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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF CURRENT RESEARCH
International Journal of Current Research
Vol. 4, Issue, 04, pp.064-073, April, 2012
ISSN: 0975-833X
RESEARCH ARTICLE
TRADITIONAL LEGUMES IN SIKKIM HIMALAYAS: FOOD PREPARATION, USES AND ETHNO-
MEDICINAL PERSPECTIVES
1Dibyendu Talukdar* and 2Tulika Talukdar
1Department of Botany, R.P.M. College, University of Calcutta, Uttarpara, Hooghly 712258, West Bengal, India
2Department of Botany, Krishnagar Govt. College, University of Kalyani, Krishnagar, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Article History: An inventory was carried out in parts of Sikkim Himalayas (500-4200m, amsl) to document
Received 27th January, 2012 traditional wisdom on legumes regarding mode of food preparation and resource utilization. The
Received in revised form study revealed rich biodiversity and conservation of traditional knowledge on use of legumes in food,
17th February, 2012
fodder, medicine, organic farming and socio-religious festivals. As many as 42 ethno-taxa have been
Accepted 29th March, 2012
Published online 30th April, 2012 identified, of which 24 plants had use in different ailments including diabetes, high blood cholesterol,
fever, digestive disorder and other general health problems. As edible food, 24 plants had extensive
Key words: use either as vegetables or pulse-meal and 10 recipes have been identified. Cooking and boiling was
the most preferred recipes among the tribes. Phaseolus and Vigna emerged as dominant taxa with
Legumes,
Ethno-biology, maximum number of useful plants (8 each), followed by Cassia and Lathyrus (4 each) and then other
Resources, taxa. Nepalese was the predominant tribes, utilizing highest number of plants, and it was closely
Medicinal, followed by Lepchas and Bhutias and then other tribes. The informant consensus factor, used for the
Consensus factor, first time in Sikkim Himalayas, for preparation and usage of plant per category was high enough (>
Sikkim Himalayas. 0.90), indicating high degree of consensus in disclosing the traditional knowledge within the
community in the study areas.
Copy Right, IJCR, 2012, Academic Journals. All rights reserved.
MATERIALS AND METHODS period, about 9 field trips were conducted in the study areas
for verification of collected data. Surveys were conducted by a
Study areas and ethno-graphy stratified random selection of informants, based on methods
suggested by earlier workers (Schultes, 1962; Jain, 1991;
Field trips comprising of local knowledge persons, traditional Bernard, 1994). Successive free listing was used to interview
healers and farmers mainly from ethnic Nepalese, Lepchas, informants providing data for the consensus analysis. A total
Bhutias, Lamas (Bhutia priest), Limbos, Sherpas, and Dokpas of 210 informants were selected and interviewed based on the
were conducted in and around Ranipool (East Sikkim, 27°17′ questionnaire followed earlier for legumes (Bhagya and
N/88°35′E, 600m, amsl), Phodong (North Sikkim, 1400m, Sridhar, 2009), giving limited time and without discriminating
amsl), Labrang (North Sikkim, 1400m, amsl), Phensang gender. During these interviews, all possible information
(North Sikkim, 27° 26′ N/88°36′E, 1572m, amsl), Chungthang regarding uses of legumes, parts used, dosage and mode of
(North Sikkim, 27°37′ N/88°37′E, 1800m, amsl), Mangan administration, methods of preparation was documented and
(27.52°N/ 88.53° E, 1000m, amsl), Lachen mosastery area, then verified by cross-checking. Informants were also
Lachen Chu valley (North Sikkim, 2800m, amsl), Yumthang requested to show the seeds of last harvest and to show the
(North alpine Sikkim, 3610m, amsl), Thangu (2600-4200m, plant species on site. Members of different local community-
amsl) and Lachung valley (1545-3152m) between August and based village-governance system such as ‘Dzumsa’ (dzoms-
February of 2009-2011. Indigenous people inhabiting the sa), a traditional institution of the Bhutias in the remote high
target areas mostly belong to three major communities, i.e. altitude village of Lachen, were involved in this exploration
Nepali, Lepcha and Bhutia. The Nepali community has study. Documentation of knowledge on medicinal uses of
established a wider base in their local traditional medicine legumes was carried out with the help of local folk healers
system, which is commonly prevailed in various tropical and known as Baidya, Dhami and Jhankri in Nepali Community,
sub-tropical villages in Sikkim (Tambe et al., 2003). Being Amji and Pow in Bhutia Community, and Bongthing in
one of the oldest tribes in Sikkim, Lepchas have successfully Lepcha Community in study areas including local markets.
managed to carry their ancient wisdom of ethnomedicinal
practices. In recent times, Lepchas used to grow pulses and Calculation of a consensus factor (Fic)
vegetables along with other crops, and emerged as specialized
plant gatherers practicing ‘Lepcha Shamanism’ and Homogeneity of informant's knowledge was tested following
ethnomedicine with having richest traditional knowledge on methods of Trotter and Logan (1986) with little modifications
biological resources (Pradhan and Badola, 2008; Idrisi et al., for the present study. A consensus factor of Fic is given by: Fic
2010). Migrated to Sikkim, perhaps after the fifteenth century = Nur − Nt /(Nur − 1). The factor provides a range of 0 to 1,
through Bhutan, Bhutias, the third major tribe of Sikkim in the where a high value acts as a good indicator for a high rate of
study area, is believed to be of Tibetan origin. Lachen and informant consensus. Nur is the number of use-reports of
Lachung are the traditional Lepcha Villages with a unique informants for particular illness/ usage, where a use-report is a
form of local democracy in which the pipon (headman) is single record for use of a plant mentioned by an individual. Nt
elected every year. Nowadays, however, at north Sikkim, refers to the number of species used for a particular
Bhutias inhabit in majority and known as Lachenpas and illness/usage category for all informants. The majority of
Lachungpas for their historical links with Lachen and illness/usage types are grouped into predefined
Lachung, respectively (Idrisi et al., 2010). The Bhutias along ethno/economic botany categories. Documentation of
with Lepchas and Sherpas constitute significant farming knowledge per category of usage/preparation was at first
community, engaged in subsistence farming by cultivating a performed community wise, and mean value of Fic was
variety of legume crops such as peas and beans and fruits such finalized, thereafter (Table 2 and 3).
as barley, wheat, potato, cabbage, apple, maize, peach, and
medicinal plants between 3000-4300m (Chhetri, 2011). Botanical documentation and preservation
Dzumsa (dzoms-sa), a traditional institution of the Bhutias in
the remote high altitude villages of Lachen, frames the All plants utilized in the interviews were collected as vouchers
guidelines of crop harvesting and utilization. for confirmation of identity. The identities were authenticated
in herbaria, and by referring to recent taxonomic monographs
Ethnobotanical survey and consensus analysis and revisions. The authentication of collected specimens was
performed using both on-line and off-line data bases of
The survey protocols were followed standard methods for International Plant Names Index (www. IPNI.org),
interviews, data confirmation and field observation as International legume data base (www.ildis.org) ‘Flora of
suggested earlier (Etkin, 1993; Bernard, 1994; Alexiades, Sikkim Himalayas (Hajra and Verma, 1996) and persons from
1996). Community domains and differences in traditional different institution and arboretums (www.klyuniv.ac.in;
knowledge (TK) among the informants were elucidated by bsienvis.nic.in). Voucher specimens have been deposited in
cross checking the new informants and frequency of a the departmental herbarium of R.P.M. College, Uttarpara,
particular response was determined within the survey. The Hooghly, West Bengal.
local 'elders' helped us to gather information on the local
customs, habits and beliefs, information on the surrounding RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
area and individuals who are knowledgeable of the local flora.
The consensus analysis utilized the informant's TK as defined Diversity of ethnotaxa
by the surveys. Local informants having practical knowledge The ethnic communities in the study areas revealed a diversity
of plant medicinal utility of the study areas were interviewed of legume plants that have medicinal and nutritional utility in
during study periods of August-February 2009-11. During this their culture. During the study period of over three
066 International Journal of Current Research, Vol. 4, Issue, 04, pp.064-073, April, 2012
*Cajanas cajan (L.) Rahar Erect Sep-Dec Cooked with vegetables Taken during jaundice Millsp.
Dried stem as fuel (N)
Cassia alata L. Dandmari Erect shrub June-Dec Dry plant parts collected Fuel (N)
*Cassia javanica L. Sungen Kung (L) Erect Perennial Pods and seeds. Seed extract Medicinal value of
(Ranipool to Pakyong) tree prepared in saline water seeds as purgative,
hemolytic (extract)
agent (L)
*Cassia occidentalis L. Tapray (N), Erect under- June-Dec Leaves and roots powdered, Medicinal in worm
(Up to 2400m, amsl) Sung en durn (L) shrub mixed with water to form paste infection, scorpion
sting, stomachic, used
in fever, cough and
cold (N, L)
*Cassia tora L. Toppariya Sub-erect March- Leaves were cut into pieces, Leaf juices used as
(up to 1200-1400m) Nov grinded with little water in anthelmintic, taken at
wooden morter to extract juices empty stomach (N),
used also in skin
diseases (N, L)
Cicer arietinum L. Chana dal Sub-erect Oct-Feb Cooked as ‘dal’, dry seeds Taken with cooked(u
(up to 3000m) powdered to make ‘besan’ rice, fried product
form fried product. Whole Sprouted seeds for
plant & sprouted seeds general health (N, B)
Fodder and recycling
(N, B, O)
*Clitoria ternatea L. Sveta koyala/ Climber Feb-Nov Flower (white) mixed with water Paste used in eye
(Ranipool to Phensang) aparajitha to form paste, entire plant infection, whole plant
bite (N), religious
(N, B)
*Glycine max (L.) Merrill. Kalo or Pahelo Sub-erect June-Nov Seeds processed or roasted, used as legume meat
(Ranipool to Chungthang) Bhatmash grains, whole plant, seed with cooked rice, seed
paste and plant as fodder (N
, L), paste in skin rash
Cold bite (S, B, L)
Indigofera atropurpurea Chiringi jhar Shrub Sep-Oct Leaves cut into pieces, mixed
Used as vegetables
Horn em. (1530m, amsl) (flowering) with amaranth, palak and
(N, L, B, O) cooked
Lathyrus sativus L. Soshta Batura/ Vine Oct-Feb Cooked as ‘dal’ or mixed with Highly nutritious but
(1200-4200m, amsl) Seto Batura vegetables or with chana dal
always taken as
(white-seeded) Tender leaves, whole plant, mixed legume diet
leaves and pods, seed flour (L, S, O).Tender pods
Kalo Batura (black seed) Sub-erect Sep-Feb Tender pods and seeds, mixed Raw leafy vegetables,
/Pahelo batura with millet or buck-wheat, rough ‘chapatti’ (S,O)
(brown mottled) whole plant as fodder,
manure (S, O)
*Lens esculenta Moench. Masuri dal Bushy Oct-Feb Grains cooked as ‘dal’ Light meal taken
(Ranipool to Phensang) or as mixed meal with during severe
Lettuce leaf, palak, jaundice, indigestion
amaranth (‘dhuti ghans’) and loss of appetite
and spice (N), in measles (L)
*Lespedeza speciosa Schindl. Chikley Shrub June-Oct Leaf cut into pieces, paste Used in skin rash (L)
(2000-4000m, amsl)
*Lespedeza elliptica Michx. Chikley Vine July-Oct Leaf pieces made into paste Used in skin rash (L)
(1500-4200m, amsl)
*Macrotyloma uniflorum Gahat Sub-erect June-Sep Cooked as ‘dal’ or processed Taken to withstand
(Lam.) Verdc., 100-2500m, amsl of water-soaked seeds or grains extreme cold, kidney
Phaseolus lunatus L. *Ghew simi Pole type July-Oct Tender pods cooked, mixed
Vegetables (N),
(White seed) with leaves of palak, cabbage,
anti-diabetic (N,
(Ranipool to and radish (white), no potato monks),in digestive
067 International Journal of Current Research, Vol. 4, Issue, 04, pp.064-073, April, 2012
cholesterol (N, B, S)
Phaseolus lunatus L. *Lachen Tibi Pole type Aug-Oct Sprouted seeds as such or At break-fast (only
(Phodong to Lachen mixed with potato, ginger,
germinated seeds)
/Lachung valley) millet (flour)
and cardamom for medicinal (anti-
or simply cooked as ‘dal’
cholesterol, low
blood pressure),
fever (S, B, D)
Singtamey simi Pole type Aug-Oct Tender pods cooked, raw
Vegetables (N, B), plants, mixed with
othe fodder (N, S),
pulses during festivals
Mulching (N, B, L)
Ghew bori Pole type July-Oct Seed flour mixed with water
Food supplement in to form ‘bori’
vegetables for high
nutrition (N, L)
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Kalo Mantulall simi Pole type July-Oct Seeds soaked in water, sprouted Delicious meal in
(Ranipool to beyond seeds mixed with ginger, onion, cultural and religio-
Chungthang) garlic, palak, and other herbs -us
festivals (N, L,
or boiled five min, kept 4-5 h, B, others).
Pulse as
water discarded and cooked meal with
raw
buckwheat or millet
bread (B, L)
Alpatre simi Pole type July-Nov Young pods boiled and
Vegetables (N, S)
cooked
morning in diabetes
(N, L, B, O)
Vicia faba L. Bakulla Oct-Jan Erect Young pods and whole plant. Pods cooked as ((u(
(Phensang to upper Dried bean fried, roasted or vegetables, mixed
Chungthang 1000-2400m) mixed with pea, gram, mung, diet for socio-cultural
068 International Journal of Current Research, Vol. 4, Issue, 04, pp.064-073, April, 2012
Table 2. Ethnobotanical consensus index for traditional legume plant usage categories based on response of a
total 210 selected informants during 2009-2011in different parts of Sikkim Himalayas
Table 3. Ethnobotanical consensus index for traditional legume recipes based on response of a total 210 selected
informants during 2009-2011in different parts of Sikkim Himalayas
(cold bites, cut and wounds etc.). Jana and Chauhan (2000) and its relation with nutritional component of seed has been
reported 16 ethnic formulations of legume medicine at Sikkim established (Talukdar and Biswas, 2005; Talukdar, 2009b).
Himalayas in a rather limited search, but the detail Although new methods are being introduced to improve hill-
investigation and consensus of reporting is not known in wider based organic farming, almost all local ethnic tribes (except
climatic conditions. In the present investigation, covering Dokpas) practiced mulching of whole plant as one of the
tropics to alpine range (500-4200m, amsl), out of 42 taxa effective ways to preserve soil fertility. Recycling and green
documented, 24 plants (57%) have been found used as herbal manuring are two other methods followed by hill people to
medicines predominantly by Lepchas and Nepalese (Table 1). maintain soil nitrogen status. Although all legumes under
Interestingly, one plant Phaseolus lunatus L. (‘ghew simi’- study have this potential, 7 plants were documented for their
small and bold seeded) was found used as pulse-meal during extensive use as green manuring, represented by species of
pregnancy by Nepalese people. Different varieties of this plant Phaseolus, Cicer, Vigna and Lathyrus. Although Nepalese
were also disclosed as effective to lower blood sugar and high were identified as dominant ethnic tribes using legumes as
blood cholesterol levels. Seeds of methi were also used as green manuring, Bhutias and Lepchas are knowledgeable
anti-diabetic by almost all tribes in the present study areas, enough utilizing legumes as green manure in their traditional
although use of this medicinal herb in diabetes was earlier homestay garden, ‘khet’ and terrace farming.
attributed to only Nepalese tribes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Exclusive use of Lespedeza for skin rash during extreme cold, Role of legume crops as source of fuel and in socio-religious
Lens esculenta during measles, Macrotyloma uniflorum to festivals was also documented in the present inventory, as
prevent kidney disorder and Cassia javanica as purgative by studied in sub-Himalayan plain also (Talukdar and Talukdar,
Lepchas and of Clitoria ternatea for snake bite, Vigna mungo 2012b). Dry parts of two plants, Cajanas cajan and Cassia
ssp viridis (‘pahenlo dal’) in low blood pressure and physical alata, were the sources of fuel for the hill tribes, particularly
weaknesses by Nepalese community are also noteworthy to Nepalese. While Cajanas was used in this purpose from low
mention. Roles of two prominent legumes, Lens esculenta and tropics to mid-temperate (500-2000m, amsl), Cassia alata
Cajanus cajan, as hepato-protective pulses during jaundice mixed with Lantana camara, a dangerous invasive shrub of
and the latter in menstrual disorder also were disclosed by family Verbenaceae, and Leucaena leucocephala, an invasive
Nepalese tribes. Similarly, at lower altitude (500-1000m, legumes, was burned as fuel at low altitude tropical climate.
amsl), bark paste of ‘gum arabic’ (Acacia arabica) and seed The Nepalese ‘Gorkhas’ were found using Cassia, while
paste of Abrus precatorius were exclusively used by this ‘Limbos’, and ‘Sherpas’ preferred Cajanas to meet immediate
community to treat cut and wounds and backbone pain, fuel demand for low-intensive daily use. The cultural as well
respectively. At least 6 plants have been used to counter fever; as socio-religious festivals are an integrated part of hill life,
of which juices extracted from leaves and fruits of and legumes provide beautiful cuisine in traditional cultural
Pithecellobium dulce, cooked pulse-meal of Macrotyloma rituals and festivals. In the present study, 9 plants were
uniflorum and Vigna umbellata and liquid paste of Cassia documented as used either directly (Clitoria ternatea) or to
occidentalis leaf had high acceptance among the ethnic prepare delicious dishes (Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna mungo,
community. Pharmacological preparations include seed/bark Vicia faba etc.) during different socio-cultural festivals. For
paste, water-soaked seeds, pulse-meal, leaf paste, juice and instance, the ‘Newar’ festivals include the Kokkti-Purney or
cooked vegetables (Table 1). Kwanti Purnima and the Rakhi Purnima. On the day of Rakhi-
Purnima, ‘Newar’ community was found to prepare a
Besides cultivated for food and medicinal purposes, number of traditional recipes of special mixed soup comprising of newly
legume plants has been utilized for fodder, green manuring, germinated pulses (known as Kwathi or Kokti) of beans (Ghew
fuel and religious purposes in the study areas (Table1, 2). simi, Singtamey simi, Mantulall simi, Rajmah), Mung
Altogether, 9 plants have been identified which used (Kalodal, Panhelidal), Field Peas (Matar/Kerau), Horse gram
extensively as fodder or animal feed, of which Trifolium (Gahat), Ricebean (Masyam), Soybean (Bhatmash), Cowpea
repense or white clover was preferred mostly by Bhutias. (Tuneybori), Gram (Chana dal) and lentil (Musuridal). The
Local ‘Lamas’, however, informed gastric problem or bloating mixed pulses were initially soaked in water and allowed until
of cattle in taking this plant which was in agreement with an the sprouts come out. Thus mixed beans sprouts are used to
earlier report in Bhutan Himalayas (Roder et al., 2007). prepare traditional delicacies with local spices (ginger,
Among the other legumes, species of Vigna have been widely cardamon) and salts. Besides this particular occasion,
used by ethnic tribes at different altitudes, and one taxa Vigna delicious pulse-dishes were also prepared with Phaseolus,
sinensis had exclusive use by Bhutias, as revealed during Vigna, Pisum, Vicia, and Cicer, mixing Spinacea (palak),
interaction and cross-checking at Lachen valley and Lachung Lettuce, Cabbage, carrot and local medicinal herbs and spices
regions. Likewise, all four genotypes (differentiated on the in different combinations to celebrate special occasions
basis of seed colour) of Lathyrus sativus or grass pea were (wedding, child-birth, crop harvesting, new-year etc) in the
used as forage crops, but the black and brown-mottled-seeded form of pitri puja, kul puja, Toksok-fingma, Nambun (Lepcha
type had more use than white-seeded one. ‘Sherpas’, ‘Dokpas’ New Year), Himtongsing / Sitongsing (traditional rituals of
and ‘Limbos’ emerged as dominant tribes in utilizing Lathyrus ethnic Limboos) and the like by the different local
as fodder crop at high altitude (Chungthang, Lachung, communities as per their culture or religion from time to time,
Lachen), while Nepalese and Bhutias use it at comparatively as experienced during three years of study. The communities
lower altitude (Phodong, Phensang, Mangan). Presumably, thus protect the agro-biodiversity of pulses and crops grown in
tall, bushy and highly branched habit of black and brown-seed the Himalayas through cultural agro-biodiversity (Tamang et
types (Kalo or Pahelo batura) have the greater potential to use al., 2009; Bhasin, 2011).
as forage than short and thin white-seeded type (seto-batura).
Seed coat colour varies greatly in Indian grass pea genotypes,
071 International Journal of Current Research, Vol. 4, Issue, 04, pp.064-073, April, 2012
Consensus of the traditional knowledge on use and recipes this group of plant has immense importance in cytogenetics,
of legume plants/parts genomics and proteomic research to develop as a model crop
in holistic legume research (Talukdar 2010a, b, 2011g). The
The result indicates an interesting twist in consensus of study revealed conservation of traditional knowledge, rituals
traditional knowledge on use of legumes within the study and wisdom among the ethnic community, as evidenced by
areas. Results in Table 2 suggested a high level of consensus high consensus among informants per category, and all the
of TK for edible as well as medicinal plants within the ethnic major and minor ethnic tribes are equally important in
community. The relative frequency of TK for each individual preservation of Himalayan legume through their rich cultural
ethnotaxa from the interviews was high (mean RF = 0.90 ± traditions.
0.03). The pattern of usage was broadly divided into 16
categories in which the informant consensus resulted in Fic ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ranging from 0.86 to 1.00 (Table 2) with a mean value of 0.94
± 0.01. This indicated high range of consensus among the Authors are highly grateful to Mr. Ganesh Kumar Chettri
informants compared to similar studies in other countries (Hee-Bermoik, Martan village, West Sikkim), and local
(Heinrich, 2000; Amiguet et al., 2005). In the present study, people in every walk of life during the entire course of the
fairly high number of people (120-164) exhibited consensus in present study.
disclosing 24 plants used to prepare vegetables and pulse-meal
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