The

Central Nervous System

Outline
I. The Brain (pp. 431456; Figs. 12.112.19)
A. Embryonic Development (pp. 431433; Figs. 12.212.3) 1. At three weeks gestation, the ectoderm forms the neural plate, which invaginates, forming the neural groove, flanked on either side by neural folds. 2. By the fourth week of pregnancy, the neural groove fuses, giving rise to the neural tube, which rapidly differentiates into the CNS. 3. The neural tube develops constrictions that divide the three primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). B. Regions and Organization (p. 433; Fig. 12.4) 1. The basic pattern of the CNS consists of a central cavity surrounded by a gray matter core, external to which is white matter. 2. In the brain, the cerebrum and cerebellum have an outer gray matter layer, which is reduced to scattered gray matter nuclei in the spinal cord. C. Ventricles (pp. 433434; Fig. 12.5) 1. The ventricles of the brain are continuous with one another, and with the central canal of the spinal cord. They are lined with ependymal cells, and are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. a. The paired lateral ventricles lie deep within each cerebral hemisphere, and are separated by the septum pellucidum. b. The third ventricle lies within the diencephalon, and communicates with the lateral ventricles via two interventricular foramina. c. The fourth ventricle lies in the hindbrain and communicates with the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. D. Cerebral Hemispheres (pp. 434443; Figs. 12.612.11; Table 12.1) 1. The cerebral hemispheres form the superior part of the brain, and are characterized by ridges and grooves called gyri and sulci. 2. The cerebral hemispheres are separated along the midline by the longitudinal fissure, and are separated from the cerebellum along the transverse cerebral fissure. 3. The five lobes of each hemisphere, separated by specific sulci are: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula. 4. The cerebral cortex is the location of the conscious mind, allowing us to communicate, remember, and understand. 5. The cerebral cortex has several motor areas located in the frontal lobes, which control voluntary movement. a. The primary motor cortex allows conscious control of skilled voluntary movement of skeletal muscles. b. The premotor cortex is the region controlling learned motor skills. c. Brocas area is a motor speech area that controls muscles involved in speech production.

 6. There are several sensory areas of the cerebral cortex that occur in the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. a. The primary somatosensory cortex allows spatial discrimination and the ability to detect the location of stimulation. b. The somatosensory association cortex integrates sensory information and produces an understanding of the stimulus being felt. c. The primary visual cortex and visual association area allow reception and interpretation of visual stimuli. d. The primary auditory cortex and auditory association area allow detection of the properties and contextual recognition of sound. e. The olfactory cortex allows detection of odors. f. The gustatory cortex allows perception of taste stimuli. g. The vestibular cortex is responsible for conscious awareness of balance. 7. Several association areas are not connected to any sensory cortices. a. The prefrontal cortex is involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality, and is closely linked to the limbic system. b. The language areas involved in comprehension and articulation include Wernickes area, Brocas area, the lateral prefrontal cortex, and the lateral and ventral parts of the temporal lobe. c. The posterior association area receives input from all sensory areas, integrating signals into a single thought. d. The visceral association area is involved in conscious visceral sensation. 8. There is lateralization of cortical functioning, in which each cerebral hemisphere has unique abilities not shared by the other half. a. One hemisphere (often the left) dominates language abilities, math, and logic, and the other hemisphere (often the right) dominates visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and artistic and musical skills. 9. Cerebral white matter is responsible for communication between cerebral areas and the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers. 10. Basal nuclei consist of a group of subcortical nuclei, which play a role in motor control and regulating attention and cognition. E. The diencephalon is a set of gray matter areas, and consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus (pp. 443447; Figs. 12.1112.15; Table 12.1). 1. The thalamus plays a key role in mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory. 2. The hypothalamus is the control center of the body, regulating ANS activity such as emotional response, body temperature, food intake, sleep-wake cycles, and endocrine function. 3. The epithalamus includes the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin and regulates the sleep-wake cycle. F. The brain stem, consisting of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, produces rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors necessary for survival (pp. 447451; Figs. 12.1512.16; Table 12.1). 1. The midbrain is comprised of the cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, and substantia nigra. 2. The pons contains fiber tracts that complete conduction pathways between the brain and spinal cord. 3. The medulla oblongata is the location of several visceral motor nuclei controlling vital functions such as cardiac and respiratory rate.

G. Cerebellum (pp. 451454; Fig. 12.17; Table 12.1) 1. The cerebellum processes inputs from several structures and coordinates skeletal muscle contraction to produce smooth movement. 2. Cerebellar processing follows a functional scheme in which the frontal cortex communicates the intent to initiate voluntary movement to the cerebellum, the cerebellum collects input concerning balance and tension in muscles and ligaments, and the best way to coordinate muscle activity is relayed back to the cerebral cortex. H. Functional brain systems consist of neurons that are distributed throughout the brain but work together (pp. 454456; Figs. 12.1812.19). 1. The limbic system is involved with emotions, and is extensively connected throughout the brain, allowing it to integrate and respond to a wide variety of environmental stimuli. 2. The reticular formation extends through the brain stem, keeping the cortex alert via the reticular activating system, and dampening familiar, repetitive, or weak sensory inputs.

II. Higher Mental Functions (pp. 456463; Figs. 12.2012.23)

A. Memory is the storage and retrieval of information (pp. 460463; Figs. 12.22 12.23). 1. Short-term memory, or working memory, allows the memorization of a few units of information for a short period of time. 2. Long-term memory allows the memorization of potentially limitless amounts of information for very long periods. 3. Transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory can be affected by a high emotional state, repetition, association of new information with old, or the automatic formation of memory while concentrating on something else.

III. Protection of the Brain (pp. 463470; Figs. 12.2412.27)

A. Meninges are three connective tissue membranes that cover and protect the CNS, protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses, contain cerebrospinal fluid, and partition the brain (pp. 463465; Figs. 12.24 12.25). 1. The dura mater is the most durable, outermost covering that extends inward in certain areas to limit movement of the brain within the cranium. 2. The arachnoid mater is the middle meninx that forms a loose brain covering. 3. The pia mater is the innermost layer that clings tightly to the brain. B. Cerebrospinal Fluid (pp. 465467; Figs. 12.2612.27) 1. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the fluid found within the ventricles of the brain and surrounding the brain and spinal cord. 2. CSF gives buoyancy to the brain, protects the brain and spinal cord from impact damage, and is a delivery medium for nutrients and chemical signals. C. The blood-brain barrier is a protective mechanism that helps maintain a protective environment for the brain (p. 467). D. Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain (pp. 467470) 1. Traumatic head injuries can lead to brain injuries of varying severity: concussion, contusion, and subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage. 2. Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs), or strokes, occur when blood supply to the brain is blocked resulting in tissue death. 3. Alzheimers disease is a progressive degenerative disease that ultimately leads to dementia.

4. Parkinsons disease results from deterioration of dopamine-secreting neurons of the substantia nigra, and leads to a loss in coordination of movement and a persistent tremor. 5. Huntingtons disease is a fatal hereditary disorder that results from deterioration of the basal nuclei and cerebral cortex.

IV. The Spinal Cord (pp. 470481; Figs. 12.2812.35; Tables 12.212.3)
A. Embryonic Development (p. 470) 1. The spinal cord develops from the caudal portion of the neural tube. 2. Axons from the alar plate form white matter, and expansion of both the alar and ventral plates gives rise to the central gray matter of the cord. 3. Neural crest cells form the dorsal root ganglia, and send axons to the dorsal aspect of the cord. B. Gross Anatomy and Protection (pp. 470472; Figs. 12.2812.29) 1. The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebrae. It provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain and serves as a major reflex center. 2. Fibrous extensions of the pia mater anchor the spinal cord to the vertebral column and coccyx, preventing excessive movement of the cord. 3. The spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal nerves along its length that define the segments of the cord. 4. There are cervical and lumbar enlargements for the nerves that serve the limbs, and a collection of nerve roots (cauda equina) that travel through the vertebral column to their intervertebral foramina. C. Cross-Sectional Anatomy (pp. 472478; Figs. 12.3012.35; Tables 12.212.3) 1. Two grooves partially divide the spinal cord into two halves: the anterior and posterior median fissures. 2. Two arms that extend posteriorly are dorsal horns, and the two arms that extend anteriorly are ventral horns. 3. In the thoracic and superior lumbar regions, there are also paired lateral horns that extend laterally between the dorsal and ventral horns. 4. Afferent fibers from peripheral receptors form the dorsal roots of the spinal cord. 5. The white matter of the spinal cord allows communication between the cord and brain. 6. All major spinal tracts are part of paired multineuron pathways that mostly cross from one side to the other, consist of a chain of two or three neurons, and exhibit somatotropy. 7. Ascending pathways conduct sensory impulses upward through a chain of three neurons. a. Nonspecific ascending pathways receive input from many different types of sensory receptors, and make multiple synapses in the brain. b. Specific ascending pathways mediate precise input from a single type of sensory receptor. c. Spinocerebellar tracts convey information about muscle and tendon stretch to the cerebellum. 8. Descending pathways involve two neurons: upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons. a. The direct, or pyramidal, system regulates fast, finely controlled, or skilled movements. b. The indirect, or extrapyramidal, system regulates muscles that maintain posture and balance, control coarse limb movements, and head, neck, and eye movements involved in tracking visual objects. D. Spinal Cord Trauma and Disorders (pp. 478481) 1. Any localized damage to the spinal cord or its roots leads to paralysis (loss of motor function) or paresthesias (loss of sensory function). 2. Poliomyelitis results from destruction of anterior horn neurons by the polio virus.

3. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrigs, disease is a neuromuscular condition that involves progressive destruction of anterior horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract.

V. Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System (pp. 481485; Fig. 12.36)
A. Lack of oxygen to the developing fetus may result in cerebral palsy, a neuromuscular disability in which voluntary muscles are poorly controlled or paralyzed as a result of brain damage. B. Age brings some cognitive decline but losses are not significant until the seventh decade.