Xenobiotics through Membranes Filtration. Passage of a solution across a porous membrane results in the retention of solutes larger than the pores. This process is
As the xenobiotic is rapidly removed after absorption, C2 can usually be ignored. and a log/ linear plot of the amount of unpenetrated chemicals present over time should be linear. When relatively comparable methods have been used,
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termed ltration. For example, ltration of solutes occurs in the kidney glomeruli, which have large pores and retain molecules with molecular masses greater than 10 000. Elsewhere in the body, ltration by pores may only result in the passage of relatively small molecules (molecular mass ca. 100), and most larger molecules are excluded. Thus, uptake of xenobiotics through these pores is only a minor mechanism of penetration. Special Transport Mechanisms. Special transport processes include active transport, facilitated transport, and endocytosis (Table 8). Often, the movement of chemicals across membranes is not due to simple diffusion or ltration. Even some very large or very polar molecules may readily pass through membranes. Active transport systems have frequently been implicated in these phenomena. Active transport may be effected by systems that help transport endogenous compounds across membranes. Such processes require energy and transport xenobiotics against electrochemical or concentration gradients. Active transport systems are saturable processes and exhibit a maximum rate of transport; they are usually specic for certain structural features of chemicals. A carrier molecule (likely a protein) associates with the chemical outside the cell, translocates it across the membrane for ultimate release inside the cell. This is particularly important for compounds that lack sufcient lipid solubility to move rapidly through the membrane by simple diffusion. Active transport plays a major role in the excretion of xenobiotics from the body, and major excretory organs such as the liver or the kidney have several transport systems which may accept organic acids, organic bases, or even metal ions as substrates.
Table 8. Special transport processes involved in the passage of xenobiotics through biological membranes Examples of Energy Against Type of transport Carrier required concentration molecule substrates gradient required Active transport Facilitated transport Endocytosis yes yes no organic acids yes in the kidney glucose yes proteins yes yes no ?
In contrast to other special transport processes, some carrier-mediated processes do not require energy and are unable to move chemicals against a concentration gradient. These processes are termed facilitated transport. Facilitated transport is particulary benecial for compounds which lack sufcient lipid solubility for rapid diffusion through the membrane. Facilitated transport is more rapid than simple diffusion up to the point at which concentrations on both sides of the membranes are equal. For example, the transport of glucose through a variety of membranes occurs by facilitated transport. The mechanisms by which facilitated transport occurs are not well understood. Pinocytosis (liquids) and phagocytosis (solids) are specialized processes in which the cell membrane invaginates or ows around a xenobiotic, usually present in particulate form, and thus enables transfer across a membrane. Although of importance once the xenobiotic has gained entry into the organism, this mechanism does not appear to be of importance in the initial absorption of a xenobiotic. 2.2.4. Absorption Absorption is the process whereby xenobiotics cross body membranes and are translocated to the blood stream. The primary sites of absorption of environmental contaminants are the gastrointestinal tract (gastrointestinal absorption), the skin (dermal absorption), and the lung (respiratory absorption). Absorption of chemicals may also occur from other sites such as muscle, the subcutis, or the peritoneum after administration by special routes. In clinical medicine, many drugs are injected directly into the bloodstream to circumvent the problems of absorption posed by the peculiarities of the different routes. 2.2.4.1. Dermal Absorption Human skin can come into contact with many potentially toxic chemicals. Skin is relatively impermeable to aqueous solutions and most xenobiotics present as ions. Therefore, it is a relatively good barrier separating the human body from the environment. However, skin is permeable in varying degrees to a large number of xenobiotics, and some chemicals may be
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absorbed through the skin in sufcient amounts to cause a toxic response [23]. A striking example of the signicance of absorption through the skin is the large number of agricultural workers who have experienced acute poisoning from exposure to parathion (dermal LD50 20 mg/kg) during application or from exposure to vegetation previously treated with this pesticide. The human skin is a complex, multilayered tissue with approximately 18 000 cm2 of surface in an average human male. Chemicals to be absorbed must pass through several cell layers before entering the small blood and lymph capillaries in the dermis. Transport in blood and lymph then distributes absorbed chemicals in the body. The human skin consists of three distinct layers (Fig. 13) and a number of associated appendages (sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles). The epidermis is a multilayered tissue varying in thickness from 0.15 (eyelids) to 0.8 mm (palms). This tissue appears to be the greatest deterrent to the absorption of xenobiotics. The epithelial tissues of the skin develop and grow divergently from other tissues. Proliferative layers of the basal cells (stratum germinativum) differentiate and gradually replace cells above them as surface cells deteriorate and are sloughed
Figure 13. Cross section of human skin a) Stratum corneum; b) Sebaceous gland; c) Sweat gland; d) Hair follicle; e) Fat; f ) Muscle
from the epidermis. Cells in this layer produce brous, insoluble keratin that lls the cells, and a sulfur-rich amorphous protein that comprises the cell matrix and thickened cell membrane. This cell layer, the stratum corneum, provides the primary barrier to the penetration of foreign compounds. It consists of several layers of attened, stratied, highly keratinized cells. These cells are approximately 2540 mm wide and have lost their nuclei. Although highly water retarding, the dead, keratinized cells of the stratum corneum are highly water absorbent (hydrophilic), a property that keeps the skin supple and soft. A natural oil covering the skin, the sebum, appears to maintain the water-holding capacity of the epidermis but has no appreciable role in retarding the penetration of xenobiotics. The rate-determining barrier in the chemical absorption of xenobiotics is the stratum corneum. The dermis and subcutaneous tissue offer little resistance to penetration, and once a substance has penetrated the epidermis these tissues are rapidly traversed. The dermis is a highly vascular area that provides ready access to blood and lymph for distribution once the epithelial barrier has been passed. The blood supply in the dermis is subjected to complex, interacting neural and humoral inuences whose temperatureregulating function can have an effect on distribution by altering blood supply to this area. Therefore, the extent of absorption of a chemical through the skin may be inuenced by temperature, and relative humidity [24]. The skin appendages are found in the dermis and extend through the epidermis. The primary appendages are the sweat glands (epicrine and apocrine), hair, and sebaceous glands. These structures extend to the outer surface and therefore may play a role in the penetration of xenobiotics; however, since they represent only 0.1 to 1% of the total surface of the skin, their contribution to overall dermal absorption is usually minor. Percutaneous absorption can occur by several routes, but the majority of unionized, lipidsoluble xenobiotics appear to move by passive diffusion directly through the cells of the stratum corneum. Important arguments for the importance of transepidermal absorption are that epidermal damage or removal of the stratum corneum increases permeability, the epidermal penetration rate equals whole-skin penetration,
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epidermal penetration is markedly slower than dermal, and the epidermal surface area is 100 1000 times the surface area of the skin appendages. Very small and/or polar molecules appear to have more favorable penetration through appendages or other diffusion shunts, but only a small fraction of toxic xenobiotics are chemicals of this type. Polar substances, in addition to movement through shunts, may diffuse through the outer surface of the protein laments of the hydrated stratum corneum, while nonpolar molecules dissolve in and diffuse through the nonaqueous lipid matrix between the protein laments. Human stratum corneum displays signicant differences in structure from one region of the body to the other, which affect the rate of absorption. Penetration at certain body regions thus varies according to the polarity and size of the molecule, but it is generally accepted that for most unionized xenobiotics the rate of penetration is in the following order: scrotal > forehead > axilla scalp > back abdomen > palm and plantar. The palm and plantar regions are highly diffuse, but their much greater thickness (100400 times that of other regions) introduces an overall lag time in diffusion. The condition of the skin greatly inuences the absorption of xenobiotics. Damage to or removal of the stratum corneum cause a dramatic increase in the permeability of the epidermis for xenobiotics. Caustic and corrosive chemicals such as acids or alkali or burns will greatly enhance dermal absorption and thus inuence the toxicity of a xenobiotic applied to the skin. Soaps and detergents are among the damaging substances routinely applied to skin. Whereas organic solvents must be applied in high concentrations to damage skin, 1% aqueous solutions of detergents increase the rate of penetration of solutes through human epidermis dramatically. Alteration of the stratum corneum by organic solvents may also be the cause of increased penetration. Organic solvents can be divided into damaging and nondamaging categories. Damaging solvents include methanol, acetone, diethyl ether, hexane, and some solvent mixtures. These solvents and mixtures can extract lipids and proteolipids from tissues and are thus expected to alter permeability. Although the mechanical strength of the stratum corneum is unaltered, delipidization produces a more porous, nonselective sur-
face. Solvents such as higher alcohols, esters, and olive oil do not appear to damage skin appreciably. On the contrary, the penetration rate of solutes dissolved in them is often reduced. Surprisingly, lipid-soluble xenobiotics may be markedly resistant to washing, even a short time after application. For example, 15 min after application, a substantial portion of parathion cannot be removed from contaminated skin by soap and water. When comparisons across species are made, human skin appears to be more impermeable, or at least as impermeable, as the skin of the cat, dog, rat, mouse, or guinea pig. The skin of pigs and guinea pigs in particular serves as a useful approximation to human skin, but only after a comparison has been made for each specic chemical. Temperature, surface area of applied dose, simultaneous application of another xenobiotic, relative humidity, occlusion, age, and hyperthermia are among a number of chemical, physical, and physiological factors that may alter skin penetration. 2.2.4.2. Gastrointestinal Absorption The oral route of entry into the body is specially important for accidental or purposeful (suicide) ingestion of poisonous materials. Food additives, food toxins, environmental xenobiotics accumulated in the food chain, and airborne particles excluded from passage to to alveoli are also introduced into the digestive system. The penetration of orally administered xenobiotics is primarily conned to the stomach and intestine [25]. The gastrointestinal tract may be viewed as a tube traversing the body. It consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, colon, and rectum (Fig. 14). The digestive tract is lined by a single layer of columnar cells, usually protected by mucus, which do not present a barrier to penetration. The circulatory system is closely associated with the intestinal tract (30 50 mm from membrane to vasculature), and once xenobiotics have crossed the epithelium of the intestinal tract, entry into capillaries is rapid. Venous blood ow from the stomach and intestine rapidly removes absorbed xenobiotics and introduces them into the hepatic portal vein, which transports them to the liver.
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Figure 14. A) Intestinal tract in humans; B) Anatomy of the intestinal wall, the major site of absorption of xenobiotics The lining of the small intestine is highly folded and has a special surface structure (brush-border membrane) to give a large surface available for the efcient uptake of nutrients. a) Esophagus (4 7.2); b) Stomach (1.0 3.0); c) Duodenum (4.8 8.2); d) Pancreas; e) Colon (7.9 8.0); f ) Jejunum (7.6); g) Ileum (7.6); h) Rectum (7.8); i) Brush-border membrane Numbers in brackets represent pH in different parts of the intestinal tract.
Absorption of chemicals may take place along the entire gastrointestinal tract, but most xenobiotics are absorbed in the stomach and the small intestine. A major factor favoring absorption in the intestine is the presence of microvilli that increase the surface area to an estimated 100 m2 in the small intestine (see Fig. 14) Because the intestinal area thus offers maximal opportunity for absorption, it is generally accepted that absorption of xenobiotics is greatest in this area of the gastrointestinal tract. Although the gastrointestinal tract has some special transport processes for the absorption of nutrients and electrolytes, most xenobiotics seem to enter the body from the
gastrointestinal tract by simple diffusion. Exeptions are some heavy metals such as thallium and lead, which mimic the essential metals iron and calcium, respectively. They are thus absorbed by active transport systems developed for the uptake of these nutrients. The gastrointestinal tract has areas of highly variable pH, which can markedly change the permeability characteristics of ionic compounds. For example, passive diffusion is greatly limited except for unionized, lipid-soluble chemicals. Although variable according to secretory activity, the pH of the stomach is ca. 13 and that of the intestine ca. 7. The measured pH of the intestinal
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contents may not be the same as the pH of the epithelium at the site of absorption, and this explains the entrance of compounds whose pKa would suggest less favored absorption. The variations in pH in the different sections of the intestinal tract may inuence the absorption of acids and bases. Since most xenobiotics are absorbed by diffusion, only the unionized, membrane-permeable form may be absorbed. Weak organic acids are mainly present in the unionized, lipid-soluble form in the stomach, and predominantly in the ionized form in the intestine. Therefore, organic acids are expected to be more readily absorbed from the stomach than from the intestine. In contrast, weak organic bases are ionized in the stomach but present in the lipidsoluble form (unionized) in the intestine. Absorption of such compounds should therefore predominantly occur in the intestine rather than in the stomach. However, other factors determining the rate of membrane penetration such as surface area available for diffusion, blood ow (inuencing concentration gradients), and the law of mass action also inuence the site of absorption of acids or bases from the gastrointestinal tract. For example, although only 1% of benzoic acid is present in the lipid-soluble, unionized form in the small intestine, the large surface area and the rapid removal of absorbed benzoic acid with the blood result in its efcient absorption from the small intestine. Other factors contribute to gastrointestinal absorption Clearly a xenobiotic must be dissolved before absorption can take place. Particle size, organic solvents, emulsiers, and rate of dissolution thus also effect absorption. In addition, the presence of microorganisms and hydrolysis-promoting pH offer opportunities for the biotransformation of many xenobiotics. Other factors affecting gastrointestinal absorption include binding to gut contents, intestinal motility, rate of emptying, temperature of food, effects of dietary constituents, health status of the individual, and gastrointestinal secretion. 2.2.4.3. Absorption of Xenobiotics by the Respiratory System The respiratory system is an organ in direct contact with environmental air as an unavoidable
part of living. A number of xenobiotics exist in gaseous (carbon monoxide, nitric oxides), vapor (benzene, carbon tetrachloride), and aerosol (lead from automobile exhaust, silica, asbestos) forms and are potential candidates for entry via the respiratory system. Indeed, the most important cause of death from acute intoxication (carbon monoxide) and the most frequent occupational disease (silicosis) are caused by the absorption or deposition of airborne xenobiotics in the lung. The respiratory tract consists of three major regions: the nasopharyngeal, the tracheobronchial, and the pulmonary (Fig. 15). The nasopharynx begins in the mouth and extents down to the level of the larynx. The trachea, bronchii, and bronchioli serve as conducting airways between the nasopharynx and the alveoli, the site of gas exchange between the inhaled air and the blood. The human respiratory system is a complex organ containing over 40 different cell types. These cell types contribute to the
Figure 15. Anatomy of the human respiratory system a) Trachea; b) Bronchii; c) Bronchioli; d) Alveoli; e) Capillary; f ) Erythrocyte
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pulmonary architecture and function over various zones of the lung, although to some extent, individual cell types can be found in several zones. The tracheobronchial system comprises airways lined with bronchial epithelium with associated submucosal glands and several different tissues with specic function and the lung vasculature. The absorption of xenobiotics by the respiratory route is favored by the short path of diffusion, large surface area (50100 m2), and large concentration gradients. At the alveoli (site of gas exchange), the membranes are very thin (1 2 mm) and are intimately associated with the vascular system. This enables rapid exchange of gases (ca. 5 ms for CO2 and ca. 200 ms for O2). A thin lm of uid lining the alveolar walls aids in the initial absorption of xenobiotics from the alveolar air. Simple diffusion accounts for the somewhat complex series of events in the lung regarding gas absorption. The sequences of respiration, which involve several interrelated air volumes, dene both the capacity of the lung and factors important to particle deposition and retention. Among the elements important in total lung capacity is the residual volume, that is, the amount of air retained by the lung despite maximal expiratory effort. Largely due to slow release from this volume, gaseous xenobiotics in the expired air are not cleared immediately, and many expirations may be necessary to rid the air in the lung of residual xenobiotic. The rate of entry of vapor-phase xenobiotics is controlled by the alveolar ventilation rate, and a xenobiotic present in alveolar air may come into contact with the alveoli in an interrupted fashion about 20 times per minute. The diffusion coefcient of the gas in the uids of pulmonary membranes is another important consideration, but doses are more appropriately discussed in terms of the partial pressure of the xenobiotic in the inspired air. On inhalation of a constant tension of a gaseous xenobiotic, arterial plasma tension of the gas approaches the tension of gas in the expired air. The rate of entry is then determined by blood solubility of the xenobiotic and blood ow. For a high blood/gas partition coefcient, a larger amount must be dissolved in the blood to raise the partial pressure. Chemicals with a high blood/gas partition coefcient require a longer period to approach the same tension in the blood as in inspired air than less soluble gases.
Aerosols and Particulates. The entry of aerosols and particulates is affected by a number of factors. A coal miner inhales ca. 6000 g of coal dust particles during his occupational lifetime, and only ca. 100 g are found postmortem; therefore, effective protective mechanisms are operative. The parameters of air velocity and directional changes in air ow favor impaction of particles in the upper respiratory systems. Particle characteristics such as size, chemistry of the inhaled material, sedimentation and electrical charge are important to retention, absorption, or expulsion of airborne particles. In addition to the other aforementioned lung characteristics, a mucous blanket propelled by ciliary action clears the respiratory tract of particles by directing them to the gastrointestinal system (via the glottis) or to the mouth for expectoration. This system is responsible for 80% of lung particulate clearance. The deposition of various particle sizes in different respiratory regions is summarized in Figure 16, which shows that particle size is important for disposition and particles larger than 2 mm do not reach the alveoli [26]. The direct penetration of airborne xenobiotics at alveolar surfaces or in the upper respiratory tract is not the only action of toxicological importance. Both vapors and particulates can accumulate in upper respiratory passages to produce irritant effects. Irritant gases may be deposited in the respiratory tract depending on their water solubility and may cause localized damage characterized by edema, swelling, mucus production, and increased d vascular permeability. If major airways are obstructed by these processes or
Figure 16. Effect of size on the disposition and sedimentation of particulates in the respiratory tract The site of particle sedimentation is determined largely by particle size; only very ne particles are deposited in the alveoli; larger particles do not reach the lung but are deposited in the nasopharynx
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important anatomical structures of the respiratory tract like the alveoli are damaged, lifethreatening or deadly intoxications may be caused by the inhalation of irritant gases. Despite the effectiveness of ciliary movement and phagocytosis, the cumulative effects of silica, asbestos, or coal dust ultimately cause chronic brosis even though direct absorption is of minor importance. Thus, phagocytosis prevents acute damage but may contribute to chronic toxicity. There is little evidence for active transport in the respiratory system, although pinocytosis may be of importance for penetration. The lung is an area of extensive metabolic activity; enzymes present in the lung may catalyze both activation and detoxication of xenobiotics (see Section 2.5).
2.3. Distribution of Xenobiotics by Body Fluids

After entering the blood by absorption or by intravenous administration, xenobiotics are available for distribution throughout the body. The initial rate of distribution to organs and tissues is determined by the blood ow to that organ and the rate of diffusion of the chemical into the specic organ or tissue. Uptake of xenobiotics into organs or tissues may occur by either passive diffusion or by special transport processes. Within tissues binding, storage, and/ or biotransformation may occur. After reaching equilibrium, the distribution of a chemical among organs and tissues is largely determined by afnity; blood ow determines distribution only during the initial phase shortly after uptake. Body uids are distributed between three distinct compartments: vascular water, interstitial water and intracellular water. Plasma water and interstitial water are extracellular water. Plasma water plays an important role in the distribution of xenobiotics. Human plasma accounts for about 4% of the total body weight and 53% of the total volume of blood. By comparison, the interstitial tissue uids account for 13% of body weight, and intracellular uids account for 41%. The concentration of a xenobiotic in blood following exposure will depend largely on its apparent volume of distribution. If the xenobiotic is distributed only in the plasma, a high concentration will be achieved within the vascular tissue. In contrast, the concentration will be
markedly lower if the same quantity of xenobiotic were distributed in a larger pool including the interstitial water and/or intracellular water. Among the factors that affect distribution, apart from binding to blood macromolecules, are the route of administration, rate of biotransformation, polarity of the parent xenobiotic or biotransformation products, and rate of excretion by the liver or kidneys. Gastrointestinal absorption and intraperitoneal administration provide for immediate passage of a compound to the liver, whereas dermal or respiratory routes involve at least one passage through the systemic circulation prior to reaching the liver. The metabolism of most xenobiotics results in products that are more polar and thus more readily excreted than the parent molecules. Therefore, the rate of metabolism is a critical determinant in the distribution of a compound, since compounds that are readily metabolized are usually readily excreted, and thus are proportionally less prone to accumulate in certain tissues. The same principle applies to polarity, since very polar xenobiotics will be readily excreted. Chemicals may circulate either free or bound to plasma protein or blood cells; the degree of binding and factors inuencing the equilibrium with the free form may inuence availability for biotransformation, storage, and/or excretion [27]. Patterns of xenobiotic distribution reect certain physiological properties of the organism and the physicochemical properties of the xenobiotics. An initial phase of distribution may be distinguished that reects cardiac output and blood ow to organs. Heart, liver, kidney, brain, and other well-perfused organ- receive most of a lipophilic xenobiotic within the rst few minutes after absorption. Delivery to the smooth muscles, most viscera, and skin is slower, and the time to reach a steady-state concentration of a xenobiotic in these organs may be several hours. A second phase of xenobiotic distribution may therefore be distinguished; it is limited by blood ow to an organ or tissue and involves a far larger fraction of body mass than the rst phase of distribution (Fig. 17). Only a limited number of xenobiotics have sufcient solubility in blood to account for simple dissolution as a route of distribution; the distribution of many xenobiotics occurs in association with plasma proteins. The binding of drugs to plasma proteins is of key importance
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Figure 17. Uptake and redistribution with blood of lipophilic xenobiotics Lipophilic xenobiotics in the blood are rst distributed to well-perfused organs (A); after some time, they are redistributed to organs with lower blood ow representing a larger fraction of the body weight (B, C)
in transport. Many organic and inorganic compounds of low molecular mass appear to bind to lipoproteins, albumins, and other proteins in plasma and are transported as protein conjugates. This binding is reversible. Cellular components may also be responsible for transport of xenobiotics, but such transport is rarely a major route. The transport of xenobiotics by lymph is usually quantitatively of little importance since the intestinal blood ow is 500700 times greater than the intestinal lymph ow. A large number of studies on binding of drugs by plasma protein have demonstrated that binding to serum albumin is particularly important for these chemicals. Only few studies on the reversible binding of toxic xenobiotics have been performed, but available evidence suggests a significant role of lipoproteins in plasma. These plasma proteins may bind xenobiotics as well as some physiological constituents of the body. Examples for plasma proteins which may bind xenobiotics are albumin, a- and b-lipoproteins, and metalbinding proteins such as transferrin. Lipoproteins are important for the transport of lipid-soluble endogenous chemicals such as vitamins, steroid
hormones, and cholesterol, but they may also bind lipophilic xenobiotics. If a xenobiotic is bound to a protein, it is immobilized remote from the site of action. The extent of binding to plasma proteins varies considerably among xenobiotics. While some are not at all bound, for others more than 90% of administered dose may be bound to plasma proteins. These ligandprotein interactions are reversible and provide a remarkably efcient means for transport of xenobiotics to various tissues. The xenobioticprotein interaction may be simply described according to the law of mass action as:
where [T]F and [T]B are the concentrations of free and bound xenobiotic molecules, respectively, and k1 and k2 are the rate constants for association and dissociation; k2, which governs the rate of binding to the protein, dictates the rate of xenobiotic release at a site of action or storage. The ratio k1/k2 is identical with the dissociation constant Kdiss. Among a group of binding sites on
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proteins, those with the smallest Kdiss for a given xenobiotic will bind it most tightly. In contrast to the covalent binding to proteins seen with many xenobiotics or their electrophilic metabolites (see Section 2.6.6.6), the interaction of xenobiotics with plasma proteins is most often noncovalent and reversible. Noncovalent binding is of primary importance with respect to distribution because of the opportunities to dissociate after transport. Binding of xenobiotics to plasma proteins may be due to several types of interactions which are summarized in the following. Ionic Binding. Electrostatic attraction occurs between two oppositely charged ions. The degree of binding varies with the chemical nature of each compound and the net charge. Dissociation of ionic bonds usually occurs readily, but some transition metals exhibit high association constants (low Kdiss values), and exchange is slow. Ionic interactions may also contribute to binding of alkaloids with ionizable nitrogen groups and other ionizable xenobiotics. Hydrogen Bonding. Generally, only the most electronegative atoms form stable hydrogen bonds. Protein side chains containing hydroxyl, amino, carboxyl, imidazole, and carbamyl groups may form hydrogen bonds, as can the nitrogen and oxygen atoms of peptide bonds. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in the structural conguration of proteins and nucleic acids. Van der Waals Forces are very weak interactions between the nucleus of one atom and the electrons of another atom, i.e., between dipoles and induced dipoles. The attractive forces are based on slight distortions induced in the electron clouds surrounding each nucleus as two atoms come close together. The binding force is critically dependent upon the proximity of interacting atoms and diminishes rapidly with distance. However, when these forces are summed over a large number of interacting atoms that t together spatially, they can play a signicant role in determining specicity of xenobioticprotein interactions. Hydrophobic Interactions. When two nonpolar groups come together they exclude the
water between them, and this mutual repulsion of water results in a hydrophobic interaction. In the aggregate they represent the least possible disruption of interactions among polar water molecules and thus can lead to stable complexes. Some consider this a special case of van der Waals forces. The minimization of thermodynamically unfavorable contact of a polar group with water molecules provides the major stabilizing effect in hydrophobic interactions. Consequences of the binding to plasma proteins are reduced availability of the free xenobiotic in the cells and a delayed excretion. The xenobiotic bound to plasma protein cannot cross capillary walls due to its high molecular mass. The fraction of dose bound is thus not available for delivery to the extravascular space or for ltration by the kidney. It is generally accepted that the fraction of xenobiotic that is bound may not exert toxic effects; however, many xenobiotics and endogenous compounds appear to compete for the same binding site, and thus one compound may alter the unbound fraction of another by displacement, thereby potentially increasing toxic effects. Plasma proteins that can bind endogenous chemicals and xenobiotics are listed below, together with examples of bonded xenobiotics:
a-Lipoproteins vitamins A, K, D steroid hormones dieldrin salicylate tetracyclines phenols vitamin C
Albumin
Binding of xenobiotics to plasma proteins is mostly reversible; the bound xenobiotic is in equilibrium with free xenobiotic, and thus binding usually slows excretion or delivery to cellular sites of action. Toxicological consequences of the reversible binding of a xenobiotic to plasma proteins may arise after saturation of the binding capacities of plasma proteins and by displacement of the bound xenobiotic by another chemical with higher afnity, which increases the free fraction of the formerly bound xenobiotic. This will result in an increased equilibrium concentration of the xenobiotic in plasma and in the target organ, with potentially harmful consequences.
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2.5. Storage of Xenobiotics in Organs and Tissues

Absorbed xenobiotics may be concentrated in specic organs or tissues. The concentration of a xenobiotic in a specic tissue may cause toxic effects to that particular tissue; some xenobiotics actually attain their highest concentration at the site of toxic action. However, other xenobiotics may be concentrated in tissues without harmful consequences. Some tissues have a high capacity to accommodate certain xenobiotics and may release them only slowly. The compartment or tissue in which a chemical is concentrated can also be considered as a storage depot for this xenobiotic. If a chemical is stored in a depot and thus removed from the site of action (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls in fat or lead in bone), no immediate manifestation of toxicity may be observed, even though a potential for adverse effects exists. For example, lead stored in bone does not cause a toxic response but has the potential for mobilization and thus for migration into soft tissues; toxic effects may appear after mobilization. As the xenobiotic in storage depots is in equilibrium with the free xenobiotic in plasma, mobilization is constant, and exposure of the target organ to low concentrations of the xenobiotic is constant. Some storage depots for specic chemicals follow:
Lead Fluoride Cadmium Iron Polychlorinated pesticides such as DDT Arsenic bone bone, teeth kidney transferrin (a blood protein) fat skin
Liver, kidney, fat, bone, and plasma proteins may serve as storage depots for absorbed xenobiotics. Both liver and kidney have a high capacity to store xenobiotics and are major storage sites for a multitude of chemicals. Accumulation of circulating xenobiotics form the blood by active transport systems and binding to certain tissue constituents are major mechanisms involved in the renal and hepatic storage. Several thiol-rich proteins present in liver and kidney have a high afnity for xenobiotics [28]. The binding protein ligandin, which as a gluta-
thione S-transferase also has enzymatic activity (Section 2.6.6.6) and thus participates in xenobiotic biotransformation, binds organic acids, some azo dyes, and corticosteroids. Metallothionein, a cysteine-rich protein present in liver and kidney, serves as a binding and storage protein for metals such as cadmium and zinc. Its biosynthesis increases after exposure to metals,and this may result in storage of a considerable percentage of cumulative metal dose as metalothionein complex in liver and kidney. Highly lipophilic chemicals rapidly penetrate membranes and are thus efciently taken up by tissues. Lipophilic substances that are inefciently biotransformed accumulate in the most lipophilic environment in the organism, fat. Most xenobiotics seem to accumulate by physical dissolution in neutral fats, which may constitute between 20 and 50% of the body weight in human males. Large amounts of lipophilic xenobiotics may therefore be present in fat; for xenobiotics that do not undergo biotransformation (e.g., 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin), determination of the concentration in body fat is a good measure for exposure. Usually, xenobiotics stored in fat also do not induce toxic responses, since the xenobiotic is not readily available at the target site. However, during rapid mobilization of fat during disease or starvation, a sudden increase in the plasma concentration, and thus toxic effects in target organs, may occur. For example, signs of organochlorine pesticide intoxication have been observed after starvation in animals pretreated with persistent organochlorine pesticides. Some xenobiotics have a high afnity for bone and may accumulate in the bone matrix. For example, 90% of the lead and a major part of the strontium present in the body after chronic exposure are stored in the skeleton [29]. Lead and strontium accumulate in bone due to their similarity with calcium; inorganic uoride, which is also a bone-seeker, accumulates in bone due to similarities in size and charge to the hydroxyl ion. The storage of xenobiotics in bone may or may not be responsible for toxic effects. Lead stored in the skeleton is not toxic to bone, but both stored uoride and stored strontium cause toxic effects to bone (uorosis, osteosarcoma). Xenobiotics stored in bone are also in equilibrium with the unbound xenobiotic circulating in plasma and may thus be released.
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Certain plasma proteins have a high afnity for xenobiotics, binding of a chemical to plasma proteins may constitute a both transport form and a storage form. Globulins such as transferrin (involved in iron transport) and ceruloplasmin (copper) and a- and b-lipoproteins (lipophilic xenobiotics and endogenous chemicals) may be involved in binding. Storage in tissue may greatly alter the rate of excretion of a xenobiotic. Only xenobiotics present in plasma are available for distribution, biotransformation, and excretion. However, excretion or biotransformation alters the plasma concentration of the xenobiotic, and some of the stored chemical is released into plasma from the site of storage. Owing to this mechanism, the rate of excretion of a xenobiotic stored in tissues can be very low.
protein in rat liver consist of cytochromes P450, which are major biotransformation enzymes. The broad specity of the biotransformation enzymes likely has evolutionary reasons. Biotransformation enzymes have evolved to facilitate the excretion of lipophilic chemicals present in the diet of animals. The broad substrate specicity helped to adjust to new dietary constituents and thus led to evolutionary advantages. Biotransformation is generally the sum of several processes by which the structure of a chemical is changed during passage through the organism. The metabolites formed from the parent chemical are usually more water soluble; the increased water solubility reduces the ability of the metabolites to partition into membranes, restricts renal and intestinal reabsorption, and thus facilitates excretion with urine or bile. 2.6.1. Phase-I and Phase-II Reactions Xenobiotic metabolism is catalyzed by a number of different enzymes. For solely operational purposes, the biotransformation enzymes are separated into two phases. In phase-I reactions, which involve oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis, a polar group is added to the xenobiotic or is exposed by the biotransformation enzymes. Phase-II reactions are biosynthetic and link the metabolite formed by phase-I reactions to a polar endogenous molecule to produce a conjugate. Various endogenous molecules with high polarity and are utilized for conjugation; the resulting conjugates are often ionized at physiological pH and thus highly water soluble. Moreover, the moieties used for conjugation are often recognized by specic active transport processes, which assist in their translocation across plasma membranes and thus further enhance the rate of excretion. The fate of a particular chemical and the participation of the various phase-I and phaseII biotransformation enzymes is determined by its chemical structure; biotransformation is usually complex and often integrated. Many chemicals bearing functional groups undergo conjugation without prior phase-I biotransformation, whereas others are oxidized or reduced prior to conjugation. However, chemicals lacking functional groups may also undergo phase-II biotransformations without being subjected to a prior phase-I reaction (examples are
2.6. Biotransformation
Most xenobiotics entering the body are lipophilic. This property enables them to penetrate lipid membranes, to be transported by lipoproteins in the blood, and to be rapidly absorbed by the target organ. However, the efcient excretory mechanisms of the organism require solubility of the xenobiotic in aqueous media and thus a certain degree of hydrophilicity is required for efcient excretion. Lipophilic substances can only be excreted efciently by exhalation, but this is restricted to volatile xenobiotics. In the absence of efcient means for excretion of nonvolatile chemicals, constant exposure or even intermittent single exposures to a lipophilic chemical could result in accumulation of the xenobiotic in the organism. Therefore, animal organisms have developed a number of biochemical processes that convert lipophilic chemicals to hydrophilic chemicals and thus assist in their excretion. These enzymatic processes are termed biotransformation, and the enzymes catalyzing biotransformation reactions are referred to as biotransformationenzymes. The biotransformation enzymes differ from most other enzymes by having a broad substrate specity and by catalyzing reactions at comparatively low rates. The low rates of biotransformation reactions are often compensated by high concentrations of biotransformation enzymes. For example, ca. 5 wt% of the
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1,2-dibromoethane and perchloroethene; see Section 2.6.4). 2.6.2. Localization of the Biotransformation Enzymes The biotransformation enzymes are localized mainly in the liver. A signicant fraction of the blood from the splanchnic area, which also contains xenobiotics absorbed from the intestine, enters the liver. Therefore, the liver has developed the capacity to enzymatically modify most of these chemicals before storage, release, or excretion. However, most other tissues also have the capacity to catalyse biotransformation reactions; indeed, most tissues tested have shown the presence of enzymes which can catalyze biotransformation reactions. The contribution of extrahepatic organs to the biotransformation of a chemical depends on many factors, including chemical structure, dose, and route of administration. However, biotransformation of a chemical within an extrahepatic tissue may have toxic effects on this specic tissue and may thus have important toxicological consequences. Inside cells, phase-I enzymes are mainly present in the endoplasmatic reticulum, a myriad of lipoprotein membranes extending from the mitochondria and the nucleus to the plasma membranes of the cell. When an organ is homogenized, the endoplasmatic reticulum is broken and membrane fragments are sealed of to form microvesicles. These microvesicles can be sedimented by differential centrifugation, and the materials thus obtained is known as a microsomes. They are highly enriched in vesicles from the endoplasmatic reticulum and retain active biotransformation enzymes. Microsomes are often used to study the enzymatic biotransformation of xenobiotics in vitro. The presence of phase-I enzymes within membranes has important implications, since lipophilic chemicals will preferentially distribute into lipid membranes; thus, high concentrations of lipophilic xenobiotics are present at this site of biotransformation. In contrast to phase-I enzymes, phase-II enzymes are often soluble, non-membrane-associated, and present in the cytoplasm of the cell. They are found in the supernatant (cytosol) obtained by ultracentrifugation of homogenized tissues. The subcellular
localizations of enzymes responsible for biotransformation afollow:

Phase-I enzymes Cytochrome P450 Flavin-dependent mono-oxygenase Prostaglandin synthase Epoxide hydrolase Phase-II enzymes UDP-glucuronyl-transferases Sulfotransferases N-acetyltransferases Glutathione S-transferase
microsomal microsomal microsomal microsomal/cytosolic microsomal cytosolic cytosolic cytosolic/microsomal
2.6.3. Role of Biotransformation in Detoxication and Bioactivation The general purpose of biotransformation reactions is detoxication, since xenobiotics should be transformed to metabolites which are more readily excreted. However, depending on the structure of the chemical and the enzyme catalyzing the biotransformation reaction, metabolites with a higher potential for toxicity than the parent compound are often formed. This process is termed bioactivation and is the basis for the toxicity and carcinogenicity of many xenobiotics with a low chemical reactivity (see Section 2.6.6). The interaction of the toxic metabolite initiates events that ultimately may result in cell death, cancer, teratogenicity, organ failure, and other manifestations of toxicity. Formation of reactive and more toxic metabolites is more frequently associated with phase-I reactions; however, phase-II reactions and combinations of phase-I and phase-II reactions may also be involved in toxication. 2.6.4. Phase-I Enzymes and their Reactions Phase-I reactions are catalyzed by microsomal monooxygenases and peroxidases, cytosolic and mitochondrial oxidases, reductases, and hydrolytic enzymes. All these reactions add or expose functional groups which can be conjugated later. 2.6.4.1. Microsomal Monooxygenases: Cytochrome P450 Microsomal monooxygenases are the cytochrome P450 enzymes and the mixed-function
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amine oxidase or avin-dependent monooxygenase. Both enzyme systems add a hydroxyl moiety to the xenobiotic. Cytochrome P450, a carbon monoxide binding hemoprotein in microsomes, is the most important enzyme system involved in phase-I reactions. The name cytochrome P450 is a generic term applied to a group of hemoproteins dened by the unique spectral property observed when reduced cytochrome P450 (Fe2) is treated with carbon monoxide. The complex formed has a maximum absorption at 450 nm imparted by the presence of an axial thiolate ligand on the heme iron atom. This spectral characteristic is only present when the protein is intact and catalytically functional. Denatured cytochrome P450 shows, like other heme proteins, an absorbance maximum at 420 nm. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a coupled enzyme system composed of the heme-containing cytochrome P450 and the NADPH-containing cytochrome P450 reductase [30]. This avoprotein has a preference for NADPH as its cofactor and transfers one or two electrons from NADPH to cytochrome P450. Cytochrome P450 and the reductase are embedded into the phospholipid matrix of the endoplasmatic reticulum. The phospholipid matrix is crucial for enzymatic activity since it facilitates the interaction between the two enzymes. The importance of the phospholipid matrix is indicated by the following: Both cytochrome P450 and cytochrome P450 reductase can be puried to apparent homogeneity; the enzymatic activity of the puried and recombined enzymes is dependent on the addition of phospholipids. In vertebrates, the highest concentrations of cytochrome P450 are found in the liver, but cytochrome P450 enzymes are also present in lung [3135], kidney, testes, skin, and gastrointestinal tract [36]. The presence of several forms of cytochrome P450 with different substrate specicity and different rates of biotransformation for certain xenobiotics was indicated by studies in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, several different cytochrome P450 enzymes from rodents were puried to apparent homogenicity. Moreover, a large number of cytochrome P450 enzymes have been puried from human organs. All these cytochrome P450 enzymes share the heme, but they differ in both the composition and thus the structure of the polypeptide chain and in the reactions they catalyze [3740].
Table 9. Mammalian cytochromes P450 involved in xenobiotic biotransformation Family CYP1 CYP2 CYP3 CYP4 Number of subfamilies 1 8 2 2 Number of forms 2 59 11 10
The individual enzymes are regulated in their expression by a variety of factors such as treatment with xenobiotics, species, organ, sex, and diet. Because of the multitude of enzymes present, the term superfamily of cytochromes P450 is frequently used. In mammals, two general classes of cytochrome P450 exist: six families involved in steroid metabolism and bile acid biosynthesis, and four families containing numerous individual cytochromes P450, mainly responsible for xenobiotic biotransformation. A complex nomenclature, based on amino acid sequence similarity, has been developed to designate individual cytochromes P450. The genes for the individual enzymes are named by the root CYP followed by a number designating the family, a letter for the subfamily, and another number denoting the individual enzyme (see Table 9). Reactions Catalyzed by Cytochrome P450. Cytochromes P450 are monooxygenases. They utilize one of the oxygen atoms of molecular oxygen and incorporate it into the xenobiotic RH:
RHO2 NADPHH !ROHH2 ONADP
The other oxygen atom is reduced to water with consumption of NADPH as reducing cofactor. The likely mechanisms of electron transfer and xenobiotic oxidation is shown in Figure 18. In the rst step of the catalytic cycle, the xenobiotic combines with the oxidized form of cytochrome P450 (Fe3) followed by a oneelectron reduction by NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase to form a reduced (Fe2) cytochrome P450-substrate complex. This complex then combines with molecular oxygen, and another electron from NADPH is accepted. In a series of further steps, which are not completely understood, an oxygen atom from the intermediate is transferred to the substrate, while the other oxygen atom is reduced to water. In the last step of the catalytic cycle, the oxidized substrate
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Figure 18. Mechanisms of electron transfer and xenobiotic oxidation by cytochrome P450
dissociates and regenerates the oxidized form of cytochrome P450. Examples for oxidation reactions catalyzed by cytochromes P450 are shown in Table 10. Cytochromes P450 may catalyze the hydroxylation of carbonhydrogen bonds to transform hydrocarbons to the corresponding alcohols. In larger aliphatic chains, the (w 1) position is often a favored point of attack. Oxidative N-, O-, or S-dealkylation and oxidative dehalogenation are similar in mechanism to aliphatic hydroxylation, but, due to further reactions of the intermediate products, give different end products. Olens are also oxidized by cytochrome P450, and with some substrates, epoxides are formed as products. The reaction, however, does not proceed in a
concerted manner, but involves discrete ionic intermediates, which may also rearrange to products other than epoxides, as shown for chloroolens in Figure 19. Oxidation at sulfur or nitrogen occurs by the addition of oxygen at the unshared electron pair on the sulfur or nitrogen atom. The products formed (sulfoxides or hydroxylamines) may be stable (many sulfoxides), may be further oxidized by other enzymes in the organism (e.g., hydroxylamines), or may decompose to sulfur and the corresponding oxo compound. The above-mentioned reactions may be catalyzed by most cytochromes P450 involved in xenobiotic biotransformation; the type of reaction catalyzed seems to be more inuenced by steric factors regarding the substrate-binding site
Table 10. Oxidations catalyzed by cytochrome P450
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Figure 19. Mechanism of oxidation and rearrangement of trichloroethylene to chloral and trichlorooxirane, respectively
of individual cytochromes P450 than by electronic factors. As shown in Table 11, which gives an overview of human cytochrome P450s involved in the biotransformation of xenobiotics and drugs, steric factors are likely major determinants of the substrate specicity of cytochrome P450 enzymes. In addition to promoting oxidative metabolism, cytochrome P450 may also catalyze reductive biotransformation reactions [41, 42]. These reaction are favored under reduced oxygen pressure or occur with xenobiotics lacking oxidizable C H bonds or olenic moieties. In these cases, instead of oxygen, the xenobiotic accepts one or two electrons from NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase or from cytochrome P450. Reductive biotransformation catalyzed by cytochrome P450 has been demonstrated with some azo dyes and several aromatic nitro compounds. The double bond in azo compounds may be progressively reduced to give amine metabolites; aromatic nitro groups may also be reduced via the nitrone and the hydroxylamine to the corresponding amine. The reductive biotransformation of polyhalogenated alkanes is exemplied by the one-electron reduction of carbon tetrachloride to the trichloromethyl radical and chloride; reductive biotransformation of carbon tetrachloride by a two-electron reduction results in formation of chloroform:
2.6.4.2. Microsomal Monooxygenases: Flavin-Dependent Monooxygenases Tertiary amines and sulfur-containing drugs have been known to be metabolized to N-oxides or sulfoxides by a microsomal monooxygenase which is not dependent on cytochrome P450 [43, 44]. This enzyme, which is historically referred to as mixed-function amine oxidase, is a avoprotein that is present in the endoplasmatic reticulum. It is capable of oxidizing nucleophilic nitrogen and sulfur atoms in xenobiotics. However, this enzyme shows a catalytic mechanism different from those of other heme- or avincontaining enzymes. Like other monooxygenases, avin-containing monooxygenases require molecular oxygen and NADPH as cofactors for oxygenation. In contrast to the other monooxygenases, avin-dependent monooxygenases do not contain heme or iron, and the binding of the substrate is not required for the generation of the enzyme bound oxygenating intermediate (Fig. 20). The active, oxygenating form of the enzyme is present in the cell, and any soft, oxidizable nucleophile that can gain access to the
Table 11. Human cytochromes P450 identied as major catalysts in the biotransformation of specic xenobiotics that seem to play major roles in the oxidation of substrates listed Cytochrome P450 1A1 Benzo[a]pyrene Other polycyclic hydrocarbons 1A2 phenacetin 1-aminouorene 2-amino-3-methylimidazo-[4,5-f ]quinoline 2-naphthylamine 2E1 vinyl chloride trichloroethylene halothane benzene dimethylnitrosamine acetaminophen 3A4 aatoxin B1 17-b-estradiol 6-aminochrysene sterigmatocystine nifedipine ethinylestradiol
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Figure 20. Mechanism of xenobiotic oxidation by the avin-dependent monooxygenase FAD avineadenine dinucleotide
enzyme-bound oxygenating intermediate will be oxidized. Precise t of substrate to the enzyme is not necessary. This property seems to be largely responsible for the broad substrate specicity of avin-dependent monooxygenases. Flavin-dependent monooxygenase catalyzes the oxidation of a wide variety of xenobiotics with few, if any, common structural features at maximum rate (Table 12). Many essential xenobiotics also bear functionalities that are oxidized by avin-dependent monooxygenases. However, these enzymes apparently discriminate between physiologically essential and xenobiotic soft nucleophiles and seem to exclude the former. As with cytochrome P450, species- and tissue-specic forms of avin-dependent monooxygenase have been described. Species differences in hepatic avin-dependent monooxygenTable 12. Oxidations catalyzed by avin-dependent monooxygenases
ase seem to be quantitative rather than qualitative, whereas tissue specic forms in the same species are clearly distinct enzymes. For example, hepatic and pulmonary avin-dependent monooxygenases in rabbits exhibit distinct, but overlapping substrate specicities and are different gene products. Recent studies have shown that several isoforms of avin-dependent monooxygenase exist; all isoforms show differences in their distribution in species and in organs within species [45]. The regulation of expression of avin-dependent monooxygenase seems to be complex. Xenobiotics which were shown to increase the concentration of cytochrome P450 in mammals did not inuence avin-dependent monooxygenase concentrations. Recent evidence suggest that soft nitrogen and sulfur nucleophiles in the diet may act as inducers of avin-dependent monooxygenases. Since the dietary inducers are continously taken up, avin-dependent monooxygenases are present in maximal concentrations in rats on commercial rat chow. 2.6.4.3. Peroxidative Biotransformation: Prostaglandin-synthase During the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid, is oxidized to yield prostaglandin G2, a hydroperoxy endoperoxide. This is further transformed to prostaglandin H2. Both the formation of prostaglandin G2 and its further transformation into prostaglandin H2 are catalyzed by the same enzyme, prostaglandin synthase [4648]. This enzyme is a glycoprotein with a molecular mass of approximately 70 000 Dalton and contains one heme per subunit. The enzyme is found in high concentrations in germinal vesicles and renal medulla, but also in several other tissues such as skin and adrenals [49]. The cyclooxygenase and peroxidase activity of prostaglandin synthase generate enzyme- and substrate-derived free-radical intermediates (Fig. 21). Biotransformation of xenobiotics may be associated both with the cyclooxygenase and the peroxidase activity of prostaglandin synthase (Fig. 21). During the cyclooxygenase-catalyzed conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin G2 peroxy radicals are formed as intermediates. These lipid peroxy radicals represent a source of
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Figure 21. Cooxidation of xenobiotics during the biosynthesis of prostaglandins
reactive oxygen metabolites (see below) and can in turn biotransform xenobiotics. Oxidation by the cyclooxygenase activity of prostaglandin synthase is important in the oxidation of diols derived from carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and transforms these diols to diol epoxides (Fig. 21, top). During the reduction of the peroxide prostaglandin G2 to prostaglandin H2, the peroxidase undergoes a two-electron oxidation. To return to the ground state the enzyme requires two consecutive one-electron reductions, which are achieved by abstracting electrons from available donors. In addition to endogenous substrates, xenobiotics may act as electron donors and may thus be oxidized to radicals (Fig. 21, bottom). This process is termed cooxidation of xenobiotics. Classes of xenobiotics that undergo cooxidation during prostaglandin syntheses are aromatic amines, phenols, hydroquinones, and aminophenols. The role of prostaglandin synthase in the biotransformation of xenobiotics is somewhat unclear, since many of the end products of prostaglandin-synthase-mediated cooxidation of xenobiotic are identical to those formed by cytochrome P450. Therefore, it is assumed that prostaglandin synthase may contribute to the oxidative biotransformation of xenobiotics in tissues low in monooxygenase activity [50]. In addition to prostaglandin synthase, other peroxidases may also participate in the oxidation
of xenobiotics [5153]. For example, mammary gland epithelium contains lactoperoxidase and leucocytes contains myeloperoxidase. The general reaction catalyzed by this enzymes involves the reduction of hydroperoxide coupled to the oxidation of the substrate:
ROOHXH!ROHXOH
The availability of peroxides in tissues likely controls the extent of peroxidative biotransformation; however, the availability of hydrogen peroxide is usually low due to efcient scavenging by catalase and glutathione peroxidase. Therefore, peroxidative metabolism occurs mainly in tissues which can maintain an oxidizing environment. 2.6.4.4. Nonmicrosomal Oxidations Several enzymes located in mitochondria or the cytoplasm of the cell may also catalyze the oxidation of xenobiotics. In contrast to cytochromes P450 with their broad substrate specicity, most of the nonmicrosomal oxidases have a more narrow substrate specicity and accept only xenobiotics bearing specic functional groups as substrates. Alcohol dehydrogenases catalyze the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones:
RCH2 OHNAD !RCHONADHH
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The enzyme is mainly found in the soluble fraction of liver, but also in other organs such as the kidney and lung and is responsible for the oxidation of ethanol. The expression of alcohol dehydrogenase is under genetic control, which gives rise to a number of variants with differing activities. Usually, the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes is reversible, since the reduction of aldehydes is also efciently catalyzed by aldehyde reductases. However, in vivo, the reaction proceeds in the direction of alcohol consumption since aldehydes are further oxidized by aldehyde dehydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the formation of acids from aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes:
RCHONAD !RCOOHNADHH
The reaction may be catalyzed by aldehyde dehydrogenase, which has broad substrate specicity, and several isozymes of aldehyde dehydrogenase are found in liver cytosol, mitochondria, and microsomes with characteristic substrate specicities. Other enzymes in the soluble fraction of liver that can oxidize aldehydes are the avoproteins aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase. Monoamine oxidases are a family of avoproteins present in many tissues including liver, kidney, brain, and intestine. These mitochondrial enzymes have a broad and overlapping substrate specicity and oxidize a variety of amines:
RCH2 NH2 O2 H2 O!RCHONH3 H2 O
Although esterases and amidases were thought to be different enzymes, all puried esterases have been demonstrated to have amidase activity; similarly, all amidases have esterase activity. In general, esters are cleaved more rapidly than amides. The expression of many esterases is under genetic control; thus, extremes of high/low esterase activity and resistance/ sensitivity to toxic effects mediated by esterases are known. Epoxide hydrolase is an important enzyme cleaving aliphatic and aromatic epoxides. The enzyme hydrates arene oxides and aliphatic epoxides to the corresponding trans-1,2-diols [54]. Water is required as cofactor, and the catalytic mechanism of epoxide hydrolases involves ester formation of the oxirane with a carboxylic acid function at the active site of the enzyme and hydrolysis of this ester by water; no metals or other cofactors are required.
The monoamine oxidase found in the central nervous system is concerned primarily with neurotransmitter turnover. 2.6.4.5. Hydrolytic Enzymes in Phase-I Biotransformation Reactions Many tissues contain enzymes with carboxylesterase and amidase activity. These enzymes are located both in microsomal and soluble fraction and hydrolyse ester and amide linkages in xenobiotics.
Microsomal epoxide hydrolases are thought to be present in close proximity to the microsomal cytochromes P450; in most cases, the conversion of the epoxide to the less reactive diol is considered to represent an important detoxication reaction for metabolically formed oxiranes. Epoxide hydrolases are found in many tissues such as liver, kidney, testes, and intestine. Their distribution is heterogenous between different cell types in a specic organ; in addition, several forms of microsomal epoxide hydrolases with broad substrate specicity have been found in different animal species. Moreover, in animals, in addition to membrane-bound epoxide hydrolase, a soluble epoxide hydrolase is present in cytoplasm of several tissues [55].
2.6.5. Phase-II Biotransformation Enzymes and their Reactions Products of the phase-I biotransformation reactions carrying functional groups such as hydroxyl, amino, or carboxyl often undergo a conjugation reaction with an endogenous substrate. The
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Figure 22. Conjugation of phenol to phenyl glucuronide catalyzed by UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UDP uridine diphosphate)
endogenous substrates may include sugar derivatives, sulfate, amino acids, and small peptides (glutathione). The conjugation products are usually more polar and thus more readily excreted than their parent compounds. In contrast to phase-I biotransformation reactions, phase-II reactions are biosynthetic and require energy to drive the reaction. Energy is usually consumed to generate a high-energy cofactor or an activated intermediate and then utilized as cosubstrate. Thus, depletion of the cofactor or general interference with cellular energy status may interfere with the ability of cells to conduct phase-II biotransformation reactions. 2.6.5.1. UDP-Glucuronyl Transferases Glucuronidation represents one or the main phase-II biotransformation reactions in the conversion of both endogenous and exogenous compounds to water soluble products [5659]. The formed glucuronides are excreted with bile or urine. The formation of an activated glucuronide (uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid, UDPGA), is required for glucuronide formation. UDPGA is formed in a sequential reaction from uridine and glucose-1-phosphate.
These glucuronides are highly polar and ionized at physiological pH, and hence are rapidly excreted. The membrane-bound UDP-glucuronyl transferases are found in highest concentration in the liver, but also in most other tissues studied. The reaction catalyzed involves a nucleophilic displacement (SN2) of the functional group of the substrate with Walden inversion (Fig. 22). UDP-glucuronyl transferases, like cytochrome P450, represent a family of enzymes, and at least ten individual forms are known. The various forms respond differently to inducers and have preferences for certain classes of chemicals. UDP-glucuronyl transferases catalyze the conjugation of numerous functional groups of xenobiotics with glucuronic acids. Some typical examples are shown in Table 13. Glucuronides formed in the liver are excreted with urine or bile. Aglycones with molecular masses higher than 300 are transformed to glucuronides that surpass the molecular mass threshold for biliary excretion (see Section 2.6.8.2) and will thus be excreted with bile into the intestine. Glucuronides may by cleaved there by b-glucuronidase present in intestinal microora to the respective aglycone, which may be reabsorbed from the intestine and translocated back to the liver with the blood. The resulting cycle is called enterohepatic circulation; compounds that undergo enterohepatic circulation are only slowly excreted and usually have a longer half-life in the body. 2.6.5.2. Sulfate Conjugation The formation of water-soluble sulfate esters is observed with many xenobiotics carrying functional groups such as alcohols, phenols, and arylamines. These reactions are catalyzed by sulfotransferases, a large group of soluble enzymes found in many tissues [6062]. Sulfotransferases catalyze the transfer of a sulfate group from the active sulfate 30 -phosphoade-
The enzymes that carry out the coupling of the xenobiotic with UDPGA are termed UDP-glucuronyl transferases. They couple D-glucuronic acid with a wide variety of xenobiotics carrying functional groups to give b-D-glucuronides [57].
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Table 13. Typical conjugation reactions catalyzed by UDP-glucuronyltransferases
nosine-50 -phosphosulfate to hydroxyl groups and amines. The resulting products are referred as sulfate esters of sulfamates. The products of this reaction are ionized at physiological pH and may therefore be rapidly excreted in urine; thus, sulfate conjugation is an effective mechanism to enhance the rate of excretion of many xenobiotics. Sulfotransferases are also a family of enzymes, and at least four different classes of sulfotransferases are involved in biotransformation reactions: sulfotransferases, hydroxysteroid sulfotransferases, estrone sulfotransferases, and bile salt sulfotransferases; each class again has been divided into several distinct forms differing in substrate specicity, optimum pH and immunological properties. Sulfate conjugation also requires a sulfate donor, 30 -phospho-adenosine-50 -phosphosulfate. 30 Phospho-adenosine-50 -phosphosulfate is likely synthesized in the cytosol of most mammalian cells by a two-step reaction consuming ATP and utilizing inorganic sulfate originating from the catabolism of cysteine or from diet. In the rst step of this sequence the sulfation of ATP to adenosine 50 phosphosulfate is catalyzed by an ATP sulfurylase. Adenosine 50 -phosphosulfate is further transformed to 30 -phospho-adenosine 50 -phosphosulfate by an adenosine 50 -phosphosulfate kinase. However, the equilibrium concentration of 30 -phosphoa-
denosine 50 -phosphosulfate in mammalian cells may be low, and due to the tight coupling of two enzymes in 30 -phosphoadenosine 50 -phosphosulfate, biosynthesis may proceed rapidly.
Despite the rapid synthesis, the sulfation of xenobiotics may by limited by reduced availability of 30 -phosphoadenosine 50 -phosphosulfate. The availability of the cofactor of the synthesis reaction, sulfate, may be limited by consumption due to sulfation or the limited availability of free cysteine for transformation to sulfate. Therefore, the sulfation capacity for certain xenobiotics is dependent on dose. Following administration of low doses the compound may be excreted as sulfate; after high doses, the capacity of sulfate conjugation may be saturated, and other biotransformation reactions such as glucuronide formation may become more important for biotransformation. 2.6.5.3. Methyl Transferases A large number of alcohols, phenols, amines, and thiols present both as endogenous and exogenous
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compounds may be methylated by several N-, Oand S-methyl transferases. The most common donor for the methyl group is S-adenosyl methionine, which is formed from methionine and ATP. Often, these reactions do not increase the water solubility of a xenobiotic, but they are regarded as phase-II reactions since they mask potentially toxic functional groups and thus may serve as detoxication reactions. A large variety of enzymes catalyze methylations of xenobiotics. The more important enzymes involved in methylation reactions are usually found in many tissues and are present in the soluble fraction of tissues. Some of the enzymes have a high specicity for certain endogenous compounds such as histamine or noradrenaline; others, such as catechol O-methyl transferase, metabolize both endogenous catechols and certain xenobiotics carrying aromatic rings with catechol functionalities [63]. 2.6.5.4. N-Acetyl Transferases Aromatic amines, hydrazines, sulfonamides, and certain aliphatic amines are biotransformed into amides in a reaction catalyzed by N-acetyl transferases. Enzymes that catalyze the acetylation of amines are designated as acetyl CoA: amine Nacetyl transferases. These enzymes utilize acetyl coenzyme A as cofactor [64]. The acetylation reaction of arylamines occurs in discrete steps. In the rst step, the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A is transferred to the N-acetyl transferase, which then acetylates the arylamine, thus regenerating the enzyme and forming the amide (Fig. 23). N-Acetyl transferases are found in a number of different forms in cytosol of many tissues. In many species, the expression of N-acetyl transferases is under genetic control, and polymorphism for the expression of N-acetyl transferase has been found in several animal species and in humans. The transfer of an acetyl group to amines
is reversible, and deacetylation of amides occurs in many species; as noted above, there are large differences between strains, species, and individuals in the extent of expression of amidases [65]. 2.6.5.5. Amino Acid Conjugation Exogenous carboxylic acids are conjugated with a variety of amino acids to form amides. Substrates for conjugation are mainly carboxylic acids containing aromatic rings. Glutamate and glycine appear to be the most common amino acids involved in these conjugation reactions in mammals; in other species such as reptiles and birds, ornithine is involved. The reaction proceeds in two steps and is catalyzed to two different enzymes. In the rst step, the carboxylic acid is activated to form a coenzyme A derivative in a reaction involving coenzyme A and ATP. The enzymes that catalyze this reaction are called ATP-dependent acid coenzyme A ligases and are present in mitochondria. They appear to be identical to the intermediate-chain-length fatty acid: coenzyme A synthetase. The thus-formed coenzyme A thioester then transfers its acyl group to the amino group of the acceptor amino acid. This reaction is catalyzed by an N-acetyl transferase (Fig. 24). The enzymes catalyzing both steps in amino acid conjugation exist in several forms with different substrate specities. 2.6.5.6. Glutathione Conjugation of Xenobiotics and Mercapturic Acid Excretion The conjugation of xenobiotics or their metabolites with the tripeptide glutathione is an
Figure 23. Mechanism of the N-acetylation of amines by N-acetyl transferase
Figure 24. Amino acid conjugation of a xenobiotic carboxylic acid by ATP-dependent acid- coenzyme A ligases followed by N-acetyltransferase
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important conjugation reaction. Glutathione is composed of the amino acids cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine (g -glutamylcysteinylglycine) and is present in many cells in high concentrations (up to 10 mM in liver cells) [66]. Since glutathione conjugation captures reactive electrophiles and transforms them into stable, often nontoxic thioethers, the formation of glutathione conjugates protects cells from the harmful effects of these electrophiles and thus serves as a major detoxication reaction (Section 2.6.6.5). Glutathione conjugation is catalyzed by a family of enzymes termed glutathione S-transferases, which are present in the highest concentration in the liver, but are also found in high activity in the kidney, testes, and lung [67]. Glutathione S-transferases exist in both membrane-bound and soluble forms; with most substrates, the activity of soluble glutathione S-transferase is higher than that of microsomal glutathione S-transferase [68]. Cytosolic glutathione S-transferases exist in numerous different isoforms, each species being a dimer differing in subunit composition [67, 69]. The glutathione S-transferase gene family exists of at least six different families. In contrast to the multiple forms of soluble glutathione S-transferases thus possible, only one form of the memTable 14. Substrates for mammalian glutathione S-transferases
brane-bound enzyme is known. The glutathione S-transferases catalyze the reaction of the sulfhydryl group of glutathione with chemicals containing electrophilic carbon atoms (Table 14). Thioethers are formed by reaction of the thiolate anion of glutathione with the electrophile; a spontaneous reaction, albeit at low rates, of the electrophile with glutathione without assistance by glutathione S-transferases is required for enzymatic catalysis. Glutathione thioethers formed in the organism are not excreted, but further processed to excretable mercapturic acids. Mercapturic acids are thioethers derived from N-acetyl-L-cysteine. Mercapturic acid formation is initiated by conjugation of the xenobiotic or an electrophilic metabolite with glutathione (Fig. 25). This is followed by transfer of the glutamate by g -glutamyltranspeptidase, an enzyme specically recognizing g -glutamyl peptides and found in high concentrations in the kidney and other excretory organs. Dipeptidases catalyze the loss of glycine from the intermediary cysteinylglycine S-conjugate to give the cysteine S-conjugate which, in the nal step of mercapturic acid formation, is N-acetylated by a cysteine-conjugate-specic N-acetyltransferase using acetyl coenzyme A as cofactor. The mercapturic acids
GSH Glutathione. ** GS Glutathionyl residue.
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2.6.6. Bioactivation of Xenobiotics Many xenobiotics with low chemical reactivity (e.g., the solvent carbon tetrachloride, the environmental contaminant hexachlorobutadiene, and the heat-exchanger uid tri-o-cresyl phosphate) cause toxic effects. These toxic effects are initiated by covalent binding to macromolecules of metabolites formed in the organism by biotransformation enzymes. This process is termed bioactivation. With many chemicals, reactive metabolites formed during bioactivation may be efciently detoxied; thus, toxic effects only occur when the balance between the production of reactive metabolites and their detoxication is disrupted. For example, toxic effects may be observed with a certain chemical only when the formation of reactive intermediates is enhanced or when the capacity for detoxication is diminished. The mechanisms of bioactivation of xenobiotics may be classied into four categories describing the basic types of reactive intermediates formed and their potential reactivity (Table 15) [7173]. 2.6.6.1. Formation of Stable but Toxic Metabolites This mechanisms is limited to a few selected chemicals because few xenobiotic metabolites are both stable and toxic. The bioactivation of the solvents n-hexane and dichloromethane are
Figure 25. Formation of mercapturic acids by processing of glutathione S-conjugates as exemplied by the metabolism of methyl iodide
Table 15. Basic mechanisms involved in the bioactivation of xenobiotics based on chemical reactivity of intermediates formed Structure and reactivity of the intermediate different structures, selective interaction of formed metabolite with specic acceptors, or disruption of specic biochemical pathways reactive electrophiles
Mechanism
Examples dichloromethane, acetonitrile, parathion
formed are readily excreted into urine by active transport mechanisms in the kidney [70]. Glutathione conjugation is one of the most important detoxication reactions for reactive intermediates formed in organisms. Usually, metabolically formed intermediates are efciently detoxied, but under specic circumstances, glutathione conjugation may be overwhelmed by high concentrations of electrophiles, which result in covalent binding of intermediates to cellular macromolecules, disruption of important cellular functions, and cell death and necrosis (see Section 2.6.4.5).
Biotransformation to stable but toxic metabolites
Biotransformation to electrophiles Biotransformation to free radicals Formation of reactive oxygen metabolites
radicals radicals
dimethylnitrosamine, acetaminophen, bromobenzene carbon tetrachloride paraquat, aromatic nitro compounds
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and the oxidative desulfuration of parathion.
Figure 26. Bioactivation of hexane by cytochrome P450 to 2,5-hexanedione Hexanedione reacts with lysine groups in proteins to form pyrroles; oxidation of two neighboring pyrrole residues causes the cross-linking of proteins
Parathion is a potent insecticide acting as an inhibitor of cholinesterase, but itself is only a weak cholinesterase inhibitor. Biotransformation of parathion by oxidative desulfuration to give the potent cholinesterase inhibitor paraoxone is responsible for the high insecticidal potency. 2.6.6.2. Biotransformation to Reactive Electrophiles Biotransformation to reactive electrophiles is the most common pathway of bioactivation. The cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity of many chemicals is associated with the formation of electrophiles and the ensuing alkylation or acylation of tissue constituents such as protein, lipid, or DNA. Reactive intermediates include such chemically diverse functionalities as epoxides, quinones, acyl halides, carbocations, and nitrenium ions. The metabolic formation of electrophiles may be catalyzed by many different enzymes, although the majority of cases elucidated to date involve cytochrome P450-mediated oxidations. Cytochrome P450 catalyzes the transformation of olens to reactive and electrophilic oxiranes. For example, the carcinogenicity of the industrial intermediate vinyl chloride (Fig. 27)
examples of this mechanism. n-Hexane produces a characteristic neuropathy and peripheral nerve injury after chronic exposure. The same typical manifestations of toxicity are also observed when the n-hexane metabolites 2-hexanone and 2,5hexanedione are administered to animals. The mechanism of n-hexane neuropathy thus involves oxidation of n-hexane by cytochromes P450 at both ends of the carbon chain (w1 hydroxylation) and further oxidation of the thus-introduced alcoholic function. The 2,5-hexanedione formed reacts with critical lysine residues in axonal proteins by Schiff base formation followed by cyclization to give pyrroles [74]. Oxidation of the pyrrole residues then causes crosslinking between two n-hexane-modied proteins; the resulting changes in the three-dimensional structures of proteins perturb axonal transport and function and cause damage to nerve cells (Fig. 26). Carboxyhemoglobin formation is observed after human exposure to dichloromethane. Dihalomethanes are oxidized by cytochrome P450, likely by P450 2E1, to carbon monoxide, which, due to its high afnity for iron(II)-containing porphyrins, binds to hemoglobin and interferes with oxygen transport in the blood. Other examples for the formation of stable, but toxic metabolites include the oxidation of acetonitrile to cyanide
Figure 27. Bioactivation of vinyl chloride to chlorooxirane and reaction of the epoxide with critical macromolecules in the cell dR Deoxyribose
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Figure 30. Bioactivation of chloroform by cytochrome P 450 mediated hydroxylation of a C H bond
Figure 28. Bioactivation of aatoxin B1 to an electrophilic oxirane which results in the formation of DNA adducts and is believed to initiate tumor induction by aatoxin B1 in the liver
and the fungal toxin vaatoxin B1 (Fig. 28) are dependent on their transformation to electrophilic oxiranes [75, 76]. Carbocations are formed during the cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of dialkyl nitrosamines. For example, the mutagen and potent carcinogen dimethylnitrosamine is hydroxylated by cytochrome P450 followed by loss of formaldehyde. Monomethylnitrosamine thus formed is unstable and rearranges to release an electrophilic carbocation (Fig. 29). Acyl halides are formed by the oxidation of carbon atoms bearing at least two halogen atoms. The initially formed products are unstable ahalohydrins, which lose hydrogen chloride and thus give reactive acyl halides. An example for the formation of acyl halides as reactive intermediates is the cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of chloroform to phosgene [77] (Fig. 30).
However, besides cytochromes P450, other monooxygenases such as avin-dependent monooxygenase and of phase-II biotransformation enzymes such as UDP-glucuronyl transferases, sulfotransferases, or even the glutathione S-transferases may catalyze the bioactivation of xenobiotics [78]. For example, N-acetylamidouorene is oxidized to N-hydroxyacetylamidouorene by cytochrome P450. However, this metabolite is not electrophilic and requires further biotransformation via sulfate conjugation to the highly reactive O-sulfate ester. This sulfate ester fragments to a reactive intermediate (a nitrenium ion) which covalently binds to tissue constituents such as DNA (Fig. 31). Some glutathione S-conjugates which are biosynthesized to detoxify electrophiles are toxic and mutagenic [79, 80]. 1,2-Dibromoethane is metabolized by glutathione conjugation to S-(2bromoethyl)glutathione. Intramolecular displacement of the bromine on the adjacent carbon
Figure 29. Bioactivation of dimethylnitrosamine to a methylating agent by cytochrome P450
Figure 31. Bioactivation of acetylamidouorene by cytochrome P450 and by UDP glucuronyl transferases. The glucuronide formed is acid-labile and decomposes to a nitrenium ion
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2.6.6.3. Biotransformation of Xenobiotics to Radicals Free radicals are chemical species that may be formed by a one-electron oxidation to give a radical cation, by a one-electron reduction to give a radical anion, or by homolytic ssion of a s-bond to give a neutral radical. Free radicals are highly reactive and, when formed in biological systems, are expected to react with a variety of tissue molecules. Radicals may abstract hydrogen atoms, undergo oxidation-reduction reactions, dimerizations and disproportionation reactions. Radicals may also participate in a chain mechanism, which is initiated by a reaction causing a free radical and propagated by a subsequence of reactions causing further radicals as products. The toxic and tumorigenic solvent carbon tetrachloride is the outstanding example of a bioactivation reaction to a free radical. Carbon tetrachloride is biotransformed by a one-electron reduction to yield the trichloromethyl radical and chloride:
Cl4 Ce !Cl3 C Cl
.
Figure 32. Bioactivation of 1,2-dibromoethane by glutathione conjugation to a reactive and electrophilic episulfonium ion
atom gives a highly strained, electrophilic episulfonium ion (Fig. 32). Other toxic glutathione S-conjugates require processing by the enzymes of mercapturic acid formation to give electrophiles. A minor pathway in perchloroethene biotransformation results in S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)glutathione [81]. This glutathione S-conjugate is cleaved by g -glutamyl transpeptidase and dipeptidases to S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine, which is a substrate for renal cysteine conjugate b-lyase and transformed to pyruvate, ammonia, and a reactive thioketene, binding of which to cellular macromolecules is likely responsible for the renal toxicity of perchloroethene (Fig. 33). Due to high concentrations of S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine obtained by active transport to the kidney, covalent binding of the dichlorothioketene formed via this pathway occurs only in the kidney; despite the presence of cysteine conjugate b-lyase in many other organs.
The trichloromethyl radical may abstract hydrogen atoms from tissue macromolecules to give chloroform, a proven metabolite of carbon tetrachloride, or may dimerize to give hexachloroethane, which is also a metabolite of carbon tetrachloride. Toxic effects of radicals formed during biotransformation reactions are lipid peroxidation and oxidative modication of proteins (see Section 2.6.6.4). Formation of radicals has been implicated in the bioactivation of many xenobiotics. Radicals may be formed by NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 reductase, nitroreductases, or one-electron oxidations catalyzed by peroxidases such as prostaglanding synthetases. Formation of free radicals from tissue constituents also plays an important role in the toxic effects of ionizing radiation [8285]. 2.6.6.4. Formation of Reactive Oxygen Metabolites by Xenobiotics
Figure 33. Bioactivation of perchloroethene by glutathione conjugation. The conjugate S-(1,2,2-trichlorovinyl)glutathione is biosynthesized in the liver, translocated to the kidney to be processed by g -glutamyl transpeptidases and dipeptidases, and nally cleaved by cysteine-conjugate b-lyase to give dichlorothioketene
Xenobiotic-induced formation of reduced oxygen metabolites such as the superoxide radical anion, hydrogen peroxide, and the hydroxyl radical has been implicated as a mechanism of
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producing cell damage, so-called oxidative stress [8689]. The biotransformation of certain xenobiotics that are involved in redox cycles or undergo enzyme-catalyzed oxidation/reduction reactions may be associated with the production of reduced oxygen metabolites. 2-Methylnaphthoquinone (Menadione) has been intensively used to study the formation and cellular reactions of reduced oxygen metabolites. Menadione and other quinones undergo enzymatic redox cycling; these one-electron oxidation reactions are associated with the formation of the superoxide radical anion (O.2) by one electron reduction of triplet oxygen. In aqueous solution, superoxide is not particularly reactive, but dismutation or further reduction of superoxide may give rise to hydrogen peroxide (Fig. 34). Hydrogen peroxide is also a poor oxidant in biological systems, but sufciently stable to cross biological membranes. The toxicity of hydrogen peroxide is attributed to the formation of the hydroxyl radical by the Fenton reaction, catalyzed by metal ions such as Fe2 (M transition metal):
Mn H2 O2 !Mn1 HO HO
.
role in host defense against infectious agents and in the initiation and propagation of certain diseases such as arteriosclerosis and polyarthritis. Since oxygen radicals are also formed in low concentrations during cellular respiration, efcient mechanisms for their detoxication exist (see Section 2.6.6.5). Oxidative stress is thus only observed when the eqilibrium between oxidants and reductants is disturbed and detoxication mechanisms are overwhelmed. 2.6.6.5. Detoxication and Interactions of Reactive Metabolites with Cellular Macromolecules Reactive intermediates formed inside cells may react with low and high molecular mass cellular constituents. These interactions may result in formation of less reactive chemicals and thus in detoxication, or may perturb important cellular functions and thus result in acute and/or chronic toxic effects such as necrosis or cancer. Usually, the interaction with low molecular mass constituents in the cell results in detoxication, whereas the irreversible interaction with cellular macromolecules results in adverse effects [70, 9092]. Detoxication of reactive intermediates may be due to hydrolysis, glutathione conjugation, or interactions with cellular antioxidants. The reaction of electrophilic xenobiotics with the nucleophile water, present in high concentrations in all cells, is the simplest form of detoxication. Many of the products thus formed are of low reactivity and may be rapidly excreted. For example, acyl
The highly reactive hydroxyl radical may then initiate cellular damage by radical-based mechanisms. Besides menadione, oxidative stress may also be initiated by other xenobiotics such as the bis-pyridinium herbicide paraquat and nitroheterocycles. Moreover, the formation of reduced oxygen metabolites plays an important
Figure 34. Biotransformation of menadione and induction of oxidative stress by reduction of triplet oxygen to the superoxide radical anion
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radicals. Selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidases are important enzymes catalyzing the detoxication of hydrogen peroxide. In the glutathione peroxidase catalyzed reaction, two moles of glutathione are oxidized to glutathione disulde:
Figure 35. Biotransformation of tetrachloroethylene to trichloroacetyl chloride followed by hydrolysis to trichloroacetic acid, the major urinary metabolite formed from tetrachloroethylene. Only a small amount of the acyl halide formed reacts with proteins
halides formed by the oxidation of olens such as perchloroethylene are hydrolyzed rapidly to halogenated carboxylic acids; only minor amounts of the intermediate acyl halide reacts with protein and lipids (Fig. 35). Glutathione-dependent detoxication is an important mechanism for metabolically formed electrophiles, free radicals, and reduced oxygen metabolites [9396]. Electrophiles react with the nucleophilic sulfur atom of glutathione in a spontaneous or enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Spontaneous reactions are only observed at appreciable rates with soft electrophiles (glutathione is a soft nucleophile); the conjugation of hard electrophiles with glutathione requires enzymatic catalysis; usually, the rates of conjugation catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase differ between hard and soft electrophiles; soft electrophiles are conjugated more efciently. For example, the hard electrophile aatoxin B1 8,9-oxide does not spontaneously react with glutathione; only in the presence of a certain glutathione S-transferase enzyme is a glutathione S-conjugate of aatoxin B1 8,9-oxide formed. Species differences in the tumorigenesis of aatoxin B1 may serve to illustrate the important role of glutathione S-transferases in the expression of toxicity and carcinogenicity. Aatoxin B1 is a potent liver carcinogen in rats; in mice, aatoxin B1 is only weakly carcinogenic. The liver of mice contains a glutathione S-transferase which efciently detoxies aatoxin B1 8,9-oxide. This glutathione S-transferase enzyme is not present in rat liver; thus, the binding of aatoxin B1 8,9-oxide to rat liver DNA and liver carcinogenicity of aatoxin B1 are much higher in rats than in mice. Glutathione also plays a major role in the detoxication of reactive oxygen metabolites and
Glutathione can be recycled by the reduction of glutathione disulde by glutathione reductase. The copper- and zinc-dependent cytosolic and - manganese-dependent mitochondrial superoxide dismutases detoxify superoxide radical anions. Hydrogen peroxide formed by dismutation of superoxide is converted to water and oxygen and thus detoxied by catalase:
Several cellular antioxidants also play a role in the detoxication of radicals. a-Tocopherol is an important lipophilic antioxidant, whose presence in lipid membranes prevents damage to lipid constituents (e.g. unsaturated fatt acids) by radicals. The hydroxyl radical, the superoxide radical anion, and peroxy radicals react with a-tocopherol to yield water, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroperoxides, which may be detoxied further by catalase and glutathione peroxidase. a-Tocopherol is transformed during these reactions to give a stable radical of comparatively low reactivity. Ascorbic acid is an important antioxidant present in the cytoplasm of the cell and may also participate in the detoxication of radicals. 2.6.6.6. Interaction of Reactive Intermediates with Cellular Macromolecules Although a substantial body of information is available on the biotransformation of xenobiotics to reactive metabolites and the chemical nature of those metabolites, considerably less is known about how reactive intermediates interact with cellular constituents and how those interactions cause cell injury and cell death. The reaction of toxic metabolites may result in the formation of covalent bonds between the molecule and a cellular target molecule, or they may alter the target molecule without formation of a covalent bond, usually by oxidation or reduction [97].
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Electrophilic Metabolites may react with different nucleophilic sites in cells. Nucleophilic sites in cellular macromolecules are thiol and amino groups in proteins, amino groups in lipids, and oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the purine and pyrimidine bases of DNA. The formation of a covalent bond may permanently alter the structure and/or activity of the modied macromolecule and thus result in a toxic response. The complexity of the reaction of electrophilic metabolites with the various nucleophilic sites in cells may be interpreted on the basis of the concept of hard and soft electrophiles and nucleophiles (hard and soft acids and bases). The donor atom of a soft nucleophile is of high polarizability and low electronegativity, and is easily oxidized; the donor atom of a hard nucleophile is of low polarizability and high electronegativity. Hard electrophiles carry a high positive charge and have a small size; soft electrophiles are of low positive charge and large size. Soft electrophiles react predominantly with soft nucleophiles, and hard electrophiles with hard nucleophiles [98]. Thus, hard electrophiles formed during a biotransformation reaction (e.g., carbocations formed from dialkylnitrosamines) predominantly react with hard nucleophiles such as the oyxgen and nitrogen atoms of DNA, In contrast, soft electrophiles such as a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds (e.g., acrolein, benzoquinone) react predominatly with soft tissue nucleophiles such as the sulfhydryl groups of cysteine in proteins (Table 16). Covalent interactions of xenobiotics with proteins occur with several nucleophilic nitrogen atoms; both alkylation and acylation reactions of amino acids have been reported as consequences of formation of reactive intermediates in cells. Besides the sulfur atom of cysteine, nitrogen atoms in the amino acids lysine, histidine, and valine are frequent targets for electrophilic metabolites. Consequences of the modi-
cations may be inactivation of enzymes important for cellular function, changes in the tertiary structure of proteins, or changes in gene expression. Alkylation of the sulfhydryl-dependent enzymes of mitochondrial respiration is thought to play an important role in the initiation of mitochondrial dysfunction and thus cell damage. Some modied proteins may also serve as immunogens, and hypersensitivity reactions, formation of immune complexes, and delayed hypersensitivities may be the consequences of protein adduct formation. Indeed, many drug- and chemical-related hypersensitivity reactions observed in clinical medicine are based on the formation of covalent protein adducts and their recognition as foreign by the immune system [99]. Oxidative Stress produces mixed disuldes of proteins with low molecular mass thiols such as glutathione and thus alters protein structure and function. In addition, oxidants and radicals promote the oxidation of amino acids in proteins, which may increase the susceptibility of these proteins to proteolysis [100, 101]. Increased protein oxidation has been implicated in cellular aging and in the mechanisms of toxicity of several redox-active transition metals. Radicals formed during the biotransformation of xenobiotics may abstract hydrogen atoms from cellular components [82]. The abstraction of hydrogen atoms from polyunsaturated fatty acids of lipids results in a process termed lipid peroxidation. The fatty acid radicals thus formed may react with molecular oxygen to give peroxy radicals and further to hydroperoxides. The initiated radical chain reactions cause the cleavage of carboncarbon bonds in the fatty acids to short fragments such as a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds [102, 103] (see Section 3.3.1). The disruption of membranes and the formation of toxic hydroperoxides and a,b-unsaturated
Table 16. Metabolically formed electrophiles and their prime targets for covalent binding in cells Soft SH of cysteine or glutathione sulfur of methionine ! Nucleophile primary or secondary nitrogen atoms in peptides (lysine, arginine, or histidine) Electrophile nitrenium ions amino groups of purines and pyrimidines in RNA and DNA benzylic carbocations Hard oxygen in purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA aliphatic and aromatic carbocations
a,b-Unsaturated carbonyls, quinones
epoxides, alkyl sulfates, alkyl halides
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carbonyl compounds may cause disruptions in cellular calcium homeostasis and thus cause biochemical changes that ultimately lead to cell death [104, 105]. The reaction of electrophilic metabolites with DNA constituents results in the formation of altered purine and pyrimidine bases or other DNA damage such as DNA strand breaks or loss of single bases from the double helix. Many of these modications are premutagenic lesions. After gene expression, these lesions may be translated into mutations [106]. Mutations in certain genes are considered to be the basis for the evolution of neoplastic cells and cancer and thus play a major role in chemical carcinogenesis. Other types of DNA damage may result in the activation of genes important for cellular differentiation or other regulatory functions. Electrophilic intermediates alkylate the nitrogen and oxygen atoms of the purine and pyrimidine bases in DNA; deoxyguanosine is often preferentially alkylated. The site of alkylation of a certain base in DNA is again dependent on the electrophilicity of the alkylation agent; hard electrophiles preferentially react with the oxygen atoms of guanosine, while soft electrophiles alkylate the exocyclic amino groups (Fig. 36). The pattern of base alkylation is different when DNA is modied in biological systems or when isolated DNA, nucleosides, and nucleotides are treated with the xenobiotic or its metabolite(s). Regioselectivity is further modied by solvents, buffer salts, and concentration of reactants. Certain modications of deoxyguanosine result in the labilization of the glycosidic bond; loss of the deoxyguanosine derivate results in an apurinic
site in DNA (Fig. 37). Other chemical modications may result in labilization of the ve-membered ring and ring opening after reaction with water (Fig. 38). Radicals formed as reactive intermediates may also cause DNA damage. Besides DNA strand breaks, which have been frequently observed, the reaction of oxygen-derived radicals may also result in the oxidation of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. Due to the development of sensitive techniques for the characterisation of oxidative modications in DNA, a number of modied bases have been identied:
Figure 36. Regioselectivity of DNA alkylation by different electrophiles
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Figure 37. Labilization of the bond of guanosine to the DNA backbone by alkylation of the N-7 position resulting in the loss of the modied guanosine from DNA and the formation of an apurinic site (AP)
8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine, a premutagenic modication, is considered as one of the more important lesions induced by oxidative DNA damage; because sensitive methods are available for its quantication, it can serve as a marker for the extent of oxidative DNA modication caused by a xenobiotic or by other processes. DNA oxidation has also been implicated in aging; an increase in oxidative DNA modications may occur with age due the decreased availability of antioxidants in cells of aging mammals. Several theories suggest a correlation between increased
oxidative DNA damage and the increased incidence of tumors in the aged population [107, 108]. 2.6.7. Factors Modifying Biotransformation and Bioactivation The biotransformation of xenobiotics may be modied by a variety of factors both intrinsic and extrinsic to the normal functioning of the organism. The changes in the extent of biotransformation may have profound effects on the toxicity of a specic chemical. When biotransformation results in detoxication and rapid excretion, increased rates of biotransformation will decrease toxicity. On the other hand, the toxicity of a chemical bioactivated to reactive intermediates will increase on enhancing biotransformation. A great variety of factors have been shown to inuence the extent of biotransformation; many of the effects listed below have been primarily decribed in experimental animals. However, observations in humans (e.g,. after drug treatment) indicate that similar effects, albeit not of the same magnitude or duration, must occur in humans.
Figure 38. Ring opening of guanosine in DNA by alkylation of the N-7 position
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2.6.7.1. Host Factors Affecting Biotransformation Enzyme Induction. The activity of biotransformation enzymes can be enhanced by pretreatment with a range of structurally different chemicals. These chemicals can be drugs, pesticides, natural products, environmental contaminants, and even ethanol. The enhanced enzyme activities and the increased enzyme concentrations may results from increased de novo synthesis of the protein, reduced degradation, or from other, often unknown effects. An increase in the concentration of an biotransformation enzyme in the organism, a certain organ or cell type is termed enzyme induction [109, 110]. Several hundred different chemicals have been demonstrated to increase the biotransformation of other xenobiotics and to act as enzyme inducers. The majority of these studies focused on the induction of microsomal monooxygenases, mainly cytochrome P450 enzymes; however, other membrane bound enzymes such as UDP-glucuronyl transferases may also be induced. Glutathione Stransferases are the only cytosolic biotransformation enzymes whose activities may be increased by the administration of inducers to experimental animals (Table 17). The onset, magnitude, and duration of increases in the concentration of biotransformation enzymes after the administration of an inducer and the associated biochemical and morphological effects depend on the chemical nature of the inducing agent, dose, and time of administration. For example, the time required for maximum induction of specic cytochrome P450 enzymes by the classical inducers phenobarbital and 3methylcholanthrene are different. Moreover, besides increases in the activity of hepatic monoTable 17. Inducers of the enzymes of biotransformation and enzymes whose cellular concentrations are increased by pretreatment Inducing agent 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin Ethanol Phenobarbital Induced enzymes cytochrome P450, UDPglucuronyltransferase cytochrome P450 cytochrome P450, epoxide hydrolase, UDP-glucuronyltransferases epoxide hydrolase cytochrome P450, UDPglucuronyltransferases
oxygenases, phenobarbital administration results in marked hepatic hypertrophy and proliferation of the smooth endoplasmatic reticulum; these effects are absent in animals treated with 3-methylcholanthren. Induction by parenteral application of 3-methylcholanthren results in maximum enzyme concentrations in the liver within 48 h, whereas maximal induction by parenteral application of hypnotic doses of phenobarbital requires up to 5 d. Enzyme induction is reversible after withdrawal of the inducing agent, and the enzyme activities return to basal levels over a characteristic time span. Again, this time span is dependent on the chemical nature of the inducing agent. For example, cessation of phenobarbital treatment will result in a decline of enzyme activities to basal levels within one to two weeks. The mechanisms of enzyme induction are complicated and only partially understood. Apparently, different chemicals inuence the activities of the biotransformation enzymes by different mechanims; even the effect of a specic chemical on different enzymes may be due to separate mechanisms (Table 18) [111]. Only a few mechanisms are well understood. Modulation of gene expression seems to be the basis for many inductive effects. For example, induction of cytochrome P450 1A1 is prevented by inhibitors of protein synthesis. Moreover, studies using the potent inducing agent 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzodioxin identied a high-afnity binding protein with the properties of a receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin in rat liver cytosol [112, 113]. Binding of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin to this protein results, after
Table 18. Mechanisms of cytochrome P450 enzyme induction by different xenobiotics Cytochrome P450 Inducing agent 1A1 1A2 2B1, 2B2 2E1 3A1
Mechanism of induction
trans-Stilbenoxide 3-Methylcholanthrene
3A1 4A1
2,3,7,8-tetrachloroincreased gene transcription dibenzodioxin 3-methylcholanthrene stabilization of messenger RNA phenobarbital increased gene transcription ethanol, acetone protein stabilization dexamethasone increased gene transcription, independent of glucocorticoid receptor triacetyloleandomycin protein stabilization clobrate increased gene transcription, receptor mediated
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Figure 39. The Ah receptor (Ah-R) and mechanism of enzyme induction by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (T)
further interaction with other proteins, in the translocation of the formed complex from the cytosol to the nucleus. This translocation is followed by interaction with specic recognition sites on the genome, transcription, and translation of the specic gene for cytochrome P450 1A1 and for other biotransformation enzymes such as UDP-glucuronyl transferases (Fig. 39). In contrast, the mechanisms of enzyme induction by phenobarbital and, for example, ethanol are not dened. A specic receptor for phenobarbital could not be demonstrated, but some experiments suggest involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor in phenobarbital-mediated enzyme induction. Ethanol and other inducers seem to stabilize the cytochrome P450 2E1 protein against degradation by an unknown mechanism. Enzyme Inhibition. The decrease in the activity of specic biotransformation enzymes is termed inhibition of biotransformation. As noted above, inhibition of biotransformation may increase or decrease the toxicity of a xenobiotic. For example, the inhibition of cytochrome P450 by 2-(diethylamino)ethyl-2,2-diphenylpentanoate (SKF-525A) causes an increase in hexobarbital sleeping time, but a decrease in the hepatoxicity of carbon tetrachloride. Several mechanisms responsible for inhibition of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are operative [114, 115]. Besides inhibition of pro-
tein synthesis and thus synthesis of the enzyme, xenobiotics may irreversibly bind to the active site of the enzyme. This process is termed suicide inhibition [116]. Following activation of the xenobiotic by the enzyme, the reactive intermediate formed reacts with constituents of the enzyme at or near the active site, thus blocking further catalytic activity. This effect has been demonstrated with several xenobiotics which are inhibitors of cytochrome P450, such as alkenes and compounds containing allylic and acetylenic derivatives. For example, ethylene oxide, the reactive metabolite formed by cytochrome P450 catalyzed oxidation of ethylene, may alkylate the pyrrole nitrogen atoms in the heme moiety and thus result in heme destruction. During exposures to mixtures, chemicals with high afnity to certain biotransformation enzymes will be preferentially metabolized, and thus the biotransformation of other constituents of the mixture will be reduced or even totally inhibited. This reduced biotransformation may also alter the toxicity of a chemical present in a mixture compared with that of the pure chemical. For example, coadministration of ethanol markedly reduces the toxic effects of methanol (metabolic acidosis, reversible or even permanent blindness). These toxic effects are caused by the oxidation of methanol to formic acid as toxic metabolite; formic acid accumulates in the organism and damages the optical nerve. Oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde is
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competitively blocked by administration of ethanol; under these circumstances, the toxic metabolite formic acid can not be formed; methanol is excreted from the organism unchanged in the urine and by exhalation. Inhibition of some biotransformation enzymes may also be caused by effects on the tissue levels of necessary cofactors. The availability of glutathione for conjugation is reduced by blocking glutathione biosynthesis; diethyl maleate and some other chemicals deplete intracellular glutathione concentrations by reacting with glutathione to give a glutathione S-conjugate. Pretreatment of experimental animals with these chemicals followed by the application of a xenobiotic which requires glutathione for detoxication will result in an increased toxic response. Moreover, large doses of nontoxic chemicals metabolized by sulfotransferases may deplete the cofactor for sulfate conjugation and may thus alter the disposition and, probably the toxicity, of other xenobiotics that undergo sulfate conjugation. Genetic Differences in the Expression of Xenobiotic Metabolizing Enzymes. The ability of different animal species to metabolize xenobiotics is related to evolutionary development and therefore to different genetic constitution; thus, major species differences in the extent and pathways of biotransformation exist. These variations may be divided into qualitative and quantitative differences. Qualitative differences involve metabolic pathways and are related to species defects or peculiar reactions of a species. For example, guinea pigs do not have the enzymatic capacity to catalyze the last step in mercapturic acid formation, the N-acetylation of cysteine S-conjugates, and therefore excrete cysteine S-conjugates as end products of this pathway. Certain species such as cats do not have the capability to form glucuronides from xenobiotics. Quantitative variations are often due to species differences in gene and enzyme regulation. For example, interindividual differences have been decribed in humans in the biotransformation of many drugs. The N-acetylation of the tuberculostaticum Isoniazid has a genetic basis. Some individuals are homozygous for a recessive gene, and this may result in the absence of isoniazid N-acetyltransferase, that is, they are slow acetylators. In normal homozygotes or heterozygotes, rapid acetylators, Isoniazid is
rapidly transformed to the N-acetyl derivative. The N-acetyltransferase polymorphisms are correlated with different responses to Isoniazidinduced toxicities. This genetic polymorphism is also seen in human, 80% of the Japanese and Eskimos are rapid acetylators; whereas in some European populations only 40 to 60% are rapid acetylators [117]. Polymorphisms in the expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 and a specic glutathione S-transferase in human lung have been implicated in an increased rate of lung cancer in individuals expressing high cytochrome P450 1A1 and decient in this glutathione S-tansferase. Cytochrome P450 1A1 bioactivates aromatic hydrocarbons present in cigarette smoke to yield electrophiles; glutathione S-transferase detoxies these metabolites. Inuence of Sex on Biotransformation Reactions. Sex differences in the extent and pathways of biotransformation may be based on sex-dependent expression of certain biotransformation enzymes. For example, adult male rats metabolize many xenobiotics at higher rates than females; both phase-I and phase-II biotransformation reactions seem to be inuenced by sexdependent factors. With cytochrome P450, at least three different hepatic enzymes have been demonstrated to be under the control of sexhormones (Table 19). In addition to the liver, sex differences in biotransformation are also found in extrahepatic tissues such as the kidney and may be responsible for sex-specic toxic effects of xenobiotics in these organs. For example, the kidneys of male mice contain a cytochrome P450 enzyme which bioactivates chloroform, acetaminophen, and 1,1-dichloroethene to reactive intermediates. The enzyme is present only in much lower activity in female mice, which are thus not susceptible to the renal toxicity of these chemicals.
Table 19. Sex hormone-dependent hepatic cytochrome P450 in the rat Enzyme P450 2D Sex specicity female Remarks expressed at a hormoneindependent basal rate, stimulated by estrogen, suppressed by androgen neonatally imprinted by androgen
P450 2C P450 3A
male male
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In experimental animals, sex differences in the expression of biotransformation enzymes usually become apparent at puberty and are maintained throughout adult life. Despite the relatively large sex-dependent variations seen in animal studies, sex seems not to have a profound inuence on the biotransformation of chemicals in humans. Dietary Constituents and the Biotransformation Enzymes. Nutritional factors inuencing biotransformation may be mineral deciencies, vitamin deciencies, protein content, starvation, and natural substances in the diet. Mineral deciencies (calcium, copper, zinc) have been shown to reduce the activities of cytochromes P450. On the other hand, an excess of dietary iron has been observed to increase monooxygenase activity. Dietary cobalt, calcium, and manganese may increase the hepatic levels of glutathione and may thus inuence glutathione S-conjugate formation. Several vitamins are directly or indirectly involved in the regulation of cytochrome P450. For example, diets decient in vitamins C and E reduce the activity of monooxygenases, whereas deciencies in other vitamins increase monooxygenase activity. Moreover, several vitamins serve as important cellular antioxidants and inuence the energy and redox state of the cell and thus also affect biotransformation reactions. Low-protein diets generally reduce the activity of cytochrome P450 and certain phase-II biotransformation reactions. Thus, the nutrient status may also modify the toxicity of xenobiotics. For example, dimethylnitrosamine is a potent hepatocarcinogen in rats kept on a high-protein diet; but almost without effect in rats kept on a low-protein diet. Food deprivation reduces the hepatic concentration of glutathione by as much as 50% due to reduction of glutathione biosynthesis. Thus, xenobiotics detoxied by glutathione conjugation are more toxic in starved than in fed animals. Fasting has also been shown to increase the levels of cytochrome P450 2E1, but decrease the levels of cytochrome P450 2C11. Several natural ingredients in the diet of laboratory animals such as indoles, diallyl disuld,e and psoralens may increase the activities of cytochrome P450. However, some of these compounds may selectively increase some cytochrome P450 enzymes, but inhibit others. For example, diallyl disulde, a constituent of garlic, has been shown to induce cytochrome P450 2B in rats, but inhibits cyto-
chrome P450 2E1. Vegetable ingredients present in broccoli are potent inducers of phase-II biotransformation enzymes and thus increase the capacity of the organism to detoxify reactive intermediates. These natural ingredients are thought to play a major role in the anticarcinogenicity of diets rich in those vegetables. 2.6.7.2. Chemical-Related Factors that Inuence Biotransformation Xenobiotic-related factors inuencing biotransformation are the physiocochemical properties (i.e., chemical structure including the presence of functional groups) and dose. The major determinant of the rate of biotransformation is the concentration of the substrate at the active site of the enzyme. This concentration is determined by structure and lipophilicity and by dose. Lipophilic xenobiotics readily cross cell membranes and are rapidly absorbed and distributed in the organism. Moreover, lipophilic xenobiotics show a higher partitioning into lipid membranes. These factors contribute to higher concentrations of lipophilic xenobiotics at the active center, especially of membrane-bound enzymes. The presence of functional groups also inuences rates and routes of biotransformation. Certain functional groups may compete for the same substrate for conjugation; also, specic functional groups may undergo different reactions, as indicated in Figure 40 for p-aminobenzoic acid. The presence of other specic functional groups may have a major effect on biotransformation and its regioselectivity. For example, the presence of triuoromethyl groups in alkanes renders the adjacent methylene carbon atom almost inert to hydroxylation and strongly inuences the regioselectivity of enzymatic hydroxylations on aromatic rings. Dose is one of the most important factors determining rate and route of biotransformation
Figure 40. Possible biotransformation pathways for paminobenzoic acid
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for more complex molecules. Certain biotransformation enzymes have a high afnity but low capacity for a specic chemical, while others have a high capacity but low afnity. As dose increases, high-afnity, low-capacity enzymes will become staturated, and low-afnity, high capacity pathway(s) will biotransform a larger percentage of dose [118]. 2.6.8. Elimination of Xenobiotics and their Metabolites The evolution of complex forms of life necessitated the development of specialized mechanisms to eliminate waste products formed from endogenous compounds and to prevent the accumulation of toxic xenobiotics present taken up in the diet. Excretion of wastes by the earlier forms of aquatic life was largely passive and involved the loss of large volumes of water and nutrients. For land-living animals, conservation of water, minerals, and nutrients was necessary for survival. Therefore, complex mechanisms for the elimination of both endogenous chemicals and xenobiotics evolved. A wide variety of xenobiotics can be handled by evolved excretory mechanisms and can thus be efciently eliminated from the body. Xenobiotics may be excreted as the parent compound, as metabolites, and/or as conjugates formed in phase-II biotransformation reactions. A major route of excretion of xenobiotics is via the kidney, and in some cases the urinary elimination of parent compound or metabolite can be used to determine absorbed dose. The kidney is the only organ which functions almost exclusively as an organ of elimination. The cells of the liver have more varied functions than those found in the kidney; however, the liver also plays an important role in the excretion of chemicals not effectively eliminated by the kidneys. Chemicals may be eliminated from the liver into bile and thus be nally excreted with feces. Active transport mechanisms, that is, transport against a concentration gradient, play a major role in renal and hepatic excretion of xenobiotics. In contrast, in most other organs which may serve as excretory systems for xenobiotics, passive excretion mechanisms are operative. For example, volatile chemicals and metabolites may be eliminated in expired air; this route is quantitatively signicant for some solvents and inhalation anesthetics.
Specic xenobiotics may also be excreted in sweat, saliva, and milk. 2.6.8.1. Renal Excretion The kidneys are the only organs that are primarily designed for excretion. The function of these organs accounts for the elimination of most of the byproducts of normal metabolism and most of the polar xenobiotics and metabolites of lipophilic xenobiotics to which humans and experimental animals are exposed [119]. The kidney is a complex structure which consist of a number of different cell types [119121]. Essentially, the kidney lters the bood and all components present in blood with a molecular mass of less than 50 000 (depending on structure and charge) enter the tubular system; there, important nutrients and most of the ltered water are recovered. Only a small fraction of the primary ltrate is excreted as urine (one to two liters per day). The human kidney consists of approximately two million nephrons, which are the functional units that lter the blood and the recover essential nutrients. The structure and components of a single nephron are shown in Figure 41. Glomerular Filtration. Renal excretion is the product of three complex and interactive processes: glomerular ltration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Glomerular
Figure 41. Structure of a nephron a) Glomerulus; b) Renal artery; c) Proximal tubule; d) Renal vein; e) Loop of Henle; f ) Distal tubule; g) Collecting duct
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ltration is the passive ltering of the plasma as a result of its passage through glomerular pores (710 nm in diameter) under hydrostatic pressure generated by the heart. The average rate of glomerular ltration in adults is 125 ml/min or almost 200 liters/d. Glomerular ltration shows little specicity other than molecular size, and free solutes in the plasma that pass through the glomerular pores will all appear in the ltrate. Only protein-bound low molecular mass xenobiotics will not appear in the ltrate and remain in blood. Glomerular ltration is inuenced by factors that affect the hydrostatic pressure or integrity of the glomerulus; thus, these factors may result in elevated plasma concentrations of excretory products formed from endogenous chemicals and from xenobiotics. Tubular Reabsorption. The daily volume of glomerular ltrate exceeds that of the total body water by a factor of four and contains many necessary nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and salt; therefore, most of the glomerular ltrate must be recovered. Thus, the second major process occuring in the kidney is tubular reabsorption. A number of discrete mechanisms, both active and passive and of varying degrees of specicity, are involved in tubular reabsorption. Many of these reabsorptive mechanisms are located in the cells of the proximal segments of the tubules. These cells account for the reabsorption of 6590% of the gIomerular ltrate. Glucose, certain cations, low molecular mass proteins, amino acids, and organic acids are actively reabsorbed. Water and chloride are passively reabsorbed as a result of the osmotic and electrochemical gradients generated by the active transport of sodium and potassium. The osmolarity of the uid in the collecting duct is regulated in the loops of Henle; most of the remaining water and ions are reabsorbed in the distal tubules and collecting ducts. The rate of reabsorption in these segments of the proximal tubule is regulated to maintain the osmolar concentration of the blood. Most xenobiotics are also reabsorbed after glomerular ltration by passive diffusion during passage through the nephron. Passive tubular reabsorption of lipophilic xenobiotics is therefore greater than the reabsorption of polar xenobiotics or endogenous wastes. Tubular Secretion. Xenobiotics present in blood may also be excreted by the kidney by
tubular secretion. This secretion transports xenobiotics from the peritubular uid (blood) to the lumen (urine) in the tubule. Tubular secretion is often selective; active transport mechanisms account for the secretion of many organic acids, including glucuronides and sulfates, and strong organic bases. The secretion of weak bases and some weak acids may also occur by a passive mechanism that utilizes pH differences between peritubular uid and urine. At the pH of the tubular lumen, these compounds become ionized and do not diffuse back across the cell wall. Factors Affecting Renal Excretion of Xenobiotics. Xenobiotics are excreted by the same mechanisms which eliminate endogenous wastes; highly polar xenobiotics in plasma water are removed primarily by glomerular ltration and excreted in the urine with minimal involvement of tubular reabsorption or secretion. The rate of renal elimination of most of these xenobiotics is largely dependent on the rate of glomerular ltration. Since lipophilic compounds cross cell membranes more readily, they distribute into a much larger tissue volume than polar compounds, which are more likely to be restricted to the vascular volume. However, lipophilic xenobiotics metabolized to more polar compounds are usually rapidly returned to the circulation and are readily excreted. Therefore, the rate of metabolism of a xenobiotic may also play an important role in its rate of excretion. 2.6.8.2. Hepatic Excretion Nutrients and xenobiotics are delivered from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver by the portal vein to be biotransformed there. Thus the liver is located between the intestinal tract and the general circulation and ideally located for the biotransformation of nutrients and xenobiotics taken up by this route. Besides participating in the biotransformation of xenobiotics, the liver is a major excretory organ and contributes to the excretion of many xenobiotics by eliminating them with bile into the gut and thus into feces [122125]. The bulk of the liver consists of cells arranged in plates two cells thick. These plates are arranged radially around the terminal branches of the hepatic veins and are exposed to blood from the portal vein and hepatic artery owing through
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Figure 42. One-compartment model with rst-order elimination and instantaneous absorption
interconnecting spaces referred to as hepatic sinusoids. The sinusoidal walls are freely permeable even to relatively large particles; special transport may only play a role in the uptake of certain anions from the blood. The epithelial hepatic cell is the smallest unit of the liver and accounts for most of the varied functions of this organ, including storage, secretion, biotransformation, and excretion (Fig. 42). Bile formation is thought to be the result of active transport of certain ionized compounds and passive transport of other solutes and water, which follow a concentration or electrochemical gradient. Active secretion of anions and cations appears to be controlled by different mechanisms, but the compounds actively excreted are usually amphipathic molecules and have both polar and nonpolar portions in their structures. Bile acids are the classical example of endogenous amphipathic molecules. Conjugates of lipophilic xenobiotics are also examples of amphipathic molecules, and many of these conjugates are ionized, a fact that facilitates excretion from the hepatocyte by active transport mechanisms. As a result of both active and passive secretion into the bile, xenobiotics excreted into bile may be classied into different groups. Solutes found in bile may be divided according to their concentration in bile versus blood. For example, the excretion of Na, K, Cl, and glucose, for which the bile/blood ratio is close to unity, is thought to be passive. Conjugates of xenobiotics and bile acids have a bile/blood ratio of greater than 10 and are thought to be actively excreted from liver into bile. Other compounds such as proteins, inulin, sucrose, and phosphates do not
cross the canalicular membrane of hepatocytes and have a bile/blood ratio of much less than one. Bile secreted by the liver cells into the bile canaliculi ows into the narrowest branches of the bile duct, the cholangioles, then into the hepatic duct, which carries the bile to the gallbladder and nally into the intestine. Lipophilic xenobiotics may appear in bile at low concentrations prior to metabolism. However, a compound absorbed from the stomach or intestine after ingestion is likely reabsorbed from the intestine if it is secreted in bile prior to structural modications by biotransformation. Moreover, conjugates excreted into bile, such as glucuronides, may be hydrolyzed by enzymes present in the bacteria of the intestinal microora, and the aglycone may be reabsorbed. Most xenobiotics reabsorbed from the intestine are returned to the liver. The process of excretion into bile, reabsorption from the intestine, and return to the liver is termed enterohepatic circulation. Enterohepatic circulation serves as an efcient physiological recovery mechanism for bile acids and certain hormones. When xenobiotics are trapped in this cycle, their rate of excretion from the body may be signicantly reduced and their toxicity may be signicantly increased. Effect of Molecular Mass on Hepatic Excretion of Xenobiotics. From the liver cell, xenobiotics may be excreted into bile or returned to blood. The molecular mass of nonvolatile organic xenobiotics or their metabolites determines the primary route by which they are excreted from the hepatocyte. In the rat, xenobiotics, their metabolites and conjugates formed in phase-II reactions with molecular masses greater than 500 are most often excreted into bile, while xenobiotics and their metabolites with molecular masses of less than 350 return from the hepatocyte to blood and are thus delivered to the general circulation and to the kidney for excretion. In humans, the critical molecular mass threshold for biliary excretion is approximately 500. 2.6.8.3. Xenobiotic Elimination by the Lungs Any xenobiotic present in blood with sufcient volatility will pass from the blood across the alveolar membrane into the air space of the lung and may be exhaled. The rate of elimination from blood of a volatile xenobiotic is dependent on the
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solubility of the xenobiotic in blood, the rate of respiration, and the blood ow to the lung. Xenobiotics like diethyl ether, which are highly soluble in blood, are rapidly eliminated by exhalation; their elimination may also be efciently increased by a forced increase in the rate of respiration (hyperventilation). In contrast, volatile xenobiotics with low solubility in blood are only slowly cleared from the lung and thus from the body by exhalation, and their rate of exhalation may not be markedly inuenced by hyperventilation. The proportionality among xenobiotic volatility, blood solubility, and the concentration of a volatile xenobiotic in the blood is utilized to quantitate blood alcohol content and thus estimate sobriety by breath analysis.
2.7. Toxicokinetics
The toxic response to chemical exposure depends particularly on the magnitude, duration, frequency, and route of exposure. These determine the amount of material to which an organism is exposed (the exposure dose) and hence the amount of material which can be absorbed (the absorbed dose). The latter determines the amount of material available for distribution and toxic metabolite formation, and hence the likelihood of inducing a toxic effect. Absorption and metabolite accumulation are opposed by elimination. All these factors dene the disposition of the xenobiotic. The modeling and mathematical description of the course of disposition of a potentially toxic xenobiotic in the organism with time is termed toxicokinetics. Most of the methodologies and principles applied in toxicokinetics were rst used to model the kinetics of chemicals applied as drugs (pharmacokinetics). The goal of both toxicokinetics and pharmacokinetics is to quantitate the dynamic course of xenobiotic absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and elimination processes in living organisms with time. Both the whole process of disposition or individual steps such as elimination may be characterized. 2.7.1. Pharmacokinetic Models A pharmacokinetic or toxicokinetic model is a functional representation that has the ability to
describe the movement of a xenobiotic over time in a real biological system [126128]. A common way to describe the kinetics of drugs is to represent the body as a number of interconnected compartments which may or may not have an anatomical or physiological reality. These compartments represent all tissues, organs, and uids in the body that are kinetically indistinguishable from each other. A compartment might be represented by a cluster of cells within an organ, an organ, the blood, or the whole body taken together. More recently, so called physiologically based pharmacokinetic and toxicokinetic models have been developed. These models permit the modeling of the time course of the concentration of a chemical in a tissue on the basis of physiological considerations and may be particulary useful in interspecies extrapolations such as are necessary in risk assessment. 2.7.1.1. One-Compartment Model This simplest toxicokinetic model depicts the body as a single homogeneous unit within which a xenobiotic is uniformly distributed at all times. The toxicokinetics of a xenobiotic may be analyzed by a one-compartment model if the determined plasma concentration after a single dose decreases exponentially (Fig. 43; the plot of the logarithm of the plasma concentration versus time yields a straight line). In this model, elimination of a chemical from the body occurs by rst-order processes. A mathematical description of the rst-order process is
dX ke X dt
where X is the amount in the body at time t and ke is the rate constant for rst-order elimination. In compartmental analysis, ke is often referred to as an apparent rst-order rate constant, to emphasize that the underlying processes may in reality only approximate rst-order kinetics. For example, the xenobiotic might actually be eliminated by active biliary secretion, for which zero-order saturation kinetics would be observed under suitable conditions. If the xenobiotic is not present in the organism and a known amount X0 is rapidly administered, the total amount of the xenobiotic initially in the body will be approximately X0 total dose. The amount of the xenobiotic present in the organism
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Figure 43. Structure of a liver cell (hepatocyte) and possible pathways for the uptake and elimination of xenobiotics and their metabolites a) Space of Disse; b) Nucleus; c) Bile; d) Liver capillary; e) Sinusoidal wall; f) Rough endoplasmic reticulum; g) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum; h) Mitochondria; i) Golgy complex; j) Bile duct
at a certain time after administration is then

X t X0 e
kt
The rst-order rate constant of elimination can be determined from the slope of the plot of the logarithmic plasma concentration versus time and can be used to estimate the half-life of elimination for the xenobiotic:
t1=2 0:693 ke
cess, then the rates of absorption and elimination will determine the time course of the plasma concentration (Fig. 44). The rate of change in the concentration of a xenobiotic in a one-compartment model with rst-order absorption and elimination may be described by:
dX ke Xe ka Xa dt
where ka is the rate constant of absorption, Xa is the amount of the xenobiotic present at the site of
Within seven half-lives, a xenobiotic is almost completely eliminated (99.2%), although theoretically complete elimination will never be achieved. Important characteristics of the rstorder elimination of a xenobiotic according to the one-compartment model are: 1. The half-life of the xenobiotic is independent of dose; the semilogarithmic plot of the plasma concentration of the xenobiotic versus time yields a straight line. 2. The concentration of the xenobiotic in plasma decreases by a constant fraction per time unit. Xenobiotics responsible for toxic effects are usually not injected into blood and intake is thus not instantaneous compared to distribution and elimination and a lag period before maximal concentration in plasma is observed. If intake also approximates a rst-order absorption pro-
Figure 44. One- compartment model with rst-order absorption and rst-order elimination
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absorption, and ke is the rate constant of elimination. The rate constant of elimination can be experimentally determined by treating the elimination phase as if it occurred after the intravenous injection described above by extrapolation of the terminal straight line of the semilogarithmic plot to the ordinate at a putative X0. By determing the plasma concentration of the xenobiotic at time points shortly after administration, the rate constant for absorption can be determined by plotting the difference between the early plasma concentrations and the extrapolated portion of the elimination curve. 2.7.1.2. Two-Compartment Model lf a xenobiotic does not distribute and equilibrate throughout the body rapidly, a two-compartment model provides a better description of the kinetics of disposition. In this case, the semilogarithmic plot of plasma concentration versus time does not yield a straight line. In two-compartment models, the main or central compartment is assumed to represent the blood and highly perfused organs and tissues such as the liver, the heart, and the kidneys, which are in rapid distribution equilibrium with the blood, while the second or peripheral compartment corresponds to poorly perfused tissues such as muscles and fat. This model is depicted in Figure 45 and is
called a two-compartment open pharmacokinetic model. The time course of the plasma concentration of the xenobiotic can be decribed by two overlying monoexponential terms of the type:
X Aekt Bek t
0
where A and B are proportionality constants and k and k0 are rate constants. Thus, the pharmacokinetics of a two-compartment model describe a biexponential decay in the amount of xenobiotic in the body. Analogous to a one-compartment model, a distribution equilibrium is assumed to exist within each compartment that can be expressed in terms of blood concentration. According to this equation, a plot of the logarithm of blood concentration versus time will yield a biphasic decay from which the constants A, B, k, and k0 can be estimated either graphically or by nonlinear regression analysis. Once these experimental constants have been determined, the pharmacokinetic parameters can be calculated. The numerical values of these parameters can aid in assessing the relative importance of tissue distribution and elimination to the disposition of the xenobiotic. 2.7.2. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models Although compartmental analysis models are convenient to use and provide useful descriptions of the overall time course of xenobiotic disposition, the practical limitations of curve tting to experimental data generally restrict such models to one or two compartments. Alternatively, it is often possible to develop a compartmental model from physiological principles and thereby circumvent the inherent limitations of curve-tting analysis. A physiological pharmacokinetic or toxicokinetic model is a mathematical description of the disposition of a xenobiotic in the organisms or in a part thereof (e.g., a specic organ) Such a model is constructed by using physiological and biochemical parameters such as blood ow rates, tissue and organ sizes, binding, and biotransformation rates [129131]. These are generally more complex and require the specication of many parameters; thus, physiological compartmental models are still simplied representations of
Figure 45. Two-compartment model for the distribution of a xenobiotic Xc concentration in the central compartment; Xp concentration in the peripheral compartment; X0 initial dose; k21, k12, k10 rate constants
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biological systems. In addition, the accurate determination of physical and biochemical parameters is often both difcult and inaccurate. However, the physiological framework provides several advantages: the physical denition of compartments and transfer rates facilitates the incorporation of existing knowledge about the quantitative behavior of biological systems into the model; physiological changes with time during chronic exposure to a xenobiotic, such as those due to physical growth, or induction of biotransformation and changes in excretion rates, can be introduced (Fig. 46). Most important, however, a reasonable basis exists for extrapolating the kinetics of a xenobiotic to predict the disposition of a xenobiotic following various types and patterns of exposure, and to extrapolate from experimental data obtained in one species of experimental animals to other animal species and humans. Physiology-based models use the concepts of mass balance and ow-limited transport under the following denitions: Blood serves to distribute a xenobiotic from the site of absorption to the other parts of the body. In the normal sequence of events, a chemical entering the bloodstream is often rapidly distributed within the blood, and its blood concentration can be considered to be essentially uniform.
The chemical enters and leaves the compartment with the blood ow and diffuses or is transported from blood to tissue and back. The chemical may also undergo a variety of physical interactions, such as binding to macromolecules, and the result is a partitioning between tissue and blood that depends on the afnity of the chemical for each medium. Diffusion or transport directly between adjacent compartments, enzymatic biotransformations, and excretion may also occur. The net result of all of these changes is expressed by a mass-balance differential equation, which is simply a mathematical statement of the conservation of mass. Frequently, these mass balance equations can be greatly simplied, since many of the terms required may not apply to a particular compartment.
3. Mechanisms of Acute and Chronic Toxicity and Mechanisms of Chemical Carcinogenesis

3.1. Biochemical Basis of Toxicology
Since the 1960s, toxicology has moved from observing and classifying the harmful effects of chemicals in animals with the tools of pathology (descriptive toxicology), to a discipline able to explain the mechanisms of the basic changes in cell function responsible for toxic effects (mechanistic toxicology). This progress resulted from the widespread application of techniques and concepts from a range of basic sciences, most notably biochemistry and cell biology. Mechanistic explanations of toxic phenomena aid in the prevention of chemical or biological toxicity and provide a rational basis for the use of animal data to assess the anticipated consequences of human exposure to a particular chemical. Many toxic compounds are chemically stable and produce their characteristic effects by interference with biochemical or physiological homeostatic mechanisms. Many adverse events are the consequence of disturbance of normal physiology and do not result in cell death. A xenobiotic may, for example, activate plasma membrane receptors and induce physiological signal transduction pathways. Induction of a normal cascade at the wrong time or to the wrong extent (too much) may cause undesirable or harmful effects. Toxic compounds interfering with
Figure 46. Schematic representation of a physiologically based toxicokinetic model
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homeostatic mechanisms do not necessarily cause cell death; however, the induced changes may have a harmful impact both on the altered cells and on the involved tissue or on the entire organ. Therefore, it is critical to have a proper knowledge on biochemical and molecular sites of action of the xenobiotics. Cytotoxicity resulting in cell death is often the consequence of exposure to a harmful xenobiotic, but the number of cells which must be killed before the function of a tissue or organism is noticeably impaired is highly variable. Some cell types like the epithelia of the kidney and the liver have the ability to regenerate in response to damage, while others like neurons can not. Furthermore, some organs, such as the liver, lung, and kidney, have a substantial functional reserve capacity in excess of normal requirements, and normal function can be maintained even in the presence of extended necrosis. In addition to cell death, disturbances in the regulation of cell division induced by toxic xenobiotics may have harmful long-term consequences for the organism affected. Nonlethal alterations in the genome of somatic cells can result in mutations and can lead to malignant transformation and tumor formation [132]. More recently, it has become clear that compounds not directly interacting with the genomic DNA can also produce cancer by so-called epigenetic mechanisms [133]. These may involve a proliferative response of epithelial cells to cytotoxicity, as is suggested to occur with high-dose carcinogens such as allyl isothiocyanate and chloroform, or a more direct action that enhances the rate of cell division in the absence of cytotoxicity, as is seen with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin. Increased cell replication, whatever the cause, is accompanied by increased chance of unrepaired DNA lesions that may be xed as mutations. Hyperplasia has long been suspected of preceding neoplasia, but the inevitability of such a progression has never been established on a pathological basis alone. Even in absence of foreign compounds, DNA is damaged to a considerable extent by reactive oxygen species formed during different biochemical processes in the cell, it may thus be speculated that nongenotoxic carcinogens act by enhancing the likelihood of this normal DNA damage being xed as a mutation and leading to cancer [134]. Having established the fundamental differences between toxic chemicals which act through
physiological inbalance, through cytotoxicity, or by causing alterations in cell proliferation, we now consider some sites or chemical reaction mechanisms of toxic action. The following major mechanisms are neither comprehensive nor mutually exclusive.
3.2. Receptor-Ligand Interactions

3.2.1. Basic Interactions Some xenobiotics can interact with physiological receptors due to structural similarities to endogenous compounds. The toxic effects of these chemicals are related to their ability to interfere with normal receptorligand interactions either as agonists or as antagonists of the physiological ligand. Receptors are macromolecular components, most often proteins, of tissues which interact with specic endogenous ligands or structurally related xenobiotics to induce a cascade of biochemical events and produce characteristic biological effects. The binding between a receptor (R) and a ligand (L) is usually reversible and can be described by the equilibrium reaction:
The dissociation constant Kd that describes this relationship is thus given by:
Kd k1 LR k2 LR
where [L], [R], and [LR] are the concentrations of ligand, unbound receptor, and ligand-bound receptor, respectively. The afnity of the ligand to a certain receptor is proportional to 1/Kd. The ligand may be an endogenous substance that interacts with the receptor to produce a normal physiological response, or it may be a xenobiotic that may either elicit (agonist) or block (antagonist) the response. Receptorligand interactions are generally highly stereospecic. Usually, small changes in the chemical structure of the ligand can Drastically inuence its capability to bind to the receptor and thus reduce or completely abolish the effect elicited by the ligandreceptor interaction. In other cases, changes in the chemical structure may have an important impact on the response
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without altering the binding of the xenobiotic to the relevant receptor. Differences in the extent of activity are not only observed with structurally distinct chemicals but also with chemicals that are chiral and thus may be present as racemic mixtures of stereoisomers. Synthetic chemicals with chiral centers generally contain both enantiomers, often in a 1:1 ratio, yet in many instances only one of the enantiomers is biologically active. In pharmacological or toxicological studies, the inactive or weakly active enantiomer should be viewed as an impurity which may confound the interpretation of results obtained with the racemic mixture. Because the enzymes responsible for biotransformation of xenobiotics also contain active sites with specic steric requirements, stereoisomers may be differentially biotransformed. The selective biotransformation of only one enantiomer may markedly alter the potency and efcacy of one enantiomer compared with another. Stereoselective differences in action among enantiomers should not be surprising, if one considers that these chemicals are mirror images,
much as the right hand is of the left, and that receptors have a physical orientation that can be compared with a glove. Although the left-hand and right-hand gloves look remarkably similar, they do not t both hands equally well. However, these theoretical considerations do not imply that stereoisomers always elicit different responses. Since the chiral center of a stereoisomer is not necessarily involved with the active site of the receptor, chirality does not always results in differences in toxic response among enantiomers. The acute toxic effects of many xenobiotics are related directly to their ability to interfere with normal receptorligand interactions. This is most clearly the case with neurotoxins, acting within and outside the central nervous system (CNS). The proper function of the nervous system is highly dependent on a diverse array of receptorligand interactions. For example, the belladonna alkaloids atropine and scopolamine bind to and block the cholinergic receptors, the binding site of the physiological agonist acetylcholine (Fig. 47). The interactions of acetylcho-
Figure 47. Induction of physiological response(s) by binding of the agonist acetylcholine to postsynaptic receptors; in contrast, binding of the antagonist atropine to the same receptors does not induce biological effects
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line and atropine are an excellent example demonstrating that interference of a xenobiotic with physiological regulatory mechanisms may result both in desired (pharmacological) and an undesired (toxic) effects. Since atropine itself can not elicit the physiological responses mediated by acetylcholine binding to this receptor, toxic effects may result. In clinical therapy, atropine is often used as an antispasmodic to reduce the hypermotile state of the gastrointestinal tract or the urinary bladder. Its anticholinergic effects are also utilized in cardiovascular pharmacology to decrease pathologically elevated heart rates. At the same time, however, blockage of acetylcholine-mediated physiological cascades may cause dry mouth, blurred vision, and constipation. In addition, in the CNS toxic effects of atropine include restlessness, confusion, hallucinations, and delirium. Blockage of the receptors for the neutral amino acid glycine by strychnine represents a further example of the important and, in this particular case, life-threatening agonistantagonist interactions. Binding of glycine to its receptor induces an increased permeability of the plasma membrane to chloride ions resulting in hyperpolarization and reduced activity of nerve cells, that is, glycine exerts an inhibitory effect on the nervous system. Blockage of the glycine receptors by the antagonist strychnine, that does not elicit a response, results in hyperactivity and severe convulsions. In addition to acute toxicity, chronic inuences exerted by xenobiotics on steroid hormone homeostasis may result in adaptive and proliferative responses in certain tissues. The long-term consequences may involve impairment or loss of the physiological function. Moreover, binding to a specic receptor may cause changes in gene expression and contribute to tumor formation. For example, binding to the Ah receptor (the arylhydrocarbon receptor, named on the basis of its interaction with planar, polycyclic aromatic compounds) mediates many of the effects observed with the highly toxic and carcinogenic 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD). A cytosolic binding protein (cytosolic receptor) has also been identied for peroxisome proliferators, such as clobrate and diethylhexyl phthalate [135, 136]. This protein has DNA-binding domains and appears to activate gene transcription in the nucleus in a manner analogous to the steroid hormones. The increased cell prolifera-
Table 20. Chemicals causing toxic response by interaction with receptors (Ah aryl hydrocarbon) Type of receptor Muscarinic receptor Glycine receptor Ah receptor Peroxisome proliferator receptor Chemical atropine strychnine TCDD peroxisome proliferators (clobrate, diethylhexylphthalate)
tion caused in target organs such as the liver may be responsible for the carcinogenicity of many peroxisome proliferators. Characteristic examples of receptorxenobiotic interactions with harmful acute or chronic consequences are summarized in Table 20. 3.2.2. Interference with Excitable Membrane Functions The maintenance and stability of excitable membranes is essential to normal physiology. Excitable membranes are critical to the function of nerves and muscles due to their ability to generate and propagate action potentials. Action potentials are elicited by the exchange of ions between the intra- and extracellular compartments, and hence they depend on the normal activity of ion channels and membrane ion pumps. Xenobiotics may perturb excitable membrane functions in many different ways. Xenobiotics can block sodium channels resulting in toxic effects such as paralysis. For example, tetrodotoxin from the the puffer sh irreversibly blocks the sodium channel along the nerve axon and thus prevents the inward sodium current of the action potential while leaving the outward potassium current unaffected. The marine toxin saxitoxin, which is structurally quite different from tetrodotoxin, also produces its paralyzing effects by blocking sodium channels in excitable membranes in essentially the same manner. The insecticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) produces its neurotoxic action by interfering with the closing of sodium channels, which impairs the physiological repolarization of excitable membranes. This results in hyperactivity of the nervous system and repetitive discharges of neurons. The most striking symptoms in poisoned insects or mammals are persistent tremor and convulsive
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Figure 48. Sites of action of chlorinated cyclodiene insecticides on the plasma membrane of nerve cells
seizures. Other neurotoxins such as cyclodiene insecticides and picrotoxin interact with the g aminobutyrate (GABA) receptor in neurons. Blockage of the GABA receptor by these antagonists impairs the transport of chloride ions into the cell, which results in partial depolarisation of the membranes in the absence of adequate signals. The clinical symptoms of the pathophysiological changes can be summarized as a state of uncontrolled excitation. In addition, with cyclodiene insecticides this hyperexcitability is augmented by the inhibition of Ca2Mg2ATPase, which results in accumulation of intracellular free calcium and increased release of neurotransmitters from storage vesicles (Fig. 48). Organic solvents have a depressant effect on the CNS that results in narcosis by nonspecic alterations in membrane uidity due to their lipid solubility rather than by interference with specic ion channels. This depressant effect is not based on certain structural features or specic interactions, that is, it is also observed after inhalation of the inert, but highly lipophilic gas xenon. 3.2.3. Interference of Xenobiotics with Oxygen Transport, Cellular Oxygen Utilization, and Energy Production Continuous, sufcient production of energy in form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in specia-
lized cellular organelles (mitochondria) is essential for cell survival and function. The process of cellular energy production requires oxygen, cofactors, and a wide array of specialized enzymes acting in concert. Many chemicals produce their toxic effects by interfering with the transport and cellular utilization of oxygen or with the oxidation of carbohydrates, which is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. The interference with cellular energy production may occur at different sites in the uptake, transport, and cellular utilization of oxygen. Oxygen transport from the lung to tissues may be reduced or blocked by xenobiotics which compete with oxygen for the binding site in the transport protein hemoglobin or which chemically modify this binding site. Carbon monoxide competitively blocks the binding of oxygen to the transport protein hemoglobin. Chemical oxidation of the iron in hemoglobin also impairs oxygen transport. Some xenobiotics oxidize the Fe2 at the oxygen binding site in hemoglobin to Fe3. Hemoglobin with Fe3, known as, methemoglobin, can not reversibly bind oxygen. Thus, xenobiotics causing methemoglobinemia (e.g., nitrites, aromatic amines) effectively block oxygen transport. The cellular utilization of oxygen in the tissues is blocked by cyanide, hydrogen sulde, and azide because of their afnity for cytochrome oxidase. Cyanide exerts its toxic effects by inter-
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rupting electron transport in the mitochondrial cytochrome electron-transport chain. In addition, interferences with the enzyme systems producing ATP is a well-dened mechanism of toxicity. The ultimate formation of ATP in the cell by the oxidation of carbohydrates may also be blocked at other sites. For example, rotenone and antimycin A interfere with specic enzymes in the electron-transport chain, nitrophenols uncouple oxidative phosphorylation, and sodium uoroacetate inhibits the citric acid (Krebs) cycle. Nitrophenols interfere with the production of highenergy phosphates in mitochondria. They prevent the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to ATP, but electron ow and oxygen consumption continue. In addition to inducing loss of cell function due to depletion
of ATP, this type of uncoupler also causes a marked elevation of body temperature due to excess heat production. Toxicity resulting from blockage of the tricarboxylic acid cycle occurs in organs heavily relying on the availability of a continuous energy supply and results in cardiac and nervous system toxicity. A classic example for a mechanism inhibiting the Krebs cycle is termed lethal synthesis and is exemplied by uoroacetate, which is incorporated into the Krebs cycle as uoroacetyl coenzyme A, inhibits the aconitase-catalyzed conversion of citrate to isocitrate, and interrupts the Krebs-cycle (Fig. 49). The Krebs cycle is the major degradative pathway for the generation of ATP and also provides intermediates for biosynthesis. For example, the majority of the carbon atoms in
Figure 49. Lethal synthesis Incorporation of uoroacetate in the Krebs cycle; formation of uorocitrate and inhibition of aconitase results in blocking of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and interruption of cellular energy production
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porphyrins comes from succinyl CoA and many of the amino acids are derived from a-ketoglutarate and oxalacetate. Hence, interruption of the Krebs cycle by the incorporation of uoroacetate may be lethal for the cell. The consequences of ATP depletion include impairment of membrane integrity, ion pumps, and protein synthesis. Depending on its extent, energy depletion will inevitably Iead to loss of cell function and cell death.
3.3. Binding of Xenobiotics to Biomolecules

Many toxic chemicals exert their effects by covalent linkage of reactive metabolites to essential macromolecules of the cell. Xenobiotics may become covalently bound to the active site of enzymes or to other macromolecules whose function is critical to the cell. These include proteins (Section 3.3.1) and lipids (e.g., as membrane structural elements; see Section 3.3.2) and nucleic acids (see Section 3.3.3). The linkage generally involves binding of electrophilic metabolites to nucleophilic sites such as thiol, amino, and hydroxyl groups in the side chains of proteins and is essentially irreversible; it depends only on the turnover of the macromolecule in question for the repair of the lesion. In addition, other toxins may bind to proteins and impair their normal function without rst being converted to reactive intermediates. 3.3.1. Binding of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites to Cellular Proteins Many toxic substances exert their effects via binding to the active sites of enzymes or other proteins that are critical to cellular function. For example, hydrogen cyanide binds with high afnity to the Fe3 ion in cytochrome oxidase and thus blocks the last step in the mitochondrial electron-transport chain, which is important for cellular energy production. This single and highly specic site of action is responsible for the rapid induction of the often fatal toxic effects of cyanide. Carbon monoxide binds to the reduced form of iron in hemoglobin, whose physiological function is to bind, transfer, and deliver oxygen to tissues. Since carbon monoxide has a 210-fold
higher afnity to this binding site than oxygen, very low concentrations of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere are sufcient to displace the physiological ligand and produce severe toxic effects. Thus, 0.1% carbon monoxide in the atmosphere can occupy roughly 50% of the available hemoglobin binding sites, because on the basis of the 210-fold higher afnity to hemoglobin compared with oxygen, 0.1% carbon monoxide is equivalent to 20% oxygen in the atmosphere. Another example for the importance of protein binding in toxicity is the binding of metal ions to protein thiol groups. Many toxic metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic bind to proteins with free sulfhydryl groups, which contributes by as-yet largely unknown mechanisms to the toxicity of these metals. Induction of porphyria by lead, mercury, and other metals is based in part on the inhibition of specic enzymes of heme biosynthesis and results in the accumulation of specic intermediates in heme synthesis. The binding of cadmium to the sulfhydryl-rich protein metalothionein results in active concentration of the metalmetalothionein complex in the proximal tubules of the kidney. Catabolism of the metal complex in the lysosomes of proximal tubule cells with concomitant liberation of the toxic metal results in nephrotoxicity, a common effect of cadmium exposure in humans and experimental animals [137]. Binding to active sites in enzymes may result in the inhibition of biochemical pathways vital to the cell. The induction of toxic effects may be due to accumulation of a specic enzyme substrate or insufcient amount of substrate available for normal physiological function. For example, many organophosphate pesticides inhibit cholinesterases by covalently binding to the active site, the amino acid serine of cholinesterase. Since the phosphorylated cholinesterase is stable, the covalent binding results in inhibition of enzymatic activity (Fig. 50). Due to the impaired cleavage, acetylcholine accumulates at cholinergic synapses and neuromuscular junctions. Organophosphates thus produce the typical signs of acetylcholine poisoning, such as increased salivation and lacrimation, abdominal cramps and diarrhea, cough, bronchoconstriction and breathing impairment, mental confusion, headaches, tremor, and coma.
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Figure 50. Mechanisms of cholinesterase inhibition by organophosphate pesticides Compare the t1/2 of the enzyme complex with the physiological substrate acetylcholine (a few milliseconds) to the t1/2 of the enzyme complex with organophosphate pesticides (several days)
Protein modications may also be the basis for immunosuppressive effects and chemicalinduced allergy. For many chemicals causing necrosis, binding to cellular macromolecules is essential for the expression of toxic effects. However, in most cases the temporal sequence of events that is triggered by covalent binding and the causeeffect relationships between these events are not fully understood. 3.3.2. Interaction of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites with Lipid Constituents Lipid peroxidation in biological membranes by free radicals initiates a series of events nally causing cellular dysfunction and cell death. The formation of radicals during peroxidation is a self-propagating process; the reaction may be started by organic radicals formed during biotransformation or by oxygen radicals formed by disruption of cellular energy metabolism. The initiation of lipid peroxidation by interaction of free radicals with polyunsaturated fatty acids to form lipid peroxy radicals, which then produce lipid hydroperoxides and other lipid peroxy radicals, has been proposed as a critical step leading to cell injury and death. Peroxidative damage to plasma membrane lipids may cause impairment of membrane integrity and, nally, rupture of the plasma membrane. In addition, breakdown of the membranes of subcellular organelles such as those of the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, and lysosomes may also contribute to induction of cell death. The end products of the breakdown of membranes, mainly unsaturated aldehydes, may also produce
toxicity in distal tissues. Induction of lipid peroxidation is involved in the toxicity of many chemicals which are converted to free radicals. A well-studied example is carbon tetrachloride, which is converted by cytochrome P450 to the trichloromethyl radical (CCl3) and the trichloromethylperoxyradical (CCl3O2). Radicals and reactive oxygen species may interact with the major soluble cellular thiols, glutathione (GSH), and thiol-containing proteins. Depletion of cellular glutathione and modication of thiolcontaining proteins by oxidation or mixed disulde formation with glutathione and other low molecular mass thiols may results in oxidative stress in the cell. An important function of reduced glutathione is to protect the sulfhydryl groups of proteins by keeping them in the reduced state. Depletion of intracellular glutathione stores appears to be a prerequisite for the onset of signicant oxidative stress. Many critical enzymes in the cell depend on reduced thiol groups (SH groups) to maintain their activity; hence, concentrations of reactive oxygen species in excess of that necessary to deplete intracellular glutathione can induce oxidation of protein thiols to form disulde linkages, thereby impairing enzymatic activity. Although the direct covalent interaction of electrophilic chemicals with protein thiols may contribute to enzyme inhibition; it appears that reversible oxidation of the thiol group as a result of oxidative stress plays a more important role. One group of thiolcontaining enzymes whose impairment as a result of oxidative inactivation may play a critical role in cell injury and death are the Ca2transporting membrane systems.
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3.3.3. Interactions of Xenobiotics or their Metabolites with Nucleic Acids Electrophilic compounds, usually formed by oxidative biotransformation of xenobiotics, may also interact with various nucleophilic sites in DNA, principally O-6, N-7, N-2, and C-2 of guanine. Moreover, other types of DNA damage may occur as a consequence of covalent binding of electrophiles or by interaction of DNA with reactive oxygen metabolites (Table 21). These interactions may alter gene expression (see Sections 3.5 and 3.7). The changes in gene expression may be quantitative, that is, formation of the wrong amount of a protein in an inappropriate time period of cellular life, or qualitative, that is, formation of a protein with altered or impaired properties. In both cases, the changes may cause the death of the cell. However, interaction of xenobiotics with nucleic acids is more important in generating somatic mutations which can be the initiating event for a process ultimately leading to malignant transformation of cells and tumor growth. Alkylation of the O-6 position of guanine appears important in the mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of nitrosamines and other chemicals that readily form methyl carbonium ions. In addition, other sites such as the N-7, N-2, and C-2 positions of guanine may also play an important role in DNA adduct formation with other electrophilic chemicals. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) also contains nucleophilic sites, and thus critical intracellular functions of RNA such as protein synthesis may be perturbed by covalent interaction of electrophilic chemicals with RNA.
Table 21. Types of DNA damage induced by xenobiotics Type of DNA-damage Modications of purines and pyrimidines Examples alkylation by electrophiles, oxidation to 8-hydroxyguanosine and other oxidized purines, UV-induced formation of thymidine dimers oxygen radicals, activation of calciumdependent endonucleases loss of DNA bases through labilization after covalent binding of xenobiotics to specic sites in purine and pyrimidines bifunctional electrophiles react with nucleophilic sites in both DNA strands (interstrand cross-link) or with two bases on one strand (intrastrand crosslink)
3.4. Perturbation of Calcium Homeostasis by Xenobiotics or their Metabolites

Intracellular calcium concentrations are rigorously maintained at around 107 M against an extracellular concentration of more than 103 M. Three principal buffer systems are important in maintaining this steep gradient in virtually all cells: the plasma membrane, the mitochondria, and the endoplasmic reticulum. All systems require ATP to transport calcium, directly or indirectly. Exposure of freshly isolated or cultured cells to numerous toxins such as tert-butyl hydroperoxide, quinones, paracetamol, and carbon tetrachloride induces a rapid and sustained rise in cytosolic calcium concentrations, which correlates well with the subsequent loss of cell viability [138, 139]. Prevention of this rise by omitting calcium in the extracellular buffer or by addition of calcium chelators may prevent cell death. A central event in calciuminduced toxicity is the activation of calcium-dependent degradative enzymes such as proteases, phospholipases, and endonucleases (Fig. 51). Cytoskeletal integrity is important for a number of cellular functions including motility, shape, secretion, and division. Activation of calcium-dependent proteases results in disruption of cytoskeletal components and formation of plasma membrane blebs (protrusions). In addition, activation of calcium-dependent phospholipases may induce membrane phospholipid breakdown, and calcium-dependent endonucleases may lead to DNA fragmentation by the formation of DNA double-strand breaks. These toxic biochemical cascades may act in concert to cause cell death [104].
3.5. Nonlethal Genetic Alterations in Somatic Cells and Carcinogenesis

The induction of cancer by chemicals is a complex multistep process involving interactions between environmental and endogeneous factors. Tumors are formed as a result of aberrant tissue growth due to loss of control mechanisms of cell division. A model traditionally used for an operational description of carcinogenesis is the initiationpromotion model. Initiation, the rst stage, requires a genotoxic event such as binding of an electrophilic xenobiotic to DNA causing a
DNA strand breaks AP lesions (apurinic, apyrimidinic sites) DNA cross-links
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Figure 51. Increased concentrations of intracellular calcium may activate calcium-dependent degradative enzymes, resulting in the destruction of proteins and lipids and in DNA fragmentation, thus causing cell death
premutagenic lesion in a single cell [140, 141]. After DNA replication, the premutagenic lesion may be transformed into a heritable mutation (i.e. by base-pair substitution; see Section 3.7). In the promotion stage, several, primarily nongenotoxic, mechanisms facilitate (promote) the preferential proliferation of the initiated cell and nally resulting in the formation of a tumor. Initiators are usually genotoxic agents, whereas promoters generally act by interfering with extranuclear sites and processes; most promoters increase cell growth and cell proliferation. In contrast to initiators, which are believed to result in irreversible changes in the cellular genome without thresholds, promoters show some reversibility, and thresholds for promoters can be discussed. This stepwise nature of carcinogenesis was rst shown in mouse skin, and this model has now been well characterized (Fig. 52). In a typical experiment, an initiating chemical such as dimethylbenzanthracene is applied to mouse skin at a low dose so that very few tumors, if any, are produced in the animals lifetime. After an interval of one week to one year, the treated (initiated) skin is exposed to multiple applications of a
promoter such as the phorbol esters found in croton oil. Tumors begin to appear within 5 to 6 weeks after application of the promotor, and all mice carry tumors by 10 to 12 weeks after the start of application (Fig. 52). The initiationpromotion experiments on mouse skin and similar experiments in the rodent liver have led to the following general rules of carcinogenesis: 1. The initiator must be given rst; no tumors or very few tumors result if the promoter is given rst. 2. The initiator, if administered once at a subcarcinogenic dose, does not produce tumors during the time of observation; however, repeated doses of the initiator may cause tumors even in the absence of the promoter (the initiator is a complete carcinogen in this case). 3. The action of the initiator is irreversible; tumors result in nearly the same yield if the interval between initiation and promotion is extended from one week to one year. 4. The initiator is an electrophile, or is bioactivated to an electrophile, which binds
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Figure 52. Schematic presentation of the initiation promotion model of chemical carcinogenesis in the mouse skin Promoters reduce the latency period and increase the number of tumors only when applied after the initiator (3, 4). The application frequency required for promoting effects to occur depends on the initiating carcinogen and the target tissue. If the application frequency of the promoter is too low, the promoting effects are not observed (i.e., no tumors are formed or the tumor yield is not increased, 5). This is also the case, when the promoter is applied prior to the initiator (6) or alone without initiating agent (7). Tumors can also be produced by the initiating agent alone if it is applied at sufcient concentration or above a certain application frequency (1). In this case, the initiator is termed a complete carcinogen
covalently to DNA causing a mutation after DNA replication. 5. In contrast, there is no evidence of covalent binding of promoters or their metabolites to DNA. 6. The action or the promoter is reversible at an early stage and usually requires repeated exposure; thus, there is probably a threshold level of exposure to promoters. However, threshold levels can not be reliably dened, as long as the biochemical mechanism involved in tumor promotion is not precisely known. In contrast to the established target of the initiation process (DNA), the molecular mechanisms of tumor promotion are still largely unknown. In addition to promotion of skin carcinogenesis by the phorbol esters, there are known or suspected promoters for tumors in other organs [142, 143]. Bile acids are known to be promoters of colon carcinogenesis in experimental animals. In humans, there is a strong association between high intake of dietary fat and cancer of the colon; since ingestion of fat increases the amount of bile
acids in the colon, the increased incidence of colon cancer may be due to the promoting effect of the bile acids on intestinal epithelia. In rat bladder, saccharin and cyclamate are promoters for tumors initiated by a single dose of dimethylnitrosourea; tryptophane is a promoter for urinary bladder tumors in dogs treated with an initiating dose of 4-aminobiphenyl or 2-naphthylamine. Hormones are also known modiers of chemical carcinogenesis. Oral or intravenous administration of dimethylbenzanthracene produces mammary tumors in susceptible female mice. Prolactin will increase and accelerate tumor development, whereas ovariectomy results in reduced tumor yield. In addition to these two stages a third stage, termed progression, has since been established as an integral part of the carcinogenic process. In this last stage additional mutational events increase the malignancy of the tumor, that is, the tumor grows in an invasive manner, destroying the surrounding tissues and forming metastases in other organs (Fig. 53). The understanding of the molecular mechanisms on route from DNA interactions to a clinically observable tumor requires some knowledge on the basic roles of DNA biochemistry and biology in cellular function and replication. Therefore, a short chapter on DNA biochemistry and biology follows. Further and in-depth information is presented in textbooks on biochemistry and molecular biology.
3.6. DNA Structure and Function

3.6.1. DNA Structure (! Nucleic Acids, Section 2.1.) With the exception of certain viruses, the genetic information of all cells is contained in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), whose structure and constituents permit the accurate storage of a vast amount of information. In the cell nucleus, the DNA is packaged with proteins to form chromatin. The genetic code of the DNA is denoted by four letters: two pyrimidine nitrogenous bases, thymine (T) and cytosine (C), and two purine bases, guanine (G) and adenine (A). These are are functionally arranged in codons (or triplets). Each codon consists of a combination of three letters and codes for a specic amino acid.
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Figure 53. Multistep model of tumor formation Genotoxic events resulting in heritable mutations cause the formation of an initiated cell (initiation). In the following stage of promotion, nongenetic (epigenetic) events contribute to preferential proliferation of the initiated cell. In the third stage of progression, additional genetic events increase the malignancy of the tumor tissue (i.e., its growth becomes increasingly destructive and metastases are formed in other organs)
The bases on one strand are connected together by a sugar (deoxyribose) phosphate backbone. DNA can exist in a single-stranded or doublestranded form. In the latter state, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. The adenine on one strand binds to thymine on the sister strand, and guanine pairs with cytosine. Two hydrogen bonds are involved in the binding between adenine and thymine, while three hydrogen bonds are involved in the binding of guanine to cytosine. Double-stranded DNA has the unique property that it can make identical copies of itself when supplied with precursors and the required enzymes. In simplied terms, two strands begin to unwind and separate as the hydrogen bonds are broken. This produces single-stranded regions. Complementary deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates then pair with the exposed bases under the control of the enzyme DNA polymerase. The information in DNA is assembled in structural genes. A structural gene is a linear sequence of codons, which contain the information for a functional protein, consisting of a sequence of amino acids. Individual proteins may function as structural components of the cell, as enzymes, or may regulate important cellular functions. The DNA of eukaryotic cells contains repeated sequences of some genes. Also, eukaryotic genes, unlike prokaryotic (i.e., bacterial) genes, have noncoding DNA regions called introns between coding regions known as exons. This property means that eukaryotic cells have an additional processing mechanism at transcription.
3.6.2. Transcription (! Nucleic Acids, Section 4.2.1.) The linkage between the DNA in the nucleus and proteins in the cytoplasm is not direct (Fig. 54). The information contained in the DNA molecule is transferred to the protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell via another informational nucleic acid, called messenger RNA (mRNA), which is synthesized complementary to the relevant DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. Although similar to DNA, mRNAs are single-stranded, and contain the base uracil instead of thymine, and ribose instead of deoxyribose. The mRNA molecules act as transport vehicles for the information contained in the genes being expressed. In eukaryotic cells, the initial mRNA copy contains homologues of both the intron and exon regions. The intron regions are then removed and the exon regions are spliced together to form the active mRNA molecules, which are then transported through the pores of the nuclear membrane to the cytoplasm. 3.6.3. Translation (! Nucleic Acids, Section 4.2.2.) The next process involves the translation of mRNA molecules into polypeptides. This procedure requires many enzymes and two further types of RNA: transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). There is a specic tRNA for each amino acids. The tRNA molecules are involved in the transport and coupling of amino
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Figure 54. Scheme of the important steps in gene transcription and protein synthesis
acids into the resulting polypeptide (Fig. 54). Each tRNA molecule has two binding sites, one for the specic amino acid, the other containing a triplet of bases (the anticodon) which is complementary to the appropriate codon on the mRNA. The rRNA is complexed with protein to form subcellular globular organelles called ribosomes. Ribosomes can be regarded as the reading heads, which allows the linear array of mRNA codons each to base-pair with an anticodon of an appropriate incoming tRNA amino acid complex. 3.6.4. Regulation of Gene Expression All cells possess the same genetic information, but different types of cells exhibit distinct gene transcription patterns. These differences in gene expression are critical to the morphological and biochemical properties of the many thousands of cell types of the human and animal body. Hence, mechanisms are required that regulate gene expression, that is, determine which genes are expressed and to what extent and which genes are not expressed in a certain cell type at a particular time. The mechanisms involved in regulation of gene transcription are not entirely understood. The transcription of structural genes is regulated by a special set of codons, in particular, promotor sequences, the initial binding sites for RNA polymerase before transcription begins.
Different promoter sequences have different afnities for RNA polymerases. Additional regulatory genes called operators regulate the activity of several genes or gene groups (operons). The activity of the operator itself is further controlled by a repressor protein, which stops the transcription of the whole operon by binding to the operator sequence. Due these regulatory mechanisms cells are able to express only the genes required at a given moment for their specialized function. This not only helps to conserve cellular energy, but is also critical for correct cellular differentiation, tissue pattern formation and function, and maintenance of the physiological integrity of the entire organism. 3.6.5. DNA Repair All living cells possess several efcient DNA repair processes. DNA repair is crucial in protecting cells from spontaneous and exogenous lethal and mutating effects such as heat-induced DNA hydrolysis, UV radiation, ionizing radiation, DNA-reactive endogenous chemicals, free radicals, and reactive oxygen species. Among the various DNA repair mechanisms, the most comprehensively studied mechanism in eukaryotes is the excision repair pathway. This mechanism involves a group of enzymes acting cooperatively to recognize DNA lesions, remove
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them, and correctly replace the damaged sections of DNA. The excision repair pathway is regarded as error-free and does not lead to the generation of mutations. However, this pathway may become saturated after excessive DNA damage. In this case, the cell may be forced to activate other repair mechanisms which do not operate errorfree. Several of these mechanisms, such as errorprone repair, have been well characterized in bacteria, but their counterparts, if any, in mammalian cells have not been identied yet.
3.7. Molecular Mechanisms of Malignant Transformation and Tumor Formation

3.7.1. Mutations Mutations are hereditary changes in genetic information, resulting from spontaneous or xenobiotic-induced DNA damage. The term mutation can be applied to point mutations, which are qualitative changes involving one or a few bases within one gene, and to larger changes involving parts of the chromosome detectable by light microscopy or even whole chromosomes and thus many thousands of genes (Table 22). Point Mutations can occur when one base is substituted for another (base substitution) or when base pairs are deleted or inserted (deletions/insertions). Substitution of another purine for a purine base or of another pyrimidine for pyrimidine is called a transition, while substitutions of purine for pyrimidine or pyrimidine for purine are called transversions. Very small alterations in the chemical structure or the DNA bases may be sufcient for a base-pair substitution to occur. Guanine, for example, normally pairs with cytosine, while O6-methylguanine (a frequent DNA modication seen with methylatTable 22. Types of mutations Gene mutations base-pair substitutions, deletions, insertions, gene rearrangements, gene amplications breaks, translocations loss or gain of an entire chromosome
Figure 55. Formation of a base substitution Guanine normally pairs with cytosine and adenine with thymine (upper part); in contrast, O 6-methylguanine (a frequent DNA modication induced by methylating agents such as dimethylnitrosamine) pairs with thymine (lower part), resulting in a hereditary change of the genetic information
Chromosomal mutations Structural Numerical
ing agents such as dimethylnitrosamine) pairs with thymine (Fig. 55). These changes in certain codons may cause insertion of the wrong amino acid into a relevant polypeptide. In this case, the changes are named missense mutations. Such proteins may have dramatically altered properties if the new amino acid is close to the active center of an enzyme or affects the three-dimensional structure of an enzyme or a structural protein. Hence, the alterations may result in marked changes in the differentiation and proliferative characteristics of the affected cells. A base substitution can also result in the formation of a new inappropriate stop (or nonsense) codon. The result of nonsense mutations is the formation of a shorter and, most likely, inactive protein. Owing to the redundancy of the genetic code, about a quarter of all possible base substitutions will not result in amino acid replacement and will be silent mutations. Bases can be also deleted or added to a gene. As each gene is of a precisely dened length, these changes, if they involve a number of bases that is not a multiple of three, result in a change in the reading frame of the DNA sequence and are known as frameshift mutations. Such mutations often have a dramatic effect on the polypeptide of the affected gene, as most amino acids will differ from the point of insertion or deletion of bases in the DNA strand onwards.
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Some forms of unrepaired alkylated bases are lethal due to interference with DNA replication. Others, such as O6-methylguanine lead to mutations if unrepaired. These differences indicate that not all DNA adducts are of equivalent importance. In fact, some adducts appear not to interfere with normal DNA functions or are rapidly repaired, others are mutagenic, and yet others are lethal. The most vulnerable base is guanine, which can form adducts at several of its atoms (e.g., N-7, C-8, O-6 and exocyclic N-2, see Section 2.6.6.6). Intrastrand and Interstrand CrossLinks. Xenobiotics with bifunctional alkylating properties can also form links between adjacent bases on the same strand (intrastrand cross-links) or between bases on different strands (intrastrand cross-links). The induction of frameshift mutation does not necessarily require formation of covalent adducts. Some compounds that have a planar structure, particularly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, can intercalate between the strands of the DNA double strand. The intercalated molecules may interfere with DNA repair or replication and cause insertions and/or deletions of base pairs. The precise molecular event is still unclear, although several mechanisms have been proposed. Hot spots for frameshift mutations often involve sections of the DNA strand taht contain a run of the same base (e.g., the addition of a guanine to a run of six guanine residues). DNA Strand Breaks result from the hydrolysis of the sugarphosphate bond or a nucleotide. In a double-strand, both a single- and double-strand breaks may occur. DNA strand breaks
are often induced by hydroxyl radicals, which are formed at high rates both spontaneously during normal cell life and in the presence of exogenous chemicals. AP lesions (apurinic/pyrimidinic sites) in the DNA strand result from spontaneous hydrolysis of the glucosidic bond and loss of the DNA base (see Fig. 37). Similar to the situation with DNA strand breaks, AP lesions are a common spontaneous event; however, the hydrolysis can be dramatically increased by various types of DNA adducts, such as N7-substituted purines, a common target of alkylating chemicals (see Section 2.6.6.6). Another common spontaneous event is the desamination of cytosine to uracil (Fig. 56); approximately 100 desaminations take place in each cell every day (! Nucleic Acids, Section 4.2.1). 3.7.2. Causal Link between Mutation and Cancer (see also, ! Carcinogenic Agents ; ! Mutagenic Agents) The change from cells undergoing normal, controlled cell division and differentiation to cells that are transformed, divide without control, and are undifferentiated or abnormally differentiated does not occur in a single step. Malignant transformation is a multistage process. Evidence for the involvement of multiple stages comes from in vitro studies, animal models, and epidemiological observations. In humans, the latent period between exposure to a chemical carcinogen and the appearance of a tumor in the target tissue is approximately 1025 years. Modern molecularbiology techniques enable thorough investigations of the genome of malignant cells in comparison with the genome of their normal
Figure 56. Deamination of cytosine to uracil dR Deoxyribose
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counterparts. These studies clearly show that a single mutation is not sufcient to induce malignant transformation. The number of genetic changes varies between two and seven in different tumor types. Also, several types of mutations are usually formed in a malignant transformed cell (i.e., base-pair substitutions, gene rearrangements, chromosomal breaks, and deletions. 3.7.3. Proto-Oncogenes and TumorSuppressor Genes as Genetic Targets Why should mutations be causally linked to cancer? The answer to this question has increasingly become clear since the 1980s with the study of proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes [144, 145]. It is now appreciated that normal control of cell division and differentiation is based on the interplay of two sets of genes, the proto-oncogenes and the tumor-suppressor genes. Abnormal activation of proto-oncogenes and/or inactivation of tumor-suppressor genes eventually leads to malignant transformation. Oncogenes were originally discovered in the genome of transforming retroviruses and were therefore named v-oncogenes [144, 146]. Subsequent studies showed that these viral genes were originally derived from the mammalian genome. In the normal cell, these proto-oncogenes have important functions in signal transduction pathways. 3.7.4. Genotoxic versus Nongenotoxic Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis Oncogene activation and tumor-supressor gene inactivation induced by mutations provide strong evidence for the involvement of genotoxic mechanisms in tumor formation. However, it has been recognized for many years that cancers can arise without direct or indirect interaction between a chemical and cellular DNA, that is, in the absence of direct mutations. The distinction between nongenotoxic and genotoxic carcinogens was more sharply dened following the identication of a comparatively large number of nongenotoxic carcinogens by the U.S. National Toxicology Program [147]. These include a wide range of chemicals acting by a variety of mechanisms, such as disruption of normal hormonal homeostasis in hormone-responsive tissues, and
peroxisome proliferation and proliferation of urothelial cells of the urether and urinary bladder following damage by kidney stones. Genotoxic carcinogens tend to induce tumors in several tissues of both males and females in both rats and mice. In contrast, nongenotoxic carcinogens usually induce tumors only at high doses, in one tissue, in one sex, or only in one species. The experimental evidence available so far does not support the existence of real thresholds for DNAreactive carcinogens, although very low concentrations may exist for which practically no clinically manifest tumors may be observed in the animal (or human) lifespan. However, these concentrations can not be considered as thresholds. In the case of carcinogens that operate via other biological effects, the carcinogenic activity would parallel doseresponse relationships of the relevant biologic effects, a very important aspect for human risk assessment. Treatment regimens or exposure scenarios that do not elicit biological effects would not promote tumor formation. There are, however, two major problems: very few doseresponse studies have been performed with nongenotoxic carcinogens, and in most cases the biochemical mechanisms responsible for the tumor promoting action are not understood. Usually, non-enotoxic carcinogens are divided into two major categories. The rst includes compounds that induce cytotoxicity and regenerative cell proliferation, e.g., 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and other branched-chain hydrocarbons in the proximal tubules. The second group of nongenotoxic carcinogens induce cell proliferation in the absence of cytotoxicity (they are directly mitogenic), relevant examples in this group are carcinogenic hormones or peroxisome proliferators such as di(2ethylhexyl) phthalate and clobrate. Induction of cell proliferation is involved in both categories of nongenotoxic carcinogens and may contribute to malignant transformation by increasing the number of spontaneous genetic errors, since DNA replication does not occur with 100% delity. Furthermore, in rapidly proliferating cells, DNA damage has a higher chance of being converted to heritable mutations. However, in all these cases cell proliferation is the nal result of an as-yet unidentied molecular mechanism. Genotoxic and nongenotoxic mechanisms are not mutually exclusive events. Rather, they cooperate in tumor formation, as can be seen with many genotoxic carcinogens. In most cases
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genotoxic carcinogens induce tumors only after applications of high doses, concomitantly causing cytotoxicity, cell death, and regenerative proliferation. Hence, a tumor is the nal outcome of a complex, multistep interplay between genotoxic and extranuclear events.
3.8.1. Embryotoxicity, Teratogenesis, and Transplacental Carcinogenesis For an agent to be classied as a developmental toxicant, it must be harmful to the developing organism at exposure levels that do not induce severe toxicity in the mother, such as substantial reduction in weight gain, persistent emesis, or convulsions. Adverse effects on the developing organism under severe maternal toxicity may be secondary to perturbations in the maternal system. For practical purposes, however, the test compounds can be initially administered at maternally toxic doses to determine the threshold level for adverse effects on the offspring. At these exposure levels conclusions can be qualied to indicate that adverse effects of the conceptus were obtained at maternally toxic exposure levels, and may not be indicative for selective developmental toxicity. The susceptibility of the developing organism to xenobiotic insults varies dramatically within the narrow time span of the major developmental stages (the preimplantation, embryonic, fetal, and perinatal periods), because developing organisms undergo rapid and complex changes within this short period. The major morphogenic events occuring during preimplantation development are formation of a compact mass of cells (the morula) and of the blastocyst. The latter already exhibits a certain degree of cellular differentiation. Considerable similarity exists in the timing of preimplantation development across several mammalian species, regardless of the total length of gestation [148]. At the time of blastocyst formation, cell division and metabolic capacity increase dramatically. During the preimplantation period, biochemical changes under progesterone and estrogen control render the endometrium sensitive to the blastocyst implantation. One important sign of blastocyst implantation is a prostaglandin-dependent increase in endometrial vascular permeability. Alterations in the hormonal milieu or direct excretion of specic xenobiotics into the uterine epithelia during this period can impair implantation and cause embryolethality. Limited data suggest that the preimplantation embryo appears to be susceptible to lethality but rarely to induction of structural aberrations (teratogenicity) with chemical insults. Sublethal exposures of
3.8. Mechanisms of Chemically Induced Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity

The term reproductive toxicity covers any detrimental effect on the male and female reproductive system due to exposure to toxic chemicals. Developmental toxicity refers to detrimental effects produced by exposure to developing organisms during embryonic, fetal, and neonatal stages of development. The main phases of reproduction are listed below: Germ cell production Spermatogenesis (man) Oogenesis (woman) Preimplantation phase Fertilization Formation of the blastocyst Implantation Embryonic phase Organogenesis (in humans the rst 12 weeks, in rat the rst 2 weeks of gestation) Fetal phase Functional maturation and growth of the organs, in humans week 12 to 30 Peri- and postnatal phase Last week of gestation, birth and rst period after birth Such effects can be irreversible or reversible. Embryolethal effects are incompatible with survival and result in resorption or spontaneous abortion. Irreversible effects that are compatible with survival may cause structural or functional abnormalities in the offspring, and these are called teratogenic. Embryotoxic chemicals may also cause overall growth retardation or delayed growth of certain organs.
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Figure 57. Degree of susceptibility of various organ rudiments of the developing organism to teratogenic xenobiotics (data from [144]) a) Eye; b) Brain; c) Heart and axial skeleton; d) Palate; e) Urogenital system
preimplantation embryos have not yet been adequately explored. Following implantation, organogenesis takes place, which is characterized by the division, migration, and association of cells into primitive organs. The most characteristic susceptibility of the embryo to xenobiotics during the organogenesis period is the induction of structural birth defects (terata). Within the organogenesis period (embryonic period), individual organ systems possess highly specic periods of vulnerability to teratogenic insult (Fig. 57). Administration of a teratogen on day 9 of rat gestation would result in a high level of brain and eye defects, while on day 15 structural abnormalities of the kidney and urinary bladder would predominate. As shown in Figure 57, critical periods for the susceptibility of different organs overlap, so that exposure to teratogens usually results in a spectrum of more or less severe malformations in a number of organ systems [149]. The critical phase for inducing anomalies in individual organ systems may be as short as one day or may extend throughout organogenesis. Urogenital defects, for example, can result from drug treatment from day 9 to 16 of gestation in the rat. However, the structural defects of the urogenital system depend upon the day(s) of exposure to the teratogenic antibiotic. The development of the urogenital system is multiphasic, and individual stages may have different sensitivities to chemical insult. The mechanisms governing embryonic differentiation are not well understood, but they are certainly involved in intrinsic
susceptibility of individual organs to teratogenic insult. Functional maturation and growth are the major processes occurring after organogenesis, during the fetal and perinatal periods. Insult at these late developmental stages leads to growth retardation or to more specic functional (but not structural) disorders and transplacental carcinogenesis. The fetal and perinatal period of life is highly susceptible to carcinogenesis, due to the high cellular replication rates, presence of xenobiotic biotransforming enzymes in the fetus, and immaturity of the immune system in the developing organism. Several childhood tumors occur so early after birth that prenatal origin is considered likely. These include acute lymphocytic leukemia, Wilms tumor (nephroblastoma), and neuroblastoma. Studies with direct-acting transplacental carcinogens such as ethylnitrosourea indicate that susceptibility to carcinogens begins after completion of the organogenesis period in rodents. Tumors in offspring occurred primarily when ethylnitrosourea was given during the fetal period, whereas birth defects and embryolethality predominated with exposures in the embryonic phase [150, 151]. However, this does not imply that teratogenesis and carcinogenesis are mutually exclusive processes. Teratogenesis and carcinogenesis can be regarded as graded responses of the embryo to injury, with teratogenesis representing the more gross response involving major tissue necrosis in early, relatively undifferentiated embryos, combined carcinogenicityteratogenicity damage in older embryos, and nally, carcinogenicity alone in the fetus. 3.8.2. Patterns of DoseResponse in Teratogenesis, Embryotoxicity, and Embryolethality The major toxic effects of prenatal exposure observed at the time of birth are embryolethality, malformations, and growth retardation. The relationship between embryolethality, malformations, and growth retardation is quite complex and depends on the type of agent, the time of exposure, and the dose. Some developmental toxins may cause malformations of the entire litter at exposure levels that do not cause embryolethality (Figure 58). If the dose is increased, embryolethality can occur, often in combination
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Figure 58. Possible dose response relationship of teratogens. A) Teratogens interfering with specic events in differentation; B) Teratogens acting via general cytotoxicity and induction of cell necrosis
with severe maternal toxicity. Malformed fetuses are often more or less retarded in growth, and the curve for growth retardation is often parallel to and slightly displaced to the right from the curve for teratogenicity. Such a pattern of response is indicative of agents with high teratogenic potency. A more common doseresponse pattern involves embryolethality, malformations, and growth retardation of surviving fetuses. Exposure to these chemicals results in a combination of resorbed, malformed, growth-retarded, and normal fetuses. Depending on the teratogenic potency of the agent, lower doses may cause predominantly malformations. As the dosage increases, however, embryolethality predominates until the entire litter is resorbed. Growth retardation can precede both these outcomes or parallel the teratogenicity curve. A third doseresponse pattern consists of growth retardation and embryolethality without structural abnormalities. Growth retardation of surviving fetuses usually precedes signicant embryolethality. Agents producing this pattern of response would be considered embryotoxic but not teratogenic, and are also toxic to the
maternal organism. In contrast, potent and specic teratogens often show only weak toxicity to the maternal organism. The best known example is the hypnotic sedative thalidomide, which was rarely associated with severe undesired effects in adult humans but induced malformation in thousands of children whose mothers had taken the drug as a sleeping aid at the recommended therapeutic doses during gestation. The existence of these three general patterns of response indicate that for some agents embryolethality and teratogenicity are different degrees of manifestations of the same primary insult. For other agents, there is a qualitative difference in response, and the primary insult leads to embryotoxicity and embryolethality alone. For practical purposes (for exact experimental procedures, see ! Toxicology, 2. Assessment Methods, Section 7.2.) a relatively small number of pregnant rodents (approximately eight per group) are exposed on days 6 through 15 of gestation to the test agent at doses up to those causing limiting maternal toxicity and/or severe embryotoxicity (death, severe growth retardation). The purpose of this dose-range nding study is to obtain a qualitative yes/no signal about the potential developmental toxicity of the agent, and information on doses causing severe impairment of the maternal organism. For the main evaluation of developmental toxicity the highest dose should cause measurable but slight maternal toxicity (i.e., signicant depression of weight gain) or embryotoxicity (i.e., signicant depression of fetal body weight, increased embryolethality, and/or structural malformations), and the low dose should cause no observable effects.
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Further Reading
J. K. Britt, R. C. James: Toxicology, Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th edition, vol. 25, p. 201252, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2007, online: DOI: 10.1002/0471238961.2015240902011212.a01. pub2. G. Eisenbrand, W. Tang: Handbook of Chinese Medicinal Plants: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, WileyVCH, Weinheim, 2010. R. J. Flanagan: Fundamentals of Analytical Toxicology, Wiley, Chichester 2008. H. Greim, R. Snyder: Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Wiley, Chichester 2008. M. Mumtaz: Principles and Practice of Mixtures Toxicology, 1st ed, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2008. R. C. Smart, E. Hodgson: Molecular and Biochemical Toxicology, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ 2008.

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Toxicology, 1.

2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

3.3. 3.3.1. 3.3.2. 3.3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.6.1. 3.6.2.

Figure 1. Scientic elds inuencing the science of toxicology

1.4. Information Resources

1.5. Terminology of Toxic Effects

oxygen deprivation in tissues neurotoxicity

1.6. Types of Toxic Effects

1.7. DoseResponse: a Fundamental Issue in Toxicology

1.8. DoseResponse Relationships for Cumulative Effects

1.9. Factors Inuencing DoseResponse

Atropine sulfate 1-Chloro-2,4dinitrobenzene Dieldrin

Figure 8. Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics as factors inuencing the toxic response

Figure 10. Biotransformation pathways of 2-acetylamidouorene in rats and guinea pigs

1.10. Exposure to Mixtures

2. Absorption, Distribution, Biotransformation and Elimination of Xenobiotics

Figure 11. Possible fate of a xenobiotic in the organisms

2.3. Distribution of Xenobiotics by Body Fluids

2.5. Storage of Xenobiotics in Organs and Tissues

localizations of enzymes responsible for biotransformation afollow:

microsomal microsomal microsomal microsomal/cytosolic microsomal cytosolic cytosolic cytosolic/microsomal

Table 10. Oxidations catalyzed by cytochrome P450

Figure 21. Cooxidation of xenobiotics during the biosynthesis of prostaglandins

Table 13. Typical conjugation reactions catalyzed by UDP-glucuronyltransferases

Figure 23. Mechanism of the N-acetylation of amines by N-acetyl transferase

GSH Glutathione. ** GS Glutathionyl residue.

Examples dichloromethane, acetonitrile, parathion

Biotransformation to stable but toxic metabolites

Biotransformation to electrophiles Biotransformation to free radicals Formation of reactive oxygen metabolites

dimethylnitrosamine, acetaminophen, bromobenzene carbon tetrachloride paraquat, aromatic nitro compounds

and the oxidative desulfuration of parathion.

Figure 30. Bioactivation of chloroform by cytochrome P 450 mediated hydroxylation of a C H bond

Figure 29. Bioactivation of dimethylnitrosamine to a methylating agent by cytochrome P450

a,b-Unsaturated carbonyls, quinones

epoxides, alkyl sulfates, alkyl halides

Figure 36. Regioselectivity of DNA alkylation by different electrophiles

Figure 40. Possible biotransformation pathways for paminobenzoic acid

at a certain time after administration is then

3. Mechanisms of Acute and Chronic Toxicity and Mechanisms of Chemical Carcinogenesis

Figure 46. Schematic representation of a physiologically based toxicokinetic model

3.2. Receptor-Ligand Interactions

3.3. Binding of Xenobiotics to Biomolecules

3.4. Perturbation of Calcium Homeostasis by Xenobiotics or their Metabolites

3.5. Nonlethal Genetic Alterations in Somatic Cells and Carcinogenesis

DNA strand breaks AP lesions (apurinic, apyrimidinic sites) DNA cross-links

3.6. DNA Structure and Function

3.7. Molecular Mechanisms of Malignant Transformation and Tumor Formation

Chromosomal mutations Structural Numerical

Figure 56. Deamination of cytosine to uracil dR Deoxyribose

3.8. Mechanisms of Chemically Induced Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity

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