Reference and Primer to The Lost Democracy

Part 4 : Americas Political System

Patrick W. Allen

About The Author Patrick Allen is a political strategist and lives near Washington, DC [email protected]

Spark Notes : Political Parties The American Two Party System and other sources. Some material contained in this document has been assembled from the public domain.

Table of Contents

Overview.....................................................................................................4 How Political Parties Work...........................................................................5 How the Political System Works...................................................................9 Americas Political Eras ..............................................................................13 Third Party Politics in America ...................................................................20

Because organized political parties no longer have much control over their candidates, the vision of responsible party government is unlikely to be fulfilled anytime soon.

Overview
George Washington, the first elected President of the United States, was the only President not affiliated with a political party. _______________________________ The U.S. Constitution does not discuss or describe political parties. Indeed, many of the founding fathers feared the rise of parties: They felt that partisanship could tear apart the young nation. But political parties emerged almost as soon as the new government was established. Within a few years, John Adams ran for the presidency as a Federalist in 1796 and Thomas Jefferson ran as a Democratic Republican in 1800. Today political parties continue to greatly influence American politics: They shape elections, define political disputes, and organize Congress. Our political leaders generally come from either the Republican or Democratic Party. Nevertheless, the American political system supports more than just these two parties, and third-party candidates often have lasting impacts on the politics, even if they rarely win major races.

How Political Parties Work

A political party is an alliance of like-minded people who work together to win elections and control of the government. Political parties compete against one another for political power and for the ability to put their philosophies and policies into effect. Many voters demonstrate party identification, even though they do not formally belong to a party. So a voter might claim to be a Democrat, even though s/he does not pay dues, hold a membership card, or technically belong to that party. Other voters see themselves as independents: These voters do not belong to a specific political party, and they are willingly to vote for the best candidate regardless of that candidates party affiliation.

The Rise of Independents

The number of people in the United States who identify themselves as independents has increased significantly in the past thirty years. Some scholars argue that this fact suggests that political parties are weakening. It is not clear, however, just how independent these people really are. Some scholars have argued that many people who call themselves independents always vote for the same party, just like partisans do. Political socialization influences party identification. Family beliefs, education, socioeconomic conditions, and recent political events all help determine whether a person chooses to identify with a political party.

American Voter Identification

In the United States, the electorate breaks down roughly into thirds: Onethird of voters identify themselves as Democrats, one-third as Republicans, and one-third as independents. These numbers, however, fluctuate to some degree, especially around Presidential election cycles.

Party Organization
Party organization is the formal structure and leadership of a political party. The major parties in the United States do not have a single party organization; rather, they have a series of organizations that cooperate to win elections. These organizations include, but are not limited to, the following: National party committees State party committees County party committees Party committees in Congress Although the national party committee nominally functions as the head of the party, the national committee cannot force other party organizations to do what it wants. Sometimes different party organizations argue with one another about how to achieve their goals. Example: Following the 2004 presidential election, former Vermont governor Howard Dean became the chair of the Democratic National Committee. Working toward the 2008 elections, Dean clashed with Rahm Emmanuel, a representative from Illinois and the chair of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, over how to spend party money. Dean wanted to spend the money building grassroots party organizations in every state (particularly in states that favor Republicans), whereas Emmanuel wanted to spend the money supporting candidates in specific races that are more likely to be won.

Party Functions
In the United States, parties perform many functions: Recruit candidates: Parties want to win elections, so they must recruit people who are likely to win.

Organize elections: Parties work hard to mobilize voters, encourage people to volunteer at the polls, and organize campaigns. Hold conventions: Every four years, the parties hold national conventions to formally declare the partys platform and to choose the partys presidential and vice-presidential nominees. Unite factions: Parties are not centered on a person but on a set of policy positions known as the party platform. The platform brings together a wide range of people with similar interests. Ensure plurality: The out-of-power party articulates its views in opposition to the ruling party. By doing this, the opposition party gives the public an alternative.

A Platform Made from Planks

The term party platform once had a more literal meaning: Candidates literally stood on a platform to explain their positions on issues. Political scientists use the word plank to refer to a position on a particular issue.

National Conventions
Convention delegates are the party members or officials who vote on nominations and ratify their partys platform. Delegates are party activists, people who believe so strongly in the ideology of their parties that they devote time and energy to working on the platform. Nowadays, conventions primarily serve as large-scale advertisements for the parties. In recent years, party leaders carefully choreograph conventions to present a united front and to put a positive face on their party. Controversial issues are sometimes avoided, whereas speeches aim for broad appeal.

Convention Disasters
A chaotic or ugly convention can harm a partys chance in the presidential election. The 1968 Democratic convention is perhaps the best example: While protesters fought with police outside, the convention turned chaotic 7

when opponents of Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey tried to speak out. The convention floor itself then turned violent. Humphrey secured the nomination but lost the election to Republican Richard M. Nixon.

How the Political System Works

The United States presently has only two major political parties: the Democrats and the Republicans. These parties have a duopoly, meaning that they share almost all the political power in the country. _____________________________ Most democratic countries have more than two parties. In Israel, for example, twelve parties or party alliances hold seats in the Knesset. Japan has several major parties, including the Liberal Democratic Party, the Democratic Party of Japan, the New Komeito, and the Japanese Communist Party.

The Electoral System

The United States also has mostly single-member districts, meaning that each legislative district sends only one member to the legislature. There is no benefit to finishing second. Some countries use multiple-member districts, which makes it easier for minor parties to succeed because there are more members winning seats in the legislature.

The Electoral College

The Electoral College exacerbates the winner-take-all system because in all but two states, whoever wins the most popular votes wins all of the states electoral votes in the presidential election. The electoral rules favor a twoparty system, and minor parties have a very difficult time competing in such a system. Even successful third-party candidates often fail to get a single electoral vote. Example: In the 1992 presidential election, independent candidate H. Ross Perot received nearly 19 percent of the popular vote, but he did not get a single electoral vote. Other recent third-party candidatesincluding John Anderson in 1980, Perot again in 1996, and Ralph Nader in 2000also failed to win electoral votes. The last third-party candidate to win any electoral votes was George Wallace in 1968s tumultuous election.

Proportional Representation
Many other democratic legislatures use proportional representation instead of plurality to determine how seats are allocated to political parties. Parties win seats in the legislature in rough proportion to the percentage of the popular votes the party wins. A party that receives 30 percent of the votes, for example, will get roughly 30 percent of the seats in the legislature. In multiparty systems, parties can achieve electoral success without winning a majority, so there is less reason to form giant parties that strive for the majority.

Advantages and Disadvantages

There are a few advantages of the American two-party system: Stability: Two-party systems are more stable than multiparty systems. Moderation: The two parties must appeal to the middle to win elections, so the parties tend to be moderate. Ease: Voters have only to decide between two parties. But there are also a few disadvantages, including the following: Lack of choice: Both parties tend to be very similar, limiting voters options. Less democratic: A percentage of people will always feel marginalized by the system.

Realignment
Scholars use the term realignment to describe a major shift in the political divisions within a country. Realignment marks a new change in direction for the party that redefines what it means to be a member of that party. It usually occurs when a new issue challenges the old party lines and splits its members. The issue is often crosscutting: Both major parties are split on a matter, and some Democrats find they agree with Republicans more than 10

other Democrats. When the issue becomes critically important, the parties shift around the axis of the new issue, and a new party system emerges.

Critical Elections
A critical election often indicates that realignment has occurred. Critical elections do not cause realignments. A critical election is a sign, not a cause, of realignment.

Soft Money
Until recently, political parties were able to indirectly provide large amounts of money to candidates. The campaign finance laws passed in the mid-1970s limited donations to campaigns: Each person could only donate $1,000 to a campaign for the general election. Individual donors, however, could give unlimited amounts of money to parties and some political groups. Political scientists call this type of unregulated donation soft money. Although the parties could not use soft money to help candidates directly (by donating it to a campaign, for example), the parties could spend it in ways that helped their candidates. Parties use soft money to sponsor the following: Voter registration and GOTV drives: The party can selectively register voters who are likely to support the party. During get-outthe-vote (GOTV) efforts, parties wage campaigns to encourage voting and target people likely to vote for the party. Issue ads: The Supreme Court ruled that as long as an ad does not explicitly say vote for candidate X or vote against candidate Y, the ad is not considered a campaign ad. Therefore, parties can run ads attacking the opponent and saying good things about their nominee. In 2002, Congress passed the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, popularly known as the McCain-Feingold bill, which banned soft money. Parties could no longer raise unlimited amounts of unregulated money. However, parties have responded by delegating some of their duties to 527 groups (named after section 527 of the Internal Revenue Code). These private organizations are not officially affiliated with the parties and can therefore raise and 11

spend money in much the same way that parties could before the reform law. For this reason, some critics allege that campaign finance reform did nothing but weaken the parties.

527s in 2004
In the 2004 campaigns, 527 groups on both sides played a big part. On the Democratic side, groups such as America Coming Together and Emilys List spent large amounts of money, whereas the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth and the Club for Growth did the same on the Republican side. Other noteworthy 527 groups during the 2004 election cycle include Progress for America (conservative) and MoveOn.org (liberal).

Two Party Historical Chronology

Most Americans look favorably on the two-party system because it has dominated much of American politics from the very beginning. The Republican and Democratic parties have existed for more than 150 years, and that history gives them a legitimacy that third parties do not have. The two-party system is also self-perpetuating. Children grow up identifying with one of the two major parties instead of a third party because children tend to share their parents political views.

Polarizing Issues
Throughout much of American history, central issues have divided the electorate. In the early decades of the republic, for example, the extent of federal power dominated politics. Some political scientists might argue that todays polarizing issues include abortion and gay marriage. Such polarizing issues have helped maintain the two-party system in the United States: Each party rallies around one side of the issue at hand.

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Americas Political Eras

The Early Republic
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists (17921800) The first political issue that divided American statesmen was the ratification of the Constitution. On one side were the Federalists, who wanted to ratify the Constitution in order to create a stronger national government; the anti federalists, on the other side, feared that the Constitution would strip people of the liberties they had just won in the Revolutionary War. Although the Constitution was ratified, this early political division extended into the first decades of the republic. The Federalists allied themselves to Alexander Hamilton and President John Adams, while Thomas Jefferson rallied the anti federalists, who had begun calling themselves the Democratic Republicans. Neither faction was a true party in the modern sense, though, because both lacked strong cohesion.

The Era of Good Feeling

(18001824) Following Jeffersons victory in the presidential election of 1800, the Federalists faded away as a serious political threat, so that by the time of James Monroes presidency (1817 to 1825), almost all Americans identified with the Democratic Republicans. Because of the absence of party competition, this period has been dubbed the Era of Good Feeling. The public still debated and fought over issues but not within the context of distinct political factions.

The Jacksonian Era

Democrats vs. Whigs (18241850) The first modern political party was the Democratic Party, which formed in the wake of the highly contested presidential election of 1824, when An13

drew Jackson won the popular vote but did not win a majority of electoral votes. The House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams to be the next president. In response, Jacksons supporters organized the Democratic Party to oppose the Adams Administration. The Democrats rebounded in four years and elected Jackson to replace Adams in 1828. The Democrats were also the first major grassroots party, building support from the ground up. Those disparate politicians who opposed Jacksons policies formed a temporary coalition known as the Whig Party.

The Antebellum Period

Democrats vs. Republicans (18501860) Over the next few decades, slavery emerged as a hugely divisive issue, as pro-slavery forces fought abolitionists with increasing intensity. Neither the Whigs nor the Democrats could respond adequately to the new issue. As a result, both parties split in two along sectional lines. The Republican Party formed in the late 1840s and early 1850s out of abolitionist Democrats and northern Whigs. The Democrats, on the other hand, now consisted primarily of Southerners and rural Westerners. In 1860, the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln. Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas, whereas Southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckenridge. Lincoln narrowly won the race with promises of maintaining the Union, but his election nevertheless prompted South Carolina and several other Southern states to secede.

The Reconstruction Era

(18681896) The northern Republicans and southern Democrats continued to vie for power in the decades after the Civil War. Blacks were able to vote for a brief period after the war, and they mostly voted Republican, in part because they associated the Democrats with slavery and the Republicans with emancipation. Democratic efforts to dissuade blacks from voting also encouraged many blacks to vote Republican.

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Strong Parties and Patronage

During the nineteenth century, political parties were strong, powerful organizations. At times, the head of a party organization wielded even more power than elected officials from that party. One important source of power was the partys ability to choose nominees. Until fairly recently, party leaders chose people to run for office, with little or no input from the public. Leaders met in caucus, or informal closed meetings, to set the party platform and choose nominees. The party could punish a recalcitrant member by refusing to nominate that person for the next election, which meant that the member would lose his or her job. At times, party organizations doled out government jobs and contracts were given out to allies in return for political patronage. These party organizations are called machines because they transform favors and patronage into votes.

The Gilded Age

(18801896) The next great issue to divide America was industrialization, as massive corporations began hording capital and dominating the unregulated marketplace. To challenge the big-business trusts, poor western farmers united to form a powerful third party, the Peoples Party, or Populists. The Democratic Party incorporated much of the Populist platform into its own platform in the election of 1896, which inadvertently killed the Populists as a potent third party. Republican William McKinley defeated the Democratic Populist challenger William Jennings Bryan and established a new era of Republican dominance. Except for the election of 1912, the Republicans won every presidential election between 1896 and 1932.

Progressivism
(18961932) Another social movement, called Progressivism, swept through the nation in the first two decades of the 1900s. Like the Populists, Progressives fought for government regulation of big business and more political power for the 15

average American. Progressivism was bipartisan, which meant that Progressive politicians could be found in both the Republican and Democratic political parties. For example, both Republican Theodore Roosevelt and Democrat Woodrow Wilson were Progressives. A feud between President William Howard Taft a traditional conservative Republicanand the Progressive Roosevelt split the party and prompted Roosevelt to found the Progressive Party. Roosevelt won a surprising number of popular and electoral votes in the three-way election of 1912 but divided Republican voters so deeply that the more organized Democrats managed to elect Woodrow Wilson. Wilsons battle to convince the Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles to end World War I all but killed the Progressive movement, and voters elected conservative Republican presidents until the election of 1932.

The Depression and the New Deal

(19291941) Republican dominance ended with the Great Depression, which began with the stock market crash of 1929. Frustrated with Republican president Herbert Hoover, many voters turned to the Democrats. The Democratic nominee in 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, proposed to revive the economy with a legislative package of relief and reform known as the New Deal. Roosevelt won and successfully put America on the road to recovery. It is often said, The man who could not walk, carried a nation on his back.

The New Deal Coalition

(19361968) The New Deal coalition formed the backbone of Democratic success in the mid-twentieth century. This coalition consisted of groups who supported the New Deal, including workers, labor unions, Catholics, Jews, and racial minorities. The South continued to be overwhelmingly Democratic, and after 1932, African American voters moved in large numbers to the Democratic Party. For three decades, the Democratic Party dominated American politics. 16

In the 1950s, a committee of respected political scientists called for responsible parties, parties that were strong enough not only to propose specific and substantive policies but also to carry them out if elected. In general, American parties are not very responsible because they cannot force members to follow the platform, unlike their counterparts in other countries. Because parties no longer have much control over their candidates, the vision of responsible party government is unlikely to be fulfilled anytime soon.

The Civil Rights Movement and Vietnam

(1960s) The New Deal coalition splintered in the 1960s because of the civil rights movement and American involvement in Vietnam. The Democratic Party included nearly all white southerners, who still saw the Republicans as the party that invaded their homeland during the Civil War. At the same time, most African Americans were now Democrats. The tension between these groups caused the New Deal coalition to split in the late 1960s, and large numbers of southern whites switched to the Republican Party. By the 1980s, much of the South was solidly Republican. The critical election came in 1968. The Vietnam War, along with civil rights, caused stark divisions. George Wallace, the Democratic governor of Alabama, broke away from the Democrats and ran as a third-party candidate, which greatly hurt the Democrats. Republican Richard Nixon consequently eked out a narrow and bitterly fought victory. The chaotic election of 1968 marked a decline in American political parties. Following the election, the Democrats worked to change the way their party operated, focusing heavily on the process of choosing nominees. Political scientists call the process of opening party leadership to new people party reform. The Democrats aimed at making convention delegates look more like party voters by including more women and minorities. The easiest way to achieve this goal was to hold primary elections, which allow voters to directly participate in the party nomination process. Beginning in 1972, the Democrats made increasing use of the primary election, taking great power away from party leaders. Republicans followed suit, in part because Democratic-controlled state governments forced them to do so.

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The Contemporary Party System

(1968Present) Some scholars believe that the breakdown of the New Deal coalition produced a realignment that allowed the Republicans to dominate, specifically in down ballot races while maintaining election parity at the presidential level. Others, however, argue that instead of realignment, the United States is experiencing de-alignment, the loosening of party ties. Since the 1970s, more voters have identified themselves as independents, not belonging to either party. More people seem willing to cross party lines and vote for the other party. More voters are also engaging in split-ticket voting, voting for both Republicans and Democrats for different offices in the same election. Split-ticket voting has produced a number of divided governments in which one party controls the presidency while the other controls at least one house of Congress. This movement has also filtered downward into State, County and local elections.

The Reagan Democrats

The so-called Reagan Democrats were notorious for crossing party lines in the 1980s. These mostly blue-collar workers traditionally voted Democrat but were drawn to Reagans toughness and social conservatism. The Reagan Democrats helped Reagan win two terms in office. Political parties today no longer have the ability to dictate nominees or control massive patronage. Candidates function independently from the party leaders, charting their own strategies and ignoring or dismissing the party platform. Example: In 1996, Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole told reporters that he had not even read his partys platform. As the importance of parties has decreased, there has been a rise in candidate-centered politics, in which people tend to focus on the candidates instead of party labels when voting, particularly when electing presidents.

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Today, parties primarily provide services such as money, expertise, lists of donors, and name recognition to candidates and campaigns. Although candidates do not have to do everything party leaders say, they often work closely with their party leadership in order to win favors and party support. Some races are still party-centered, especially when voters know little about the candidates.

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Third Party Politics in America

Third parties face many obstacles in the United States. In all states, the Democratic and Republican candidates automatically get on the ballot, whereas third-party candidates usually have to get thousands of signatures on petitions just to be listed on the ballot. The state and federal governments, which make rules governing elections, are composed of elected Democratic and Republican officials, who have a strong incentive to protect the existing duopoly. Also, third-party candidates often face financial difficulties because a party must have received at least 5 percent of the vote in the previous election in order to qualify for federal funds.

Coke and Pepsi Politics

The two political parties are a lot like the two giants of the cola world, Coke and Pepsi. Although each wants to win, they both recognize that it is in their mutual interest to keep a third cola from gaining significant market share. Coke and Pepsi, many people have argued, conspire to keep any competitor from gaining ground. For example, in supermarkets, cola displays at the end of the aisles are often given over to Coke for six months of the year and Pepsi for the other six. Competitors such as Royal Crown face an extremely difficult challenge. The political party duopoly functions in much the same way.

Notable Third Parties

Party Anti-Masonic Party Prohibition Party Progressive Party Date(s) 18281832 1867Present 1912 Success(es) First party to hold a convention to nominate candidates Has nominated a candidate for president in every election since 1872 Elected a number of candidates to state legislatures, Congress, and U.S. Senate. Deflected enough votes from Republican William Howard Taft to hand the presidency to Woodrow Wilson in 1912. Won electoral votes (George Wallace) Some members have won local elections. Some members have won local elections.

American Independent Libertarian Party Green Party

1968Present 1971Present 1984Present

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The Appeal of Third Parties

Third parties appeal to people for a number of reasons: Ideology: People who feel strongly about a particular issue might be drawn to a third party that focuses exclusively on that issue. Example: The Greenback Party focused on the monetary system, and the Prohibition Party sought to ban the consumption of alcohol. The Populist Party, meanwhile, grew out of the Populist movement, and the Republican Party developed primarily out of the abolitionist movement. Dissatisfaction with the status quo: Some third parties form when part of a major party breaks off in protest and forms a splinter party. Example: In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt led a group of dissidents out of the Republican Party to form the splinter Progressive Party. Geographical location: Third parties can be closely tied to a specific region, which can increase their appeal. Chicagos Harold Washington Party, for example, seeks to carry on the legacy of Harold Washington, the citys first African American mayor.

The Problem with Charismatic Leaders

Some people join third parties because of the charismatic personality of the partys candidate. If the leader leaves the party, however, the party often collapses, which is what happened to the Reform Party in the mid-1990s. Founded by Ross Perot after his first presidential bid in 1992, the Reform Party served as Perots base for his 1996 campaign. After Perot decided not to run again, however, the Reform Partys political clout declined dramatically. In 2000, the party split in two over the candidacy of former Republican Pat Buchanan. Neither Buchanan nor his Reform Party rival gained many votes, and the party has largely disappeared from the national stage.

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The Role of Third Parties

Despite their lack of success in the polls, third parties can affect American politics in a number of ways: Introduce new ideas: Third parties propose many government policies and practices. Example: The Populist Party introduced ideas that influenced some economic policies of the New Deal, whereas the AntiMasonic Party was the first party to use a convention to nominate its candidates, in the mid-nineteenth century. Put issues on the agenda: Third parties can force the major parties to address potentially divisive problems. Example: In 1992, neither Bill Clinton nor George H. W. Bush talked much about the budget deficit until independent candidate Ross Perot emphasized it in his campaign. Spoil the election: Third parties can cost one party an election by playing the spoiler. If a third party draws enough votes away from a major party, it can prevent that party from winning. It is impossible to know for sure what would have happened had the thirdparty candidate not run, but in some cases, it seems that the third party probably cost one candidate the election. Example: Some pundits argued that Ralph Naders bid in the 2000 presidential election may have cost Al Gore the presidency by siphoning away votes in key states such as Florida. Keep the major parties honest: A leftist party can challenge the Democratic Party, for example, on social justice issues, whereas a conservative party can pose problems for the Republican Party. Because third-party candidates usually have little chance of winning, they can speak more frankly than their major party rivals, addressing facts and issues that the major parties would often prefer to ignore.

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