Chapter 1 The Nature of Light...................................................

................................................1
1.1 Introduction................................................................
...............................................................1
1.2 The Evolution of Light Theory ..............................................
..................................................1
1.3 Measurements of the Speed of Light .........................................
..............................................5
1.3.1 Galileos Attempts .........................................................
............................................. 5
1.3.2 Roemers Method ............................................................
............................................ 5
1.3.3 Fizeaus Method ............................................................
.............................................. 7
1.3.4 Michelsons Measurements ...................................................
..................................... 8
1.3.5 Maxwells Electromagnetic Waves Method .....................................
......................... 9
1.4 Light Sources ..............................................................
..............................................................9
1.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum ...............................................
...............................................10
1.6 Types of Electromagnetic Waves..............................................
.............................................12
1.6.1 Radiofrequency Waves......................................................
........................................ 12
1.6.2 Microwaves................................................................
................................................ 12
1.6.3 Infrared Waves ...........................................................
............................................... 14
1.6.4 Visible Light ............................................................
.................................................. 14
1.6.5 Ultraviolet Light ........................................................
................................................ 15
1.6.6 X-Rays ...................................................................
................................................... 16
1.6.7 Gamma Rays................................................................
.............................................. 17
1.7 Properties of Light.........................................................
.........................................................17
1.7.1 Absorption ...............................................................
................................................... 17
1.7.2 Transmission .............................................................
................................................. 18
1.7.3 Reflection ...............................................................
................................................... 18
1.7.4 Refraction ...............................................................
................................................... 18
1.7.5 Interference .............................................................
................................................... 19
1.7.6 Diffraction ..............................................................
.................................................... 19
1.7.7 Polarization .............................................................
................................................... 19
Further Reading ................................................................
...............................................................19
Chapter 2 Light and Shadows ....................................................
..............................................21
2.1 Introduction................................................................
.............................................................21

2.2 Shadows ....................................................................

..............................................................21
2.3 Solar Eclipse ..............................................................
.............................................................23
2.4 Lunar Eclipse ..............................................................
............................................................24
2.5 Applications of Shadows.....................................................
...................................................25
2.6 Experimental Work...........................................................
......................................................25
2.6.1 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
........................................ 27
2.6.2 Procedure ................................................................
.................................................. 27
2.6.3 Safety Procedures ........................................................
.............................................. 27
2.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up .........................................................
............................................. 27
2.6.5 Data Collection ..........................................................
................................................ 28
2.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ................................................
........................................ 29
2.6.7 Results and Discussions ..................................................
.......................................... 29
2.6.8 Conclusion ...............................................................
................................................. 30
2.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..........................................
.................................. 30
2.7 List of References..........................................................
.........................................................30
2.8 Appendices..................................................................
............................................................30
Further Reading ................................................................
...............................................................30
Chapter 3 Thermal Radiation ....................................................
...............................................31
3.1 Introduction................................................................
.............................................................31
3.2 Thermal Radiation ..........................................................
........................................................31
3.3 Light and Energy ...........................................................
.........................................................35
3.4 Solar Radiation Energy .....................................................
.....................................................35
3.5 Classification of Solar Collectors..........................................
.................................................39
3.6 Flat-Plate Collectors ......................................................
.........................................................40
3.7 Solar Heating Systems.......................................................
.....................................................41
3.7.1 Solar Air Heating Systems ................................................
...................................... 41
3.7.2 Solar Water Heating Systems ..............................................
.................................... 43
3.8 Hot Water and Steam Generation Systems......................................
......................................44
3.9 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration/Air Conditioning Systems ...................
............................46
3.10 Photovoltaic Systems.......................................................
.......................................................47

3.11 Experimental Work..........................................................

.......................................................48
3.11.1 Solar Radiation Measurements.............................................
................................... 48
3.11.2 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
....................................... 48
3.11.3 Procedure ...............................................................
................................................. 48
3.11.4 Safety Procedure.........................................................
............................................. 49
3.11.5 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
............................................ 49
3.11.6 Data Collection .........................................................
............................................... 49
3.11.7 Calculations and Analysis ...............................................
....................................... 50
3.11.8 Results and Discussions .................................................
......................................... 51
3.11.9 Conclusion ..............................................................
................................................ 51
3.11.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ........................................
.................................. 51
3.12 List of References.........................................................
..........................................................51
3.13 Appendices.................................................................
.............................................................51
3.14 Weather Station ...........................................................
...........................................................51
Further Reading ................................................................
...............................................................51
Chapter 4 Light Production .....................................................
.................................................53
4.1 Introduction................................................................
.............................................................53
4.2 Spontaneous Light Emission .................................................
.................................................54
4.3 Stimulated Light Emission ..................................................
...................................................54
4.4 Light Production by Different Energy Sources ...............................
......................................54
4.4.1 Heat Energy ..............................................................
................................................ 54
4.4.2 Electrical Discharge .....................................................
............................................. 54
4.4.3 Electrical Current .......................................................
............................................... 54
4.4.4 Absorption of Light ......................................................
............................................ 55
4.4.5 Chemical Reaction ........................................................
............................................ 56
4.4.6 Biological Reactions......................................................
............................................ 56
4.4.7 Nuclear Radiation ........................................................
.............................................. 56
4.4.8 Electrical Current .......................................................
............................................... 57
4.4.8.1 Incandescent Light Lamps................................................
.......................... 57
4.4.8.2 Tungsten Halogen Lamps .................................................
......................... 59

4.4.8.3 Fluorescent Light Lamps.................................................

........................... 59
4.4.8.4 Black Lights............................................................
.................................... 60
4.4.8.5 Phosphorescent Materials ...............................................
........................... 60
4.4.8.6 High-Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamps ..................................
.............. 61
4.4.8.7 Metal Halide Discharge Lamps............................................
...................... 62
4.4.8.8 Sodium Lamps ...........................................................
................................. 62
4.4.8.9 Energy Efficient Light Bulbs............................................
.......................... 62
4.4.8.10 Lasers ................................................................
.......................................... 65
4.5 Experimental Work...........................................................
......................................................66
4.5.1 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
........................................ 67
4.5.2 Procedure ................................................................
.................................................. 68
4.5.3 Safety Procedure..........................................................
.............................................. 68
4.5.4 Apparatus Set-Up .........................................................
............................................. 68
4.5.4.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources .......................
........... 68
4.5.4.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode .............................
........... 69
4.5.5 Data Collection ..........................................................
................................................ 69
4.5.5.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources .......................
........... 69
4.5.5.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode .............................
........... 69
4.5.6 Calculations and Analysis ................................................
........................................ 70
4.5.6.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources .......................
........... 70
4.5.6.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode .............................
........... 70
4.5.7 Results and Discussions ..................................................
.......................................... 70
4.5.7.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources .......................
........... 70
4.5.7.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode .............................
........... 70
4.5.8 Conclusion ...............................................................
................................................. 70
4.5.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..........................................
.................................. 71
4.6 List of References..........................................................
.........................................................71
4.7 Appendices..................................................................
............................................................71
Further Reading ................................................................
...............................................................71
Chapter 5 Light Intensity.......................................................
...................................................73

5.1 Introduction................................................................
.............................................................73
5.2 Light Intensity.............................................................
............................................................73
5.3 Luminous Flux...............................................................
.........................................................74
5.4 Luminous Intensity .........................................................
........................................................74
5.5 Illumination................................................................
.............................................................76
5.6 Experimental Work...........................................................
......................................................77
5.6.1 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
........................................ 79
5.6.2 Procedure ................................................................
.................................................. 79
5.6.3 Safety Procedure..........................................................
.............................................. 80
5.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up .........................................................
............................................. 80
5.6.4.1 Light Intensity From Five Different Light Sources ......................
............ 80
5.6.4.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface ......................
................ 80
5.6.5 Data Collection ..........................................................
................................................ 81
5.6.5.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources.......................
............. 81
5.6.5.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface ......................
................ 81
5.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ................................................
........................................ 82
5.6.6.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources.......................
............. 82
5.6.6.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface ......................
................ 82
5.6.7 Results and Discussions ..................................................
.......................................... 82
5.6.7.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources ......................
.............. 82
5.6.7.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface ......................
................ 82
5.6.8 Conclusion ...............................................................
................................................. 82
5.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..........................................
.................................. 82
5.7 List of References..........................................................
.........................................................82
5.8 Appendices..................................................................
............................................................82
Further Reading ................................................................
...............................................................82
Chapter 6 Light and Colour .....................................................
................................................85
6.1 Introduction................................................................
.............................................................85
6.2 Colours.....................................................................
...............................................................85
6.3 Mixing Light Colours .......................................................
......................................................88

6.3.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing .........................................

................................. 88
6.3.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing.......................................
............................... 89
6.4 The Colour Triangle ........................................................
.......................................................92
6.5 The C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram ............................................
..............................................93
6.6 Colour Televisions..........................................................
........................................................93
6.7 Spectral Transmittance Curves...............................................
................................................94
6.8 Colour Temperature..........................................................
......................................................94
6.9 Newtons Colour Wheel ........................................................
.................................................97
6.10 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel ...........................
.....................................97
6.11 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ........................................
............................................98
6.12 Experimental Work..........................................................
.......................................................98
6.12.1 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
......................................... 99
6.12.2 Procedure ...............................................................
................................................. 101
6.12.3 Safety Procedure.........................................................
............................................. 101
6.12.4 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
............................................ 101
6.12.4.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......................................
................ 101
6.12.4.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...................................
............... 102
6.12.4.3 Newtons Colour Wheel ...................................................
..................... 102
6.12.4.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel .......................
......... 103
6.12.4.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....................................
................ 104
6.12.5 Data Collection .........................................................
............................................... 104
6.12.5.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......................................
................ 104
6.12.5.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...................................
............... 105
6.12.5.3 Newtons Colour Wheel ...................................................
..................... 105
6.12.5.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel .......................
......... 106
6.12.5.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....................................
................ 106
6.12.6 Calculations and Analysis ...............................................
....................................... 107
6.12.7 Results and Discussions .................................................
......................................... 107
6.12.7.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing ......................................
................ 107
6.12.7.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing ...................................
............... 107

6.12.7.3 Newtons Colour Wheel ...................................................

..................... 107
6.12.7.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel .......................
......... 107
6.12.7.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel ....................................
................ 107
6.12.8 Conclusion ..............................................................
................................................ 107
6.12.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .........................................
................................. 107
6.13 List of References.........................................................
........................................................107
6.14 Appendices.................................................................
...........................................................107
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................107
Chapter 7 Laws of Light ........................................................
................................................109
7.1 Introduction ...............................................................
............................................................109
7.2 Law of Reflection...........................................................
.......................................................109
7.2.1 Fresnel Reflection .......................................................
............................................. 111
7.2.2 Back Reflection ..........................................................
.............................................. 112
7.3 Law of Refraction ..........................................................
.......................................................113
7.3.1 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection .............................
............................. 117
7.4 Experimental Work ..........................................................
.....................................................118
7.4.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer .................................
........................... 119
7.4.1.1 Law of Refraction at AirWater Interface .................................
............. 119
7.4.1.2 Critical Angle at WaterAir Interface ....................................
.................. 120
7.4.1.3 Total Internal Reflection at WaterAir Interface .........................
........... 120
7.4.2 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
...................................... 121
7.4.3 Procedure.................................................................
................................................. 122
7.4.4 Safety Procedure .........................................................
............................................. 122
7.4.5 Apparatus Set-Up .........................................................
........................................... 123
7.4.5.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ...............................
............... 123
7.4.5.2 Law of Refraction at AirWater Interface .................................
............. 123
7.4.5.3 Critical Angle at WaterAir Interface ....................................
.................. 124
7.4.5.4 Total Internal Reflection at WaterAir Interface .........................
........... 125
7.4.6 Data Collection ..........................................................
.............................................. 126
7.4.6.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ...............................
............... 126

7.4.6.2 Law of Refraction at AirWater Interface .................................

............. 126
7.4.6.3 Critical Angle at WaterAir Interface ....................................
.................. 127
7.4.6.4 Total Internal Reflection at WaterAir Interface .........................
........... 127
7.4.7 Calculations and Analysis.................................................
....................................... 127
7.4.7.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ...............................
............... 127
7.4.7.2 Law of Refraction at AirWater Interface..................................
.............. 128
7.4.7.3 Critical Angle at WaterAir Interface ....................................
.................. 128
7.4.7.4 Total Internal Reflection at WaterAir Interface .........................
........... 128
7.4.8 Results and Discussions ..................................................
........................................ 128
7.4.8.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer ...............................
............... 128
7.4.8.2 Law of Refraction at AirWater Interface .................................
............. 128
7.4.8.3 Critical Angle at WaterAir Interface ....................................
.................. 128
7.4.8.4 Total Internal Reflection at WaterAir Interface .........................
........... 128
7.4.9 Conclusion................................................................
................................................ 129
7.4.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .........................................
................................. 129
7.4.11 List of References ......................................................
.............................................. 129
7.4.12 Appendices ..............................................................
................................................ 129
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................129
Chapter 8 Plane Mirrors ........................................................
.................................................131
8.1 Introduction................................................................
...........................................................131
8.2 The Reflection of Light ....................................................
....................................................131
8.2.1 An Object Placed in Front of a Plane Mirror ..............................
.......................... 133
8.2.2 Multiple Images Formed by an Object Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Ri
ght Angles .....................................................................
................................... 134
8.2.3 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle..
................................................................................
.................. 134
8.2.4 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles ...
................................................................................
..................... 135
8.2.5 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle
................................................................................
.................. 135
8.2.6 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angl
es .............................................................................
..................... 136
8.2.7 Tracing a Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror .......................

..................... 137
8.3 Experimental Work...........................................................
....................................................137
8.3.1 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
...................................... 138
8.3.2 Procedure ................................................................
................................................ 139
8.3.3 Safety Procedure..........................................................
............................................ 139
8.3.4 Apparatus Setup ..........................................................
............................................ 139
8.3.4.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror .......................
......... 139
8.3.4.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles ..............
.......................................................................... 140
8.3.4.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle .......
............................................................................. 14
1
8.3.4.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles .........
...............................................................................
142
8.3.4.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle ......
............................................................................ 142
8.3.4.6 A Beam Source Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles ..
................................................................................
142
8.3.4.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror..............................
............ 142
8.3.5 Data Collection ..........................................................
.............................................. 144
8.3.5.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror .......................
......... 144
8.3.5.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles ..............
.......................................................................... 144
8.3.5.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle .......
............................................................................. 14
4
8.3.5.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles .........
...............................................................................
145
8.3.5.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle ......
............................................................................ 145
8.3.5.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles ...
................................................................................
... 145
8.3.5.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror..............................
............ 146
8.3.6 Calculations and Analysis ................................................
...................................... 146
8.3.6.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror .......................
......... 146
8.3.6.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles..............
146
8.3.6.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle .......
............................................................................. 14
6
8.3.6.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles .........
...............................................................................
146
8.3.6.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle ......

............................................................................ 146
8.3.6.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles ...
...............................................................................
146
8.3.6.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror..............................
............ 146
8.3.7 Results and Discussions ..................................................
........................................ 147
8.3.7.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror........................
.......... 147
8.3.7.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles ..............
147
8.3.7.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle .......
................................................................................
. 147
8.3.8 Conclusion ...............................................................
............................................... 147
8.3.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..........................................
................................ 147
8.4 List of References..........................................................
.......................................................147
8.5 Appendices..................................................................
..........................................................147
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................147
Chapter 9 Spherical Mirrors ....................................................
...............................................149
9.1 Introduction................................................................
...........................................................149
9.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors .........................................
.........................................149
9.2.1 Concave Mirrors ..........................................................
............................................ 153
9.2.2 The Mirror Equation.......................................................
......................................... 155
9.2.3 Convex Mirrors............................................................
............................................ 157
9.2.4 Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors ....................................
.............................. 158
9.3 Spherical Aberration........................................................
.....................................................158
9.3.1 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors ......................
................ 159
9.4 Experimental Work...........................................................
....................................................160
9.4.1 Technique and Apparatus ..................................................
...................................... 160
9.4.2 Procedure ................................................................
................................................ 161
9.4.3 Safety Procedure..........................................................
............................................ 161
9.4.4 Apparatus Setup ..........................................................
............................................ 161
9.4.4.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors .................................
............. 161
9.4.4.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ..................................
.............. 162
9.4.4.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors ....................
.. 163
9.4.5 Data Collection ..........................................................

.............................................. 164
9.4.5.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors .................................
............. 164
9.4.5.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ..................................
.............. 164
9.4.5.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors ....................
.. 164
9.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ................................................
...................................... 165
9.4.6.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors .................................
............. 165
9.4.6.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ..................................
.............. 165
9.4.6.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors ....................
.. 165
9.4.7 Results and Discussions ..................................................
........................................ 165
9.4.7.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors .................................
............. 165
9.4.7.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors ..................................
.............. 165
9.4.7.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors.....................
... 165
9.4.8 Conclusion ...............................................................
............................................... 165
9.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..........................................
................................ 166
9.5 List of References..........................................................
.......................................................166
9.6 Appendix....................................................................
...........................................................166
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................166
Chapter 10 Lenses ..............................................................
......................................................169
10.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................169
10.2 Types of Lenses ...........................................................
.......................................................169
10.2.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses..........................................
............................ 169
10.2.2 GRIN Lenses .............................................................
......................................... 172
10.2.3 Ball Lenses .............................................................
............................................. 175
10.2.4 Fresnel Lenses ..........................................................
.......................................... 177
10.2.5 Liquid Lenses ...........................................................
........................................... 178
10.3 Graphical Method to Locate an Image Formed by Converging and Diverging Lens
es .............................................................................
...................................178
10.4 Image Formation by Converging Lenses ......................................
.....................................179
10.5 The Lens Equation..........................................................
....................................................181
10.6 Magnification of a Thin Lens...............................................
..............................................182
10.7 The Lensmakers Equation.....................................................
............................................183

10.8 Combination of Thin Lenses ................................................

..............................................184
10.9 Lens Aberrations...........................................................
......................................................185
10.9.1 Spherical Aberration.....................................................
....................................... 185
10.9.2 Chromatic Aberration ....................................................
...................................... 185
10.9.3 Astigmatism .............................................................
........................................... 186
10.10 Lens Polishing Technology ................................................
................................................187
10.11 Experimental Work.........................................................
....................................................190
10.11.1 Technique and Apparatus ................................................
.................................... 190
10.11.2 Procedure ..............................................................
.............................................. 191
10.11.3 Safety Procedure........................................................
.......................................... 191
10.11.4 Apparatus Set-Up .......................................................
......................................... 191
10.11.4.1 Image Formed by a Lens................................................
.................. 191
10.11.4.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses ..........................
192
10.11.5 Data Collection ........................................................
............................................ 193
10.11.5.1 Image Formed by a Lens................................................
.................. 193
10.11.5.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses ..........................
193
10.11.6 Calculations and Analysis ..............................................
.................................... 194
10.11.6.1 Image Formed by a Lens................................................
.................. 194
10.11.6.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses ..........................
194
10.11.7 Results and Discussions ................................................
...................................... 194
10.11.7.1 Image Formed by a Lens ...............................................
................... 194
10.11.7.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses...........................
. 195
10.11.8 Conclusion .............................................................
............................................. 195
10.11.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ........................................
.............................. 195
10.12 List of References........................................................
.......................................................195
10.13 Appendices................................................................
..........................................................195
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................195
Chapter 11 Prisms...............................................................
......................................................197
11.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................197
11.2 Prisms.....................................................................
.............................................................197

11.3 Prism Types ...............................................................

.........................................................198
11.3.1 Right Angle Prisms.......................................................
....................................... 198
11.3.2 Equilateral Prisms.......................................................
......................................... 199
11.3.3 Dove Prisms .............................................................
........................................... 199
11.3.4 Roof Prisms .............................................................
........................................... 200
11.3.5 Penta Prisms ............................................................
............................................ 200
11.3.6 Double Porro Prisms......................................................
...................................... 201
11.3.7 LemanSpringer Prisms .....................................................
................................. 201
11.3.8 Wedge Prisms ............................................................
.......................................... 202
11.3.9 Prisms with Special Applications.........................................
............................... 203
11.3.10 Other Types of Prisms ..................................................
...................................... 204
11.4 Prisms in Different Combinations ..........................................
............................................205
11.5 Light Beam Passing through a Prism.........................................
........................................205
11.6 Factors Governing Dispersion of Light by a Prism...........................
................................207
11.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism ......................................
.........................................207
11.8 Mixing Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube ........................
..........................208
11.9 Experimental Work..........................................................
...................................................209
11.9.1 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
................................... 209
11.9.2 Procedure ...............................................................
............................................. 211
11.9.3 Safety Procedure.........................................................
......................................... 211
11.9.4 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
........................................ 211
11.9.5 Data Collection .........................................................
........................................... 217
11.9.5.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism ........................
.. 217
11.9.5.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism ...............................
....... 217
11.9.5.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism ..............................
........ 217
11.9.5.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ....................................
............ 217
11.9.5.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination ..........................
.. 217
11.9.5.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction
...............................................................................
....... 217
11.9.5.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism ..................................
............ 218
11.9.5.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube ............ 218

11.9.6 Calculations and Analysis ...............................................

................................... 219
11.9.6.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism ........................
.. 219
11.9.6.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism ...............................
....... 219
11.9.6.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism ..............................
........ 219
11.9.6.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ....................................
............ 219
11.9.6.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination ..........................
.. 219
11.9.6.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction
...............................................................................
....... 219
11.9.6.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism ..................................
............ 219
11.9.6.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube ............ 219
11.9.7 Results and Discussions .................................................
..................................... 219
11.9.7.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism.........................
... 219
11.9.7.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism ...............................
....... 219
11.9.7.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism ..............................
........ 220
11.9.7.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism ....................................
............ 220
11.9.7.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination...........................
... 220
11.9.7.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction
...............................................................................
....... 220
11.9.7.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism ..................................
............ 220
11.9.7.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube ............ 220
11.9.8 Conclusion ..............................................................
............................................ 220
11.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .........................................
............................. 220
11.10 List of References........................................................
.......................................................221
11.11 Appendices................................................................
..........................................................221
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................221
Chapter 12 Beamsplitters .......................................................
..................................................223
12.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................223
12.2 Beamsplitters .............................................................
.........................................................223
12.3 Beamsplitter Types ........................................................
.....................................................224
12.3.1 Standard Cube Beamsplitters .............................................
................................. 224
12.3.2 Polarizing Cube Beamsplitters ...........................................
................................. 224
12.3.3 Rectangular Polarizing Beamsplitters ....................................
............................ 225

12.3.4 Lateral Displacement Polarizing Beamsplitters............................

...................... 226
12.3.5 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitters ..................................
........................ 226
12.3.6 Polka-Dot Beamsplitters..................................................
.................................... 227
12.3.7 Elliptical Plate Beamsplitters ..........................................
.................................... 227
12.3.8 Mirror-Type Beamsplitters ...............................................
................................... 228
12.3.9 Pellicle Beamsplitters ..................................................
........................................ 228
12.3.10 Visible and Near Infrared Region Plate Beamsplitters ...................
................... 229
12.3.11 Quartz Beamsplitters ...................................................
....................................... 229
12.3.12 Dichroic Plate Beamsplliters ...........................................
................................... 229
12.3.13 Other Types of Beamsplitters............................................
.................................. 229
12.4 Experimental Work..........................................................
...................................................230
12.4.1 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
................................... 230
12.4.2 Procedure ...............................................................
............................................. 231
12.4.3 Safety Procedure.........................................................
......................................... 231
12.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
........................................ 232
12.4.4.1 Cube Beamsplitter .....................................................
......................... 232
12.4.4.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ..............................................
.................... 233
12.4.4.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter .................................
......... 233
12.4.5 Data Collection .........................................................
........................................... 235
12.4.5.1 Cube Beamsplitter .....................................................
......................... 235
12.4.5.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ..............................................
.................... 235
12.4.5.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter .................................
......... 235
12.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ...............................................
................................... 235
12.4.6.1 Cube Beamsplitter .....................................................
......................... 235
12.4.6.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter ..............................................
.................... 236
12.4.6.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter .................................
......... 236
12.4.7 Results and Discussions .................................................
..................................... 236
12.4.7.1 Cube Beamsplitter .....................................................
......................... 236
12.4.7.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter...............................................
..................... 236
12.4.7.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter .................................
......... 236

12.4.8 Conclusion ..............................................................

............................................ 236
12.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .........................................
............................. 236
12.5 List of References.........................................................
......................................................236
12.6 Appendices.................................................................
.........................................................236
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................237
Chapter 13 Light Passing through Optical Components ............................
.............................239
13.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................239
13.2 Experimental Work..........................................................
...................................................239
13.2.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit ......
................................................................................
...... 240
13.2.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser
Set ............................................................................
........ 240
13.2.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ..............................
...................... 241
13.2.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ......................................
.............................. 241
13.2.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle ........................
.................. 241
13.2.6 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
................................... 241
13.2.7 Procedure ...............................................................
............................................. 243
13.2.8 Safety Procedure.........................................................
......................................... 243
13.2.9 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
........................................ 243
13.2.9.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit.....
....................................................................... 243
13.2.9.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Lase
r Set.................................................................... 245
13.2.9.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ............................
...... 245
13.2.9.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ....................................
................ 247
13.2.9.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle ......................
.... 248
13.2.10 Data Collection ........................................................
............................................ 248
13.2.10.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit....
........................................................................ 248
13.2.10.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Las
er Set.................................................................... 248
13.2.10.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ...........................
....... 249
13.2.10.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ...................................
................. 251
13.2.10.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle .....................
..... 251
13.2.11 Calculations and Analysis ..............................................
.................................... 252

13.2.11.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit....
........................................................................ 252
13.2.11.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Las
er Set.................................................................... 252
13.2.11.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ...........................
....... 252
13.2.11.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ...................................
................. 252
13.2.11.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle .....................
..... 252
13.2.12 Results and Discussions ................................................
...................................... 252
13.2.12.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit....
........................................................................ 252
13.2.12.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Las
er Set.................................................................... 252
13.2.12.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube ...........................
....... 253
13.2.12.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar ...................................
................. 253
13.2.12.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle .....................
..... 253
13.2.13 Conclusion .............................................................
............................................. 253
13.2.14 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ........................................
.............................. 253
13.3 List of References.........................................................
......................................................253
13.4 Appendix...................................................................
..........................................................253
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................253
Chapter 14 Optical Instruments for Viewing Applications ........................
.............................255
14.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................255
14.2 Optical Instruments........................................................
.....................................................255
14.3 The Camera.................................................................
........................................................256
14.4 The Eye....................................................................
...........................................................258
14.4.1 Defects of Vision .......................................................
......................................... 260
14.4.2 Colour Vision ...........................................................
........................................... 261
14.5 The Magnifying Glass ......................................................
..................................................261
14.6 The Compound Microscope ...................................................
............................................264
14.7 Advanced Microscopes.......................................................
................................................266
14.8 The Telescope..............................................................
.......................................................267
14.8.1 The Refracting Telescope.................................................
................................... 268
14.8.2 Terrestrial Telescopes...................................................
....................................... 269
14.8.3 The Reflecting Telescope ................................................
.................................... 271

14.8.4 Famous Telescopes........................................................

...................................... 272
14.8.5 Research Telescopes......................................................
...................................... 273
14.9 The Binoculars.............................................................
.......................................................274
14.10 The Slide Projector.......................................................
......................................................275
14.11 The Overhead Projector....................................................
..................................................276
14.12 The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector ...............................
.....................................277
14.13 The Light Box ............................................................
........................................................278
14.14 Experimental Work.........................................................
....................................................279
14.14.1 Technique and Apparatus ................................................
.................................... 280
14.14.2 Procedure ..............................................................
.............................................. 280
14.14.3 Safety Procedure........................................................
.......................................... 280
14.14.4 Apparatus Set-Up .......................................................
......................................... 280
14.14.4.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe Image Formation, Disassemble to Ex
amine the Functionality of the Optical Components, and Reassemble ..............
........................ 280
14.14.5 Data Collection ........................................................
............................................ 281
14.14.6 Calculations and Analysis ..............................................
.................................... 281
14.14.7 Results and Discussions ................................................
...................................... 281
14.14.7.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe Image Formation, Disassemble to Ex
amine the Functionality of the Optical Components, and Reassemble ..............
........................ 281
14.14.8 Conclusion .............................................................
............................................. 281
14.14.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ........................................
.............................. 281
14.15 List of References........................................................
.......................................................282
14.16 Appendices................................................................
..........................................................282
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................282
Chapter 15 Polarization of Light................................................
..............................................283
15.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................283
15.2 Polarization of Light......................................................
.....................................................283
15.3 Forms of Polarization of Light.............................................
..............................................284
15.4 Occurrence of Polarization.................................................
................................................285
15.4.1 Polarization by Reflection ..............................................
.................................... 286
15.4.2 Polarization by Double Refraction........................................
.............................. 287

15.4.3 Polarization by Scattering ..............................................

.................................... 289
15.4.4 Polarization by Selective Absorption.....................................
............................. 291
15.5 Polarizing Materials.......................................................
.....................................................292
15.6 Polarizing Optical Components..............................................
............................................293
15.7 The Law of Malus ..........................................................
....................................................293
15.8 Optical Activity ..........................................................
........................................................295
15.9 Photoelasticity............................................................
.........................................................296
15.10 Liquid Crystal Display ...................................................
....................................................297
15.11 Polarization Maintaining Fibres ..........................................
...............................................300
15.12 Polarization Loss ........................................................
........................................................300
15.13 Experimental Work.........................................................
....................................................300
15.13.1 Technique and Apparatus ................................................
.................................... 301
15.13.2 Procedure ..............................................................
.............................................. 302
15.13.3 Safety Procedure........................................................
.......................................... 302
15.13.4 Apparatus Set-Up .......................................................
......................................... 303
15.13.4.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter .................
. 303
15.13.4.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ................................
........ 304
15.13.4.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material .............................
........... 305
15.13.4.4 The Law of Malus .....................................................
....................... 306
15.13.5 Data Collection ........................................................
............................................ 307
15.13.5.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter .................
. 307
15.13.5.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ................................
........ 307
15.13.5.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material .............................
........... 307
15.13.5.4 The Law of Malus .....................................................
....................... 308
15.13.6 Calculations and Analysis ..............................................
.................................... 308
15.13.6.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter .................
. 308
15.13.6.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter Cube ...........................
... 309
15.13.6.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material .............................
........... 309
15.13.6.4 The Law of Malus .....................................................
....................... 309
15.13.7 Results and Discussions ................................................
...................................... 309

15.13.7.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter .................

. 309
15.13.7.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter ................................
........ 309
15.13.7.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material .............................
........... 309
15.13.7.4 The Law of Malus .....................................................
....................... 309
15.13.8 Conclusion .............................................................
............................................. 310
15.13.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ........................................
.............................. 310
15.14 List of References........................................................
.......................................................310
15.15 Appendices................................................................
..........................................................310
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................310
Chapter 16 Optical Materials ...................................................
................................................313
16.1 Introduction...............................................................
..........................................................313
16.2 Classes of Materials.......................................................
.....................................................313
16.2.1 Glass ...................................................................
................................................. 313
16.2.2 Dopants .................................................................
............................................... 315
16.2.3 Co-Dopants ..............................................................
............................................ 315
16.2.4 Polymers in Photonics ...................................................
..................................... 316
16.3 Applications ..............................................................
..........................................................316
16.3.1 Reflectors ..............................................................
.............................................. 316
16.3.2 Lenses ..................................................................
................................................ 317
16.3.3 Fibre Optics ............................................................
............................................ 318
16.3.4 Mechanical Components ...................................................
................................. 319
16.4 Experimental Work..........................................................
...................................................319
16.4.1 Technique and Apparatus .................................................
................................... 319
16.4.2 Procedure ...............................................................
............................................. 320
16.4.3 Safety Procedure.........................................................
......................................... 320
16.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................
........................................ 321
16.4.4.1 Set Up of Interferometer ..............................................
...................... 321
16.4.5 Data Collection .........................................................
........................................... 321
16.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ...............................................
................................... 321
16.4.7 Results and Discussions .................................................
..................................... 321

16.4.8 Conclusion ..............................................................

............................................ 322
16.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .........................................
............................. 322
16.5 List of References.........................................................
......................................................322
16.6 Appendix...................................................................
..........................................................322
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................322
Chapter 17 Photonics Laboratory Safety .........................................
........................................325
17.1 Introduction ..............................................................
...........................................................325
17.2 Electrical Safety .........................................................
.........................................................325
17.2.1 Fuses/Circuit Breakers ..................................................
...................................... 325
17.2.2 Switches ON/OFF .........................................................
....................................... 327
17.2.3 Plugs ...................................................................
................................................. 327
17.2.4 Wall Outlets ............................................................
............................................ 328
17.2.5 Cords ...................................................................
................................................. 329
17.2.6 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters .......................................
................................. 330
17.3 Light Sources .............................................................
.........................................................331
17.4 Devices and Equipment .....................................................
.................................................332
17.5 AudioVisual and Computer Peripherals .......................................
....................................332
17.6 Handling of Fibre Optic Cables.............................................
.............................................332
17.7 Epoxy Adhesives and Sealants ..............................................
.............................................333
17.8 Cleaning Optical Components ...............................................
.............................................333
17.9 Optic/Optical Fibre Devices and Systems....................................
......................................334
17.10 Cleaning Chemicals .......................................................
.....................................................334
17.11 Warning Labels ...........................................................
........................................................334
17.12 Laser Safety..............................................................
...........................................................335
17.13 Laser Safety Tips ........................................................
........................................................337
17.14 Indoor Air Quality .......................................................
.......................................................339
17.15 Other Considerations......................................................
.....................................................339
Further Reading ................................................................
.............................................................341
Appendix A: Details of the Devices, Components, Tools, and Parts ...............
..........................343
Appendix B: International System of Units (SI) .................................
........................................355

Appendix C: Lighting Lamps......................................................

.................................................359
Glossary .......................................................................
.................................................................367