PHYSICS MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY DIVISION

CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Sophomore Physics Laboratory (PH005/105)
Analog Electronics
Resonant Circuits
Copyright c Virgnio de Oliveira Sannibale, 2003
(Revision December 2012)

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Chapter 2
Resonant Circuits
2.1 Introduction
Resonators, one of the most useful and used device, are essentially phys-
ical systems that present a more or less pronounced peak in their transfer
function.
In general, their performance is measured by a dimensionless param-
eter named quality factor Q, which characterizes the sharpness of the res-
onant peak. The higher the quality factor the sharper is the peak and the
better is the resonator.
Quite often, the major issues of building a resonator are to obtain very
high quality factors and good stability. For example, mechanical oscil-
lators made of fused silica bers under load, can achieve quality factors
above 10
8
in the acoustic band[?]. Very high quality factors in electronics
can be achieved using the mechanical resonances of piezoelectric materials
such as quartz. Lasers and resonant cavities made of mirrors can be used
to build resonators in the optical frequency range. The same principle can
be applied in the microwave range. Thermal stabilization is always a key
ingredient to obtain high stability.
Resonators made with electronic passive components, reaching quality
factors values up to 10-100 or more, are quite easy to realize. In the next
sections we will study two typical resonant circuits, the LCR series and
LCR parallel circuits.
37

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38 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
V
L
V
R
V
C
C
V
i
R
L
Figure 2.1: LCR series circuit.
2.2 The LCR Series Resonant Circuit
Figure 2.1 shows the so called LCR series resonant circuit. Depending on
voltage difference, we are considering as the circuit output ( the capacitor,
the resistor, or the inductor), this circuit shows a different behavior. Lets
study in the frequency and in the time domain the response of this passive
circuit for each one of the possible outputs.
2.2.1 Frequency Response with Capacitor Voltage Differ-
ence as Circuit Output
Considering the voltage difference V
C
across the capacitor to be the circuit
output, we will have
V
in
=
_
R + jL +
1
jC
_
I,
V
C
=
1
jC
I ,
and the transfer function will be
H
C
() =
1
jRC
2
LC +1
.

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2.2. THE LCR SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT 39
For sake of simplicity, it is convenient to dene the two following quan-
tities

2
0
=
1
LC
, Q =
1
R
_
L
C
=
0
L
R
The parameter Q is the quality factor of the circuit, and the angular
frequency
0
is the resonant frequency of the circuit if R = 0.
Considering the previous denitions, and after some algebra, H
C
()
becomes
H
C
() =

2
0

2
0

2
+ j

0
Q
. (2.1)
Computing the magnitude and phase of H
C
(), we obtain
|H
C
()| =

2
0
_
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
_

0
Q
_
2
,
arg [H
C
()] = arctan
_
1
Q

2
0

2
_
.
The magnitude has maximum for

2
C
=
2
0
_
1
1
2Q
2
_
,
and the maximum is
|H
C
(
C
)| =
Q
_
1
1
4Q
2
.
If Q 1 then
C

0
, and |H
C
(
C
)| Q.
Far from resonance
C
, the approximate behavior of |H
C
()| is

C
|H
C
()| 1 ,

C
|H
C
()|

2
0

2
.
Figure 2.2 shows the magnitude and phase of H
C
(). In this case, the
circuit is a low pass lter of the second order because of the asymptotic
slope 1/
2
.

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40 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
10
4
10
5
10
6
180
135
90
45
0
Figure 2.2: Transfer function H
C
() of the LCR series resonant circuit with
a resonant angular frequency
C
10.7krad/s.
2.2.2 Frequency Response with Inductor Voltage Difference
as Circuit Output
Lets considering now the voltage difference V
L
across the inductor as the
circuit output. In this case, we have
H
L
() =

2
LC
jRC
2
LC +1
.
Using the denition of Q, and
0
and after some algebra, H
L
() be-
comes
H
L
() =

2

2
0

2
+ j

0
Q
(2.2)

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2.2. THE LCR SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT 41
Computing the magnitude and phase of H
L
(), we obtain
|H
L
()| =

2
_
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
_

0
Q
_
2
arg [H
L
()] = arctan
_
1
Q

2
0

2
_
The magnitude has a maximum for

2
L
=
2
0
1
1
1
2Q
2
,
and the maximum is
|H
L
(
L
)| =
Q
_
1
1
4Q
2
.
Again, if Q 1 then
L

0
, and |H
L
(
L
)| Q.
Far from resonance
L
, the approximate behavior of |H
L
()| is

L
|H
L
()|

2

2
0

L
|H
L
()| 1
Figure 2.3 shows the magnitude and phase of H
L
(). In this case the
circuit is a second order high pass lter.
2.2.3 Frequency Response with the Resistor Voltage Dif-
ference as Circuit Output
Considering the voltage difference across the resistor as the circuit output,
we will have
H
R
() =
jRC
1
2
LC + jRC
.
Using the denition of Q and
0
, and after some algebra, H
R
() be-
comes

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42 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
60
40
20
0
20
40
10
4
10
5
10
6
0
45
90
135
180
Figure 2.3: Transfer function H
L
() of the LCR series resonant circuit with
a resonant angular frequency
L
10.7krad/s.
H
R
() =
j

0
Q

2
0

2
+ j

0
Q
. (2.3)
Computing the magnitude and phase of H
R
(), we obtain
|H
R
()| =

0
Q

_
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
_

0
Q
_
2
arg [H
R
()] = arctan
_
Q

2
0

0
_

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2.2. THE LCR SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT 43
The magnitude has maximum for

2
R
=
2
0
,
and the maximum is
|H
R
(
R
)| = 1 .
Far from the resonance
R
, the approximate behavior of |H
R
()| is

R
|H
R
()|
1
Q

0

R
|H
R
()|

0

Figure 2.4 shows the magnitude and phase of H

R
(). In this case the
circuit is a rst order band pass lter.
2.2.4 Transient Response
The equation that describes the LCR series circuit response in the time
domain is
v
i
= Ri + L
di
dt
+
1
C
_
t
0
i(t

)dt

, (2.4)
where i(t) is the current owing through the circuit and v
i
(t) is the input
voltage.
Supposing that
v
i
(t) =
_
v
0
, t > 0
0, t 0
,
and differentiating both side of eq. 2.4, we obtain the linear differential
equation
R
di
dt
+ L
d
2
i
dt
2
+
1
C
i = 0, t > 0
or, considering the denition of
0
, and Q,
d
2
i
dt
2
+

0
Q
di
dt
+
2
0
i = 0.

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44 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
4
10
5
10
6
90
45
0
45
90
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 2.4: Transfer function H
R
() of the LCR series resonant circuit with
resonant angular frequency
R
10.7krad/s.
The solutions of the characteristic polynomial equation associated with
the differential equation are

1,2
=
1
2

0
Q
_
1
_
1 4Q
2
_
.
As usual, we will have three different solutions depending on the dis-
criminant value
= 1 4Q
2
.
Under-damped Case: discriminant less than zero (Q > 1/2)
In this case we have two complex conjugate roots andthe differential equa-
tion solution is the typical exponential ring down

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2.3. THE TANK CIRCUIT OR LCR PARALLEL CIRCUIT. 45
i(t) = i
0
e

0
2Q
t
sin(
C
t +
0
) ,
2
C
=
2
0
_
1
1
2Q
2
_
.
Critically Damped Case: Discriminant equal to zero(Q = 1/2)
In this case we have a critically damped current and no oscillation
i(t) = i
0
e

0
2Q
t
Over-damped Case: Discriminant greater than zero (Q < 1/2)
This is the case of two coincident solutions . We will have indeed, an
exponential decay (no oscillations)
i(t) = i
0
e

0
2Q
t
_
Ae

C
t
+ Be
+
C
t
_
,
2
C
=
2
0
_
1
1
2Q
2
_
,
Voltages across each single element can be easily computed consider-
ing the relation between v(t) and i(t).
Lets just write the voltage across the capacitor for the under-damped
case. Considering that the integration operation in this case changes just
the phase and creates an offset, the voltage across the capacitor, neglecting
this offset, will be
v
C
(t) = v
0
e

0
2Q
t
sin (
C
t +) .
2.3 The Tank Circuit or LCR Parallel Circuit.
Figure 2.5 shows the so called LCR parallel resonant circuit or tank circuit,
where the source depicted with an arrow inside a circle is an ideal cur-
rent source. The resistor of resistance r accounts for inductor resistance.
Lets study the frequency and the transient response using the Thvenin
representation shown in gure 2.6.

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46 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
I
s
V
o C R
L
r
Figure 2.5: The tank circuit.
2.3.1 LCR Circuit Frequency Response
Using Thvenin theorem for the current source and R, the LCR parallel
circuit considering the equivalent circuit as shown in gure 2.6 where the
current source and the resistor R have been replaced with the Thvenin
circuit.
Considering that the current I of the current source can be written as
I =
V
i
R
,
I = YV
o
=
_
1
R
+
1
r + jL
+ jC
_
V
o
,
we have
V
i
R
=
_
1
R
+
1
r + jL
+ jC
_
V
o
(2.5)
Dening the following complex quantity as
1
r

()
+
1
jL

()
=
1
r + jL
, (2.6)
and
R

= R || r

,
eq. 2.5 becomes
V
i
R
=
_
1
R

+
1
jL

+ jC
_
V
o

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2.3. THE TANK CIRCUIT OR LCR PARALLEL CIRCUIT. 47
V
o

s
V
r
L
C
R
+
Figure 2.6: The tank circuit with the current source and the resistance R
replaced with the Thvenin equivalent circuit.
After some algebra, we will have
V
o
V
i
=
jL

2
CL

+ jL

R
. (2.7)
Generalizing the denition of
0
, and Q

0
=
1
_
L

()C
, Q

= R

()

C
L

()
,
and substituting in eq. 2.7 we nally obtain
H() =
j

0
/Q

0
)
2

2
+ j

0
/Q

R
Lets nd the implicitly dened functions r

, L

. Using the term con-

taining the inductance L in eq. 2.6, we obtain
1
r + jL
=
1
r
_
1 +
_
L
r
_
2
_ +
1
jL
_
1 +
_
r
L
_
2
_.
and nally
r

() = r
_
1 +
_
L
r
_
2
_
, L

() = L
_
1 +
_
r
L
_
2
_

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48 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
100
80
60
40
20
0
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
90
45
0
45
90
P
h
a
s
e

(
d
e
g
)
Bode Diagram
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 2.7: Typical bode plot of a LCR parallel circuit with resonant angu-
lar frequency near the acoustic band. As expected , if r is not zero, then
the magnitude doesnt go to zero for = 0.
2.3.2 Transfer Function
From the solution of the LCR parallel circuit we have
|H()| =

0
Q

_
_
_

0
_
2

2
_
2
+
_

0
Q

_
2
|R

|
R
arg(H()) = arctan
_
Q

2
0

0
_
,
whose bode plots are shown in gure 2.7.

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2.3. THE TANK CIRCUIT OR LCR PARALLEL CIRCUIT. 49
2.3.3 Simplest Case
If r = 0, then we will have much simpler expressions for the thank circuit
formulas, i.e.

0
=
1

LC
, Q = R
_
C
L
,
and
H() =
j
0
/Q

2
0

2
+ j
0
/Q
.
The magnitude and the phase will be
|H()| =

0
Q
_
_

2
0

2
_
2
+
_

0
Q
_
2
,
arg(H()) = arctan
_
Q

2
0

0
_
.
2.3.4 High Frequency Approximation
For high frequency r/L, we have
r

() r
_

L
r
_
2
, L

L
and
0
becomes

0

1

LC
.
Evaluating the several dened quantities at
0
, we will have
r

(
0
)
L
rC
,
R

(
0
)
LR
RCr + L
Q

(
0
)
LR
RCr + L
_
C
L

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50 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
x 10
3
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 2.8: Typical step response of a LCR parallel circuit near the acoustic
band.
2.3.5 LCR Parallel Circuit Transient Response
Lets briey analyze the response to a step of the LCR parallel circuit for
the under-damped case.
If we dene the following quantity
=
1
2Q
,
called damping coefcient, and if 0 < < 1, then we will have at the
circuit output
v(t) = v
0
2
1
e

0
t
cos
_
_
1
2

0
t +
0
_
+ v
1
.

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2.3. THE TANK CIRCUIT OR LCR PARALLEL CIRCUIT. 51
The voltage output v(t) is a damped sinusoid with angular frequency
_
1
2

0
and time constant = 1/
0
. The DC offset v
1
depends on
the inductor resistance r and the initial step.
Figure 2.8, a typical step response of the LCRcircuit shows a ring-down
with a DC offset.

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52 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
2.4 Laboratory Experiment
Real inductors have not negligible resistance. To build a LCR series circuit
with a highest quality factor it is indeed necessary to minimize the resis-
tance of the circuit by mounting in series the inductor and the capacitor
only. Typical effective resistance of the inductors used in the laboratory is
about 10 to 80 at resonance .
Because of the internal resistance of the function generator (the best
scenario gives 50) is then comparable at some frequencies to LCR
load, we will expect that the approximation of ideal generator will be no
longer valid.
Moreover, harmonic distortion of the function generator will be quite
evident in the LCR series circuit because of the dependence of the load on
the frequency.
An estimation of a ring-down time constant can be obtained as fol-
lows. From the ring-down equation we have that after a time t = the
amplitude is reduced by a factor 1/3 (e 1/2.718). This means that we
can easily estimate by just measuring the time needed to reduce the am-
plitude down to about 1/3 of its initial value. A similar but quite coarse
way is to count how many periods n

the amplitude takes to decrease to

1/3 of its initial value. Then the estimation will be
Tn

=
n

res
,
where T, and
res
are respectively the period and the frequency of the os-
cillation. Considering that Q =
res
then
Q n

.
The quality factor can also be estimated from the frequency response
considering that
Q =

res

,
where is the Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) of the peak reso-
nance.
2.4.1 Pre-laboratory Exercises
It is suggested to read the appendix about the electromagentic noise to
complete the pre-lab problems and the laboratory procedure.

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2.4. LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 53
1. Determine the capacitance C of a LCRseries circuit necessary to have
a resonant frequency
C
= 20kHz if L = 10mH, and R = 10. Then,
calculate Q, ,
0
, ( = 2) of the circuit.
2. Find the LCR series input impedance Z
i
and plot its magnitude in a
logarithmic scale. Determine at what frequency is the minimum of
|Z
i
| .
3. Supposing that the internal resistance of the function generator is
R
s
= 50, and using the previous values for L, C, and R, calculate
the circuit input voltage attenuation at the frequency of |Z
i
| mini-
mum and at twice that frequency.
4. Determine the capacitance C of a tank circuit necessary to have a
resonant frequency
C
= 20 kHz if L = 10mH, R = 10k, and
r = 10. Use the high frequency approximation. Then, calculate Q,
,
0
, of the circuit.
5. Estimate the time constant of the ring-down in gure 2.8. Suppos-
ing that R = 10k, estimate r from gure 2.7.
6. Calculate the maximumfrequency of the EMeld isolated by a Fara-
day cage with a dimension d = 10mm (hint: consult the proper ap-
pendix).
2.4.2 Procedure
1. Build a LCRseries circuit with a resonant frequency of around 20kHz,
using inductance, capacitance, and resistance values calculated in
the pre-lab problems. Then, do the following steps:
(a) Using the oscilloscope and knowing the expected magnitude
and phase values at the resonant frequency
C
, nd
C
and com-
pare it with the theoretical value computed using the compo-
nents measured values.
(b) Verify the circuit transfer function H
C
() using the data acqui-
sition system and the proper software.
(c) Estimate the quality factor Q of the circuit from the transfer
function measurement and compare it with the theoretical value.

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54 CHAPTER 2. RESONANT CIRCUITS
(d) Explain why the input voltage V
i
changes in amplitude if we
change frequency.
(e) Considering the harmonic distortion of the function generator,
explain why the frequency spectrumof the input signal changes
quite drastically when we approach the resonance
C
.
(f) Download the simulation le from the ph5/105 website for the
LCR series circuit, input the proper components values, run the
AC response simulation, and nd the discrepancies beteween
your measurement and the simulation.
(g) Modify the simulated circuit to qualitatively account for the
eventual notch measured between 100 kHz and 1 MHz (hint:
use the inductor model specied in the appendix considering
the extra capacitor only).
2. Builda LCRparallel circuit with a resonant frequency around 20kHz,
using inductance, capacitance, and resistance values calculated in
the pre-lab problems. Then, do the following steps:
(a) Using the oscilloscope and knowing the expected magnitude
and phase values at the resonant frequency
C
, nd
C
and com-
pare it with the theoretical value computed using the compo-
nents measured values.
(b) Verify the circuit transfer function H
C
() using the data acqui-
sition system and the proper software.
(c) Estimate the quality factor Q of the circuit from the step re-
sponse.
(d) Download the simulation le from the ph5/105 website for the
LCR parallel circuit, input the proper components values, run
the AC response simulation, and nd the discrepancies bete-
ween your measurement and the simulation.
(e) Modify the simulated circuit to qualitatively account for the
eventual notch measured between 100 kHz and 1MHz (hint:
use the capacitor model specied in the appendix considering
the extra inductors only).

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2.4. LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 55
3. Check the effect of the Faraday cage ( a metallic coffee can) using 10x
probe connected to the oscilloscope. Add a 1m long wire to increase
the antenna effect.
Note the differences when the antenna is approached to the uores-
cent lights, and when you touch the antenna.
Keeping the cage in the same position and without touching the
cage, explain what you observe and coarsely estimate the amplitude
and frequency content of the picked-up signal in the following con-
ditions:
(a) Antenna outside the cage,
(b) Antenna inside the cage,
(c) Antenna inside the cage with ground probe connected to the
cage.

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