^rescnteh to

of

Pntii^rsttg of ttrmtta
fag

Dr. John Henderson

HANDBOUND AT THE

UNINERSITY OF

TORONTO PRESS

Morxuu/s Edacational

Series

Latin

Grammar
BY

CHARLES
Professor of Latin

E.
in

BENNETT
Cornell University

Stv,

pS^:
<\

TOR( JTO

GEORGE

N.

MORANG &

CO. LIMITED

First edition printed February, 1895.

July, 1897;

Reprinted April and September, 1895; April, 1896; April, 1898; May and September, 1899;

April

and November, 1900.

Copyright,

1895,

By

CHARLES

E.

BENNETT.

"

,*^,

^-

~7

J. S. Cushiiig

XorfaooO ^resss & Co. - Berwick Si Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A.

PREFACE.
The
object of this
in a direct

book

is

to present the essentialfacts of Latin

grammar

and simple manner, and within the smallest

While intended
has not neglected the needs

compass consistent with scholarly standards.

primarily for the secondary school,
of the college student,
it

and aims

to furnish such

grammatical

in-

formation as

is

ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.

The experience

of

German educators

in recent years has

tended

to restrict the size of

school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded

an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages.^

Within the past decade, several gram-

mars of
exacting

this

scope have appeared which have amply met the

the
full

demands of

Gymnasial Latin course,

a period of
similar plan
all

study representing quite as

much

reading as that covered by the

average American undergraduate.

The

publication in this country of a

fully justified at the

grammar of

and scope seems

editions

present time, as

recent

of classic texts summarize in introductions the special

idioms of
This makes

grammar and
it

style

peculiar

to

individual authors.

feasible

to

dispense

with

the

enumeration of

many minutiae

of usage which would

otherwise

demand

con-

sideration in a student's

grammar.
I

In the chapter on Prosody,

have

designedly omitted

all

special treatment of the lyric metres of

Horace and

Catullus, as

1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard WolfHin. of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz- Wagoner Lateinische

Cramtnatik, 189 1.

iv

Preface.

well as of the measures of the

comic

poets.

Our standard

editions

of these authors

all

give such thorough consideration to versifica-

tion that repetition in a separate place

seems superfluous.
I

In the matter of 'hidden quantities,'

have conformed to

Lewis's Latin Dictionary for Schools, and the

same

editor's later

Elementary Latin Dictionary.

In several cases

this

procedure

has involved a sacrifice of convictions as to the actual quantity of

vowels

but the advantages

of uniformity

in

our educational

practice seemed, for the present at least, to warrant this concession of personal views.

The

discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of

case and

mood

constructions has been reserved for the Appendix

full

for Teachers, where these and some other matters receive and systematic consideration.

To

several of

my
I

colleagues,

who have generously

assisted

me

with their advice and

ing of this book,
to Professors
sity,

criticism during the preparation

and

print-

desire to offer

my
I.

sincerest thanks, especially

H. C. Elmer and B.

Wheeler, of Cornell Univer-

Professor Alfred

Gudeman, of

the University of Pennsylvania,

Professor George L. Hendrickson, of the University of Wisconsin,

and Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe, of the

University of Michigan.
Ithaca, N.
Y.,

C
/->

i?
il/.

-d i).

Dec.

15, 1894.

PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.

In
the
this edition I

have marked

all

long vowels in conformity with

(p.

lists

contained in

my

Appendix for Teachers

I

52

ff.).

Lewis,

whose Latin Dictionaries

in the
last

markings

in

had originally followed, has meanwliile, edition of the Elementary Dictionary, accepted my a majority of the cases wherein 1 had expressed disC. E. B.

sent from him.

Ithaca, Feb.
10, 1896.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Part
The Alphabet
Classification of
I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC

PAGE
I

Sounds

Sounds of the Letters

Syllables

Quantity

4
5

Accent

Vowel Changes Consonant Changes

Peculiarities of

6
7 7

Orthography

Part

II.

INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER
Gender of Nouns

I.

Declension.

A. Nouns.
.

lo
II

Number
Cases
.

II

The Five Declensions

First

12 13 14

Declension

Second Declension
Third Declension
.

i8

Fourth Declension
Fifth Declension
.

28
29

Defective

Nouns

3
B.

Adjectives.
34 36

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions

Adjectives of the Third Declension

vi

Table of Contents.

Comparison of Adjectives Formation and Comparison of Adverbs

Numerals

.........-43 ......<.
.

PAGE

40

45

C.

Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
. .

.48

Demonstrative Pronouns

...... .........
.
. .

49
49 fo
5' 5'

The The

Intensive Pronoun

Relative Pronoun.

Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite

-5^
.

Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives.

.........
.

'

5^

53

CHAPTER
Verb-Stems
Conjugation of

II.

Conjugation.
54
55

The Four Conjugations

Sum

First Conjugation

Second Conjugation
Third Conjugation

Fourth Conjugation Verbs in -?5 of the Third Conjugation

Deponent Verbs Semi-Deponents

Periphrastic Conjugation

Peculiarities of Conjugation

Formation of the Verb-Stems List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts
Irregular Verbs

...........58 .......... .......... ........... ...... .........-79 ........ .... .......

5^ 62
.

...

'

66
70

74 7^ 7^

7^

80
83

Defective Verbs

95 102

Impersonal Verbs

104

Part
Adverbs
Prepositions
Interjections

III.

PARTICLES.
106
.

...........

.107
108

Table of Contents.

Vll

Part IV.
WORD FORMATION.
I.

Derivatives.
PAGE

Nouns
Adjectives
.

109
.

Verbs

Adverbs

.Ill .113 .114

II.

Compounds.
115

Examples of Compounds

Part V.
SYNTAX.

CHAPTER
Classification of Sentences
.

I.

Sentences.
.

Form

of Interrogative Sentences
. .

Subject and Predicate

Simple and Compound Sentences

.117 .117 .119 .119

CHAPTER
Subject
Predicate

II.

Syntax

of Nouns.
120

Nouns

120
121

Appositives

The Nominative

122 122 129

The Accusative The Dative The Genitive The Ablative The Locative
.

142

152

CHAPTER
Agreement of Adjectives
Adjectives used Substantively

III.

Syntax of Adjectives.

Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs

156

Comparatives and Superlatives

Other Peculiarities

Vlll

Table of Contents,

CHAPTER
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
.
.

IV.
.

Syntax ^
.
.

Pronouns. of '

PAGE

-^57

'57

Reciprocal Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite

Demonstrative Pronouns
.

Pronouns

Pronominal Adjectives

.158 -159 '159 .161 -163 .164

CHAPTER
Agreement of Verbs
Voices

V.

Syjitax

of Verbs.
165

167
167

Tenses

Of the Indicative Of the Subjunctive Of the Infinitive Moods

In Independent Sentences
Volitive Subjunctive
.

167
171

174 176

176
176 178 179 180
181

Optative Subjunctive
Potential Subjunctive

Imperative

In Dependent Sentences
Clauses of Purpose
.

181

Clauses of Characteristic Clauses of Result

182

184
185

Causal Clauses

Temporal Clauses
Introduced by Postqtiam, Ui, Ubi,
C?<;-Clauses

187

....
.

etc.

187

188

Introduced by Antequain and Priusqtiam

190
191

Introduced by Z>w, Donee., Quoad

Substantive Clauses

192

Developed from the Volitive

192

Developed from the Optative

194
195

Of Result
After non

diibito, etc.

195 196

Introduced by

Quod

Indirect Questions

197 198 202

Conditional Sentences

Use of

5j, Nisi.,

Sin

Table of Contents.

IX
PAGE

Conditional Clauses of Comparison

203

Concessive Clauses
Adversative Clauses with Quamvis,
Clauses of Wish and Proviso
Relative Clauses
Indirect Discourse

203

Q uamqiiavi.

etc.

203
205
205

206 206
208

Moods

in Indirect Discourse

Tenses in Indirect Discourse Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse

Implied Indirect Discourse
Subjunctive by Attraction
.

209
211

212 212 213

217

Noun and

Adjective Forms of the Verb

Infinitive

Participles

Gerund
Supine

..... ..... ...... ......

CHAPTER
VI.

220
223

Particles.

Coordinate Conjunctions

223

Adverbs

227

CHAPTER
Word-Order
Sentence-Structure

VII.

Word-Order

and

Sentence-Structure.

227
232

CHAPTER
Nouns
Adjectives

^\\\.

Hints

on Latin

Style.

233
23s

Pronouns
Verbs
.

236

236 238

The Cases

Part VI,
PROSODY.

Table of Contents.

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I.

Roman

Calendar

II.
III.

Abbreviations of Proper

Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric

....... .......
Names

PAGE

247 249

249

Part

1.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

THE ALPHABET.
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the except that the Latin has no w.
1.

English,

occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words;

R.c.,

y and

were introduced from the Greek about 50 chiefly Greek. words

and occur only

in foreign

employed only capitals, I served V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write Yet some scholars prefer i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. to employ i and u in the function' of consonants as well as vowels.
2.

With

the

Romans, who

regularly

both as vowel and consonant

so also

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2.

are
2.

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The The Diphthongs are ae, oe, Consonants.
I.

other letters
ei,

au, eu, ui.

Consonants

are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids,

Nasals, and Spirants.

3.

The Mutes

these,

are p,

t,

c,

k,

b, d, g;

ph, th, ch.

Of

d)

p,

t,

c, k,

are voiceless,^

i.e.

sounded

ivithottt

voice or

vibration of the vocal chords.

b)

b, d, g are voiced,^

i.e.

sounded

ivith vibration of the vocal

chords.
For For
B
surd,*

'

voiceless,'

'

'

hard,' or
soft,'

'

voiced,'

'

sonant,'

'

or
I

'

tenuis are sometimes used. media are sometimes used.

'

'

'

Sou7tds, Accent, Quantity.

c)

ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent
to

p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house, block-

house. 4.

The Mutes admit

Labials,

of classification also as
p, b,
t,

ph.

Dentals (or Linguals),

Gutturals (or Palatals),
l,

d, th.

c, k, q, g,

ch.

The Liquids are r. These sounds were voiced. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a palatal mute, also
5.

6.

had another sound,

n adnltermimi ;
as,

that

of ng in sing,

X\iQ

so-called

anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7.

The

Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are

voiceless.

f, s,

h.

These were
8.

The Semivowels
cs,

9.

These were voiced. are j and v. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was
while the equivalence of z
is

equivalent to

uncertain.

See

3- 3-

10.

The

following table will indicate the relations of

:

the consonant sounds

Voiceless.

Voiced.

Aspirates.

Pj

b,

ph,
th,

(Labials).

Mutes,
c, k, q,

(Dentals).
(Gutturals).

ch,

Liquids,

Nasals,

m,

n,

(Labial).

Spirants

(Dental).
(Guttural).

Semivowels,

],

V.
z,

The Double Consonants, x and

do not admit of

being compound sounds,

classification in the

above

table.

Sounds of

the Letters.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3.

The

following pronunciation (often called

Roman)

is

substantially that
their civilization
I.
;

employed by the Romans i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C.

at the height of
to

50 a.d.

Vowels.

Sounds, Accent, Quantity.

SYLLABLES.
4.

There are as many

syllables in a Latin

word as there

are separate vowels and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,
1.

single consonant

is

joined to the following vowel

as, vo-lat,

ge-rit.
2.

Doubled consonants,

like tt, ss, etc.^ are

always separated

as,

vit-ta, mis-sus.
3.

In case of other combinations of consonants, such as can stand at

;

the beginning of a word are joined to the following vowel

stri,
4.

as,

ma-gias,

di-gnus, te-xl.

But compounds are separated into their component parts

per-it, ab-radit.

QUANTITY.
5.

A.
vowel

Quantity

of

Vowels.
according to the length of time required for

A
its

is lo>ig or sliort

pronunciation.

No

absolute rule can be given for determining the

quantity of Latin vowels.

This knowledge must be gained,

in large
:

measure, by experience
1.

but the following principles are of aid

A
a)
b')

vowel

is longji

gn
in

before nf, ns, and before

-giius, -gna,

nouns and adjectives

in

-gnum
hujus.

as,

infans, dignus, slgnum.

;

when
before

the result of contraction

j
;

as,

nilum

for

nihilum.

c)
2.

as,

A
a)

voTvel

is

short,

b)

amant, amaudus. A few rare exceptions compounds whose first member has a long vowel as, nonduni (non dum) Some excepbefore another vowel, or h as, meus, traho. tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek as, Aeneas.
before nt,

nd

as,

occur in cases of
;

short.

Note. Occasionally we meet with vowels that are sometimes long, sometimes Such vowels are called common. The variation appears only in poetry. E.xamples are the first vowel in Diana, ohe.
1
L, i,

In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them 6,
etc.
;

as,

Vowels not thus marked are

as, &, li.

short.

Occasionally a curve

is

set

abov

short vowels

Accent.

B.

Quantity

of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length

of time required for their pronunciation.

by the following principles

1.

A
a)
b)
c)

syllable
if it
if it

is

long,^
:

Their quantity

is

governed

contains a long vowel

as,

mater, magnus, dius.

z,

contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

if it

contains a short vowel followed by x,

1

or

any two con-

sonants (except a mute with

2.

or r)

as,

axis, gaza, resto.

syllable

is

short,

if it
;

contains a short vowel followed by a

as,

vowel or by a single consonant

3.

mea, amat.

Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl pr, cr, Such syllables are called common. In tr, etc.; as, agri, volucris.prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as
;

long at the option of the poet.

These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary Note. and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such while a syllable a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because In case of the common syllables, it takes less time to pronounce it. the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such
;

syllables as long.

ACCENT.
6. I. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, t^git, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult

(next to the last)

if

that

is

a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante;

penult (second from the last)

3.

as,

amavl, amantis, miserum.

-met,

The

enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce,

-dum

always throw an
is

accent back upon the preceding syllable,

cented on the antepenult;

4.

as,

when the simple word miseraque, homin^que.

istic, illuc,
is

ac-

Sometimes the
;

final -e of

-ne and -ce disappears, but without

affecting the accent

1

as,

tan ton,

vid^n

(for

videsne).

To
But

avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables

if

not indicated by any sign.

the

or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding

as,

syllable

is

always long;

abrumpo.

6
5.

Sounds, Accent, Quantity.

In utrique,
yet these
each.,

and pleraque, most, -que

is

not properly an

enclitic;

words accent the penult, owing to the influence ut^rque, utriimque, pleriimque. of their other cases, 6. But in other words, -que does not throw back an accent unless Thus, regularly, dlnique, lindique, it is a true enclitic, meaning and.

litique,
It is

Itaque

but

if

itaque means and

so (-que being enclitic),

accented itaque.

VOWEL CHANGES.
7.
I.

In Compounds,
6 before a single consonant becomes
i
;

a)

as,

colligo
b)

for

con-lego
i
;

a before a single consonant becomes

as,

adigo
c)

for

ad-ago.
;

5 before two consonants becomes

as,

expers
d^ ae becomes T; as, conquiro
e)

for

ex-pars.

for

con-quaero
;

au becomes u, sometimes 6 as, concludo for con-claudo explodo for ex-plaudo.

Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into as, first of the two vowels regularly prevailed
;

2.

Contraction.

one long vowel.

ties

The

for for for for

for

tre-es

copia

for for for

malo
amasti

ma(v)el6;
ama(v)isti;

cogo

co-opia co-ago

como

co-emo
ju(v)enior.

debeo
nil
3.

de(h)abe6;
nihil

junior for

Parasitic Vowels.

In the environment of liquids and nasals

;

a parasitic vowel sometimes develops

as,

vinculum
So periculum, saeculum.
4.

for earlier

vinclum.

Syncope.

Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope

as,

ardor valde
1

for for

aridor

(cf. (cf.

dr/dns);
validus).
treated.

valide

Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here

Peculiarities of Orthography.

CONSONANT CHANGES.
8.
I.

Rhotacism.

An

original s

between vowels became

;

as,

arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) geniLs, Gen. generis (for genesis)

diiimo
2.

(for

dis-emo).
;

dt, tt, ts each give s or ss

as,

pensum versum
miles sessus

for
for for
for

pend-tum
vert-tum
niilet-s

sedtus
pattus.
;

paasus
3.

for

Final consonants were often omitted

as,

cor
lac
4.

for for

cord
lact.

to a following sound.

Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); snppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc.
5.

Partial Assimilation.

partial.

Thus

Sometimes the assimilation

is

only

a)

before s or t becomes

as,

scrips! (scrib-si),
b')

scriptum (scrib-tum).
;

g before

s or t

becomes c

as,

actus (ag-tus).
c)

m before a dental or guttural becomes n

eundem (eum-deni)
;

as,

princeps (prim-ceps)

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9.
I.

Many words have

variable orthography.
diiferent periods of the
etc.,

language.

Sometimes the different forms belong to Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt,
1

were the prevailing

treated.

Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here

8
forms almost

Sounds,

Accejit,

Qiiaiitity.

to the Augustan Age; after that, cum, vultus, So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc., down later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc. to about the same era 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same Examples are exspecto, expecto exsisto. period of the language. exists epistula, epistola adulesceiis, adolescens pauiixs, paulcottidie, cotidie and, particularly, prepositional compounds, lu3 which, even in those cases where actual assimilation took place in the spolcen language ( 8. 4), often made a concession to the etymology in

down

vulnus, vult,

etc.

the spelling

as,

ad-gero
ad-licio

or

aggero

ad-sero
in-latus
;

or assero
or illatus

or alliciS

sub-moveo or ad-rogans or arrogans and many others.

3.

summoveo

Compounds
/'tc, etc.

obicio,
objicio,
4.

of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio,

Adjectives and nouns in -quus,

-quum

-vus,
;

-vum
-vos,

-uus,

-uum

preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -qiiom

-vom

-uos, -uom,

down through
;

the Ciceronian age

;

as,

antiques, anti-

quom

saevos
;

perpetuos

equos

servos.
the

Similarly verbs in

the 3d plural present

indicative
;

exhibit

terminations -quont.
;

-quontur

-vont, -vontur
;

-uont, -uontur, for the same period

as,

relinquont, loquontur

vivont, metuont.
been adopted
in our prose texts.

The

older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus

yet

and Terence, has not

Part

II

INFLECTIONS.

10.

The

Parts
vis.

of Speech
Nouns,

in

Latin are the same as

in

English,

Adjectives,

Pronouns,

Verbs,

Adverbs,

Prepositions,

Conjunctions,
article.

and Interjections

but the Latin has no

11.

Of these

eight parts of speech the

i.e.

first

four are

undergoing change of form tu express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declencapable of Inflection,
of

sion

in case of

Verbs, Conjugation.

Chapter
A.

I.

Declension.
of a person, place, tiling, or

NOUNS.

12.

Noun

is

the

name

quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar ; Roma,

virtus, courage.
1.

Rome ;

penna, feather

Nouns

are either Proper or

Common.
;

nent names of persons or places

are

as,

Proper nouns are permaCaesar, Roma. Other nouns

Common;
2.

as,

penna, virtus.

Nouns
a)

are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

;

as,

Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects mons, mountain ; pes, foot ; dies, (Jay ; mens, mind.
9

lO

Inflections.

Under concrete nouns

as, legio, legion;

are included, also, collective nouns

coniitatus, retinue.
;

b)

Abstract nouns designate qualities

fastness; paupeitas, poverty.

as,

constantia, stead-

GENDER OF NOUNS.
Masculine, Feminine, 13. There are three Genders, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.
14.

The gender
sex.
;

of

nouns

is

natural

when

it

is

based

upon

Natural gender

of persons
1.

and these are

if

is

confined entirely to

names

Masculine,

they denote males

as,

nauta, sailor; agiicola, farmer.

2.

Feminine,

if

they denote females;

as,

mater,

i>iot]ier;

reglna, queen.

Grammatical Gender.
15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of By grammatical gender, nouns its Nominative Singular.

denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending
of the

Nominative Singular.

The

following are the general

:

principles for determining grammatical gender

A.
1.

Gender determined by

Signification.

Names
;

line

as,

of Rivers,

Winds, and Months are

east

Mascu-

Sequana, Seine; Eurus,

2.

wind ;

Aprilis, April.

Names

Tozvns,

of Trees, and and Islands as end

such

names

of

Countries,
;

in -us, are

Feminine

as,

quercus, oak; Pontus, Pont us; Corinthus, Corinth: Rhodus, Rhodes.

Nuuibcr.

Cases.

their endings (see B,

Other names of countries, towns, and islands follow the gender of below) as,
;

Delphi, m.
3.

Leuctra,

n.

Latium,

n.

Tibur,
as,

n.

Carthago,

f.

Indeclinable nouns are Neuter;

nihil, nothing; nefas,

wrong.
as,

Note.
river)
,

Exceptions

to the

above principles sometimes occur;

Allia (the

f.

B.

Getider detennined by

Ending of
is

N'oininative Singular.

The gender
of the

of other nouns Nominative Singular.^

.

determined by the ending

line,

i Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascusometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either /r/Vj/ or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, citizen; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be

Note

common.

Note 2. Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose
ox gander.

So vulpes,

{.,

fox; aquila,

f.,

eagle.

NUMBER.
16.

Plural.

The Latin has two Numbers, The Singular denotes one

one.

the

Singular and
the
Plural,

object;

more than

CASES.
17.

There are

six

Cases

in

Latin

Nominative, Case of Subject

Genitive,

Dative,

Objective with of; Objective with to ox for

Accusative, Case of Direct Object Vocative, Case of Address Ablative, Objective with by, from,
;

in, with.

The

great majority of

ciples for deteiniining their

all Latin nouns come under this category. The pringender are given under the separate declensions.

Inflections.

1.

Locative.

Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting

place where), occur in

2.

names of towns and in a few other words. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by 3.

appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.i Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding But in most cases the final the case-ending -m to the stem porta-.
vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending The apparent casethat the latter has become more or less obscured. endins: thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows
:

Declension.

First Declension.

13

FIRST DECLENSION.
a-Stems.

Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension reguin the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are
20.

larly

end,

declined as follows

Voxtdt.,

gate; stem, porta-.

Cases.

14
c)

Inflections.

The

Locative Singular ends in -ae

as,

Romae,

at

Rome,

d)

A
as,

Genitive Plural in

-um

instead of -arum sometimes occurs;

tion

Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termina-um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an

entirely different case-ending.

e)

Besides the regular ending -is, we find also -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and f ilia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns

from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and filius, A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity

soft.
;

as,

libertabus (from llhexta, freediuo/naii), equabus

(^^nares),

to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedmati)

and equis (from equus,

horse').

Greek Nouns.
22.

These end

in -e

(Feminine)

-as

and

-es

(Masculine).

In the Pkiral they are declined like regular Latin nouns In the Singular they are declined of the First Declension.
as follows
:

Archias, Archias.

Epitome,

epitovie.

Cometes,

comet.

epitome epitomes epitomae

epitomen epitome epitome

1

cometes cometae cometae cometen comete (or comete (or

-S) -a)
-a,

But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in

like

and are declined

porta;

as,

grammatica, grammar; miisica,

musk; rhetorica,
2.

rhetoric.

Some

other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

SECOND DECLENSION.
o-Stems.

Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end -um, Neuter. Originally -us in in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine the Nominative of the Masculines was -os, and -um of the
23.
;

Neuters -om.

So

also in the Accusative.

Second Declension.

15

Nouns

in -us

and -um are declined as follows

i6

Inflections.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager,

tlie

stem

is

further

modified by the development of e before

2.

r.

Tlie following nouns in -er are declined like

;

puer

adulter,

adulterer; geiier, so u-hi-Zaiu; labei, Baee/ius

socex, father-in-law

vesper, evening ; and compounds in

-fer

and

-ger, as signifer,

armiger.

Nouns
'

in -vus,

-vum,

-qiius.

24.

Nouns ending
and a
later,

in

the Nominative

Singular in -vus, -vum,

-quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,

earlier

as

follows

an

Earlier Inflection {including Caesar

and

Cicero).
m., horse.

Servos,

m., slave.

Aevom,

n.,

age.

Equos,

SINGULAR.
Norn.

Second Declension.
Norn, ingenivim ingeni
fllius
fill

17

Gen.

These Genitives accent the

3.

penult, even

when

it is

short.
viz., fill,

Fllius forms the Vocative Singular in

-1

(for -ie)

son
4.

Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular.

,^ JVom.

The

Plural

is

intlected

as follows:

di

,_

/j^t\ (del)

Gen.

deorum
dis

(deiim)
(deis)
(dei)

BaL
Ace.
Foe.

deos
di
dis
-i
;

Adl.
5.

(deis)
as,

6.

The The
a)

Locative Singular ends in Genitive Plural has

in

Corinthi, ai Coritith.

-um, instead of -orum,

words denoting money and measure;

as,

talentum, oj

talents;
b)
c)

of peeks. in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum. sometimes in other words; as, liberum, of the children;

modium,

socium, of the

allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26.
I
.

The

following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception

of countries,

a)

Names

the general rule laid

b)

Five special words,

towns, islands, trees down in 15. 2.

according to

alvus, belly;

carbasus, flax;
colus, distaff;

humus, ground;
vannus, winnoiving-fan.
c)

few Greek Feminines

as,

atomus, atom diphthongus, diphthong.

2.

The

following nouns in -us are Neuter

pelagus, sea
virus, poison

vulgus, crowd.
c

Inflections.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27.
-on,

These end
Neuter.

in -os, -6s,

They
:

declined as follows

f.,

are

Masculine or Feminine and mainly proper names, and are

;

Barbitos, m. and

Third Declension.
2.

19

Consonant-Stems

fall

into several natural subdivisions, according

as the stem ends in a

Mute, Liquid, Nasal,

or Spirant.

A.
30.
1.

Mute-Stetns.

Mute-Stems may end,

In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s princep-s. In a Guttural (g or c) as, remex (remeg-s)
;
;

2.

dux

(duc-s).

3.

In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (mllet-s).

I.

Stems in a Labial Mute

(b, p).

31.

Trabs,

f.,

beam.

Notn.

20
3.

Inflections.

Stems in a Dental Mute

(d, t).

33.

In these the final

or t of the stem disappears in the

-s.

Nomi-

native Singular before the ending

Lapis, m., stone.

Miles,

soldier.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

SINGULAR.
miles
militis
mlliti

PLURAL.
milites
.

Nom
Gen.

lapis

lapides

lapidis
lapidi

lapidum
lapidibus
lapides

mllitum
militibus
milites milites

Dat.
Ace.
Voe.

lapidem
lapis

militem
miles
milite

lapides

Abl.

lapide

lapidibus

militibus

B.
34.

Liquid Stems.

These end

in -1 or -r.

Third Declension.
C.

21

Nasal Stems.

35.

These end

in -n,^

which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

22

hiflections

II.

i-Stems.
l-Sie/ns.

A.
37.

Masculine and Feminine

lar,

These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singuand always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular but these endings in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end;

iners of

Consonant-Stems.

38.

lusais, i.,co2{gh; Ignis, m.,yfr^,- Hostia, c., enemy; stem, hosti-. stem, igni-. stem, tussi-.

SINGULAR.
Norn, tussis
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
tussis
tussI

Termination.

Ignis
ignis

hostis

-is

hostis

-is
-i

Igni

hosti

tussim
tussis
tussi

Ignem
Ignis

hostem
hostis

-im,
-is

-em

Abl.

Igni or -e

hoste

-Ci-i

PLURAL.
Norn.,

tusses

Ignes

hostes

-es

Gen.

tussium
tussibus
tussis or -es

ignium
Ignibus
Ignis or -es

hostium
hostibus
hostis or -es

-ium
-ibus
-is,

Dat.
Ace.
Voc.

-es

tusses

Ignes

hostes

-es

Abl.

tussibus

Ignibus

hostibus

-ibus

To

the same class belong

rule.

scobis, sawdust.
*securis, axe.

*amussis,
apis, bee.

corbis, basket.
ciatis, hurdle.
*febris, fever.

auris,

eai'.

sementis, sowing.
*sitis, thirst.

avis, bird.

orb is,

circle.

axis, axle.

ovis^ sheep.

torris, brand.

*buris, plougJi-beam
clavis, key.
collis,
hill.

pelvis,

'jnsin. stertt.

*turris, tower.

puppis,

tmdis,

pole.

restis, rope.

vectis, lever.

and many others.

Words marked
at times

with a star have

Ace -im, Abl. -i. Of the

river

others,

many

show i-forms. Town and

names

in -is regularly

have -im, -i.

Third Declension.
2.

23
are genuine consonant-

Not

all

nouns

in -is are i-Stems.

Some

stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably,

canis, dog; juvenis, youth.

3.

Some genuine i-Stems have become

disguised in the Nominative

Singular; as, pars, pa?-t, for par(ti)s; anas, dtcck, for ana(ti)s; so
also
ars, art; gens, tribe;

mors, death; dos, dowry; nox, night; sors, and some others.
B.

lot;

mens, tnind;

Neuter l-Stems.

39.
-ar.

These end

in the

Nominative Singular
-I

in

-e, -al,

and

They always have

in the Ablative Singular, -ia in

the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium

in the Genitive

Plural, thus holding

more

steadfastly to

the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems.

Sedile, seat ;
stem, sedili-.

Animal, aniinal;
stem, animali-.

Calcar, spur
stem, caloari-

24
III.

Inflections.

Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves

to the Inflection of j-Stems.

40.

Many Consonant-Stems
-is

have so far adapted themAccusative Plural.

is

selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the

Genitive Plural, and

in the

Their

true character as Consonant-Stems, however,

shown by

the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative SinguThe following words lar, or -1 in the Ablative Singular.
are examples of this class
Caedes,
f., slaughter; stem, caed-.
:

Arx,

f.,

citadel;

Linter,

f.,

skiff;

stem, arc-.

stem, lintr-.

Third Declension.
IV.
41.

25

Stems

in

-I,

-u,

and Diphthongs.

26

Inflections.

Third Declension.
b.

27

Neuter: cadaver, corpse;

udder.

iter,

way; tuber, tumor; uber,

;

Also botanical names

in -er

as,

acer, maple.

5.

Nouns
a.

in -es.
:

Feminine

sages, crop.

45.
1.

Exceptions to the Rule for Femiuines.

Nouns
a.
b.

in -as.
ati

Masculine, as,

as {com)

vas, bondsman.

Neuter

vas, vessel.

2.

Nouns
a.

in -es.
;7?;;/
;

Masculine: aries,
in -is.
all

paries,

7'r///

^h^,foot.

3.

Nouns
a.

Masculine:
Ignis, fire;

Also

nouns in -nis and -guis as, amnis, river; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.
;

B.^is, axle.

piscis,

yfi'/^.

collis,

hill.

postis, post.

fascis, bundle.
lapis, stone.

pulvis, dust.
orbis,
circle.

mensis, month.
4.

sentis, brier.

Nouns
a.

in -x.
:

Masculine

imbrex,
5.

tile;

apex, peak ; codex, tree-trunk ; grex, flock pollex, thumb; vertex, summit; calix, cup.

Nouns
a.

in -s

preceded by a consonant.
ions,,

Masculine: diews, tooth;

fountain

mona, mountain

pons,
6.

bridge.

Nouns
a.

in -do.
:

Masculine

cardo, hinge ; ordo, order.

46.
1.

Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

Nouns
a.

in

-1.
:

Masculine
in -n.

sol,

stm

sal, salt.

2.

Nouns
a.

Masculine
in -ur.

pecten, comb.

3.

Nouns
a.

Masculine
in -lis.

vultur, vulture.

4.

Nouns
a.

Masculine

lepus, hare.

28

Inflections.

Greek Nouns
47.
I.

of the Third Declension.

:

The

following are the chief peculiarities of these

-a in the Accusative Singular; as,
diet\\.QXB.,

The ending

aeilier

Salanilna,
2.

Salaiiiis.

The ending

-es

in

the

Nominative
Accusative

Phual
Plural

as,

Phryges, Phrygas,

PhrygiiDis.
3.

The ending

in

the

as,

Phrygians.
4.

Singular;
5.

Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla. Atlas.
-is

Neuters in -nia (Genitive -matis) have

;

instead of -ibus in

poematis, poems. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.'). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension as, Orphel, Orpheo, etc. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular 7. sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1 as, Periclis or Pericli. Feminine proper names in -6 have -us in the Genitive, but -6 8.
the Dative and Ablative Plural
as.
; ;

in the other oblique cases

as,

Nom. DTdo
Gen.

Ace.
Voc.

Dat.
9.

DIdus Dido

Abl.

Dido Dido Dido

The

regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

FOURTH DECLENSION.
u-Stems.
48.
line,

Nouns
and
-u

of the Fourth Declension

end

in -us
:

Neuter.

They

are declined as follows

Mascu-

Fourth Declension.
Peculiarities of
49.
the
I.

Fifth

Declension.

29

Nouns

of the

Fourth Declension.

Nouns

Genitive

Singular in

Second

form the following the analogy of nouns in -us of Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the
-1,

in

-us, particularly in early Latin, often

case in Plautus
2.

iSTouns in -us

of -ui; as,
3.

and Terence. sometimes have -u fructu (for fructui).

in the

Dative Singular, instead

The ending -ubus,

;

instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative

and

Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs;

syllables in -CUB
as,

tribus, tribe; and in dis-

artubus, tribubus, aroubus, lacubus. But all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.
with the exception of tribus,

Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, 4. but has also the following forms of the Second
:

domi (locative), at home; domum, homewards, to one's home; domo, fro//i home; dom5s, homewards, to their {etc.) homes.
5.

The

only Neuters of this declension in

common

use are

cornii,

genu, and verG.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hand; portions, colonnade; tribus, tribe;
50.

idus

(Plural), Ides.

FIFTH DECLENSION.
e-Stems.
51.

Nouns

of the Fifth Declension end in

:

declined as follows
Dies, m.

-es,

and arc

30
Peculiarities of
52.
I.

Inflections.

Nouns

of the Fifth Declension.

The ending
-ei,

of the Genitive

and Dative Singular

;

is

-ei,

instead of
2.

\vhen a consonant precedes

-i

as, spei, rel, fidei.

plebs)

(for-ei) is found in plebi (from plebes = tribunus plebi, tribune of the people, and plebi scitum, decree of the people; sometimes also in other words. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs: as, acie. 3.

Genitive ending

in the expressions

4.

With

the exception of dies and

Declension are not declined in the Plural.

spes, and a few others, are used in
Plural.

most nouns of the Fifth But acies, series, species, the Nominative and Accusative
re.s,

Gender
53.

in the Fifth Declension.

Nouns

of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except

dies, day, and meridies, mid-day.

in the Singular, particularly

But dies

is

sometimes Feminine
day.

when

it

means an appointed

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
54.

Here belong 1.

2. 3.

Nouns used in the Singular only. Nouns used in the Plural only. Nouns used only in certain cases.
Indeclinable Nouns.

4.

Nouns used
55.

in the Singular only.

Many

nouns, from the nature of their signification,

are regularly used in the Singular only.

1
. ;

Thus

2. 3.

Proper names as, Cicero; Cicero Italia, /taly. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; "bonitdi^, good;

ness.
4.

Thus

a)

But the above classes of words are sometimes used

Proper names,

in the Plural.

to denote different
as,

members of

a family, or

specimens of a type;

Cicerones, the Ciceros; Cf..c6nes,

men

like Cato.

Defective Nouns.
b)

31

Names
rial,

of materials,

to
;

denote objects made of the mate-

or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes

{i.e.

bronze figures)

ligna, woods.

c)

Abstract nouns,

to

denote instances of the quality;

as,

ignorantiae, cases of ignorance.

Nouns used
56.
1.

in the Plural only.

Here belong
Many

names;
as,
as,

geographical

Thebae,

T/iebes;

Leuctra,

Leuctra; Pompeji, Pompeii.

2.

Many names

of festivals;

Megalesia, the Megalesian festhe

tival.
3.

Many
:

important

special

words, of which

following

are

the

most

angustiae, tiarrow pass.

manes,
minae,

spirits

of the dead.

arma, weapons.
deliciae, delight.
divitiae, riches.

threats.
city walls.

moenia,

nuptiae, ?narriage.
poster!, descendants.
reliquiae, remainder.

Idus, Ides.

indutiae, truce.
insidiae, ambush.

tenebrae, darkness.
verbera, blows.

majores, ancestors.
Also
in classical prose regularly

nares, nose.

cervices, neck.
fides, lyre.

viscera, viscera.

Nouns used only

57.
I.

in Certain Cases.

Used

in only

One

Case.

Many nouns

of the Fourth
as,

Declension are found only

in the Ablative Singular;

jussu, by the

order; injussii, zuithout the order; natti, by birth.

2.

Used
a.
b.

in

Two

Cases.
;

Fors {chance^, Nom. Sing. forte, Abl. Sing. Spontis {free-will). Gen. Sing. sponte, Abl. Sing.
;

no one (Nom.), has also the Used 'in Three Cases. 3. The Gen. and Abl. are Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. viz. nullius and supi^lied by the corresponding cases of nuUus

Nemo,

nullo.

32
4.

Inflections.
the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and the Norn. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. b. all lack the Nom. Sing. Opis, dapis, and frugis, Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.

Impetus has
Plu.
;

and Ace.
5.

viz.

6. 7.

as,

cor, lux, sol, aes, 6s (oris), rus, sal, tus.

Indeclinable
58.

Nouns.

Here belong
fas, n., right.

nefas,
nihil,

n.,
n.,

impiety.

instar,

n., n.,

likeness.

nothing.

mane,
I
.

morning.

secus,

n., sex.

With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, morning), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.
; the

Heteroclites.

These are nouns whose forms are partly Thus: declension, and partly of another.
59.

of

one

I.

Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while

is

the Plural

of another

as,

vas, vasis {vessel) jugerum, jugeri {acre)

;

Plu.,
;

Plu

vasa, vasorum, vasTs. etc. jugera, jugerum, jugeribus,

etc.

declension, Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one 1. Thus have certain special forms belonging to another.
:

a)

Many nouns Nom. and

of the First Declension ending in -ia take also

Ace. of the Fifth;

as,

materies, materiem,

materia, materiam. Third Declension, has the b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the
material as well as
Abl.
c)

fame

of the Fifth.
rest, regularly

Requies, requietis.
takes an

of the Third Declension,

in addition to

Ace. of the Fifth,

requiem,

requi-

etem.

d) Besides plebs. plebis. common

sion,
Fifth.

people, of the Third Declen 52. 2), of the

we

find plebes,

pleb6I (also plebi, see

Heterogeneous Xouns.

33

Heterogeneous Nouus.
60.
1
.

Heterogeneous nouns vary

in

Gender.

Thus

one
sJiield;

Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,

;

and one Neuter in -um as, clipeus, clipeum, carrus, carrum, cart. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another
Alasc. in -us,

Plural

as,

in the

SINGULAR.

balneum, n., bath; epulum, n feast

.

PLURAL. balneae, f., bath-house. epulae, f., feast.

freni, m. (rarely frena, n.), bridle.

frenum, n
jocus,
\\\.,

bridle;

jest

joca,

n.
n.,

(also joci,

\\\.),

jests.

locus,

ni.,

place;

loca,

places ; loci, m., passages

ati

or topics in

author.
n., rakes.

rastrum,
a.

n.,

rake;

rastrl, m.

rastra,

of the

Heterogeneous nouns may at the same lime be first two examples above.

heteroclites, as in case

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61.

The

following

nouns' have

one meaning
:

Singular, and another in the Plural

SINGULAR.
aedes, temple; auxilium, help
career, prison;

in

the

PLURAL.
aedes, house.
auxilia, auxiliary troops.

carceres,

stalls J'or racing-chariots.

castrum, fort; copia, abundance;

finis,

castra, camp.

copiae, troops, resources.

fines, borders, territory.

end;

f ortuaa, J'ortujie

fortirnae, possessions, wealth.

favor inipedimentuni, hindrance

gratia,
littera, letter (of the alphabet);

gratiae, thanks.

impedimenta,

baggage.

litterae, epistle, literature.

mos,

habit,

custom;

mores, character.
operae, laborers. opes, resources.
partes, party,
sales, wit.
role.

opera, help, service;

(ops) opis, help

pars, part
sal, salt

34

Inflections.

B.
62.

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives denote quality.

fall into

nouns, and
1.

two

classes,

They

are declined like

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Adjectives of the Third Declension.

2.

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63.

In these the Masculine

is

declined like hortus, puer,

like bellum.

Feminine like porta, and the Neuter Thus, Masculine like hortus
or ager, the
:

Adjectives of the First

64.

and Second

Declensions.

35

Masculine

like puer

Tener, tender.

36

Inflections.

miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous

compounds

in -far

and -ger;

sometimes dexter, 2. Satur, /////,

right.
is

declined

satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66.

Here belong
iillus,

alius, another;

alter, the other;

any

nullus, nofte

uter, which ? (of two)

neuter, neither
totns, who/e

solus, alone

iinus, one, alone.

They

are declined- as follows

Noni.

Gen.

Dat.
Ace.
Voc.

AM.

Adjectives of the Third Declension.

?,7

With

the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems i.e. they have
;

the Ablative Singular in

-1,

the Genitive Plural in -ium, the

the Masculine

Accusative Plural in
in -ia in Neuters.

-is (as well as -es) in

and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68.

These are declined

as follows

38

Inflections.

Adjectives of
69.

Two

Terminatione.
:

These are declined

as follows

Adjectives of the Third Declension.

39

40
c)

Inflections.
Patrials in -as, -atis

and

-is, -itis,

when
tJie

designating places,
estate at

regidarly have

-i

as,

iu ArpinatT, on
;

Arpimim
an Arpi-

yet -e,

when used

of persons

as,

ab Arpinate,

i^v

natian.
6.

very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are

frugi, frugal,

nequam,

wortliless.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
the There are three degrees of Comparison, Comparative, and the Superlative. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 2. (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -urn), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel as,
71.
I.

Positive, the

altus, />/2,
fortis,
felix,

tWxox, higher,
fortior,
felTcior,

altissimus,
fortissimus.

^S^'^i
-j

very high.

brave,

fortunate,

felTcissimus.

dives, rich,

dlvitior,

dlvitissimus.
;

So

also Participles,

when used

as Adjectives

as,

doctus, learned,

doctior,

doctissimus.

egens, needy,
3.

egentior,

egentissimus.

Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to

the Nominative of the Positive.

asper, rough,

The Comparative

is

regular.

Thus

asperior,

asperrimus.
pulcherrimus.

pulcher, beautiful,
acer, sharp,
celer, swift,

pulchrior,
acrior,
celerior,

acerrimus.
celerrimus.

pauper, poor,
a.
4.

pauperior,

pauperrimus.

Notice maturus, maturior, maturisaimus or mfiturrimus.

-ills

Five Adjectives in

form the Superlative by adding -limus

its final

to the

Stem

of the Positive deprived of

vowel.

tive is regular.

Thus

The Compara-

facilis, easy,
difficilis, difficult,

facilior,
difficilior,

facillimus.

difficiUimus.

similis, like,

similior,

simillimus.
dissimillimua.

dissimilis, unlike,

dissimilior,

humilis, low,

humilior,

humillimus.

Conparison of Adjectives.
5.

41

Adjectives in -dicus. -ficus, and -volus, form the Comparative

and Superlative Thus

:

as thougli from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens.

maledicus, slanderous,
magnirtcus, magnificent,

maledlcentior,
magnificentior.

maledicentissimus.
magnificentissimus.

benevolus, kindly,
a.

benevolentior,

benevolentissimus.
in early Latin
;

and -volens occur maledlcens. benevolens.

Positives in -dicens

as,

Irregular Comparison.
72.

Several
viz.

son

Adjectives

vary

the

Stem

in

Compari

bonus, good,
malus, bad,
parvus, small,

melior,
pejor,

optimus.
pessimus.

minor,
major,
plus,

magnus, large, multus, much,

frugT, thrifty,

minimus. maximus.
plurimus.
frugalissimus.

frugalior,

nequam, worthless,
Observe that the and major.
I
.

nequior,
i

nequissimus.
j

of -ior becomes

between vowels

in pejor

Defective Comparison.
73.
I.

Positive lacking entirel}',

prior,

(Cf prae, in front of.) (Cf citra, this side of.)

(Cf ultra, beyond.)

former,

primus,

first.

citerior, ott this side, citimus, near.

ulterior, farther,

ultimus, farthest. intimu^, inmost.

(Cf intra, within.) (Cf prope, near.) (Cf de, down.)

interior, inner,

propior, nearer,
deterior, inferior,

(Cf. archaic potis, possible.) potior, preferable,

2.

proximus. nearest deterrimus, worst potissimus, chiefest.

Positive occurring only in special cases,

etc.,
etc.,
;

postero die, anno,

the following day,

latest,

postremus,|^^^^_
posterior, later,
r late-born, VO^^.^-^-^^^, pastlnunous.

posterl, descendants,
exterl, foreigners,
1

nationes

exterae,

for-\
J

tyi\.^xiox.,

outer,

extremus, '"['.'_"_'
extimus,

1
\

outermost.

cigH HaUonsy

42
\nitx'\,

Inflections,

gods of the lower world,

j I

Mare Inferum, Mediterranean

oea,
super!,
r.

inferior, lower,

\
\

'

lowest,
J

Tnius, '

gods above,
\

supremus,
\

last.

Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea,

3.

&

'^

summus,

highest

Comparative lacking.
^

vetus, old,
fidus, faithful,

veterrimus.
fidissiniiis.

novus, new,
sacer, sacred,
falsus, false,

novissimus,3
sacerrinius.

last.

falsissimus.
less frequently used.

Also
4.

in

some other words

Superlative lacking.
alacrior,

alacer, lively,

ingens, great,
salutaris,
]n\'tm?,,

ingentior,
salutarior,
*
^

wholesome,

yoimg,

junior,
senior.

senex, old,
a.

The

Superlative

is

lacking also in
in a

many

adjectives in -alis,

-His, -ilis, -bilis,

and

few others.

Comparison by Magis and Maxime.

74.

Many

adjectives do not admit terminational compari-

form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (inore) and maxime {inosf). Here belong
son, but
1.

Many

adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus,

-Tlis,

-icus, -imus,

-inus, -orus.
2. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel arduus, steep; necessarius, necessary.
;

as,

idonevis, adapted;

a.

Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not

come under

this rule.

The

first

in

such cases

is

not a vowel, but a consonant.

Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.

Supplied by recentior.

8
*
fi

Supplied by

For newest, recentissimus is used. minimus natu.

Supplied by

maximus

natu.

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.
75.
1

43

Here belong
Many

adjectives which, from the nature of their signification, do

as,

not admit of comparison

hodiernus, of to-day

annuus,

a]iiiiial;

mortalis,
2.

tftoi'tal.

Some

special

words

as,

mirus, gnarus, mertis and a few others.

;

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76.
tives,

Adverbs are for the most part derived from and depend upon them for their comparison.

adjec-

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -1 of the Genitive Singular to -e those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive
;

Singular to

-iter

as,

earns,
pulcher,
acer,
levis,

care, dearly;

pulchre, beaut fully

acriter, yf^;r^/K;
leviter, lightly.

',

a.

But

Adjectives in -ns,

of -iter), to form the

sapiens,

and a few Adverb as,

;

others,

add -ter (instead

sapienter, zvisely;

audax,
sellers,

audacter, boldly;
sollerter, skillfully.

2.

The Comparative

of

all

sative Singular Neuter of the

Superlative of the

Adverb

is

Adverbs regularly consists of the AccuComparative of the Adjective while the formed by changing the -i of the Genitive
;

Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to

(carus)

-e.

Thus

44
Adverbs Peculiar
77.
I.

Inflections.

in

Comparison and Formation.

optime.
pessime.

bene, well, male,

///,

melius,
pejus,

magnopere, greatly multum, niucli, nonmultum,!^.^^^^^ parum, j

diu, long,

magis,
plus,

maxime.
plurimum.

minus,
diutius,

diutissime.

nequiter, worthlessly,

nequius,
saepius,

nequissime.
saepissime.

saepe, often,

mature, betimes.
prope, near,
nuper, recently,

maturius,
propius,

maturrime, maturissime.

proxime
nuperrime. potissimum,
especially.

potius, rather.
prius.
secus, otherwise.
2.

previously,
before,

prlmum,

first.

setius, less.

number

of adjectives of the First

and Second Declensions

form an Adverb

in -6, instead of -e; as,

falso, falsely

crebro, frequently

continue, immediately
raro, rarely ;
a.

subito, suddenly

and a few

others.

cito, quickly, has -6.

3.

few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the

Positive of the

Adverb

as,

multum, mucJi; paulum, little;

4.

minimum,

least;

facile, easily.

A few

adjectives of the First

;

Positive in -iter

as,

and Second Declensions form the

firmus, fTrmiter,yf;-;///)'
largus,
a.

humanus. humaniter, humanly;

alius,

largiter, copiously

aliter, otherwise.

violentus has violenter.

5.

which are -tus and -tim

gradually.

Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of paulatim, as, antiquitus. anciently ;
;

Ninnerals.

45

NUMERALS.
78.
I.

Numerals may be divided

Cardinals;

into

etc.
etc.

Numeral Adjectives, comprising

a.
b.
c.

as,
as,

Ordinals;

unus, (?^; dno,i2vo; etc. primus, yfrj-/ ; secundus, j^^r^w^;

2i%,

Distributives;
;

^in^-oM.,

one by one ; hlal, two by two ;

;

II.

Numeral Adverbs

z.'s,,

senxel, once ; his, twice

etc.

79

46
Cardinals.

Inflectimis.
Ordinals.
[Jiimu.s
et

Distributives.

Adverbs.
centies semel

centesinras centum Gnus centum et unus centesinnis

200.

centenT singuli
et singuli

primub centeni

Nu7nerals.

47
but

Thus mille homines, a thousand men

izvo

duo

millia

hominum,

thousand
a.

>ne/i, literally

two thousands of men.

;

Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction

as,

mllle

hominum.
Ordinals and Distributives and Second Declensions.
of

6.

Other Cardinals are indeclinable.

arc declined like Adjectives of the First

Peculiarities in the
81.
I.

Use

Numerals.

The compounds from

Thus
:

21

to 99

may be

expressed either

with the larger or the smaller numeral

is

used.

first.

In the latter case, et

triginta
2.

sex

or
90,

sex et

triginta, thirty-six.
in 8

The numerals under

;

by subtraction

as,

ending

and

9,

are often expressed

duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodecim) iindequadraginta, thirty-ni)ie (but also triginta
;

novem

or

novem
first;

et triginta)
3.

Compounds over

100 regularly have the largest

;

the others follow without et

as,

number

centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven. anno miUesimo octingentesimo octogesimo secundo,
1SS2.

in the

year

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number one of the tens as,
;

is

either a digit or

centum centum
4.

et septem, one hundred

et quadragiuta, one hundred

and seven and forty.

;

The
a)

Distributives are used

many
apiece; as,

To

denote so

many
iis

each, so

bina talenta
b)

dedit, he gave them two talents each.

When
binae

those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but

;

Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense

litter ae,

as,

two

epistles.

for one,

But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed and trini (not tern!) for three as,
;

Gnae
c)

litterae, one epistle.

epistles.

trinae litterae, three

In multiplication
;

as,

bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

48

Inflections.

C.

PRONOUNS.
with-

82.

Pronoun
it.

is

word that indicates something

out naming
83.

There are the following classes of pronouns

I.

Personal.
Reflexive.

V.

Intensive.

II.

VI.
VII.
VIII.

Relative.

III.

Possessive.

Interrogative.
Indefinite.

IV.

Demonstrative.

I.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84.
etc.,

These correspond to the English and are declined as follows

:

I, yoit, he, she, it,

/;

Pronoims.
3.

49
as Accusative

In early Latin,

med

and ted occur

and Ablative

forms.
II.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85.
in

These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause which they stand; like myself yourself in I see myself,'
,

etc.

They

are declined as follows

50
2.

Inflections.

3.

The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular
This
is

of the

Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis.

particularly

common

in case of

suo, sua

as,

suopte, suapte.

IV.
87.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
They
I

These point out an object

are
hic, this (where
iste, that
ille,
is,

previously mentioned.

as here or there, or as

am)

(where you are)

that (something distinct from the speaker)

;

that (weaker than ille)

the same.

idem,
Hic,
iste,

and

ille are

accordingly the Demonstratives of the First,

Second, and Third Persons respectively.

The Intensive Prononn.

TJie Relative

Pronoun.

Is, he^ this, that.

52

Inflections.

VII.
90.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
whof
(sub-

The
Quis,

Interrogative Pronouns are quis,

qui,

stantive)
I
.

and

ivhatf what kind off

(adjective).

who ?
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.
Neuter.
Wanting.

Masc. and f em.

Nojn.
Ge7i.

quis

quid
cujus
cui

cujus
cui

Dat.
Ace.

quern

quid

Abl.
2.

quo

quo
precisely like the Rela-

qui, ivhat?
;

tive

Pronoun
a.
b.
c.

what kind of? is declined viz. qui, quae, quod, etc.

An

Qui

old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense of how? Questions. is sometimes used for quis in Indirect

Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homS = what manf whereas qui homo = what sort of a man ? -nam. Thus d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding (^MiAn-axa., pray? what, /m/.^ w/w, quisnam, Substantive,
:

Adjective.

quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind., pray?

VIII.
91.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
of

These have the general force

SUBSTANTIVES.
F.

some

one,

any

one.

ADJECTIVES.
Masc.
qui,

M. AND
quis,

Neut.

Fem.

Neut.

^
,.
.

quae or qua, quod, a/?)'.

aliqua,

anything.
,
'

aliquis,

^
. .

someone, something.
(

aliqui

aliquod, any.

quisquam
quispiam,
quisque,
quivis.

quidquam, ^ ^
quidpiam.
\

anyone,
,, anything

No

corresponding adjective.

anyone,

quispiam, quaepiam,
quisque,
quTvTs,
quilibet,

quodpiam, any.
quodque, each.
quodvis,
quodlibet,
-'

anything.

quidque, each.

quaeque,
quaevis,
quaelibet,

quaevis,

quidvis,

anyone,
^,,//,;,,^,

quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet,

[^

^,^;^^
r

^y^/^_

^^^^^^_

duidam, quaedam.quiddam,

a ce I til ill person,

01
thi/i^.

quidam,

quaedam,

quoddam,

'^"^^^

Indefinite Pronouns.
1.

Pronominal Adjectives.
is

53

In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part

:

declined.

Thus
2.

Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet,

etc.

Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular FemiNominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has both qua and quae in these same cases.
nine, also in the
3.

Quidam

forms Accusative Singular quendam,

;

quandam

Geni-

tive Plural

quorundam, quarundam

the

being assimilated to n

before d.
4.

Aliquis may be used

adjectively,

and (occasionally) aliqui sub-

stantively.
5.

In combination with ne,

si, nisi,

num,

either quis or

qui may

stand as a Substantive.
6.

Thus

si

quis or si qui.

interrogative force.

'Ecquis, anyone, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has It has both substantive and adjective forms, substantive, ecquis, ecquid adjective, ecqui, ecquae and ecqua,
;

ecquod.
7.
8.

Quisquam

is

not used in the Plural.

declines only the

There are two Indefinite Relatives,

quicumque and quisquis,

first

whoever.

Quicumque

part

quisquis declines

both, but has only quisquis, quidquid,

quoquo

in

common

use.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
92.

The

following adjectives, also, frequently have pro:

nominal force
1
.

alius, attoi/ter

alter, the other

utei, which of two? (intern);

neuter, neither;

whichever of two

(rel.)

unus, one;
2.

nuUus,

710

one (in oblique cases).

The compounds,

uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two;

utercumque, utracumque, utrumctimque, whoever of two; uterlibet, utralibet, utrunilibet, either one you please; utervis, utravis, utrumvia, either one yon please;
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.
is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both

In these, uter alone

parts

as,

Nom.
Gen.

alteruter
alterius utrius

altera utra
etc.

alterum utrum

54

Inflections.

Chapter
93.

II.

Conjugation.
is

The

Inflection of

Verbs

called Conjugation.

94.

Verbs
1.

have Voice,

Mood, Tense, Number, and

Person

Two

Voices,

2. 3.

Three Moods,
Six Tenses,

Active and Passive. Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

Perfect,

Present,
Imperfect,

Pluperfect,

Future,

Future Perfect.
;

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect

Imperative employs only the Present and Future.
4.
5.

while the

Two

Numbers, Three Persons,

Singular and Plural. Second, and Third.

First,

95.
this,

These make up the

so-called Finite Verb.

Besides

we have
1.

the following

Noun and

Adjective Forms:

Noun Forms,

Infinitive,

Gerund, and Supine.

2.

Adjective Forms,

Participles (including the Gerundive).

of the

96.

The Personal Endings

Verb

are,

Verb-StcDis.

Tlie

Four Conjugations.

55

I.

Preseait Stem, from which are formed

1.

~\

Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,

2. 3.

Present and Imperfect Subjunctive,

Active and Pas|

4.
5.
II.

The Imperative, The Present Infinitive, The Present Active Participle,

sive.
[ J

the Gerund, and Gerundive.

Perfect Stem, from which are formed

1.

Indicative,
1

Perfect, Pkiperfect,

and Future Perfect

2. 3.
III.

Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,

Active.

Perfect Infinitive,

Participial Stem, from whicli are formed

1.

Perfect Participle,
Perfect, Pluperfect,

2.

and Future Perfect

Indicative,

po..:

3.

Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,

|

4.

Perfect Infinitive,

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different

Active and Passive.

ori-

gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98.

There are

in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis-

tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination

of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows
Conjugation.
I.
/-,
:

Infinitive

Distinguishing

Termination.

Vowel.
S,

-are

II.

-ere
-6re
-ire

III.

5 S
T

IV.
99.

Principal Parts.

The Present

Indicative, Present

Infinitive,

Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle^

constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,

so

called

because they contain the different stems, from which the

full

conjugation of the verb

Where
is

may be

derived.
if it

the Perfect Participle

is

not in use, the Future Active Participle,

occurs,

given as one of the Principal Parts.

56

Inflections.

CONJUGATION OF SUM.
100.

The

irregular verb
all

sum

is

so important
its

for the
is

conjugation of
at the outset.

other verbs that

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

inflection

given

Pres. Ind.

Pres. Inf.

Pekf. Ind.

Fut. Partic'

sum

espe

fui

futurus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

sum, /am,
es,

thou art,

sumus, we are, estis, you are,

sunt, they are.

est, he is

Imperfect.

eram, I was,
eras, thou wast,
erat, he

eramus, we were,
eratis, yo2i were,

was

erant, they were.

Future.
er5,
eris,
erit,

I shall be,
thou wilt
be,

erimus, we shall
eritis,

be,

you will

be.

he will be

erunt, they will be.

Perfect.
fuI,

/ have

bee,

I was,

fuimus, we have been,

fuistis,

we

were,

fuisti,
fuit,

thou hast been, thou wast

you have
t]iey

been.,

you were,

he has been, he

was

fu erunt,

have

been, they were.

fuere.

Pluperfect.

fueram, / had been,

fueras, thou hadst been,
fuerat, he

fueramus, we had
fueratis,

been,

had

been

you had been, fuerant, they had been.

Future Perfect.
fuero,

/ shall have

been,

fuerimus, we shall have been,

fueritis,

tueris, thou wilt

fuerit,

have been, he will have been

1

fuerint, they will

is

you will have been, have been.

in

The

Perfect Participle

wanting

sum.

Conjugation of Si

57

SUBJUNCTIVE.i
Present.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

sim,
SIS,

may I
him

be,

simus,

let

us

be,
be,

mayst

tliou be,
be,

sitis, be ye,

may you

sit, let

may

he

be',

sint, let thetu be.

Imperfect.

essem,- / should
esses,'-^ thoii

be,

essemus, we should
essetis, yoii

be.,

woiildst be,
be

would

be,

esset,^ he

would

essent,^ they woitld be.

Perfect.
fuerim, /

may

Jiave been,

fuerinius, 2ue
fueritis,

fueris, thou
fuerit,

mayst have been, he may have been

fuerint,

may have been, you may have been, they may have been.

Pluperfect.
fuissem, / should have been,
fuisses, thou wouldst
fuisset,
lie

fuissemus, we should have been,

fuissetis,

have been, would have been

fuissent, they

you would have would have

been,

been.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. es, be thou,
este, be ye.
be,

Fut.

esto, thou shalt

estote, ye shall

be,

esto, he shall be;

sunto, they shall

be.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. esse, to be. Perf. fuisse, to have been.

PARTICIPLE.

Fut.

futurus esse,3 to be about

to be.

Fut.

futurus,^ about to

be.

The meanings

of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so

many and

so

varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that

no attempt can be made

to give

them
2

here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax. For essem, esses, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent are sometimes used. 8 For futurus esse the form fore is often used. 4 Declined like bonus, -a, -um.

58

Inflections.

FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.

101.

Active Voice.

Am5, / love.
Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres, Ind.

Pres. Inf.

amo

amare

amavi

amatus

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

amo, I love, amas, yoii love,

amamus, we
amant,
Imperfect.

love,

amatis, you love,

tJiey love.

am at,

he loves

amabam, / was

loving,

amabamus, we were

loving,

amabSs, you were loving, amabat, he was loving',

amabatis, you were loving, amabant, tJiey were loving.

Future.

amabo, I shall love, amabis, you will love,

amabit, he will love

amabimus, ive shall love, amabitis, you will love,

amabuiit, they will
Perfect.
love.

amavi,

/ hai'e

loved,

loved,

amavisti, you have loved, you

loved,

amavimus, we have loved, we ama\'istis, you have loved, you

amaverunt,
loved.
-ere, they

loved,

loved,

amavit, he has loved, he loved;

have loved, they

Pluperfect.

amaveram, / had loved, am aver as, you had loved, amaverat, he had loved;

amaveramus, we had

loved,

amaveratis, you had loved,

am aver ant,
Future Perfect.

they

had loved.

amavero. / shall have loafed, amaveris, you will have loved, amaverit, he will have loved;

amaverimus, we shall have loved, ama\eriti.s, you will have loved, amaverint, they will have loved.

First Conjugation.

59

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

amem, inay I love, ames, may yon love,

amet,
let Jiiin

aniemus,

let

us love,
love,

ametis, tnay you

love

ament,
Imperfect.

let tJieiu loiie.

amarem, / slioidd love, amares, you would love, amaret, he would love

amaremus, ive should love, amaretis, you would love, amarent, they would love.
Perfect.

amaverim, / jnay have loved, amaveris, you may have loved, amaverit, he may have loved;

amaverimus, we may have loved, amaveritis, you may have loved, amaverint, they may have loved.

Pluperfect.

amavissem, / should have loved, amavisses, you would have loved, amavisset, lie would have loved;

amaviasem.xis,wesho/dd have loved,

amavissetis, you would have loved,

amavissent, they would have loved.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.

ama, love thou

amate, love ye.

Fut.

amatS, thou shall love, amato, he shall love

amatote, ye shall love, amanto, they shall love.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. amare, to love. Per/, amavisse, to

PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amans,!
(C it'll,
hn'iiij^.

have loved.
to be about

amantis)
to love.

Fut.

amaturus esse,
to love.

Fut.

amaturus, about

GERUND.
Gen.

SUPINE.

amandl, of

loving,
loving,

Dat.
Ace. Abl.

amando, for

amandum,
amando,

loving,

Ace.
Abl.

amatum,
amatu,
\

to love,

by loving.
1

to love, be loved.

For declension of amans, see

70. 3.

6o

Inflections.

FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.

102.

Passive Voice.

Amor, I

atii

loved.

First Conjugation.

6l

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

May I be loved,
SINGULAR.

let

hivt be loved.

PLURAL.

amer
ameris, or -re

amemur
amemini amentur
Imperfect.

ametur

/ should be
amarer
amareris, or -re

loved, he

would

be loved.

amaremur
amaremini amarentur
Perfect.

amaretur

/ may have
amatus sim amatus sis amatus sit
^

beefi loved.

amati simus amati sitis amati sint

Pluperfect.

/ should have
amatus essem amatus esses amatus esset

been loved, he
^

would have

been loved.

amati essemus amati essetis amati essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amare, be thou loved;

amamini,

be

ye loved.

Fut.

amator, thou shall be loved, amator, he shall be loved;

amantor, they shall be

loved.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. amari, to be loved. Per/,

PARTICIPLE.

amatus esse,
loved.

to

have been
about to

Perfect.

amatus, having been

loved.

Fut.

amatum

irT,

to be

Gerutidive.

amandus,
loved.

to be loved,

be loved.

deserving

to

be

Fuerim,

etc.,

are sometimes used for

sim

so

fuissem,

etc.,

for

essem.

62

Inflections.

SECOND (OR
103.

E-)

CONJUGATION.

Active Voice.

Moneo, I advise.
Perf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.

Pres. Inf.

Perf. Pass. Partic.

moneo

monere

monui

monitas

Second Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

63

May I advise,
SINGULAR.

let

him

advise.

PLURAL.

moneani moneas moneat

Imperfect.

moneamus
moneatis mo lie ant

/ should advise, he would advise.

monereni moneres moneret

Perfect.

moneremua
moneretis

monerent

/ may have

advised.

monuerim
monueris monuerit
_

monuerimua
monueritis

monuerint

Pluperfect.

/ should have advised, he would have advised.

monuissem
nionuisses

monuissenius
monuissetis

monuisset

monuissent

IMPERATIVE.
Pies,

mone, advise thou

monete, advise ye.

Fut.

moneto, tho7i shall advise, moneto, he shall advise

monetote, ye shall advise, monento, they shall advise.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.

PARTICIPLE.
Pres.

monere,

to advise.

monens, advising.
(Gen. monentis.)

Perf. monuisse, to have advised.

Fut.

moniturus esse,
to advise.

to be about

Fut.

moniturus, about

to advise.

GERUND.
monendi, of advising, Dat. monendo, for advising,
Gen.
Ace. Abl.

SUPINE.

monendum,
monendo,

advising,

Ace.
Abl.

monitum,

to advise.

by advising.

nionitu, to advise, be advised

64

Inflections.

SECOND (OR
104.

E-)

CONJUGATION.

Passive Voice.

Moneor, / am advised.
Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.

moneor

moneri

monitus

sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

/ ain advised.

PLURAL.

moneor
moneris

moneniur

monetur
Imperfect.

monemini monentur

I was

advised.

monebar
monebaris, or -re

monebamur
monebaminl monebantur
Future.
1 shall be advised.

monebatur

monebor
moneberis, ^r-re

monebimur
monebimiiai

monebitur
Perfect.

monebuutur

/ have been advised, I was advised. moniti sumus monitus sum moniti estis monitus es

monitus est
Pluperfect.

moniti sunt

/ had been advised.

monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat

moniti

eramus

moniti eratis
moniti erant

Future Perfect.
/ shall have been advised.

monitus ero monitus eris monitus erit

moniti erimus
nionill eritis aionili

erunt

Second Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

65

May I be
SINGULAR.

advised,

let

htm

be advised.

PLURAL.

monear
monearis, or -re

moneamur
moneamini moneantur
Imperfect.

moneatur

I should be
monerer
monereris, or -re

advised, he

would be advised.

moneremur
moneremini monerentur
Perfect.

moneretur

/ tnay have been advised.

monitus Sim monitus sis monitus sit
Pluperfect.

moniti siinus moniti sitis

moniti sint

/ should have

been advised, he

would have

been advised.

monitus essem monitus esses monitus asset

moniti essemus
moniti essetis

moniti essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.

monere,

be thou advised;

monemini,

be

ye advised.

Fut.

monetor, thou shall be advised,

monetor, he shall be advised.

monentor, they

shall be advised.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised.
Perf. monitus esse, to

PARTICIPLE.
have been
about to

advised.

Perfect. monitus, advised. Gerundiiw. monendus, to be adI'ised,

Fut.

monitum
F

iri. to be

deserving to

be advised.

be advised.

66

Inflections.

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105.

Active Voice.

Rego, I rule.
Perf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf.

Perf. Pass

Partic.

rego

regere

rexi

rectus

Third ConJ7igation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

67

May I ride,
SINGULAR.

let

him

ride.

68

Inflections.

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

106.

Passive Voice.

Regor, / am ruled.
Perf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.

regor

regi

rectus

sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

I am

rilled.

PLURAL.

regor
regeris regitur

regimur
regimini reguntur
Imperfect.

/ was
regebar
regebaris, or -re

ruled.

regebaniur

regebatur
Future.

regebamini regebantur

/ shall
regar
regeris, or -re

be ruled.

regemur
regemini regentur
Perfect.

regetur

I have
rectus

been ruled, or

I was

ruled.
recti

sum

sumus
sunt

rectus es

recti estis

rectus est

recti

Pluperfect.

/ had been
rectus erani rectus eras

ruled.
recti

eramua
erant

recti eratis recti

rectus erat

Future
rectus ero

Perfi-xt.

/ shall have
rectus eris rectus erit

been ruled.
recti

erimua
erunt

recti eritis recti

TJiird Conjugation.

69

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

May
SINGULAR.

I be nded,

let

hint be ruled.

PLURAL.

regar
regaris, or -re

regamur
regamini
reeantur
Imperfect.

regatur

/ shoidd
regereris, or -re

be r tiled, he

would

be ruled.

regeremur regeremini
regerentur
Perfect.

regeretur

/ may have
rectus

been ruled.
recti

sim

simus

rectus SIS
rectus sit

recti sltis

recti sint

Pluperfect.

/ should have
rectus

been ruled, he

would have been

recti

ruled.

essem

ess6nius

rectus esses
rectus esset

recti essetis

recti

essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. regere, be thou ruled;

regimiui. be ye ruled.

Fut.

regitor, thou shall be ruled, regitor, he shall be ricled;

reguntor, they shall be ruled.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. regi, to be ruled.

PARTICIPLE.

Per/, rectus

esse, to have been

Perfect.

rectus, ruled.

rided.

Fut.

rectum

irT,

to be

about to

Gerundive, regendus, to be ruled, be deserving to

Tided.

be ruled.

^o

Injlections.

FOURTH (OR
107.

I-)

CONJUGATION.

Active Voice.

Audio, /hear.
Perf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Partic

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.

audio

audire

audivi

auditus

Fourth Conjugation.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

May I hear,
SINGULAR.

let

him hear

72

htflcctions.

FOURTH (OR
108.

I-)

CONJUGATION.

Passive Voice.

Audior, / am heard.
Perf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind, Pres. Inf.

audior

audiri

auditus

sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present tense.
SINGULAR. audior
audiris

/ ain heard.

plural. audimiir

auditur
Imperfect.

audimini audiuntur

/ was heard.
audiebar
audiebaris, or -re

audiebamur audiebamini
audiebantur
Future.

audiebatur

/ shall
audiar
audieris, or -re

be heard.

audiemur
audiemini audientur
Perfect.

audietur

/ have
auditus

been heard., or

/ was heard.
auditl

sum

sumus
sunt

auditus es
auditus est

audit! estis

audit!

Pluperfect.

/ had been
auditus

heard.
audit!

eram

eramus

auditus eras auditus erat

audit! eratis
audit! erant

Future Perfect.
/ shall have been heard.
auditus ero auditus eris auditus erit
audit!

erimus
erunt

audit! eritis audit!

FonrtJi Conjugation.

73

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.

May I be
SINGULAR.

heard,

let hifii

be heard.

PLURAL.

audiar
audiaris, or -re

audiamur
audiamini audiantur
Imperfect.

audiatur

/ should be
audirer
audireris, or -re

heard, he would be heard.

audiremur
audiremini audirentur
Perfect.

audiretur

/ may have
audltus Sim auditus SIS
audltus sit

been heard.
auditi

simus

auditi sitis

auditi sint

Pluperfect.

I should Jiave
audltus

been heard, he

would have been heard.

auditi

essem

essemus
essent

audltus esses
audltus esset

auditi essetis
auditi

IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audire, be thou heard;

audimini, be ye heard.

Fut.

auditor, thou shall be heard, auditor, he shall be heard;

audiuntor, they shall be heard.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. audiri, to be heard.

PARTICIPLE.

Perf. audltus esse, to have been

Perfect.

audltus, heard.
to

heard.

Gerundive, audiendus,
iri, to be abotit to

be

Fut.

audltum

heard, deservmg
to be heard.

be heard.

74

Inflections.

VERBS
109.
I.

IN -lO OF

THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

the Third Conjugation take the

Verbs

in -io of

endings

of

the Fourth Conjugation, wherever the latter

endings have two successive vowels.

the Present System.
2.

This occurs only in

Here belong
a)

take; ctipio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to

;

capio,

to

dig; iw^ib, to fiee

to sliake
;

\a.cio, to t/irow
;

pario, to dear

quatio,

rapio,

to seize

sapio, to taste.
ante-classical);
as,

b)

Compounds

of lacio

and specio (both

to

allicio, entice;
c)

conspicio, behold.

The deponents gradior,

stiffer.

go ; morior,

to die

patior, to

110.

Active Voice

Capio, I take.
Pekf. Ind.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.

Pres. Inf.

Perf. Pass. Partic.

capio,

capere,

cepT,

captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
capio, capis, capit

PRESENT TENSE.

PLURAL.

capimus, capitis, capiunt.

Imperfect.

capiebam, -iebas, -iebat

capiebamus,
Future.

-iebatis, -iebant.

capiam,

-ies, -iet

capiemus,
Perfect.

-ietis, -lent.

cepT, -isti, -it;

cepimus,

-istis,

-erunt, or ere.

Pluperfect.

ceperam,

-eriis, -erat

ceperamu.s, -eratis, -erant.

Future Perfect.
cepero,
-eris, -crit

ccperinius, -eritis, -erint.

Verbs in

-io

of the Third Conjugation.

75

SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.

Present.

plural.
-iatis, -iant.

capiam,

-ias, -iat

capiamus,

Imperfect.
capereni, -eres, -eret

caperemus,
Perfect.

-eretis, -erent.

ceperim,

-eris, -erit

ceperimus,

-eritis, -erint.

Pluperfect.
cepissem, -isses,
-isset

cepissemus,

-issetis, -issent.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.

cape;
capito,

capite.

Fut.

capitote,

capito

capiunto.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. capere.
Perf.
Fitt.

PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capiens.

cepisse.

capturus esse.

Fut.

capturus.

GERUND.
Gen.
capiendT,

SUPINE.

Dat.
Ace.
Abl.

capiendd,

capiendum,
capiendd.

Aec. Abl.

captum,
captu.

111.

Passive Voice.

Capior,
capT,

am

taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.

Pres. Inf.

Perf. Ind.

capior,

captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
singular.
capior, caperis, capitur

Present Tense.

plural.

capimur, capiminT, capiuntur.

Imperfect.
capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur;

capiebamur, -iebaminl, iebantur.

Future.

capiar, -ieris, -ietur;

capiemur, -ieminl, -ientur.

76
SINGULAR.
captus sum,
es, est

Inflections.

PERFECT.

PLURAL.

capti sumus, estis, sunt.

Pluperfect.
captus eram, eras, erat
captl eramus, eratis, erant.

Future Perfect.
captus ero,
eris, erit

captI erimus, eritis, erunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
capiar, -iaris, -iatur

capiamur, -iaminl, -iantur.

Imperfect.
caperer, -ereris, -eretur

caperemur, -ereminl, -erentur.

Perfect.

captus sim,

sis, sit;

captT .simus,

sTtis, sint.

Pluperfect.
captus essera, esses, esset
captT essemus, essetis, essent.

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.

capere;
capitor,

capimini.

Fut.

capitor

capiuntor.

INFINITIVE.
Pres. Perf.
Flit,

PARTICIPLE.
Perfect.

capT.

captus esse.

captus.

captum

In.

Gerundive, capiendus.

DEPONENT VERBS.
112.

Deponent Verbs have

But

with Active meaning.

a.

in the

main Passive forms

b.

They have the following Active forms Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine. They have the following Passive meanings always in the
: :

Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle

as,

sequendus,

to be followed

adeptus, attained.

Deponent Verbs.
113.

77

Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are

I.

swro.,

Conj.

iiiiror, niirari,

iniratus sum, admire.

fear.

II.

Conj.
Conj.

vereor, vereri, veritus

III.

seqiior, sequi, secutus sum., follow.

largior, largiri, largitus sum, give. IV. Conj. IIL (in-ior) patior, pati, passus sum, suffer.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

y8

Inflections.

SEMI-DEPONENTS.
Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong
114.
I.

audeo, audere, ausus sum, to dare. gaudeo, gaiidere, gavisus sum, to rejoice. solitus sum, to be wont. solere, soleo, fisus sum, to trust. fidere, fido,
2.

The

following verbs
:

have a Perfect Passive Participle with

adultus, having grown up.

Active meaning

adolesco, grow up;

cenare, dine
placere, please

cenatus, having dined.

placitus, having pleased, agreeable.

prandere, hmch
potare, drink;
jurare, stucar
a.

pransus, havitig binched. potus, having drunk.

juratus, having s%vorn.
sense also.

Juratus

is

used

in a passive

3.

Reverter and devertor both

;

regularly form their Perfect in

the Active Voice

viz.

reverter,

reverti

(Inf.), (Inf.),

devertor, deverti

revertl (Perf ), to return. deverti (Perf.), to turn aside.

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
the There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, comby formed Active and the Passive. The Active is
115.

bining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same
auxiliary.

Active Periphrastic Conjugation.

Prcs.

Imp.
Fut.
Perf.

Plup.
Put. P.

INDICATIVE MOOD. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, / am about to love. amaturus eram, I loas about to love. amaturus ero, I shall be about to love. amaturus fui, I have been {rvas) about to love. amatarus fueram, / had been about to love.
BJvasXxvcwsiyxQro, I shall have been about
to love.

Peculiarities of ConJ2igatio7i.

79

Pres.

Imp.
Perf.

SUBJUNCTIVE. amaturus sim, / tnay be about to love. amaturus essem, / might be about to
amatftrus fuerim, / may have

love.

been about to love.

to love.

Plup.

amaturus fuissem,

/ might have been about

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
Perf.

amaturus amaturus

esse, to be about to love. fuisse, to have been about

to love.

Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.

INDICATIVE.
Pres.

Imp.
Put.
Perf.

Plup.
Put. P.

amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, fiiust be amandus eram, / -was to be loved. amandus ero, / shall deserve to be loved. amandus fui, / was to be loved. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved. amandus fuero, I shall have deserved to be loved.

loved.

Pres.

Imp.
Perf.

Plup.

SUBJUNCTIVE. amandus sim, / may deserve to be loved. amandus essem, / viight deserve to be loved. amandus fuerim, / 7nay have deserved to be loved. amandus fuissem, / might have deserved to be loved.
INFINITIVE.

Pres.

Perf.

amandus amandus

esse, to deserve to be loved. fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
116.
I.

Perfects in

-avi,

-evi and -ivi, with

tlie

forms derived

from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with tox s. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movi (irom

moveo)

Thus

amavistl

8o
2.

Inflections.
In the

Gerund and Gerundive

of the Third

gations, the endings -undus, -undi,. often occur instead of

and Fourth Conju-endus and

-endi, as faciundus, faciundi.

Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, die, due, fac. But Comof facio form the Imperative in -fice, as confiee. pounds of dlco, duco accent the ultima as, edue, edie.
3.

compounds
4.

Archaic and Poetic forms

a.

b.

The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amarier, monerier, dicier, for amari, moneri, dici. The ending -ibani for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourth
Conjugation, and -ibo for -iam in Futures
;

as,

scibam,

seibo, for sciebam, sciam.

c.

Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixisti, seripsistis,

surrexisse, we

sometimes find dixti, scripstis,

(for

surrexe.
d.

Tlie endings -im, -is,

etc.

-am,

-as,

etc.')

occur in a few

Subjunctive forms
5.

as,

edim

{eat),

duint, perduint.

In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxil-

iary
for

esse

is

often omitted

as,

actiirum

for

acturum esse

ej actus

ejectus esse.

FORMATION OF THE VERB-STEMS.

Formation
117.

of the Present

Stem.

Many
^

verbs employ the Verb Stem for the Present

amare, moiiere, audire.
:

Stem
1

as, dlcere, ducere,

form the Present Stem variously, as follows

By appending
augere,
vincire,
2.

Others

the vowels a, e,

as,

"
"

juvare. Present Stem

" " " "

juva- (Verb Stem juv-). " auge- ( " aug-).

vinci(

vine-).

By adding i, as capio. Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-). By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final con3. sonant of the Verb Stem as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-). By appending -n to the Verb Stem as,4.
; ;

cern-6
1

pell-6 (for pel-no).

Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (e or dice-, dic-6-; ama-e-, ama-o-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the Appendix.
Strictly speaking, the Present

6)

as,

Formation of the Verb- Stems.

5.

8i

By appending

t to the

Verb Stem

as,

flect-6.
6.

By appending sc
cresc-6

to the

Verb Stem

as,

initial

scisc-6.
is,

7.

By

Redaplication, that
i
;

the Verb Stem with

as,

by prefixing the

consonant of

gi-gii-o (root gen-).

si-st-6 (root sta-).

Formation of the Perfect Stem.

118.
1.

The

Perfect

Stem

is

formed from the Verb Stem

;

By adding v

(in case of

Vowel Stems)
delev-i,

as,

amav-i,
2.

audiv-i.
;

By adding u

(in case of

some Consonant Stems)

genu-i,
alu-i.

as,

strepu-i,
3.

By adding

s (in case of

most Consonant Stems)

as,

carp-o. Perfect carps-i.

scrib-o,
rid-eo,
" " "
*'

scrips-i (for scrlb-sl).

ris-i (for rid-si)

sent-io,
dic-6,
a.

sens-i
dix-i

(for sent-sl)
{i.e.

dic-si).

Note that before the ending -si a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p.

4.

Without addition.
a)

Of
is

this formation there are three types

The Verb Stem

curro.

reduplicated by prefixing the initial con;

sonant with the following vowel or e

Perfect

as,

cu-curri.

posco,
pello,

"
"

po-posci.
pe-puli.

Note i. Compounds,
the redupHcation.

with the excrption of do, Sto, disc5,

posco, omit

Note
b)

2.

Verbs beginning with Sp or st retain

drop s from the stem
;

Thus

com-puli, but re-poposci.

as,

plication, but

spondeo, spo-pondi

both consonants in the reduSto, steti.

;

The

short vowel of the

Verb Stem
is

is

lengthened

as,

lego,

c)

Note that S by The vowel of the Verb Stem verti minuo, minui.
legl; ago. egi.
;

tliis

process becomes

e.

unchanged

as,

verto,

82

Inflections.

Formation
119.

of Participial

Stem.

The

Perfect
is

Passive

Participle,

Participial
1.

Stem

derived by dropping

-us, is

from which the formed

:

By adding
;

-tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to

as,

the

Verb Stem)

ama-re,
dele-re,

Participle "

ama-tus.
dele-tus.
aiidi-tus.

audl-re,
leg-ere,

"
''

lec-tus.

scrib-ere,
senti-re,

" "
''

scrip-tus.

sen-sus

(for
(for

sent-tus)

caed-ere,
a.

cae-sus

caed-tus)
;

Note that g, before t, becomes c (see ^ 8, 5) b becomes p while dt or tt became SS, which was then often simphfied to s (^ 8, 2).
;

2.

After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where

is

-sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus

added

to other

Verb

Stems

as,

lab-i,
fig-ere,
a.

Participle "

lap-sus.
fi-xus.
in

The same consonant changes occur

the stem as in
tlie

appending

this
^

ending -sus to
118, 3, a).

case of the Perfect ending -si (see

3.

few Verbs form the Participle in -itus

as,

doma-re, mone-re,
4.

dom-itus. mon-itus.
is

The Future Active

Perfect

Participle
;

usually identical in

its
;

stem with

the

Passive Participle

moniturus.

But

as,

ama-tus, amatiirus

monitus,

juva-re, Perf. Partic. jiitus, " lautus, lava-re, " par-ere,

has Fut. Act. Partic. juvaturus.i

"

" " "

"

" "

" "

lavaturus.
pariturus.
ruiturus.

"
" " " "

"
"

secaturus.
f ruiturus.

"
''

" "
"

moriturus.
oritiirus.
as,

"

But the compounds of

juvo sometimes have

-juturus

adjuturus.

List of the Most Important Verbs.

^Z

LIST OF

THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS WITH

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
First (A-) Conjugation.

120.

I.

Perfect
amare

in -Vi.

amo
poto

amavi

amatus

love

All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

84
II.

Inflections.

Perfect
Type

in -UI.

a.

-eo, -ere, -ui, -itus.

arced

arcere

arcui

coerceo

coercere exercere
calere

coercuT
exercui
caluT

coercitus
exercitus
caliturus

keep off hold ill check

practise
be

exerceo
caleo

warm

careo

carere

carui

cariturus

be wiihout

doleo

dolere

doluT

doliturus
liabitus

grieve

habeo debeo
praebeo
jaceo

habere debere
praebere
jacere

habui

have

debuT
praebuT
jacuT

debitus
praebitus
jaciturus
meritiis

owe
offer
lie

mereo

merere

meruT

earn, deserve

moneo
noce5
pared
placed
taced
terred

monere
nocere
parere
placere
tacere
terrere

monuT
nocuT
paruT
placuT
tacuT
terruT

monitus

advise
(est)

nocitum

injure
obey

paritOrus
placitOiais

please
be silent

taciturus
territus
valitiirus

frighten
be strong

valed

valere

valuT

Note
eged

The following lack the Participial

egere
egui

Stem

want

emined
fldred

eminere
fldrere

eminuT
fldruT

stand forth bloom

bristle

horred
lated

horrere
latere

horruT
latul

lurk

nited

nitere

nituT
olui

gleam
smell
be pale
lie

oled
palled

oiere

pallere

palluT

pated

patere

patui

open

rubed
siled

rubere
silere

rubui
silui

be red
be silent

splended
studed stuped

splendere
studcre
stupere

splenduT
studuT stupuT

gleam
study
be

amazed

timed
torped

timere
torpere

timuT
torpuT
viguT
viruT

fear
be dull

viged
vired

vigere
virere

flourish
be green

and others.

List of the Most Important Verbs.

85
System
wish
be cold
:

Note
aveo
frigeo

2.

The following are used only

avere
frige re

in the Present

immineo maereo
polled

imminere maerere
pollere

overhang

mourn
be strong

and
b.

others.

Type

-eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus).

censeo

censere

censul

census
doctus

estimate
teach

doceo
misceo
teneo

docere
miscere
tenere
;

docuT
miscui
tenui

mixtus

mix
hold

So confined and snstineo

retine5
retinere

but

retentus
retain

retinui

obtineo
torreo

obtinere
torrere

obtinui
torrui

obtentus
tostus

maintain
bake

III.

Perfect

in -SI.

augeo

86
V.

Inflections.

List of the Most Important Verbs.

tego

87

88
2.

Inflections.

Perfect in

-i

with Reduplication.
abdidi
reddidl

ab-d5
red-do

abdere
red-dere
coiido, dido,

abditus

So addd,
con-sisto
resists

perdo, prodo, trado,

cdnstiti
restiti

etc.

consistere
resistere

circumsistd

circumsistere

circumsteti
cecidi

cado
caed5

cadere

caedere

cecidi

pendo
tendo

pendere
tendere

pependi
tetendi
tutudi
fefelll

tund5
fall5

tundere
fallere

pello

pellere

pepulT
cucurri

curro

currere

parc5

parcere

pepercl
cecini
tetigl

cano
tango

canere

tangere

pung5

pungere

pupugT

List of the Most Important

Ve7'bs.

89

emo

90
tremo

Injlections.

List of the Most Important Verbs.

II.

91

Verbs

92
So other
etc.

Inflections.
prepositional

But

compounds,

perficio, perficior ;

ititerficlo,

interficior

assuefacio

assuefacere

assuefecT

assuefactus

accustom

Passive assuet'io, assuefierl, assuefactus sum.

So

also pate/acio, pate/'w ; calefacio calef'w ;

,

and

all

non-prepositional compounds.

jacio

jacere

jecT

jactus

hurl

abicio

abicere

abjecT
fodl
fCigl

abjectus
fossus
fugiturus

throw away
dig
flee

fodio
fugid
effugio

fodere
fugere
effugere

effugi

escape

IV.
I.

Verbs
Verbs

in

-SCO.
from Simple Roots.

in -sco

posco
disco

List of the Most Important Verbs.

3.

93
Inchoative

Verbs

in

-sc5 derived from Nouns, usually with

meaning.

obdOresco

obdurescere
evanescere
matiirescere

obdurul
evanui

grow hard
disappear

(durus)

evanesc5
matiiresco

(vanus)
(ere bar)

percrebresco percrebrescere percrebruT

maturul

grow fresh grow ripe

(matiirus)

obmutesco

94
II.

Inflections.

Perfect ends

in -UI.

aperid

Irregular Verbs.

95

IRREGULAR VERBS.
124.

A number of Verbs
in

are called Irregular.

The most
fio.

important are sum, do, edo, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo,

The

peculiarity of these

Verbs

is

that they

append the
the
stem,
fer-s

personal endings
instead
of

many forms
fer-is.

directly to

employing a connecting vowel, as

(2d

Sing, of fer-6) instead of

of

They

are but the relics

what was once

125.

in

Latin a large class of Verbs.

The

Inflection of

sum

has already been given.

compounds

are inflected in the

same way.

They

are

Its

various

absum
adsum desum Tnsum
intersum

arn absent afui abesse Pres. Fartic. absens (absentis), absent. avi present adfuT adesse

deesse
inesse
interesse

defuT
infuT
interfui

am lacking am in am among

praesum

a/n in charge of praefuT praeesse Pres. Partic. praesens (praesentis) present.

obsum
prosum subsum
supersum
Note.
the

obesse
prodesse
subesse
superesse
is

obfuT
profuT

hitider

am
am

of advantage
left

subfuf superfuT
of

atn at the basis of

Prosum

compounded

disappears before consonants, as

prod (earlier form of pro) and sum; prosumus, but prodestis.

of

126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compoimd pot- (for pote, abW) and sum potui is from an obsolete potere.
;

96
SINGUKAR.
Pres.

Inflectio7is.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
PLURAL.
possim, possis, possit

possTmus, possTtis, possint.

Imp.
Perf.
Pltip.

possem;
potuerim
potuissem

possemus.
potuerimus.

potuissemus.

INFINITIVE.
Pres.

PARTICIPLE.
Pres.

posse.
potuisse.

potens {as an adjective^.

Perf.

127.

Do, I give.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
do,
dare, dedi,

datus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
Pres.
do, das, dat;

PLURAL.

Imp.
Flit.

dabam,
dabo,
dedl

^/^.,-

etc.

damus, datis, dant. dabamus. dabimus.

dedimus.

Perf.
Pliip.
Flit. P.

dederam
dedero

dederamus.

h'regular Verbs.
1.

97
Thus:

The The

Passive

is

inflected regularly with the short vowel.

etc.

dari, datur, dabatur, daretiir,

2.
etc.,

archaic and poetic forms

duim, duint, interduo, perduint,

are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of simi-

lar

meaning.

128. Edo, / eat. This verb, in addition to its regular inflection, sometimes has duplicate forms in certain tenses of the Present System.
PRI.NXIPAL PARTS.

edo,

edere,

edi,

esus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.

edo
edis, es
edit, est

edimus
editis, estis

edunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp.
ederem, essem
ederes, esses
ederet, esset

ederemus, essemus
ederetis, essetis

ederent, essent

IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
Flit,

ede, es
edits, esto edito, est5

edite, este

editdte, estote

edunto

INFINITIVE.
Pres.
edere, esse

Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.

yi Sing,

editur, cstur

SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp.
1.

Tyd

Sing,

ederetur, essetur

distinguishes
2.

Observe the long vowel of the abbreviated forms, which alone them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be. Note comedo, comedere, comedi, comesus or comestus,

consume.

98
129.

Inflections.

Fero, I bear.

Irregular Verbs.

99

lOO

Inflections.

130.

Volo, nolo, malo.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.
volo,
nolo,
velle,

volui,
noluT,

to be zvilling.

nolle,

to be tinwilling.

malo,

malle,

malui,

to prefer.

INDICATIVE MOOD,
Pres.

Irregular Verbs.

lOI

131.

FT6.

fio.

fieri,

PRINCIPAL PARTS. f actus sum,

to become, be fnade.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

I02

hiflectiojis.

SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.
P?es.
earn

PLURAL.

eamus.
Iremus.
;

Imp.
Perf.

irem
Tvei'im (ierim)

iverimus (ierimus).
;

Flap.

Tvissem (iissem, Tssem)

Tvissemus (iissemus, Issemus).

Defective Verbs.

103

04
136.

Inficctions.

Fan,
is
it

to speak.

This

inflected regularly in

the perfect tenses.

In the Presei^t

System

has

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
Pres.

PLURAL.

Impersotial Verbs.
grandinat
ningit
pluit
it

105
hails

ninxit
pluit

it

snows
rains

it

II.

Special Verbs,

paenitet
piget

paenitere

paenituit
piguit

it it

repents
grieves
causes

pigere

pudet
taedet

pudere
taedere

puduit
taeduit

it
it

shame

disgusts

miseret

miserere
libere
licere

miseruit
libuit
licuit

it it

causes pity
pleases
lawfjil

libet
licet

it is

oportet

oportere

oportuit decuit

it is fitting it is it is

decet

dedecet
refert

^_

decere

dedecere
referre

dedecuit
retulit

becoming unbecoming

it

concerns

'

III.

Verbs Impersonal only

constare
praestare

in Special Senses,

constat
praestat
..^juvat

constitit
praestitit

it is

evident

it is better
it
it

juvare

juvit

delights

apparet
placet

apparere
placere

apparuit
placuit (placitum est)
accessit
accidit

appears
pleases

//

accedit

accedere
accidere

it is

faccidit
/
/

//
it

contingit

contingere
e venire

contigit

added happens happens

evenit
interest

evenit
interfuit

it //

turns out
concerns
^

interesse

IV.
Itur

The

Passive of Intransitive Verbs

lit. // is

as,
i.e.
i.e.

gone

curritur

lit. it is lit. //

run
be

ventum est veniendum

has been come

i.e.
i.e.

est

lit. // lit. it

must

come

pugnarl potest

can be fought

i.e.

some one goes some one runs some one has come somebody must come somebody can fight

Part

III.

PARTICLES.

139.

Particles are the four Parts of

viz.

Speech that do not

admit of inflection;
tions, Interjections.

Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc-

ADVERBS.
140. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have The common adverbial become stereotyped by usage.

terminations have already been given above ( yS). following Table of Correlatives is important:
Relative and Interrogative.
Demonstrative.

The

Indefinite.

ubi, where; where?

hic, here.
ibi, illlc, istic, there.

alicubi, us quam, us-

quo, whither

wliitJier ?

hue, hither.
eo, istuc, illuc,
thither.

aliquo,

piam, somewhere. to some place.

unde, whence ; whence

hinc, hence.

alicunde, from somewhere.

aliqua, by some way.
by

inde, istinc, illinc,

thence.

qua, where

where

hac, by this way.

ea, istac, iliac,

cum, when. quando, when

that way. nunc, now.

?
;

aliquando, umquam,
sometime.

turn, tunc, then.

quotiens, as ofien as

totiens, so often.

aliquotiens, so7ne
jt

how often ? quam, as much much ?

amber of times.

as

hozu

tam,

so

much.
iq6

Prepositions.

107

PREPOSITIONS.
141.

The

following

Prepositions

govern the Accusapraeter

tive :-

ad erga ad versus (adversum) extra

ante
infra

prope
propter

apud
circa
circiter

inter intra

secundum
subter super supra
trans
ultra

juxta

circum
cis

ob penes
per

citra

contra

pone
post

versus

1.

Usque

is

often prefixed to ai?, in the sense oi even]

as,

usque ad urbem, even

2.

to the city.

Versus always

follows

its

case; as,

Romam
It

versus, toward Rone.

;

may be combined with a preceding Preposition ad urbem versus, toward the city.

as,

3.

Like prope. the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super-

latives

proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative;

as,

Ubii proxime Rhenuni incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to propius castra hostium, nearer the catnp of the enemy.
142.
a,

the R/iine;

The

following Prepositions govern the Ablative

ab, abs

de
e,

sine

absque

ex

teuus

c5ram

cum
1.

prae pro
Before vowels or h. ab must be used
a,
;

A. ab. abs.

before con-

sonants we find sometimes

labials b. p, f v,
,

sometimes ab (the
c, g, q, or t)
;

latter

not before the

nor before

abs occurs only before

before conso-

t5,

and a
2.

is

admissible even there.

E, ex.

Before vowels or h,

nants,

we

find

sometimes

e,

ex must be used sometimes ex.

io8
3.

Particles.

Tenus
It
lips.

breast.

regularly follows its case, as pectoribus tenus, ttp to the sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrorum tenus, as fat-

as the
4.

Cum

is

appended

to

tlie

Pronoun of
;

tlie

First

and Second

Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun

usually also to the Relative

and Interrogative.

Thus

mecum
tecum noblscum vobiscum

secum quocum or cum quo quacum or cum qua quibuscum or cum quibus
quicum, see 89, Footnote
i

On
143.

Two

Prepositions, in

and

sub,

govern both the

Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest; as,
in
I.

urbem,

into the city;

in urbe,

/;/

the

city.

Subter and super

are

also occasionally construed with

the

Ablative.

144.
1.

Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and

Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions. many

meaning
;

of

them

still

retain their adverbial

as,

post, afterwards; ante, previously;

usually

contra, on the other hand,

2.

etc.

Conversely several
;

words,
as,

employed as prepositions

adverbs,

are

occasionally

clam, pridie, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.
3.

Anastrophe.
pronoun which
ii,

A
it

dissyllabic preposition

relative

governs

as,

sometimes follows a
he was.

quos inter

erat, tJiose

among -whom

INTERJECTIONS.

They may express

1.

145.

Interjections

are

Particles

expressing

emotion.

Surprise; as, en, ecce, 6.

2. 3.

4.

Joy as, io, euoe. Sorrow and Pain as, heu, eheu, vae, pr5. Calling as, heus, eho.
;
; ;

Part IV.
WORD-FORMATION.
I.

DERIVATIVES.

146.

Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter-

minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs,

adjectives.

nouns, or

A.
1.

NOUNS.

Nouns derived from Verbs.

denotes the agejit;
as,

147.

The

suffix -tor (-sor), Fern. -trix.

victor, victrix, victor

defensor, defeiider.
noun stems
;

Note.

The suffix -tor

is

occasionally appended to

as,

gladiator, gladiator (from gladius)

2.

The

suffix -or (originally -6s)

denotes an activity or a condi6.o\or, pain.

tion; as,
^VCLOX, love;

timor, /ear

3.

The

suffixes -tio (-sio).

Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus). Gen. -us,

as.

denote an action as in process ;

venatio,

/i!inti?ig;

obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus,

rimning.

Note.
a)

Rarer endings with the same force are:

-tura, -sura;
as,

sepultura, burial : mensura, measuring,

b)

-ium

as,

g-audium,
c)

rejoicing.

-ido, as,

cupido,

desire.

109

no
4.

Word-Formation.

The
tJie

suffixes

denote

Jiieans or place of

-men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, an action as,

;

lumen (luc-s-men), light; ornamentum, ornaiiient

sepulcrum, grave. vehiculum,

vocabulum, word;

documentum, proof;
aratrum, plough
carriage.
;

When

the root ends

in c,

the c of the suffix disappears

as,

jaculum

for

jac-culum

(from jacio).

2.

Nouns derived from Nouns.

148.

I.

Diminutives end in
-ulus,

Nouns.
4.

Adjectives.
official

ill
;

The

suffix

-atus denotes

position or honor

as,

consulatus, consulship (consul).

5.

The

suffix
tJie

-ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates

a vocation or

place where

it is

carried on

as,
;

doctrina, teaching- (doctor, teacher) medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician) sutrina, cobbler'' s shop (sutor, cobbler).
6.

daughter

Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of They have the following suffixes of.
.

a)

Masculines

-ides, -ades, -ides

as,
;

Priamides,

so)i

of

Priam; Aeneades, son of Aeneas

b)

Feminines

-eis, -is, -ias

as,

Pelides, son of Peleiis. Nereis, daughter of Nereics

Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of

Thaumas.
3.

Nouns derived from Adjectives.

-tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used nouns denoting qualities ; as,
xaa.^n.itu.6.0, greatness
;

149.

The

suffixes -tas (-itas),

for the formation of abstract

honit^s, goodness; celeritas, swiftness;

auda-

cia, boldness; divaicitisi, friendship.

B.
1.

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives derived from Verbs.

suffixes
;

150.

I.

The

-bundus and -cundus

of a present participle

as,

give nearly the force

tremebundus, trembling;
2.

iracundus, wrathful.

The

suffixes
;

-ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency.

as,

mostly a faulty one

loquax, loquacious
3.

credulus, credulous.
as,

The

suffix

-idus denotes a state;

calidus, hot
4.

timidus, timid

cupidus, eager.

The

suffixes -ilis
;

a passive sense

as,

and

-bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in

h agilis, fragile
docilis, docile.

{i.e.

capable of being broken);

112

Word-Formation.
Adjectives derived from Nouns.
a)

2.

From

Cotiunon Noims.

151.

I.

The

suffixes
;

-eus and -inus are appended to names of sub-

stances or materials

as,

aureus, of gold;
2.

ferreus, of iron

faginus, of beech.

The

suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus.

to,

-Inus, -Ivus, -ensis signify belonging

connected with

as,

oratorius, oratorical
bellicus, pertaining to
civilis, ci2>il;

legionarius, legionary;

war

regalis, regal;

paternus, paternal urbanus, of the city marlnus, marine;

aestivus, pertaining to

consularis, considar

summer

circensis, belonging to the circus.

3.

The

suffixes

-5sus and -lentus denote ///// ^jj; as,

gloriosus, glorious
;

perlculosus, /;/// of danger, dangerous

4.

opulentus, wealthy.
;

The

suffix

-tus has the force of pro%nded with

as,

barbatus, bearded;

stellatus, set with stars.

b)

From Proper Names.

take

152.
-inus
;

as,

Names

of persons

the

suffixes

-anus,

-ianus,

Catonianus, belonging to Cato

2.

Plautinus, belonging to Plauius.

;

Names

of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius

;

as,

Germanicus, German
3.

Thracius, Thracian.

Names
;

-ius

as,

of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -ensis, -aeus,

Romanus, Roman

;
;

Atheniensis, Athenian

Amerinus, of Aineria

Smyruaeus. of Smyrna

Corinthius, Corinthian.

anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desigNote. it, but not nate something stationed in the country or connected with
indigenous
;

as,

bellum Africanum, a war {of Romans with Romans) in Africa. bellum Hispauiense, a war carried on in Spain. legiones Gallicanae, {Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.

Adjectives.

Verbs.

ii3

3.

Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

;

153.

Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur

as,

parvolus,

little
little

niisellus passer, poor

sparrow;

pauperculus, needy.

4.

Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus,

154.

These end

-tinus
;

as,-

hodiernus, hesternus,
intestinus,

of to-day of yesterday
internal
long-lasting

(hodie)
(heri)
;

(intus)
(diu).

diutinus,

C.
1.

VERBS.

Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. I. Inceptives or Inchoatives. These end in -sco, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote tJie beginning of an action;
as,

labasco,

begin to totter

(from labo)

horresco,

grow rough
begi)i to

(from horreo)
(from tremo)
;

tremescd, obdormisco,
2.

tremble

fall asleep'

(from dor mio).

or energetic action.

Frequentatives or Intensives. These denote a repeated They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of tlie First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato, as we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are
jacto,

toss about,

brandish
thither

(from jacio, hurl)

curso,
volito,

run hither and

/lit

(from curro, run) (from vol6,y7j/).

as,

about

Some

double Frequentatives occur;

cantito, curslto, ventito,

b.

sivg over and over

keep rtmning about keep coining.

(canto) (curso)

agito,

set in motion, is

formed from the Piescnt Stem.

114
3.

Word-Formation.
Desideratives.

are formed from the Participial Stem,

These denote a desire to do something. and end in -urio as,

;

They

esurio,

desire to

eat.,

am

hungry

(edo)

parturio, want to bring forth,

am

in labor (pario).

2.

Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives

(Denominatives).
transitive,

156.

Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly

transitive,

those of the Second exclusively intransitive.

Fourth Conjugations are partly

ples are

Those of the Third and Exampartly intransitive.

a)

From Nouns

defraud
clothe

frauds,
vestio,
floreo,
b)

(fraus)

(vestis)
(flos).

blooin
:

From

Adjectives
libero,

free
be fierce

(ITber)

saevio,

(saevus).

D.

ADVERBS.
Participial

157. I. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Stem by means of the suffix -im as,
;

certatim,

emulously
in haste

(cert5)

cursim, statim
2.

(curro)
(sto).

immediately

Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:

rt)

With

the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim

as,

gradatim, step by step paulatim, gradually

viritim,
b)

man
;

by

man.

With

the suffix -tus

as,

antiquitus, of old', radicitus, from the roots.

)

With

the suffix -ter

as,

breviter,

briefly.

Compounds.

115

II.

COMPOUNDS.

Compounds are formed by the union of simple The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound the first member expresses
158.
I.

words.

some
2.

7nodification of this.

Vowel changes
:

Thus

b.

often

occur

in

the

process

of

composition.

a.

In the second

member

of compounds.
first

(See 7.1.)

The

final

vowel of the stem of the

pound

often appears as i where

member of the comwe should expect 6 or a

in case of

sometimes it is dropped altogether, and stems i is often inserted as,

;

consonant

slgnif er, standard-bearer tubicen, trtinipeter

magnanimus, high-minded
matricida, matricide.
159.
1.

Examples of Compounds.

Nouns:
a)

+ Noun
;

Preposition

as,

de-decus, disgrace pro-avus, great-grandfather.

b')

Noun + Verb Stem

as,

agri-cola, farmer
fratri-cida, fratricide.
2.

Adjectives
a)

+
Adjective (or

Preposition

Noun)

as,

'

per-magnus, very great sub-obscurus, rather obscure a-mens, frantic.

b)

Adjective

as, -f Noun magn-animus, great-hearted

;

miseri-cors, compassionate.
c)

Noun + Verb Stem

as,

parti-ceps, sharing;
morti-fer, deatli-dealing.

1 1

Word-Formation.
3.

Verbs:

is

The second member

a)

always a verb.

The

first

may be

A Noun
An

as,

aedi-fico, build.
b)

Adjective

as,

ampli-fico, ejilarge.
c)

An Adverb

as,

as,

niale-dico, rail at.

d)

Another Verb

warm.

cale-facio, jnake
e)

Preposition

as,

ab-jiingo, detacJi
re-fero, bring back

dis-cerno, distinguish

ex-specto, await.

Note.

Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions:

ambi- (amb-), around
dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder

por- forward red- (re-), back sed- (se-), apart from

ve-, without.
4.

',

Adverbs

These

are of various types

as,

antea, before
Ilico (in loco), on the spot

imprimis,

especially

obviam,

in the

way.

Part V.
SYNTAX.

160.

Syntax treats of the use of words

in sentences.

Chapter

I.

Sentences.
:

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
161.
1

Sentences

may

be classified as follows
state

Declarative, which

something

as,

as,

puer
2.

scribit, the boy is writing.

;

Interrogative, which ask a question

as,

quid puer
3.

scribit,

what

is

ike boy writing?

Exclamatory, which
quot libros

are in the form of an exclamation;

scribit,

how many

books he writes

4.

Imperative, which express a command or an admonition

scribe, write'.

as,

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162.

Questions

may

be either Word-Questions or Sen-

tence-Questions.
I.

Word-Questions.

These arc introduced by the various

such as

interrogative pronouns and adverbs;

quis, qui,
:

qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, etc.

Thus

quis venit, wJio comes ? quam diu manebit, how long will he stay ?
117

Il8
2.

Syntax.
Sentence-Questions.
<?)

These are introduced

'yes
'

By nonne impl3'ing the answer nonne vides, do you not see

-

as,

do you T)

b)

By num implying the answer num expectas, do you expect ?

'

;/t>

'

as,
doii't expect.,

{i.e.

you

c)

By

tlie

enclitic -ne,

appended
;

to the
as,

simply asking for information

emphatic word, and

videsne, do you see?

question introduced by -ne

;

plication from the context

as,

may

receive a special im-

sensistine, did you not perceive?

d)

Sometimes by no

special word, particularly in expressions

;

of

surprise or indignation

as,

tu in judicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare come into tJie presoice of the judges ?
3.

to

Rhetorical Questions.

Questions are sometimes

merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, tuho doubts? (= no
such
one donbts).

Double Questions are 4. Double Questions. duced by the following particles utrum an
:

; ;

intro-

-ne
. .
.

an .an.

If the

second member
:

Examples

is

negative,

annon
1

(less often

necne)

is

used.

utrum honestum est an turpe, honestumne est an turpe, honestum est an turpe,
Buntne di annon, are
a.

is it

honorable or base ?

there gods or not ?

By an

ellipsis of the first

Its force

member, an sometimes stands alone. depends upon the context; as,

gerendis abstrahit senectus. Quibus ? An quae juventute geruntur et viribus? Old age (it is From what alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits.
els

A rSbus
?

pursuits

Is

it

not merely

from

those which are

performed

by the strength of youth f

Simple and Cumpoicnd Sentences.

5.

19

Answers.
a.

The answer Yes

sane, or

is expressed by by repetition of the verb

;

ita,

as,

etiam, vero,

'visne locum
place'''

mutemus?'
'

'sane.'

'

Shall

we change

the

^Certainly.''
'

'estisne V03 legati?

b.

sumus.'

Are you envoys f

'Ves.''

The answer No is expressed by non, minime, minime vero, or by repeating the verb with a
negative
;

as,

'jam ea praeteriit?
'

'

'non.'
'

Has
'

it

estne frater intus ?

non

est.'

Is

passed f 'No? your brother within f

'

'No:

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163.

The two

essential parts of a sentence are the Sub-

ject and Predicate.

The Subject is that concernijtg which something is said, asked, etc. The Predicate is that which is said, asked,
etc.,

concerning the Subject.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164.

Sentences containing but one

called

Subject

and one
libros

Predicate are called Simple Sentences, those containing

more are
legit, tJie

Compound Sentences.
is

Thus puer
;

boy reads books,

et

a Simple Sentence
the

but puer

libros
ivrites

legit

epistulas
is

scribit,

boy reads

books

and

letters,

members
165.

of a

Compound Sentence. The different compound Sentence are called Clauses.

a

Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Clauses which Coordinate a Clause dependent upon another is called Subordinate. Thus in puer libros legit et
stand upon an equality are called
;

epistulas scribit the two clauses are Coordinate but in puer libros legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.
;

20

Syntax.

Chapter

II.

Syntax of Nouns.
SUBJECT.
{i.e.

166.

The

Subject of a Finite Verb

the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative)

native Case.
1.

is in

any form of the Nomi-

The
a)

Subject

may be
or

A Noun
puer
hic

Pronoun

as,

scribit, the boy writes

.sciibit, t/u's
;

7nan writes.

b)

An Infinitive as, decorum est pro patria

noble thing.

mori,

to die for one'^s

country

is

c)

Clause

as,

//

opportune accidit quod venistl, that you arrived.

2.

happened opportunely

A
is

Personal Pronoun as Subject

;

and

not separately expressed

as,

is

usually implied in the Verb,

scrlbo, / zvrite
a.

videt, he

sees.

But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the

expressed
;

Pronoun

is

as,

ego scribo et tu

legis,

/ write., atid you read.

when it can be easily supplied 3. The verb is sometimes omitted from the context, especially the auxiliary sum as,
;

recte ille {sc. facit), he does rightly;

consul set out.

consul profectus

{sc.

est), the

PREDICATE NOUNS.
167.

ject

A Predicate Noun is one connected with the Subby some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.
A
^
;

168.

Case

as,

Predicate

Noun

agrees with

its

Subject

in

For the Predicate Genitive see

\j\j

198, 3

203, 5.

Pi'edicatc Noims.

Appositives.

Cicero orator

f uit,

Cicero

Nunra creatus
1.

est rex, Nu7iia

was an orator was elected king.

;

When possible
also
;

in

Gender

as,

the Predicate

Noun

usually agrees with

its

Subject

philosophia est vitae magistra, pJiilosophy

2.

is

the guide

of

life.

Besides

cate

Noun
)

are
fio,

sum

the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi-

evado, exists
remain king.

maneo

videor

as,

Croesus uon semper maiisit rex, Croesus did not always

Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding,

b)

appellor, habeor

as,

etc.

as,

creor,

Romulus rex appellatus est, Romulus was called king habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.
169.
I.

An

Appositive

is

Noun

explaining or defining
or thing; as,

another

Noun denoting

the

same person

Cicero consul, Cicero, the Consul urbs Roma, the city Rome.
2.

An

Appositive agrees with

the

its

Subject in Case

as,

opera Ciceronis oratoris,

father of history.
3.

works of

Cicero, the orator;

apud Herodotum. patrem

historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the

When
;

der also

as,

possible the Appositive agrees with

its

Subject in Gen-

assentatio adjiitrix vitibxvLva, flattery, the promoter of e^nls.

4.

Locative

may

take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or

;

oppidum, with
city.

or without a preposition

as,

Corinthi, urbe praeclara, or iu urbe praeclara,

i^/

Corinth, a fatuous

5.

Partitive Apposition.

A Noun denoting a whole

;

followed by an Appositive denoting a part

as,

is

frequently

milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, the soldiers, all

the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.

122

Syntax.

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.
170.

The Nominative

is

confined to

its

use as Subject,

Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained.

166-169.

See

THE VOCATIVE.
171.

The Vocative

is

the Case of direct address

believe nie, judges.
is

as,

tu.

credite mihi, judices,

1.

By

a species of attraction, the Nominative

occasionally used
as,

for tlie Vocative, especially in poetry

and formal prose;

audi

populus Albanus. hear ye., Alban people I

2.

the Nominative
the source of

Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in as, nate, mea magna poteiitia solus, O son, alone
;

my great

power.

THE ACCUSATIVE.
172. 173.

The Accusative The

is

the Case of the Direct Object.

Direct Object
:

following relations

may

express either of the two

A.

The Person or Thing Affected by

consulem
lego librum, / read the hook.

the action

as,

interfecit, he slew the consul;

B.

The Result Produced by

templum

the action

as,

librum scrips!, / lurote a book

struit, he constructs

{i.e. produced one); a temple.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are Transitive Verbs.
a.

without
as.

Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used They are then said to be employed absolutely ; it.
est
is

rumor
son

meum gnatum

amaie,

//

is

rumored

that

my

in love.

Tlie Accusative.

123

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175.
I.

This

sative

as in

is

the most frequent

use of

the Accu-

parentes amamus, we love our parents

mare
2.

aspicit, Ae gases at the sea.

The
a)

following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind

:

are worthy of note

Many
tion,
i)

Intransitive Verbs,

become

Transitive.

when compounded Thus

:

with a Preposi-

Compounds

of circum, praeter, trans

to

as,

hostes circumstare,

surround the enemy

;

urbem praeterire, to pass by the city muros transcendere, to climb over the
2)

walls.

Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in,

sub

as,

adire urbem, to visit the city ; peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy inire magistratum, to take office subire perlculum, to undergo danger.
b)

Many Verbs

expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have

;

also a Transitive use

as,

queror fatum, / latnent my fate ; doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly So
also lugeo,

maereo, tnourn ; gemo, bemoan ; horreo,

shudder, and others.

c)

The

impersonals decet,
/'/

it

becoines

dedecet,

// is

tmbecom-

ing; juvat,
Affected
;

as,

pleases, take the Accusative of the Person

me
d)
are

decet haec dicere,

//

becomes tne to say

this.

In poetry

many
;

Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage,

employed as Middles
as,

tive as Object

( 256,

2),

and take the Accusa-

galeam induitur, he puts ott his helmet cinctus tempora hedera, having bound
ivy

his temples with

nodo

siniis collecta,

having gathered her dress in a knot.

24

Syntax.

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176.
I.

The

ordinary type of this Accusative

such expressions as

is

seen in

libruin scribo, / write a book

domum
2.

aedifico, / b/a/c^ a Jiouse.

take a Neuter Pronoun, or

Many Verbs
a)

usually Intransitive

Adjective used as an Accusative of Result.

Thus

Neuter Pronoun

as,

haec gemebat, he 7/iade these moans; illud glorior, / /nake this boast eadem peocat, he })iakes the same mistakes.
U)

Neuter Adjective,

afuoiint,

particularly Adjectives of mmiber multum, multa, omnia, pauca,

etc.; as,

01

multa dubito, / have many doubts pauca studet, he has few ifiterests ;

multum
Note. In poetry

valet, he has great strength

nihil progreditur, he jnakes no progress.

other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as,

minitantem vana, making vain threats acerba txieias, giving a fierce look ; dulce loquentem, siveetly talking.
3.

The

adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives

this

grows out of

Accusative

as,

multum sunt
a

in venatione, they are

much

ettgaged in hitnting.
-plervivaqae, generally

So

also

plurimum, very greatly;

;

aliquid, somewhat
4.

quid,

why?

nihil, not at all; etc.

Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result This is called a COGis of kindred etvmology with the Verb. NATE AccusATiVF,. and is usually modified by an Adjective as,
which
;

sempiternam servitutem serviat. let him serve an everlasting slavery vitam duram vixl, / ]ia7>e lived a hard life.
a.

Sometimes the

Co.c^nate Accusative is not of

kindred ety-

rnology, but merely of kindred

meaning;

as,

stadium currit, he runs a race Olympia viiicit, he wins an Olympic

victory.

TJie Accusative.

125

5.

The Accusative
as.

smelling;

of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting

and

piscis

mare

sapit,

tlie fish

tastes

of

tlie t/ie

sea

oratioiies antiquitatem redolent,

speeches

smack of the past.

Two
ing,

Accusatives

Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, ShowI. and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative as,
177.
;

me heredem
Here me So also

fecit, he

made me

heir.

is

Direct Object,

heredem

Predicate Accusative.

eum judicem
urbem

cepere, they took him as judge

Romam

vocavit, he called the

city

Rome;

se virumi praestitit, he showed himself a

juatt

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun as, homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders men bliftd Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc;

rates the ivisest

a.

man.

Some

Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predi-

cate Accusative.
3.

In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the

Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative; as,

urbs
a.

Roma

vocata
it.

est, the city

was

called
;

Rome.
eflBcio, for

Not

all

Verbs admit the Passive construction

reddo and

example, never take

Two
178.
I.

Accusatives

Person
of

and Thing.

Some Verbs
the

take two Accusatives, one of the

other
the

Person

Affected,

Result

Produced.

Thus

rt)

Werh?, oi requesting

3.n6.

demanding

as,

otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest me duas orationes postulas, you demand two
me.

speeches of

26

Syntax.
So also oro, posco, reposco, exposco, flagito, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative
of the Person
;

as,

opem
b)

a te posco, / demaitd aid of you.

/(?^^/^

Verbs of

(doceo and

its

compounds)
letters.

as,

te litteras doceo, I teach you your

c)

Verbs of inquiruig ;
te

as,

this

haec rogo, / ask you

te sententiam rogo, / ash you your opinion.

d)

Several Special Verbs viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneS, cogo, accuso, arguo, and a few others. These admit only
;

a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing

as,

te haec

moneo, I give you this advice; id accusas, you bring this accusation against me. id cogit nos natura, nature compels us (to) this.

me
e)

One Verb

of concealing, celo

as,

non

sermonem, / have sation from you.

te celavi

not concealed the conver-

In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,
2.

omnes

artes edoctus eat, he

was taught all accomplishments

rogatus

sententiam, / was asked my opinioti aliquid admonemur, we are given some admonition

sum

a.

Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two
179,
I.

Accusatives with Compounds.

may take two the other Verb, upon the Accusatives, one dependent upon the Preposition as,
Transitive comjDounds of trans
;

milites fliimen traducit, he leads his soldiers across the river.

2.

With other compounds

In the Passive
;

this construction

is

rare.
is

3.

retained

as,

tlie

Accusative dependent upon the preposition

militSs flumen traducebantur, the soldiers were led across the river.

The Accusative.
Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.
180.
to
I.

127

The Synecdochical

(or Greek) Accusative denotes the -part

;

which an action or quality

refers

as,

tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble ntida genu, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare manus revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.
2.

Note
a)
b)
c)

that this construction

Is

borrowed from the Greek.

confined to poetry.

Is chiefly

Usually refers to a part of the body.

Is

d)

used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. I. Duration of Tivie and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative as,
;

quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years ; hic locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hic7idred paces
away. arbores quinquaginta pedes altae, abhinc tres annos, three years ago.
2.

trees fifty feet high.

Emphasis

is

sometimes added by using the Preposition per

as,

per duos annos laboravl, / toiled t/iroughout two years.

Accusative of Limit
182.
a)
I.

of

Motion.

The Accusative

of Limit of

Motion

is

used
;

as,

With names

of Towns, Small Islands, and Peni)isiilas

Romam
Athenas

veni, f came, to

Rome;

Delum
b)

proficiscitur, he sets out for Athens perveni. / arrived at Delos.

riis
;

With domum, domos,

as,

home
;

domum
Note.
osition
;

revertitur, he returns

rus ibo. / shall go

to the country.
{i.e.

as,

When domus means house

veterem remigrare,
to

building),

it

takes a i)rep

in

domum

move back

to

an old house.

28
2.

Syntax.
Other designations of place than those above mentioned require Motion as,
;

a Preposition to denote Limit of

Ad
a.

Italiam venit, he came

is

to Italy.

The

Preposition
or
;

also

customary when the Accusatives

urbem

oppidum
as,

of a town

stand in apposition with the

name

Cirtam in urbem, to the Genevam ad oppidum,

1).

city

Cirta

to the towti

Geneva.

The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent
upon a preposition
;

as,

Thurios in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thitrii in Italy cum Acen ad exercitum venisset, when he had come to
the
3.

army

at Ace.
to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of,

To
;

used

as,

denote toward,

ad

is

ad Tarentum veni, / came to the vicinity of TarentH7n ; ad Caniias pugna facta est, a battle iv as fought near Cannce.
In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place used without a preposition to express the limit of motion as,
4.
;

may be

italiam venit, he came

5.

to Italy.

The goal notion seems

to represent the original function of the

Accusative Case.
tlie

Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in phrase infitias ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few

other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.
183.
tive, is

The
used

Accusative, generally modified by an Adjecin

Exclamations

as,

me miserum ah, wretched me O fallacem spem, oh, deceptive

Accusative as Subject of the
184.
tive
;

hope

Infinitive.

The Subject
as,

of the Infinitive

is

put

in

the Accusa-

video hominem abire, I see

that the

man

is

going away.

TJie Accusative.

TJie Dative.

129

Other Uses
185.
1.

of the

Accusative.

Here belong

Some

Accusatives which were originally Appositives

viz.

id genus, of that kind ; as, homines id genus, jiien of that kind (originally homines, id genus hominum, tnen, that

kind of men )

virile secus. niuliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex

meam

vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, bonam partem, /;/ large part maximam paitem, for the most part.
2.

etc.;

Some

phrases of doubtful origin

as,

id temporis, at that time

quod

si,

dnt if;

id aetatis, at that time

cetera, in other respects

dextrum, on

the right

laevuni, on the

left.

THE DATIVE.
186.

The Dative

case in
in

general

ex-presses

relations

which are designated and for.

English by the prepositions to

Dative of Indirect Object.

187.

The commonest
to

use of the Dative

is

to

denote the

person
I.

whom something is given,

said, or dojie.

Thus

With
;

sative

as,

transitive verbs in connection with the

Accu-

hanc peciiniam mihi datj he gives me haec nobis dixit, he said this to ns.
a.

this inoney

Some

verbs which take this construction also admit another,

particularly the verbs

dono and circumdo.

munera donavit,

Thus

Either Themistocli
Themistocles, or

he presented gifts to

Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Themistocles %vith gifts

urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or urbem muris circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls.

30
II.

Syjitax.

With many
tibi
a,.

intransitive verbs; as,

null! labor! cedit, he yields to no labor

suscenseo,

/aw

angry with y on.

help,
injure.^

Here belong many verbs signifying favor^

please, displease, trust, distrust, comtnand, obey, serve, resist,

indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, believe, persuade,

the like

as,

and

Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors

to) the
;

{i.e. is

favorable

popular party amicls confido, I trust (to) my friends ; militibus ignoscit, he pardons {i.e. grants pardon
troops

to) the

Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded {made

it

acceptable to) the Helvetians

bonis nocet qui mails parcit, he injures {does harm

the good,

to)

who
in

spares the bad.

that these verbs

Note.

It is

to

be borne

mind

do not take the Dative by

virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intrans\\r Some verbs of the same apparent Engifive, and adapted to an indirect object.
lish

equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative;

as,

juvo, laedd,

delecto.

Thus

audentes deus juvat, God

this
as,

helps the bold;

neminem

laesit, he injured no one.

b.

Verbs of
sonally
;

class are

used in the passive only imperr

tibi parcitur,

you are spared mihi persuadetur, /am being persuaded;

ei invidetur, he
is

envied.

III.

With many verbs compounded with the

ad, ante, com-,^ in,
inter,

preposisub,

tions

ob, post, prae, pro,

super,

and sometimes circum. These verbs fall into two main

I.

classes,

Many
;

rect object

become
as,

simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indic,9.pable of doing so when compounded with a

preposition

afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted;

exercitui praefuit, he was in command of the army; intersum consiliis, / share in the deliberations.
1 Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once gov2 This was the original form of the preposition cum. erned the Dative.

The Dative.
2.

13

Many

transitive verbs

which take only a direct object become

of

capable,

when compounded,

taking

Dative

also

as

indirect

object; as,

pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts

hojior befm-e inoney

spem amlcis, Labienum exercitui

inicere

/o inspire

hope in one's friends

praefecit, he put Labienus in charge of the

army.

Dative of Reference.
188.
I.

The Dative
as,

of

Reference denotes the person

it is true,

to
it

zuhovi a statement refers, of zvJioni

is

or

to

whom

of interest ;

mihi ante oculos versaris, /t"// hover before luy eyes (lit. hover before the eyes to me) illl severitas amorem non demiuuit, in his case severity did not diminish lo7>e (lit. to him severity did not diminish) ;
intercludere Ijostibus
enemy.
a.

l-*'

'

c^

commeatum,

to cut off the stipplies

of the

Note the phrase alicui interdicere from fire and ivater.

aqua

et

ig"ni, to interdict one

Note. The Dative

of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does

It is
;

not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole.

third of the

often used where,

tlie
first

according to'the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive

so in

and

above examples.

2.

Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are

a)

Dative of the Local Standpoint.

participle; as,.

This

is

regularly a

oppidum prlmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from E.).
b)

.^

Ethical Dative.

This name

is

given to tliose Dative conof the very

structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection

of the Dative with the rest of the seiitence

slightest sort
;

is

as,

tu mihi istius audaciani defendis?

that man''s audacity ?

tell

me, do you defend

quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing? quid sibi vult? wliat does he mean? (lit. wish for himself?)

132
c)

Sy7itax.

Dative of Person Judging

erit ille
{i.e. in

as,

god
to

O
I

mihi semper deus,

ke will always be a

me

my

opinion)

quae

ista servitus

tam

claro homini, how can that be

slavery to so ilUist7-ious a
d')

man

{i.e.

to his

mind)

Dative of Separation. Compounds of ab, de, ex, ad which have the general sense of taking away govern a
Dative of the person, less often of the thing;
as,

honorem detraxerunt homini, from the 7nan

away from
silici

they took

away

the honor

Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar

the king;
hie

took the tetrarchy

scintillam excudit,

struck a spark

from

the flint.

Dative of Agency.
189.
1.

The Dative

is

used to denote q^rncj^

as,

Regularly with the Gerundive;

haec nobis agenda sunt, these things must be done by us must be gone by me), mihi eundum est, / must go (lit.
/'/

a.

To

avoid ambiguity,
as,

with the Ablative

is

sometimes used with the

Gerundive;

2
2.

hostibus a nobis parcendum

est, the enemy must be spared by

us.

Much

less frequently with the

compound
;

tenses of the passn-e

voice and the perfect passive participle

as,

disputatio, quae mihi niiper habita est, the discussion which was recently conducted by me.
3.

Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive;

as,

honesta bonis

virls quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good men.

Dative of Possession.
190.
in

The Dative

of Possession occurs with the verb esse

such expressions as:

mihi est liber, / ha7'e a book mihi nomen est Marcus, / have
I
.

the

name

Afarcus.

I'ut

with
;

nomen
as,

est the

name
est

is

more commonly attracted

into the Dative

mihi

nomen

Marco.

TJie Dative.

133

Dative of Purpose.
191. The Dative of Purpose designates tJie end toward which ail action is directed or for zvhicli somcthijig exists. It is used

1.

Unaccompanied by another Dative

as,

deligere, to clioose a place for a camp ; legiones praesidio reliuquere, to leave tlie legions as a

castris

locum

guard

(lit.

for a guard) receptui canere, to sound the signal for a

2.

retreat.

Much more
:

the person a)

frequently in connection with

another Dative of

Especially with

some form of esse

as,

fortuuae tuae mihi curae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. for a care) nobis sunt odio, t/iey are an object of hatred to us cui bono? to ivJuvn is it of advantage f
b)

With other verbs

hos
tibi

as,

you for a presto the

muneri

misit, he has sent these to

ent

Pausanias Atticis venit auxilio, Fausanias came

aid of the Athenians
3.
(lit.

to the

Athenians for help).

In connection with the Gerundive; as,

decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws. me gerendo bell5 ducem creavere, me they have made leader for
carrying on the war.
Note. This
construction with the geruntiive
is

not

common

till

Livy.

Dative Awith Adjectives.

1G2.

The

use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds

its

very closely to
I.

use with verbs.

Thus

Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object

/"r/tv/^j'//,

it

occurs with

adjectives signifying:

near, related

to, etc.

as,

utifriendly, similar, tiissimilar, equal,

mihi ininiTcus, hostile to me ; sunt proximi Germanis, Ihey are next noxiae poena par esto, let the penalty

to the

Germans
damage.

be equal to the

34
a.

Syntax.
For propior
^ 141, 3-

and

proximus, with

the

Accusative,

see

2.

Corresponding
:

to the Dative of

Purpose the Dative occurs with

;

adjectives signifying

suitable, adapted, fit

as,

castris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camP; apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice.

Note.

Adjectives of this last class often take

tlie

Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.
193.
In the poets the Dative
;

direction of motion
it

as,
t/ie

is

occasionally used to denote the

clamor caelo,

shout goes heavenward

cineres rivo fluent! jace, cast the ashes toward the flowing stream.
I
.

By an

extension of this construction the poets sometimes use

li7nit

the Dative to denote the

of motion

as,

dum

Latio deos inferret, while he was bringing his gods

to L&tiutn.

THE GENITIVE.
194.

The

Genitive

is

used with Nouns, .Adjectives, and

Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

With Nouns the Genitive is the case ivhich meaning of the limited noun more closely. This
195.

defines the

relation

is

generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns
:

Genitive of Origin, Genitive of Material, Genitive of Possession, Subjective Genitive,

196.

Objective Genitive, Genitive of the Whole, Appositional Genitive, Genitive of Quality.

Genitive of Origin

as,

of Marcus.
as,

Marci
197.

fxlius, the son

Genitive of Material

talentum

auri, a talent of gold;

modius frumenti, a peck of grain.

The Dative.
198.

The

Genitive.
as,

135

Genitive of Possession or Ownership

The Geni-

domus
I.

Ciceronis, Cicero's house.

Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia.

always precedes
;

tive

as,

hominum causa, yi;;- the sake of tneii meorum amicorum gratia, /^r t/ie sake of my friends.
^
2.

Instar

(lit.

image) also takes the Possessive Genitive;

as,

equus instar mentis,

3.

a horse us large as a ijwuntain.

is

The

Possessive Genitive
;

with esse and iieri

as,

often used predicatively, especially

domus

est regis, the house

is

the king's
it is

stulti est in errore

manere,

(the part)

of a fool

to

remain in

error
'.e

bello jiidicium imperatoris est, non militum, the decision concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers.
199.

Subjective Genitive.

This denotes the person who makes

as,

jr produces something or

who has a feeling;

timores liberorum,
200.

dicta Platonis, the idler ances of Plato the fears of the children.

Objective Genitive.

This denotes the

object

of an action

or feeling; as,

metus deorum,

the fear of the gods

amor

libertatis, love of liberty

consuetude bonorum hominum,

I.

intercourse with

good
;

t)ien.

This relation

is

often expressed by

means of prepositions

as,

amor erga
201.

parentes, love toward one's parents.

Genitive of the Whole.

is

which a part
I.

taken.

It is

used

This designates the whole of

With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives,

;

Numerals

as,

Superlatives,

and Ordinal

magna pars

hoftiinum, a great part of ?Hankind

duo milia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers quis mortalium, who of mortals ?
major fratrum,
gens
the elder

of the brothers

maxima Germanorum,

the largest tribe

of the Germans;

primus omnium,

the first of all.

36
a.

Syntax.
Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or de with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam as,

fldelissimus de servis, qmdam ex amicis, certain of /us friends unus ex militibus, one of the soldiers.
b.

the most trusty of the slaves ;

In English

we

often use c/
is

In such cases the Latin

as,

where there is no relation of whole to part. more exact, and does not use the Genitive;

estis, koxv many ofyou are there ? trecenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired we, three hundred in number).

quot vos

{i.e.

of the Whole is used also with the NomiSingular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives Accusative native or used substantively also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim
2.

The Genitive
;

when used

substantively; as,

quid

tantum
minus

what purpose f much food plus auctoritatis, more authority

consili,
cibi, so

laboris, less labor

satis peciiniae, enough

money
little

parU'ta industriae, too

a.

industry.

b.

An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, nothing good. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they
limit;
as,

nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.

3.

Occasionally
;

we

A.dverbs of place

as.

find the Genitivt of the

Whole dependent upon

ubi terrarum? ubi gentium? ivhere in the world?

a.

By an

extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon pridie and postridie, but only in the phrases pridie ejus diei, on the day before that; postridie ejus diei, on the day
after that.

202. Appositional Genitive.

force of an appositive
;

as,

The

Genitive sometimes has the

nomen

regis,

tJie

name of king;

poena mortis,

the penalty of death;

ars scrlbendi, the art of writing.

203. Genitive of Quality.

tive

The

used to denote quality. Thus it is used varieties.

is

Genitive modified by an AdjecThis construction presents several

The Genitive.
1.

37

To
;

denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person

as,

or thing

magnae virtutis, a man of great virtue rationes ejus modi, considerations of that sort.
vir
a.

Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.

chiefly

2.

To

denote measure {breadtJi,

lengt/i, etc.^

as,

fossa quindecini pedum, a trencJi fifteeii feet wide {or deep) exsilium decern auuorum, an exile of ten years.

By omission of preti {price), or sorrte kindred word, tanti, 3. quanti, parvi, magni, miuoris, niiaimi, plurimi, maximi are used
predicatively to denote
iiidefi}iite

value

as,

nulla studia tantI sunt', no studies are of so much value; magni opera ejus existimata est, his assistatice was highly esteemed,
a.

Pliiris (not

strictly

an adjective) follows the same analogy.

By an extension of tlie notion of value, quanti, tantI, pluris, 4. and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote
indefinite price
;

as,

quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you ptirchase

5.

the house?

Any

of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality

;

used predicatively

as,

may be
difficulty

tantae molis erat

was

it to

Romanam coudere gentem, of so great found tJie Roman race.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204.

The

Genitive

is

used with

many
:

the extent of tJieir application.

I.

Thus
desire,

Adjectives

to limit

With

Adjectives

signifying

Jznowledge,

familiarity.^
;

me.mory, participatio)i, power, fulness, and their opposites

as,

studiosus discendi, desirous of peritus belli, skilled in war; insuetus laboris, Jinused to toil;

learning',

immemor mandati
a.

tui,

plena periculorum est vita,

ttnmindftd of your commission; life is full of dangers,

Some

participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,

diligens veritatis, fond of truth amaus patriae, devoted to one's country.

158
2.

Syntax.
Sometimes with proprius and communis
est
;

as,

viri propria est fortitudo, bravery is characteristic of a

man.

memoria
a.

communis omnium
communis

artium, met/tory

is

common

to all

professions.

proprius and

are also construed with the Dative.

3.

Cicero,

With similis the Genitive is the commoner when the reference is to living objects as,
;

construction in

f ilius

patris simillimus est, the son

is

exactly like his father.

mei

similis, like
is

me

vestri similis,

like you.
;

When
4.
is

the reference

to things,

both Genitive and Dative occur

est, death
is like sleep.

as,

mors somno

(or

somni) similis
atrox

In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives
;

extended far beyond earlier limits c5nsilii, undecided in purpose.

as,

^xAvca, fierce of temper;

incertus

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205.

The
:

Genitive

is

used with the following classes

of

Verbs

Memini, Fteminiscor, Obliviscor.

206.
a.

I.

When

referring to Persons

/recall; as,

memini takes the Genitive in the significations / bear in mind (memor sum), am mindful of, or make went ion of
but the Accusative
in the signification,

vivorum memini, /am mindful of the living; Achilles cujus supra meminimus, Achilles, of ivhom
made mention above Sullam memini, / recall
b.

Sulla.
as,

obliviscor regularly takes the Genitive;

Epicuri non licet oblivisci, we mustn''t forget Epicurus.

When referring to Things, memini, reminiscor, obli2. viscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, apparently without difference of meaning; as,
tJie mind remembers the- past meministine nomina, do you remember the names reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster; reminiscens acerbitatem, remembering the severity.

animus praeteritorum meminit,

TJie Genitive.
a.

139

But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand

in the

Accusative;

as,

haec memini, / remember this multa reminiscor, / remember many

3.

things.

The phrase mihi

(tibi,
;

<r/c.)

rQemini, takes

the Genitive

as,

in

mentem

venit, following the analogy of

civium mihi

in

mentem

venit, I remember the

citizens.

Admoneo, Commoneo, Coinmonefacio.

207.

These

verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the

as,

person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing;

te

admoneo
a.

amicitiae nostrae, / remind you of our friendship.

(in
as,

But more frequently

with the Ablative
;

Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take

de

de pectlnia
b.

me admones, you remind me of the money.

;

A
te

neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in

as,

the Accusative

hoc admoneo,

I give you this warning.

Verbs
208.
I.

of Judicial Action.

Verbs

of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take

as,

the Genitive of the charge ;

me

furti accusat, he accuses

me of

theft

avaritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice; impietatis absolutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.
2.

Verrem

Verbs of Condemning take

a.

The

Genitive of the charge

as,

the charge)
;

pecuniae pUblicae damnatus, condemned {on

of embezzlement
capitis
(lit.

public tnoney)

damnatus, condemned on a

capital charge

(lit. oti

charge involving his head).

b.

The

Ablative of

tlie

penalty

as,

capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death; mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned {to pay)

a thousand
MeansJ.

sesterces

(lit.

by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of

I40
3.

Syntax.
Note the phrases
score of one's vow)
;
:

one's

voti damnatus, voti reus, having attained

prayer

(lit.

condemned on

the

de

vi, {accused, convicted, etc.)

of assault
of murder.

inter sicarios, {accused,

convicted, etc.)

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209.
I.

The Impersonals

pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet,

affected,

piget take

the Accusative of the person

along
the

with the Genitive of the person or tiling tozvard

feeling
is

directed

as,

whom
;

pudet

me tui, I a7n ashauied ofyon (lit. it shames paenitet me liujus facti, / repent of this act eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life;
pauperum
a.

tne

ofyou)

te vaxsexet,

you pity

the poor.

Instead of the Genitive of the thing

we

often find an Infinitive or Neuter

Pronoun used as subject of the

verb.

Thus

me me
2.

paenitet hoc fecisse, / repent of having done hoc pudet, / am ashamed of this.

this

Misereor and miseresco

also govern the Genitive

the allies.

as,

miseremini sociorum, pity

Interest, Refert.
210.

With

interest,
;

consideration

viz.

it

concerns, three points enter into

a) the person concerned

b) the thing about wJiicJi
c')

he

is

concerned

the extent of his concern.

I.

211.

The person
;

the Genitive

as,

concerned

is

regularly denoted by

patris interest,
a.

//

concerns the father.

But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, mei, tui, etc., the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of
the Possessive, viz.
:

mea, tua,
it

etc.

as,

mei. interest,
Note.

concerns me.
//

But the Latin says omnium nostrum interest,

concerns us

all.

TJie Genitive.

141
is

2.

The
d)

denoted

tiling

about

zvhicJi

person

concerned

is

by a Neuter Pronoun as subject

as,

hoc
b)

rei publicae interest, this concerns the state.

Infinitive
;

by an

as,
//

omnium
c)

interest valere,
;

concerns all to keep well.

by an Indirect Question

as,

mea

interest

quando venias, / am

concerned as to when

yoii are coming.

3.

The
d)

degree of cojicern
tlie

is

denoted
.

etc
;

by

Genitive (of Quality)

interest,
it

magni, parvi,

as,

mea magni
b)

concerns vie greatly.

etc.
;

by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime,

as,

civium minimie
c)

interest,

//

concerns the citizens very

little.

by the Neuters, multum,

pliis,
//

minus,

etc.

as,

it

multum vestra
4.

interest,

concerns you tnuch.

Refert follows interest

in its construction, except that

takes the Genitive of the person.

Thus
//

rarely

mea
but rarely illius refert,
it

refert,

concerns

me ;

concerns him.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212.
I.

Verbs
;

the Genitive

as,

of Plenty

and Want sometimes govern

peciiuiae indiges, you need money.

These verbs more commonly take the Ablative ( 214, i) indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the
;

Genitive.

Potior though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes and regularly in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control of affairs.
2.
takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust
: ;

In poetry

some verbs

take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,

desine querellarum, cease your complaints operum SO\\lX\, freed from their tasks.

42

Syntax.

THE ABLATIVE.
213.

The Latin Ablative

unites in itself three cases which

were originally

distinct both in form

and

in

meaning

vie.

The Ablative or from-case. -The Instrumental or with-case.

The Locative
or where-case.
fall

The
uses.

uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly

uses,

into

Genuine Ablative

Instrumental uses, and Locative

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.
214.

The Ablative

of Separation

is

construed sometimes

with,
I.

sometimes without, a preposition.

The
:

following words

preposition

regularly

take

the

Ablative witiiout

a)
d)

The Verbs oifreeitig : libero, solvo, le v6 The Verbs of depriving privo, spolio, exuo, fraudo,
;

c)

d)

nudo The Verbs ol lacking: egeo, careo, vaco The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus,
;

nudus, and some others of similar meaning

Thus

freed from cares

;

ciiris liberatus,

Caesar hostes armis exuit, Caesar stripped their arms caret sensu communi, he lacks common sense
auxilio eget, he needs he/p
;

the

enemy

of

bonorum
Note
larly
i.

vita vacua est metu, the

life

of the good

is

free

from fear

Yet Adjectives

and libero may take the preposition ab,

;

so with the Ablative of persons

as,

regu-

urbem a tyranno
Note
2.

liber&runt, fhey freed

the city frotn the tyrant.

Indigeo usually takes the Genitive.

See

212,

i,

a.

The Ablative.
2.

143
remove, to withdraw, some
often admits both

Of Verbs

signifying to keep

from,

to

take the preposition, others omit

constructions.

Examples

it.

The same Verb

,

abstinere cib5, to abstain from food; hostes fiuibus prohibiierunt, they kept the enemy from their borders praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.
3.

Other Verbs

of separation usually take the

Ablative with a Prepas,

osition, particularly

compounds
te,

of dis-

and se-

dissentio a

secernantur a nobis,

I dissent from yoii; let them be separated from

lis.

Ablative of Source.
215.

The Ablative

of Source

is

used with the participles

as,

natus and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and
others), to designate parentage or station
;

some

Jove natus, son of Jupiter

summo
1.

loco natus, high-born

(lit.

born

from a very
ex;
as,

high place')

nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family

Pronouns regularly (nouns

rarely) take

ex me
2.

natus, sprung from me.

To

denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriunduS (with or

is

without ab),

used

as,

ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from

Ablative of Agent.
216.

Ulysses.

The Ablative accompanied by

est, he

a (ab)

is

passive verbs to denote the personal agent ; as,

a Caesare accusatus
1.

used with

was arraigned by Caesar.

and abstract nouns when

Collective nouns referring to persons,

personified,

may be construed

as the personal agent.

Thus

hostes a fortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by l-'ortune a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the mountaitis were held by a multitude of tJie enemy.
2.

Names
3,

of animals sometimes admit the

same

construction.

Thus

canibus laniatus

est, he was torn to pieces by

do_^s.

144

Syntax.
Ablative of Comparison.

217.

1.

The Ablative
than;
as,

in the sense of

rule,

is

often used with Comparatives

melle dulcior, sweeter than honey ; patria mihi vita carior est, my country
2.

is

dearer to

me than

life.

This construction, as a
as,

occurs only as a substitute for

{than) with the Nominative or Accusative.

be used

In other cases

quam quam must

tui studiosior

sum quam
1116

Studiosior
3.

illius, / am fonder of yojc than of him. would have meant, I am fonder ofyou than he is.

Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv-

alents of pliis

quam, minus quam,

etc.

Thus

amplius viginti urbes incenduntur, more than twenty

fired

cities

are

minus quinque milia

4.

processit, he advanced

less
as,

than five

tniles.

Note the use of opinione with Comparatives;

opinione celerius venit,

he comes more quickly tkqn expected

(lit.

luun opinion).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.
218.

The Ablative
as,

is

used to denote means or instruAlexander was wounded, by an

ment ;

Alexander sagitta vulneratus

arrow.

est,

There are the following

I
.

special varieties of this Ablative

take

tjtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor,

;

the Ablative

as,

and

their

compounds

divitiis utitur,

Jie

uses his

wealth

(lit.

he benefits himself by his

wealth)

vita fruitur, he enjoys

life (lit.

he enjoys himself by
(lit.

life)

munere fungor, I perform my duty

I busy myself with duty)

carne vescuntur, they eat flesh {\\\.. feed tJtemselvcs by means of) ; urbe potitus est, he got possession of the city (lit. made himself powerful by the
a.

city) the Genitive.

Potior sometimes governs

See

2\'2.,

2.

TJie Ablative.

145

2.

With opus est

(rarely

usus

est), tJiere is tieed ; as,

duce nobis opus

a.

est,.'we

need a leader.

Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with

as predicate.

opus

Thus

hoc mihi opus

b.

est, this is necessary

for me.

An

ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject.

is

Thus dux
opus

nobis opus est

c.

a rare form of expression.

usfe

Note the occasional est as,

;

of a perfect passive participle with

opus est properato,

3.

there

is

need of haste.

With

nitor, innixus,

and fretus

as,

uititur hasta, he rests on a spear

(lit.

supports hiinself by a spear)

fretus virtute, 'relying on virtue

4.

(lit.

supported by virtue).
consist of; as,

With contineri, consistere, constare,

nervTs et ossibus coutinentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones) ; mortal! consistit corp^re mufidus, the u/orld consists of mortal substance
5.
(lit.

holds together by
;

means
as,

of, etc.).

With miscere and nautare

mella vino miscere, to mix honey with wine; pacem bello mutant, tJiey change peace for war
6.

(lit.

with war).

In expressions of the type

? (lit.

quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this man f quid mea Tulli61a fiet, what will becoiue of my dear Tullia
will be done with her ?)
7.

what

In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary

:

English idiom

proelio contendere, vincere,

proelio lacessere,
to

to contend,

conquer in battle;
to toil;

provoke to battle ; assuetus (assuef actus) labore, accustomed

currii vehi, to ride in a chariot

pedibus

Ire, to

go on foot
play ball

tibiis (fidibus) canere, to play the /lute (lyre);

pila ludere,

/('

castris se tenere, to keep in

camp

and some

others.

46
8.

Syntax.

With Verbs

oi Jilling

2iX\6.

Adjectives oi plenty

as,

fossas virgultis complerunt, they filled the trenches with brush.

a.

But

plenus more commonly

'

takes the Genitive.

See of

204,

i.

9.

Under
;

which

as,

Means

'

belongs

also

the

Ablative

the

way

by

vinum Tiber! devectum, wine brought down

ID.

{by) the Tiber.

:

The means may be

a person as well as a thing.

Thus

militibus a lacu (i.e. by means

Lemanno ad raontem Juram murum

of) his troops he runs a wall

perducit, with from Lake Geneva to Mt. yura.

Ablative of Cause.
219.

The

Ablative

is

used to denote cause

as,

delector,

multa gloriae cupiditate

love of glory.

fecit, he did

many

things on account of his

1 So especially with verbs denoting mental states gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido. Also with
;

as,

as,

contentus
{i.e.

fortuna amici gaudeo, /

rejoice at the

fortune of

my

friend

on

account of it) ; victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory
natilra loci confidebant,
they

trnsted in the character

of their

country
a.

(lit.

were confident on account of the character).

{\ 187, II. d)\

fido and confido always take the Dative of the person sometimes the Dative of the thing.

2.

As

Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives

as jussu, by order

of injussu, rogatii,

etc.

Ablative of Manner.
220.

The Ablative

ner ;

as,

with

cum
lie

is

used to denote mari-

cum
1

gravitate loquitur,

speaks with dignity.

the Ablative
is

The

preposition
;

by an adjective

as,

may be omitted when

modified

magna
2.

gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.

is

The

preposition

regularly omitted in the expressions jiire,

injuria, joco. vi, fraude, voluntate, fiirto, silentio.

The Ablative.

I47

A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in ac3. cordance tvith which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done. Thus It is generally used without a preposition.
:

mea

sententia, according to my opinio7i ; suis moribus, in accordance with their custom sua sponte, volutitarily, of their'own accord

ea condicione, on

these ten/is.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221.

The

Ablative

is

often used to denote an attcridant

;

circumstance of an action or an event

as,

bonis auspiciis, under good auspices nulla est altercatio clamoribus umquam habita majoribus, no
debate was ever held binder circumstances of greater applause; exstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance.

Ablative of Accompaniment.
222.

The Ablative
as,

niment ;

with

cum

is

used to denote accompa-

cum cum
I.

comitibus profectus

est, he set 07tt with his attendants

febri rediit, he returned with a fever.

In military expressions the Ablative

may
;

stand without
as,
;

when modified by any

adjective except a numeral

cum

omnibus

copiis, ingenti exercitu,

magna manu

but always

cum

exercitu,

cum duabus

legionibus.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223.

The Ablative

is

used with comparatives and words

Infra,
;

involving comparison (as post, ante,

supra
as,

surpass) to denote the degree of difference

superare,

dimidio minor, smaller by a half; tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher paulo post, a little afterwards quo plura habemus, eo cupimus ampliora, more ive want.
;

the

more we have, the

148

Syntax.
Ablative of Quality.

224.

The

Ablative, modified by an adjective,

as,

denote quality ;

is

used to

puella exiniia forma, a girl of exceptional beauty vir singular! industria, a man of singular industry.
1

The Ablative

of Quality

may

also be used predicatively

as,
;

est magna prudentia, /le is {a man) of great wisdom bonoanimo sunt, //ley are of good courage.
2.

In place of the Adjective

we sometimes

find a limiting Genitive

as,

bull.

sunt specie et colore tauri,

3.

they are of the appearance

and

color

of a

In

all

of Quality takes the place of the Ablative ol Quality.

numerical designations of weight, value, dimension, etc., the Genitive See 203. 2.

Ablative of Price.
225.

With verbs

of buying
;

nated by the Ablative

as,

and

selling,

price

is

desig-

servum quinque minis

1.

emit,

/le

bought the slave for five minae.

The

Ablatives

magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo (by omission

;

of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price

as,

-
price.

aedes magno vendidit, he sold

2.

the house

for a high

For the Genitive of Indefinite

Price, see 203, 4.

Ablative of Specification.
226.

The

Ablative of Specification
is

is is

used to denote
done;
as,

that in respect to ivhich something

or

Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians surpassed all the Gauls iti valor pede claudus, lame in his foot.
1.

Note the phrases

(lit.

major minor
2. Here indignus
;

natii, older

greater as to age);

natii, younger.

belongs
as,

the

use

of

the

Ablative

with

dignus

and

digni lionore, worthy of honor fide indigni, unworthy of confidence.

TJie Ablative.

149

Ablative Absolute.
227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically indeIn its commonest pendent of the rest of the sentence. form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a

participle

as,

urbe capta, Aeneas

fled
1.
(lit.

fugit, zvheti the city

had

been captured.

Aeneas

the city

having been captured).

Instead of a participle

we

often find an adjective or erat, while Caesar

;

noun

as,

vivo Caesare res publica salva

state zvas safe
(lit.

was

alive the

Caesar being alive)

TarquiniS rege, Pythagoras in Italian! venit, in the reign of Tarquin Pythagoras came into 'Italy (lit. Tarquin being king) Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus
Ponipey
2.

and Marcus

Crassus.
is

The

Ablative Absolute

generally used in Latin where in

English we employ subordinate clauses. may correspond to a clause denoting

Thus the Ablative Absolute

a)
b)

Time, as in the foregoing examples. Condition as,

;

omnes
lie

virtutes jacent, voluptate dominante, all virtues

prostrate, if pleasure
;

is

master.

c)

Opposition
perditis

as,

virtiis se

omnibus rebus,

sustentare potest,

though everything
herself.

else is lost,

yet Virtue can maintain

d)

Cause
niillo

as,

since

adversante regnuni obtinuit,

no one opposed

him, he secured the throne.

e)

Attendant circumstance

as,

passis palmis

pacem

petiverunt, with hands outstretched

they sued for peace.

3.

An

Infinitive or clause

sometimes occurs
;

lute construction in

Livy and later writers

fiigisse,

as,

in the Ablative

Abso-

audits
4.

eum

when

it

was heard that

he

had fled.

noun or pronoun stands

it it

in the

Ablative Absolute construction

only
in

when

denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause

which

stands.

Exceptions to

this principle are

extremely rare.

150

Syntax.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.
A. Place where.
228.

The

place where
;

is

regularly denoted by the Ab-

lative ivith a preposition

as,

in urbe habitat,
I.

Jie

dwells
the

i>i

the city.

But certain words stand

;

sition

viz.

in

Ablative witliout

prepo-

a)

Names

of

towns,

Second Declensions

except
;

Singulars

of the

First

and

as,

Carthagine, at Carthage', Athenis, at Athens

Veils, at
b)
Veii.

The
fied

general words loco, locis, parte, also

many words modi;

by totus or even by other Adjectives

as,

hoc loco,
c)

at this -place

totis castrls, in the whole camp.

The

special

words

foris, out

of doors;

riiri,

in the country;

terra marique, on land

and sea.

d)

The

poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot;

ing place

as,

stant litore puppes, the ships rest on the beach.

B. Place from which.

229.

"^

Place

from which

is

regularly
as,

denoted by the

Ablative zvith a preposition ;

ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy; ex urbe rediit, he returned frotn the city.
I.

But certain words

;

sition

viz.

stand

in

the Ablative without

a prepo-

j "

a)

Names

Roma
1

of towns and small islands as, profectus est, he set out from Rome;
;

Rhodo
gake of convenience.

revertit, he returned from Rhodes.

strictly

Place from which, though

a Genuine Ablative use,

is

treated here for

.J

The Ablative.
b')

151

domo, from

/io//ie
;

rure,

c)

F'reely in poetry

as,

from

the country,

Italia decessit,
1.

//<?

withdre^v froin Italy.

With names

of towns,

ab

is

used to mean fro/n the vicinity

is

of,

jr to

denote the point whence distance

measured ;

as,

a Gergovia discessit, he ivithdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia. a Roma milia aberat, lie was ten miles distant from Rome.

Urbe and oppido, when

standing in apposition with a town name,

;

are accompanied by a preposition

as,

Curibus ex oppido Sabinorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines.

Ablative of Time.
A.
230.

Time
is

at which.

The Ablative

used

to

denote

the

time

at

ivhich; as,

quarta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour ann5 septuagesimo consul creatus, elected consul in
year.
1.

his seventieth

Any word

struction, particularly

denoting a period of time may stand in this conannus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora,
{the

comitia {Election Day), ludl

2.

Games),

etc.

Words

not

denoting time require the preposition in, unless

accompanied by a modifier.
but
3.

Thus

in pace, in peace;

in bello, in
in the second

war;

secundo bello Punico,

Punic War.
senectiite take'

Expressions like in eo tempore, in

summa

the preposition because they denote situation rather than time.

B. Time within which.

231.

Time

witJiin

which

is

denoted by the Ablative

;

either with or without a preposition

Stella Saturni trigintt annis

as,

cursum

conficit, the planet Saturn

;

completes

its orbit

within thirty years

ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year.

I.

Occasionally the Ablative denotes

a'/-(j//? (7/'/^w<',-

as,

biennio prosperds res habuit, for two years he had a prosperous administration.

A-

152

Syntax.

THE LOCATIVE.
232.

words
1

The Locative

case occurs only in the following

Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands

first

of the

and second declensions,

at

to

denote the place in which

Corinthi, ai Corijith

as,

Romae,

Rome
Rhodi,

ai Rhodes.

2.

In the following special forms

hum!, on
the ground]

domi,

at

home;

belli, in

war

militiae, in

war

vesperi, at evening;
3.
one'^s

heri, yesterday.
lit.

Note the phrase pendere animi,

to

be in

suspense in

4.

mind. Consonant Stems occasionally form a Locative

in -1; as,

Lacedaemoui,

at

Sparta

Carthagini, at Carthage

Tiburi, at Tibnr.

Chapter
233.
I.

III.

Syntax of Adjectives.
is

The word
Subject.

with which an Adjective agrees

called
2.

its

Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.

is

An

Attribu;

tive Adjective

one that

limits its subject directly

as,

vir sapiens, a wise

man

A Predicate Adjective
the

is

one that

limits its subject

;

medium

of a verb (usually esse)

as,

through

vir est sapiens, the

man

is

wise

vir videbatur sapiens, the man seemed wise vir judicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise.
3.

Participles

and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of

Adjectives.

Agreevient of Adjectives.

153

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
234.
limits

Agreement with One Noun.

one noun
it

When
in

agrees with

it

an Adjective Gender, Number,

and Case.
1.

Two

Adjectives in the Singular

as,

prima et vicesinia
2.

Predicate

may limit a noun in the Plural; and twentieth legions. Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject
legioiies. the first
as,

is

Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing;

mors

est

miserum, death

is

a wretched thing.

235.

Agreement with Two

A.

or

More Nouns.

AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
Adjective
is

1.

When the

Attributive,
;

in

number with

the nearest noun

as,

it

regularly agrees

pater tuus et nxaXer, yonr father and mother eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.
2.

When
;

Plural

as,

B.

the Adjective

is

Predicative,

it

is

regularly-

pax

et

Concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.

AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.
is

1.

When

the Adjective

Attributive,
;

in

gender with the nearest noun

as,

it

regularly agrees

res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of )nuch effort

2.

and labor.

When
d)
If

the Adjective

is

Predicative

captured.
is

the nouns are of the

as,

same gender, the Adjective agrees

with them in gender;

pater et

filius capti swnt, father

and son were

Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective frequently Neuter as,
;

more

stultitia et timiditas fugienda

mi/st be

%\xxi.t,

folly

and cowardiu

shunned

54
b)
If the

Syntax.
nouns are of
different

gender

then,

is

a)
line
;

In case they denote persons, the Adjective

as,

Mascu-

pater et mater mortui sunt, the father a7id /nother have

died.
j3)

In case they denote things, the Adjective

as,

is

ter

Neu-

honores et victoriae fortuita sunt, honors and

are accidental.
y)

victories

In

case they include both

is,

Adjective
aa)

persons and things, the

Sometimes Masculine

as,

and
children

domus, uxor,

liberi invent! sunt, home, wife,

are secured.
(3/3)

Sometimes Neuter

as, to

parentis, liberSs, fratres vilia habere,

children, brothers, cheap.

hold parents,

yy)

Sometimes

it

agrees with the nearest noun

as,

populi provinciaeque liberatae sunt, nations and provinces luere liberated.

c)

jective does not agree with a

Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Adnoun according to strict gram;

matical form, but according to sense

as,

pars bestiis objecti sunt, part (of the meti) were thrown
to beasts.

ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.

236.
I.

Plural

Adjectives

used

Substantively.

Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter

denotes things

as,

docti, scholars
mall, the wielded;

parva, small

thinj^s

magna,
;

i^reat things

Graeci, the Greeks

utilia, useful things

nostri, our men.

Adjectives used Substantively.

155

Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the 2. Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnorum, omnium magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity yet
;

where there

is

no ambiguity, they sometimes occur

to

as,

parva componere magnis,

Otherwise the Latin says
:

compare small things with great.

rebus,
etc.

maguarum rerum, magnis

237.

Singular Adjectives used Substantively.

Ad-

jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin-

gular than in the Plural.

1

Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use

as,

probus invidet nemini,

a.

the honest

man

envies nobody.
is

Usually vir,

homo,

or

some

similar

word

employed

as,

doctus, a scholar vir Romanus, a Roman.

b.

homo

But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so

used
;

as,

hie doctus,

this scholar;

doctus quidam, a
2.

certain scholar.
as,

Neuters are likewise infrequent

verum, truth
justum. justice

honestum,
a.

virtue.
is

This substantive use of Neuter Singulars

struction of the Genitive of the

commonest

in the conas,

Whole, and

after Prepositions;

aliquid veri, something true nihil novi, tiotlitiig new

in

medio,

in the midst.

238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others whicli

have become nouns

as,

adversarius, oppo)ient
aequalis, contemporary
;

hiberna, winter quarters

propinquus,

relative

amicus, friend cognatus, kinsman

socius, partner
;

sodalis, comrade
etc.

vicinus, neighbor;

156

Syntax.

ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.

239.
lish

The Latin

often uses an Adjective where the Engas,

idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase;

fuit

senatus frequens convenit, //le senate assembled in great tiumbers assiduus mecuni, /le was constantly with 7?ie.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

240.
I.

The Comparative

often corresponds to the English Positive

)

with 'rather,' ^somewhat,' ^too*

as,

senectus est loquacior, old age

2.
'

is

rather talkative.
to

So the Superlative often corre.sponds

'

very

as,

the

Positive with

vir fortissimus, a veiy brave !nan.

3.

Strengthening "Words.
force of
'

Vel and quani

'

are often used with

'

the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of

and quani with the

as possible

as,

vety,''

vel niaximus, the very greatest quani maximae copiae, as great forces as possible.
4.

Phrases of the type

;

'

in both

members as, exercitus erat ditior

mo>'e rich than brave

'

regularly take the Comparative

quam

fortior, the army was more rich than brave.

OTHER PECULIARITIES.
241.
chiefly
I. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an primus, extremiis, sunimus, niedius, infimus, imus
;

object,

as,

summus mons,
extrema
2.

tJie
///

top of the >noiintain

the last

liieme,

part of the winter.

are frequently equiva-

Prior, primus, ultinius, and

;

lent to a relative clause

as,

postremus
the first
last

primus earn

vidi, /

was

ultimus decessit, he was the

3.

who saw her who withdrew.

;

When multus
generally used
;

and another adjective both

as,

et

is

limit the

same noun,

multae et magiiae cogitationes, many {and) great

thoughts.

Personal Pronouns.

Possessive

Pronouns.

157

Chapter IV.

Syntax

of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
242.
I.

The Personal Pronouns

as subjects of verbs

are, as a rule, not

expressed except for the purpose of

empliasis, contrast, or clearness.

Thus
aitiat,

ordinarily

video, I see;
But ego te video, at tu
2.

he loves.

me

vides, I see you,

and you

see ie

The
;

Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestri are used only as Obiective

Genitives

nostrum and vestrum

as Genitives of the Wliole.

Thus

mem or
nostrum

tui, n'iidfid

of you

',

desiderium vestri, longing for you nemo vestrum, no one ofyou.

a.

',

But

and

vestrum

are regularly used in place of the Pos-

sessive in the phrases

omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.

Pronouns
we.'
object, the Latin does not

3.

The

First Pkiral

is

often used for the First Singular of

'

and Verbs.
4.

Compare

the Eng. editorial

When

two Verbs govern the same

is

use a pronoun with the second, as

virtiis amicitias conciliat et

the rule in English.

Thus

ships

and maintains them

conservat, virtue establishes friend(not eas conservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
243.
I.

The

Possessive Pronoun.s, as a rule, are not

for the purpose of clearness.
,

employed except

Thus

patrem amo, / loi'e my father de filii morte f\.e^a.s, you wept for
But

the death of your son.

de morte
a.

filii

mei

flebas, /<? wept for the death of

my

son.

When

sessive usually stands after

cate emphasis or contrast,

expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the posbut in order to indiits noun
;

it

precedes;

as,

sua

manu

liberos occidit, with his

sententia,

own hand he

slew his

children

mea quidem

/;/

jny opinion at least.

Syfitax.

Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of 2. an Objective Genitive as,
;

metus vaster, fear of yon deslderium tuum, longing for you.

3.

For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsius or ipsorum,

ipsius opera, by my own help ; nostra ipsorum opera, dy our own help;

in

apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,

mea
a.

So sometimes

other Genitives; as,

mea

iinius opera, by the assistance of me alone.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
244.
I.

The

Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive

:

Reflexive suus have a double use

1.

They may
se amant,

refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or

subordinate) in which they stand,

tliey

'

Direct Reflexives

'

as,

hwe

tliemselves
his

suos amicos adjuva^ he helps

own friends

eum
II.

oravT, ut se servaret, / besought him to save Jiimself.

in a subordinate clause

They may stand

and
'
;

refer to the sub-

ject of the principal clause,

'

Indirect Reflexives
to

as,

me

oravit ut se defenderem, he besought me

,

defend him

(lit.

thai

me

I defend himself) oraverunt, ut fortunarum suarum defensionem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes.
a.

The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.

2.

The

Genitive sui
e.g.

is

regularly employed, like

s\ii,

mei and

tui, as
it

an

Objective Genitive,
sionally occurs

oblitus
in

particularly
;

forgetful of himself ; but

occa-

post-Augustan writers
sui,
lie

in place of the

Possessive suus
3.

as,

fruitur

fama

e>ijoys his

own fame.

Se and suus
se amare,

are sometimes used in the sense, one's self one's

is

mun, where the reference

not to any particular person

as,

to love one's self;

suum genium

propitiSre, to propitiate one's

own genius.

Reciprocal Pronouns.
4.

Demonstrative Pronouns.
;

159
etc.

Suus sometimes

occurs in the meaning his own, their own,

as,

referring not to the subject but to an oblique case

Hannibalem
a.

sui cives e civitate ejecerunt, his

own

fellow-citizens

drove out Hannibal.

This usage

is

particularly

frequent

in

combination with

quisque

as,

suus quemque error vexat.

5.

Ids ozvn error troubles each.

The

Reflexives for the

first

and second persons are supplied by

;

the obhque cases of

ego and tu

( 85)

as,

vos def enditis, j/i defend yourselves.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
245.
I.

The
;

Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun {'each

:

other''),

but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases

inter nos, inter

vos, inter se

as,

Belgae obsides inter se dederunt,

ages
(lit.

the Belgae

gave each other

host-

amamus
a.

inter

among themselves') nos, we love each other

that the Object
is

Galli inter se cohortati sunt, the CituIs exhorted eah other.

Note
not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Hie,
246.
I.

Ille, Iste.

Where hie and

two
objects,

ille are

used in contrast, hlc usually refers

to the latter of
2.

an d

ille to the

forme r.
;

Hlc and

ille are often

used

in the sense of ' the following''

as,

Themistocles his verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter {couched) in the following words illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, / -understand tins, that the faces of all are turned toward me.
3.

Ille often

means

the

famous

as,

Solon

ille,

the

famous Solon

4.

Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste hqva.6, that fellow

The above pronouns, along vi^ith is, are usually attracted to the 5. gender of a predicate noun as, hic est honor, meminisse officium suum, this is an hjuor, to be mindful of one's duty.
;

i6o

Syntax.
Is.

247.

Thus

I.

Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui.

Maximum, eum
mail
a.

qui Tarentum recepit, dilexi, / loved MaxiJims, the

who

retook Tarentiun.
is

Closely akin to this usage

as,

is in the sense of sjtch

talis)

non sum

is

qui terrear, /

am

not such a person as to be

frightened.
b.

Note the phrase id quod, where id stands an entire clause as,

;

in apposition with

non suspicabatur
ivhich he will
left.

(id

quod nunc
that

sentiet) satis multos

testes nobis reliquos esse, he did not suspect (a tiling

now perceive)

we had witnesses enough

Yet

quod

alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in

this use.
2.

Is also in
'

all
'

cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third

//,'
'

person,
3.

he^

'

she,''

they,''

'

them.''

When

the English uses 'that

of

those
;

of the noun, the Latin omits the

pronoun

as,

of

to avoid repetition

in exercitu Sullae at postea in Crassi fuerat, he

had

been in the

of Crassns ; niillae me fabulae delectant nisi Plauti, no plays delight me except those of Plant us.
in that
4.

army of Siilla and afterward

Note the phrases et

is,

et

ea,t'/t".,

in the

sense

and that too',

as,

vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment,

and

that too permanently.

Idem.
248.
I.

idem

in apposition with the subject or object often has

the force of also, likewise; as,

quod idem mihi

the

contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which, same tJiins^ ) ; bonus vir, quern eundem sapientem appellamus, a good man, whom

we
2.

call also wise.

tiie

For Idem atque (ac),

same

as, see 341,

i, c.

Demonstrative Pronouns.

Relative Pronouns.

i6i

Ipse.

249.
text
;

as,

I.

Ipse,

literally self, acquires its special force

from the con-

eo ipso die, on that very day ad ipsam ripam, ctose to the bank
ipso terrore, dy niere frigJit valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, the doors opened of their own accord; ipse aderat, he was present in person.
2. Tlie reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the

reflexive,

more commonly agrees with the subject;

as,

secum
3.

ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves

se ipse continere

non

potest, he cannot contain himself.

Ipse

is

also used, as

an Indirect Reflexive
;

marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity as, Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen. ea molestissime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa contracta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have
been brought about by their
others).

for the

purpose of

own fault

(as

opposed

to the fault of

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
250.
its

Agreement,
in
its

antecedent

determined by
stands
;

as,

The Relative Pronoun agrees with i. Gender and Number, but its case is construction in the clause in which it

mulier quam videbamus, the womaji who7n we saw bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.
2.

Where

the antecedent

is

compound, the same

principles for

number and gender

pater et
filius,

prevail as in case of predicate adjectives

similar conditions (see 235, B, 2).

Thus

under

stultitia et timiditas

qui capti sunt, the father and son who were captured quae fugienAasunt, folly and co^cardice zahich
victories

must be shunned honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and

are accidental.

which

62
3.

Syntax.

The

Relative

regularly agrees with a

of its
t/ie

predicate
;

noun

(either

Nominative or Accusative) instead

career,

antecedent
prison,

as,

quae lautumiae vocantiir,

luJiicli is

called Laii-

titmiae

Celtae, quae est tertia pars,

l/ie Cells,

ivho are the third part.

4. Sometimes the Relative takes meaning of its antecedent as,

;

its

gender and number from the

pars qui bestiis object! sunt, a part {of the men) who were thrown
to beasts.
5.

Occasionally the Relative

;

is

attracted into the case of

its

ante-

cedent

as,

natus eo patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said.

251.

Antecedent.
;

I.

sometimes omitted

as,

The antecedent
est, he

of the Relative

is

qui naturam sequitur sapiens

2.

who

follows Nature

is

wise.

The antecedent may be

an adjective)
;

rarely

as,

implied in a possessive pronoun (or

nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who remained; servili tumultu. quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, at the uprising of the slaves,

(servili
3.

whom = servorum).
is

experience

and

discipline assisted

Sometimes the antecedent

{routes^.

repeated with the Relative: as,

erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which

4.

antecedent
a)

Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. Thus is often incorporated in the relative clause.
:

let

The

When the relative clause stands first quam quisque novit artem in hac
When
the antecedent
is

as,

each

se exerceat,

one practice the branch which he knows.

b)

an appositive

as, from
the borders of

non longe a Tolosatium

the I'olosates,
c)

finibus absunt, quae civitas

in our province.

est in provincia. thcv arc not far

a state which
is

is

When

the logical antecedent

a superlative; as,

Themistocles de servis

suis,

quern habuit fidelissimum

misit, Tliemistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.

Relative Prono2ins.
d)

Indefinite Pronouns.

is

163

In expressions of the type

qua

es prudentia
prjideiice
(lit.

quae tua est prudentia, such of wliicli prudence you are; which
;

yojir

is

your

prjidence)

the boy

The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus I saw must be puer queni vidi. 6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as, quo factum est, by this it happened quae cum ita sint, since this is so quibus rebus cognitls, when these things became known.
5. 7.

The
;

Relative

introducing

a
is

subordinate

clause

may belong
it

grammatically to a clause which

duces
as,

subordinate to the one

intro-

numquam

digne satis

laudarl

philosophia

poterit,

cui

qui

pareat,

omne tempus
life

aetatis sine niolestia possit degere,

philosophy can nei'er be praised enough, since he

can pass all his

etci).

without annoyance

(lit.

he

who obeys her who obeys which,

Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordi;

nate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
252.
I.

Quis, any one,

is

the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands

usually in combination with

SI

si, nisi.

ne.

num

as.

quis putat, if any one thinks.

2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usuall3tto the English some one, somebody, some; as,

nunc aliquis dicat mihi. 7iow let somebody tell me: utinam modo agatur aliquid. oil that somethijig may
3.

be done.
as,

Quidam, a

certain one, certain

is still

more

definite than aliquis

homo quidam. a
a.

man
as,

(i.e.

one 7vho)n I Jiave in mind').

if)
is

Quidam
sense
:

(with or without
of,

a sort

khid of;

quasi, as

sometimes used

in the

quaedam
mors
as
it

cog-natio, a sort of relationship est quasi quaedam migratio, death

were.

is

a kind of transfer,

164
4.

Syntax.

Quisquam, any

one,

any one whoever (more general than quis),

and its corresponding a djectiv e ullus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negay/'^ as, tive, and in clauses of comparison ^^^)kj
;

justitia
si

numquam iipcet cuiquam,///^-//^/? never harms anybody; quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, can anybody
be si ullo

angry without exxitement ?

fieri potest, // // can be done in any way taetrior hie tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.

modo

was a

5.

Quisque, each
:

one,

is

used especially under the following circum-

stances

rt)

b)

In

See 244, 4, a, In connection with suus. connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun;
obtigit, id teneat,

as, quod cuique

him
c)

what falls

to each, that let

hold.
;

In connection with superlatives

as,

optimus quisque,
d)

all the best

as.

(lit.

each best one).

With

ordinal numerals

(lit.

quinto quoque anno, every four years

6.

each ffth year).

Nemo,

}io

one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with

;

adjectives used substantively

as,

nemo mortalis, no mortal nemo Romanus, no Roman.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
253.
atively
;

I.

as,

Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl-

aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another alii resistunt, alii fugiunt. some resist, others flee; alter exercitum perdidit. alter vendidit, one ruined the army, the
other sold
altera se in
it;

montem

receperunt, alteri ad impedimenta se contu-

lerunt, the one party retreated to the fnoutitain, the others betook
themselves to the baggage.

Agreement of Verb with

2.

Subject.

165

Where

the English says one does one thing, another another, the
;

Latin uses a more condensed form of statement

as,

alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another aliud alils placet, one thing pleases some, another others.
a.

So sometimes with adverbs

alii ali5

as,

means
of

fugiunt, some flee

in one direction, others in another.

3.

The

Latin also expresses the notion 'each other' by

;

alius repeated

as,

Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.
4.

Ceteri means the

rest, all the others

as,

ceteris praestare, to be superior to all the others.

5.

ing,

hence

Reliqui means
is

the others in the sense of the rest, those

remain-

the regular

word with numerals

as,

reliqui sex, the six others.

6.

Nescib quis forms a compound

;

force of some one or other

as,

indefinite

pronoun with the

causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other; misit nescio quera, he sent some one or other nescio quo pacto, somehow or other.

Chapter V.

Syntax of Verbs.
One Subject.

AGREEMENT.
"With
254.
I.

Agreement
its

in

Number and

Person.

A
;

Finite
as,

Verb agrees with

pater
2.

subject in
see
;

Number and Person

vos videtis, you

filios instituit, the father trains his sons.

Agreement

in

Gender.

In the
its

compound forms
;

of the verb

the participle regularly agrees with

subject in gender

as,

Bditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked.

66
3.

Syntax.
But when a predicate noun
is

of different gender or

number from

its

subject, tlie verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,

Tarquinii materna patria erat,

071

Tarqtmm was

his native coutitry

his

viotJier'^s

side
is to be

non omnis error

folly,
a.

stultitia est dicenda, noi every error

called

Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive

Corioli,

as,

oppidum Volscorum, captum

was captured.

est, Cor'wli, a town of the

Volsci,

4.

Construction according to Sense.

its

agrees with
matical form.
fl)

subject

Thus

according to sense instead of

Sometimes the verb strict gram-

In

Number;
gathered.

as,

multitiido

hominum convenerant,

a crowd of men had

b)

In Gender; as,

duo milia crucibus adfixi

crucified.

sunt, two thousand {men) were

With Two
255.
I.

or

More

Subjects.

Agreement
is

in

Number.
;

With two
as,

jects the verb

regularly plural

or

more

sub-

pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son

2.

died.
viz.,

But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject

a)

When
them
;

the verb precedes both subjects or stands between

as,

mortuus est pater pater mortuus est

b)

et filius et filius.

When
vel
.

the subjects are connected by aut

. .

vel

neque

neque

as,

aut

aut

neque pater neque

son died.
3.

filius

mortuus

est, tieither father

nor

When

the different subjects are

is

whole, the singular

used

as,

felt

together as constituting a

temeritas ignoratioque vitiosa

bad.
a.

est, rashness

and ignorance are

This

is

regularly the case in

senatus populusque R5manu8.

Voices.

Tenses.
With

i6y

4.

Agreement
X2i\.\\^x

in

Person.
as,

subjects of different persons

the verb always takes the ^rst person rather than the second, and the

second
SI

than the third;

tu at Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if y 011 and are zvelL Cicero and I are ivell.
5.

Ttillia

Agreement
down

in

the participle in the

laid

Gender. With subjects of different genders compound tenses follows the same principles as
See
235,

for predicate adjectives.

B,

2.

VOICES.
256. I. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of middle or reflexive meaning as,
;

its

original

ego non patiar

2.

eum

defend!,

/ sliall

not allow

him

to

defend himself.

In imitation of Greek usage

many

perfect passive participles are

used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon himself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as,

velatus tempora, having veiled his temples.

a.

Occasionally

finite

forms of the verb are thus used;

as,

tunica inducitur artus, he covers

3.

his lifnbs with a tunic.

in the passive;

Intransitive

Verbs may be used impersonally

(lit. // is

as,

curritur, people run

run)
(lit. it

ventum

est, he (they, etc.)

came

was come).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257.

tions

I.

The

Latin

tenses

express

two

distinct

nc
:

a)

The period The

of time to which the action belongs

Present, Past, or Future.

b)

ki7id of action

Undefined, Going on,

or

Completed.
The
Latin with
its six

tenses

is

able to express each of the three kinds

of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine

68
It

Syjitax.
does this by employing certain tenses in more than one
the following table:

tenses).

way, as

may be seen by

PERIOD OF TIME.

Tenses.
2.
It is

169
('

used of an attempted action

Conative Present

')

as,

dum
3.
('

vitant vitia, in contraria currunt, while they try (vitant) vices., thty rush i?ito opposite ones.
In lively narration the Present
')
;

to

avoid

Historical Present

as,

is

often used of a past action

Caesar Aeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of Aedui (lit. demands).
4.

the

In combination with jam,

is

jam
;

diu,

jam pridem, and

similar

words, the Present

past

frequently used of an action originating in the

as,

and continuing

in the present

jam diu cupio te visere, I have long

desire

been desiring to visit

you

(i.e.

and have long desired)

Imperfect Indicative.
260.
I.

The Imperfect
as,

on in past time ;

primarily denotes action going

librum legebam, I was reading a

a.

book.

as the tense of description (as opjiosed to

2.

This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve mere narration)
the notion of action going
;

From

on.,

notion of repeated or customary action

as,

there easily develops the

legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys; puer C. Duilium videbam, as a boy I often used to see Gains Duilitis.
3.

action

Like the Present, the Imperfect often denotes an attempted (' Conative Imperfect ') as,
;

hostes nostros intra munitiones progredl prohibebant, the enemy tried to prevcid (prohibebant) our moi from advancing within
the fortifications
4.

The
;

Imperfect, with jam,

jam

diii,

jam dudum,

etc.,

is

some-

times used of a past action which

time

as,

had been continuing

for

some

domicilium

Romae multos jam annos

Rome for many years
it)

residence at

{i.e.

habebat, he had had his he had it at this time

and had long had

170

Syntax.
Future Indicative.

261.

I.

The two
Table
is

regular uses

of the

Future have been given

above
2.

in the

(p. 168).

The
^

Latin

much more
say:
'

exact in the use of the Future than

is

If he comes, I shall be glad^ where we really mean: If he shall come,'' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future. dices, say! 3. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as,
the English.

We

Perfect Indicative.
262.
Present

A. Present Perfect.
as,

Several Present Perfects denote the

act,

state resulting
;

from a completed

and so seem equivalent

to the

cognovi

I know

(lit.

I have become acquainted with^; I have become accustomed).

consuevi, I a7n wont

B.
tion')

(lit.

Historical Perfect.
as,

The

Historical Perfect

is

primarily the

tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of descrip\

Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, redd! captives

negavit esse
utile,
it

Regulus came
useless

itito

the Senate, set forth his

to be returned.
('

cojnmission, said
I.

was

for captives
is

Occasionally the Historical Perfect

used of a general truth

Gnomic

Perfect").

Pluperfect Indicative.

Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act completed in the past; as, Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats.
263.

The

Future Perfect Indicative.

The Future Perfect denotes an action completed Thus in future time. scribam epistulam. cum redieris, / will write the letter when you
264.
:

have returned
a.

(lit.

tuhen you shall have returned)

fect

Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perthan the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.

The

Sequence of Tenses.
Epistolary Tenses.
265.

171

In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro-

priate at the time of writing, but

letter is received:

which

will

be so at the time

when

his

he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for

;

the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect

nihil

as,

habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novl quidquam

audieram et ad tuas omiies epistulas jam rescripserani, / have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266.

A.

In Independent Sentences.

See 272-280.

B.

In Dependent Sentences.

In dependent sentences the

tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.
267.
I.

In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are

Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:

fol-

Principal Sequence,

video quid facias, /see wliat you are doing. videbo quid facias, / shall see what you are doing. videro quid facias, I shall have seen what you are doing. video quid feceris, I see what you have done. videbo quid feceris, I shall see what you have done. videro quid feceris, / shall have seen what you have done.
Historical Sequence,

videbam quid
videram quid videbam quid videram quid

I saiv what you were doing. vTdi quid faceres, f saw what you were doing.
faceres,

faceres, I had seen what you were doing.

fecisses,

I saw / had

-ivhat

you had done.

vidi quid fecisses, / saw what you had done.

fecisses,
seen

what you had done.

and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete 3. action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the
Present
Indicative.

The

172

Syntax.
Peculiarities of Sequence.

268.

I.

The

Perfect Indicative

is

usually an historical tense (even

when

translated in English as a Present Perfect),

;

and so

is

followed by

the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive

as,

demonstravi quare ad causain accederem, / took the case (lit. I showed why., etc.).
2.

ha7>e shoivn

why

A
;

dependent Perfect
if

Infinitive is treated as

an
it

historical tense

wherever,
torical

as,

resolved into an equivalent Indicative,

would be

his-

videor ostendisse quales del essent, I seem

ative,
3.

to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic-

ostendi,
Historical

I showed).
Present
is

The

sometimes regarded as a principal

tense,

sometimes as

historical.

Thus:

Sulla suos hortatur ut forti anini5

to be stout-hearted

siiit,

Sulla exhorts his soldiers

Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls arms.

4.

to take

Conditional sentences of the

'

contrary-to-fact

'

type are
;

affected by the principles for the

Sequence of Tenses

as,

not

honestum

tale est ut vel si ignorarent id homines sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that even if j/ien were igfiorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness.
'

5.

In conditional sentences of the

is

contrary-to-fact

'

type the Imper-

fect

Subjunctive

usually treated as an Historical tense; as,

si solos

eos diceres niiseros, quibus morienduni esset, nemineni quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those
tu

"who live.
6.

In clauses of Result and

some

others, the Perfect Subjunctive

is

sometimes used as an

historical tense.

Thus:

rex tantum niotus

enemy.

est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so >nuch moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an

This construction
sequent historians.

is

rare in Cicero, but frequent in

Nepos and sub-

The

Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a

Seqiioice of Tenses.

1/3

result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to statement. To denote a result as something contimious, a judicavit, he adjudged.
all

writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7.

Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus
:

a)

We

may have

the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an

;

historical tense

as,

Verres Siciliam
Verres
so

ita perdidit ut
Sicily

ea restitul non possit,

it

ruined
;

that

cannot
;

be

restored

(Direct statement

non potest
dicendi

restitui)

ardebat Hortensius
nulls
flagrantius

cupiditate

sic,

ut

in

studium

burned so with eagerness to one a greater desire (Direct statement: in / have seen in no one)
Note.

viderim, Hortensius speak that I Iiave seen in no

iiullo vidi,

This
We

usage
is

Sequence, the Perfect

historical tense.

Here, by neglect of is different from that cited under 6. used as a principal tense there the Perfect was used as an
;

b)

may have

a principal tense followed

by the Perfect Sub-

junctive used historically; as,

nescio quid causae fuerit cur nullas ad me litteras dares, / do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.

Here fuerit

is

historical,

as

is

shown by

the following

Imperfect Subjunctive.

Method
269.
to

of expressing

Future Time in the Subjunctive.

Perfect which are lacking

The Future and Future

Latin

the

Subjunctive

clauses as follows:
T.

is

are

supplied in

subordinate

a)

The Future The Future

tenses,

supplied by the Present after principal tenses,

after historical tenses.
is

by the Imperfect
b)

Perfect

supplied by the Perfect after principal

after historical tenses.

by the Pluperfect
is

This

especially frequent

when

the context clearly shows,

by the presence of a future tense

reference
is

in the
:

to future time.

Thus

main

clause, that the

174

Syntax.
se facturos,

Gain pollicentur

quae Caesar imperet,

i/ig

Gauls

promise they will do what Caesar shall order Gain pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls promised they ivould do ivliat Caesar should order Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they mill do what Caesar shall have ordered Galli pollicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus
:

timeo ne veniat, / am afraid lie will come Caesar exspectabat quid consilii hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
;

in -iirus

Where greater definiteness is necessary the periphrastic forms sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin as,
3.
;

non dubito quin pater venturus

father will come

sit,

/ do

Jiot

doubt that

my

non dubitabam quin pater venturus my father would come.

4.

esset,

/ did

not doubt that

Where

the verb has no Future Active Participle or where

its

it

stands in the passive voice,

the use of the particles

Future character

may be
in

indicated

by

mox,

brevi, statim,
;

the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive

as,

etc.,

connection with

non dubito quin

te

mox

hTijus rei paeniteat, f do not doubt that

you will soon repent of this thing non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, / did not doubt that this thing would soon be finished.

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270.
I.

The
but
:

tenses of the Infinitive denote time not

ivitJi

absolutely,

depend.
(7)

Thus
The

reference to the verb on zvhicJi they

Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous

it

with the time of the verb on which

depends

as,

videtur honores adsequi. Jw seems to be gaining honors ; videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gaining honors.

Tenses of the Infinitive.

b)

175
tlie

The

Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to

it

of the verb on which

depends

as,

time

videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seems

honors
;

to

have gained
to

visuB est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed

gained honors.
c)

have

The Future
of the verb

Infinitive represents

an act as subsequent
;

to that

on which

it

depends

as,

videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems about

honors

to

gain
to

visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed about gain honors.

1.
etc.,

Where
as,

the English says

'

ought to have

done,''

'

might have done'

the Latin uses debuT, oportuit, potui, with the Present Infini;

tive

to have said (lit. owed oportuit venire, he ought to have come potuit videre, he might have seen.

debuit dicere, he ought

it

to say)

a.

Oportuit, V0I6, nolo (and

in

poetry

some other
t/its

verbs),

may

take a

IVrfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,

hoc jam pridera factum esse oportuit,

haze been done.
3.

ought long ago

to

ticipial

Periphrastic Future Infinitive. Verbs that have no ParStem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore
ut, with the Subjunctive
;

ut or futiirum esse

as,

spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, / Jiope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ; spero futrirum esse ut hostes arceantur, I hope that the enemy will
be kept off.
a.

The

Periphrastic Future Infinitive

is

often used,

especially in the

Passive, even in case of verbs

which have the

Participial

Stem

as,

spero fore ut hostes vincantur,

quered.
4.

/ hope the

enemy will be con-

Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini;

tive with fore

as,

spero epistulam scrlptani fore, / hope

written
;

the letter will liai'e been

puts

me omnia adeptum
everything.

fore,

/ think

that

shall have gained

176

Syntax.

THE MOODS.
MOODS
271.

IN

INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
in
is

The Indicative

Independent Sentences.

The

Indicative

used for the statement of facts,

the supposition offacts, or inquiry after facts.

I.

Note the following idiomatic uses

a)

With possum

as,

possum multa
b)

/ viight say much poteram multa dicere, / /n/g-tU have said much ( 270, 2). In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius
dicere,
est, difficile est, utilius est,

and some others

as,

longum

est ea dicere,

//

would

be tediotis to tell that

difficile est

omnia persequi,

It

would

be

diffic7ilt to

enu-

7iierate everything.

The Subjunctive
272.
to

in
is

Independent Sentences.

express something
1

The Subjunctive
As As
willed desired

used

in

Independent Sentences

2.

3.

Volitive Subjunctive Optative Subjunctive Conceived of as possible Potential Subjunctive.

;
;

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273.
ivillcd.

The VoUtive Subjunctive

It

represents the action as

always implies authority on the part of the

:

speaker, and has the following varieties

A.

Hortatory Suhjunctive.
expresses an exhorfirst

274.
tation.

The Hortatory Subjunctive

This use
eamus,
is

confined to the

person plural,
:

of the Present.

The
let

negative
;

is ne.

Thus

amemus

us go patriam,

let

us love our country

ne desperemus,

let

us not despair.

The
B.

Volitive Subjunctive.
Jussive Subjunctive.

177

275.

The

Jussive

Subjunctive expresses

command.

The
is
1.

Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and

used

Most frequently
let 111 III tell

in the third singular

and

third plural

as,

dicat,

dicant, let them tell impil ne placare audeant deos,

the gods.
2.

let

not the wicked dare to appease

Less frequently in the second person

isto

as,

bono utare, 7ise that advantage ; modeste vivas, live temperately.

C.

Prohibitive Subjunctive.
is

276.

The Subjunctive

used

in

the second person sin-

gular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition.

As

regards the use of tenses, the Perfect seems to be used

where there
Present
;

as,

is

special excitement or emotion, otherwise the

ne repugnetis, do not resist! tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don't YOU LEAVE HER
a.
b.

Neither of these constructions

is

frequent in classical prose.

The

sometimes drawn between the Present and the Perfect in this construction, restricting the former to general prohibitions, and the latter to those addressed to a definite second person, will not hold.
distinction

c.

commoner method

of expressing a prohibition

is

by

tlie

use of noli

(nolite)

with a following

infinitive,

or by

cave ne with
noli

the Subjunctive; as,

(lit.

hoc

facere, don't da this

lie
I

be unwilling to do)

nolite mentiri, do not

cave ne haec yon do).

D.

facias, do not do this

(lit.

take care

lest

Deliberative Subjunctive.
is used in questions implying doubt or indignation. The

277.

The
N

Deliberative Subjunctive

and

exclamations

78
is

Syntax.

Present

used referring to present time, the Imperfect

referring to past.

The

negative

is

nou.

Thus

quid f aciam, ivJiat shall I do ? ego redeam, sliall I go back ? quid facerem, zuliat was I to do f huiic ego iiou diligam, shall I not
a.

cherish this tnan ?

in char-

These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical acter, and do not expect an answer.
E. Concessive Subjunctive.

278.

The Subjunctive

is

used to indicate something as

granted or conceded for

is

sake of argument. The Present used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past.
tJic

The
sit

negative

is ne.

Thus
dolor,

hoc verum, granting that

sit

this is true

(lit. let

this be true)

ne

summum malum
is

malum
it is

certe est, granting that paiti

not the greatest einl, yet

certainly

an

evil

fuerit

malus civis aliis. tibi quando esse coepit, granting that he was a bad citizen to others, when did he begin to be so toward you ?

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279.
ivishing.
is

The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of The negative is regularly ne. The use of tenses
:

as follows
1

The Present Tense,

is

often accompanied by

utinam,

is

used where

the wish

conceived of as possible.

di istaec prohibeant,
f alsus

may

the gods prevent that

utinam vates sim,

oh that

/ )nay

be

a false prophet

ne veniant, may
2.

they not come

The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is not so now ; the Pluperfect that something 7i'as not so in The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by the past. utinam as. utinam istud ex animo Alcexes, would that yoii were saying that in
;

earnest, {i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arciis, would that Achilles had

escaped the bow of Apollo utinam ne natus essem, would

that I

had

not been born.

Tlie

Potential Subjjinctive.

179

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280.

The

Potential Subjunctive expresses

is

rt:

/^j-^/(^/7//j'.
:

Tlie negative
1.

non.

The

following uses are to be noted

may designate a mere Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. The subject is generally The
Potential Subjunctive
bility

objective possi-

(English auxiliary may).

an indefinite pronoun.

Thus

dicat aliquis, some one

dixerit aliquis, so)ne one

a.

may say may say.

;

This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
Potential Subjunctive

2.

The

may represent something

as contingent

upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxihary should, Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable Mould).
difference of meaning.

Thus

fortiinam citius reperias quam retineas. one luould more quickly Jind Fortune than keep it {i.e. if one should make the trial) paene dicam, I should almost say {i.e. if I were to express an opinion)
;

crediderim, / should
a.

believe.

Here belongs the use of velim, nialim. nolim. as softened forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus
:

velim mihi ignoscSs. /wish you would forgive me; nolim putes me jocari, / donH want you to think
joking.
b.

Pm

When

the condition

is

expressed,

we

get one of the regular

;

types of Conditional Sentences (see 303 )

as,

dies deficiat. si coner enumerare causas, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.
3.

lar (with indefinite force

In the Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singuchiefly the following 356, 3) of a few verbs,
:

crederes, one might have believed] videres, cerneres, one might have seen, perceived;
putares, one might have thought.

The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional 4. sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see 304) are also Potential in By omission of the Protasis such an Apodosis sometmies character.
stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem,

mallem

as,
{i.e.

vellem id quidem, / would

enough)

wis/i that

were

bold

i8o

Syntax.

The Imperative.
281.

The Imperative

is

used in coimnands, admonitions,

and

entreaties (negative ne); as,

egredere ex urbe, depart from mihi ignosce, pardon fiie

Male, farewell.
1.

the city

The Present
is

is

the tense of the Imperative most

but the Future

a)

employed
there
is

commonly

used,

Where

a distinct reference to future time, especially

;

in the apodosis of conditional sentences

as,

rem vobis proponam

//latter before you
;

vos eam penditote, / will lay the

{the/i') co/isider it
lie

do you

SI

bene

dispiitabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if

rue II, attribute it to

shall

speak
b)

Greek literature.
etc.
;

In laws, treaties, wills, maxims,

as,

consules siimmum jus habento,

suprei/ie pozver
;

the consuls shall

have

hominem mortuom
a dead body
i/i

in

urbe ne sepelito,
;

/lo o/ie

shall bury

the city

amicitia regi Antiocho

cum populo Romano

let
o/i

his legi-

bus

et condicionibus esto,

there be peace between

the followi/ig ter//is

and and conditions.

Antiochus

the Ro//ia/i people

quartae esto partis Marcus heres,

a fourth {of the property)
;

let

Marcus

be heir to

ignoscito saepe alteri,

bor
2.
ofte/i,

numquam

tihi, forgive

your

/leigh-

yourself

/lever.

Except with the Future Imperative the negative

is

not used in

classical prose.

Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways.

See 276, c. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {wJiy not?) are 3.
often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,

quin abis, go away ! (lit. why do/Ct you go away quIn vocem continetis, keep still! (lit. 7vhy
voices ?)

.?)

doii't

you
(lit.

stop

your

(|uin

equos conscendimus, not mount our horses ?)

let

us /nount our horses

why

do

we

Clauses of Purpose..

i8i

MOODS

IN

DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (uti), quo {that, in order that), ne {in order that as, not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive
282.
I.
;

edimus, ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. adjuta me quo hoc flat facilius, hetp tne, iti order
done more
easily.

that this

may

be

portas clausit, ne

quam oppidan!

the gates, test the toivnspeople should receive

a.

injuriam acciperent, he closed any injury.

Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional
exceptions occur
;

as,

haec faciunt
this in
b.

quo Chremetem

absterreant, they are doing

order to frighten Chremes.

Ut ne Thus
:

is

sometimes found, as more emphatic than ne.

ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, / order that we may not do anything carelessly.

c. is used where the negation belongs to some of to the purpose clause as a whole. instead word, single

Ut non (not ne)

:

Thus

ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos videare, that you may seem not driven out among strangers., but invded to your own friends.
d.

To
uses

say

and that neve (neu)

' ;

not
as,

'

or

'

or that

not,'

the Latin regularly

ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence of t/iese things might be lessened, and
that they might not

profugit, ne caperetur

harm neve

the bridge

interficeretur, he fled, that he

might not be captured or

e.

twitted.

But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
clause
is

introduced by ne.

82
2.

Syntax.

Relative

Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo)

;

quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause

as,
t/ie

is

fre-

Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicerent,

say
(lit.
;

Helvetii sent envoys to

these things to say

who should say^ haec habui, de senectute quae dlcerem, / had

about old age
lion
;

habebat quo fugeret, he had no place to which

lie

to flee

(lit.

whither

might flee).

a.

Qui
ibi
;

in

such clauses
to

is
;

equivalent to

unde

ut inde

quo

to

ut ut eo.

is,

ut ego,

etc.

ubi

to

ut

3.

Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, iiidignus, and ido;

iieus

as,

idoneus fuit nemo quern imitarere, thei'e was no one suitable for you to imitate {cf. nemo fuit quern imitarere, there was no
one to imitate)

dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he

is

worthy

to rtile

sometime.

Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied 4. from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences
;

as,

ut haec

omnia omittam, abiimus, that) we depa7-ted.

to

pass over

all this (/ will say

Clauses of Characteristic.
283.
I.

relative clause

used

to

express

an

essential

qttality or characteristic

fined is the Subjunctive

of an antecedent not otherwise decalled a Clause of Characteristic,, and stands in

;

as,

multa sunt, quae mentem acuant,

sharpen the wits.

ther'e-'are

many

things which

are used merely to state or assij.me

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which some fact about an antecedent

already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,

Cato, senex jGcundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a ful old fjian, who was called 'The Wise.''

delight-

The Clause
thing''
\

of Characteristic implies '

man

of the sort that does sojne-

the Indicative relative clause implies 'a

man who

actually

does something.'

Clauses of Characteristic.
2
as,

183

Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions

;

est qui
;

sunt qui
;

nemo

est qui
;

nullus est qui

;

qui

solus est qui

quis est qui

is

qui

etc.

Thus

unus est

sunt qui dicant, there are {some') who say nemo est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks sapientia est fina quae maestitiam pellat, philosopliy is the only thing that drives away sorrow ; quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown f non is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that
praises the wicked.
a.

Sometimes (very
tic is

rarely in Cicero
;

and Caesar) the clause

of characteris-

used

after

comparatives

as,

non longius bostes aberant quam quo telum

ike

adig-i posset,
{\\X.

enemy were not too far off for a dart to reacJi them off than [apomt\ to which a dart could be cast).

further

3.

The Clause
a)

of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion

.

of cause {since) or opposition {although)

Thus

Cause.

The

relative
;

quTppe, utpote

as,

is

then frequently accompanied by ut,

6 fortiinate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, O fortunate man, since you have foicnd a Homer as the herald ofyour valor ut qui Optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since
he held that province by excellent right.
b)

Opposition

egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, aithough I had taken tip Greek literature late in life,
nevertheless tarried several days at Alliens.
4.

Clauses of Characteristic

(quae, quod)

non

as,

may

also be introduced by

quin = qui

nemo nemo
5.

est quin saepe audierit, there is 710 one who has not often heard f uit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.

quod sciam,
heard.

Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type so far as I know ; quod audierim, so far as I have
:

84

Syntax.
Clauses of Result.

284.

I.

Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut

negative ut non {so that
not),

{that, so that),

and take the

Subjunctive.
tot, is
(

The main
tam, or

clause often contains tantus,

similar word.

talis),

some

Thus
who

talis,

quis

tam demens
as to
i/ioiirn

est ut sua voluntate maereat,

is so

senseless

of Jus own volition ? Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum

he has
so_

non

possit,

ravaged

Sicily that

it

cannot be restored

to its

former

condition

mSns

altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent, a very high 7nou7itain overhung, so that a very few could
easily stop them.

2.

Result Clause
(

is

often introduced
(

by a Relative Pronoun or
;

Adverb, qui

ut

is),

quo

=
lie

ut eo).

etc.

as,

nem5 est tam senex

is so

qui se

annum non putet posse vivere,

will live a year

nobody

old as not to think

habtis

eum consulem
These

yort
a.

qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, have a consnl such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
relative clauses of result are a

Characteristic,
structions.

and sometimes
best to class
is

It is

development of the Clause of to distinguish the two conthe relative clause as one of Characteristic,
it

is difficult

unless the result idea

clear

and unmistakable.

3.

Result clauses

may
it

also be introduced

by quin

ut non

as,

nihil

tam
is

difBcile est

quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing quin

cannot be discovered by searching. rei novitate perturbetur, no one
be
is so

so difficult that

nemo

est

tam

fortis

steadfast as
occurrence.

not to

thrown into confusion by a strange

Note phrases of the type

fieri

1 \
j

facere
4.

potest ^ non *^ quin scribam, non possum quin scribam,

cannot avoid writing.

.,

Note the use of

comparatives;
as,

quam

ut

(sonK-timcs

quam

alone) to denote Result

after

virbs erat
than

munitior
[jo] that it

quam
l>r

ut pritno impetu capi posset,

tal-'en

the city 7uus too

strongly fortified to

at

tlie

fi'st attack

(lit.

more

strotigly fortified

could be taken,

etc.)-

Causal Clauses.
Causal Clauses.
285.

185

Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the

:

lowing particles

fol-

Quod
Cum.

quia,

quoniam.

2. 3.

Quando.

286.
I.

The
is

use of

moods

is

as follows

when
the

Quod, quia, quoniam take the

that of the wj'iter
oj'

Indicative

reason

speaker ; they take the Sub-

junctive

Thus

when

the reason

is

viewed as that of another.

the Parthians,

Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear

because

/ distrust our
was

troops.

Themistocles, quia

11611 tiitus

erat,

Corcyram demigravit,

The-

moved to Corcyra. neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, / do not regret having lived, since / have lived well. Socrates acciisatus est quod corrumperet juventiitem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that lie was corrupting the young.
nnstocles, since he

not safe,

(Here the reason

is

not that of the writer but of the accuser.

Hence the Subjunctive.)

Aedui Caesari
the

gratias egerunt,

quod

se periculo liberavisset,

Aedui thanked Caesar becatise he had delivered them from (The reason of the Aedui.) danger. quoniam Miltiades dicere 11611 posset, verba pro eo fecit Tisagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.) noctii ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere 11611 posset, Themistocles ttsed to walk at night because {as he said) he
couldn''t sleep.

a.

tive in causal clauses as

Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjuncthough the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, con-

stituted the reason.

Thus

Bellovaci

suo n6mine

suum numerum 11611 compleverunt. quod se cum R6nianis bellum gestiir6s dice-

rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, be-

86

Syntax.
cause they said they 7vere going to wage

war

with the

Romans on
b

their

own

account.
attraction for

Non

quod, n5n quo (by

quia, not that, not because; and

.

non eo quod), non non quod non, non quo

. . .

not ; 7iot because not non, non quin, not that not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive as,
.
.

id feci,
not

arbitrarer, sed ut

non quod vos hanc defensionem desiderare omnes intellegerent, this I did, because I thought you needed this defense, but that all

might perceive

Crasso commendationem non

earn valiturani

sum pollicitus, non quin apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi comnieiidatione non videbatur, / did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it
would have weight with you, but
to
7}ie

because he did not seem

to

need reco7nmendation.

c.

But clauses introduced by

to be the reason for

non quod, non quia

;

take the
is

Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact

something

as,

denied

hoc

ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because 1 am myself an augur {which I really am"), but because it
is

necessary for us to think

so.

2.

Cum

causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,

is

quae cum

ita sint, since this

so;
ciira, since you

cum

sis mortalis,

quae mortalia sunt,

is

are mortal,

care for
a.

what
the

mortal.

Note

phrase

cum

praesertim (praesertim cum),

especially since; as,

Aedu5s

acciisat, praesertim

cum eorum

precibus ad-

ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Aedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their
entreaties.

3.

Quando
;

(less frequent than the other causal particles)

as,

the Indicative

governs

id omitto,
wish.

quando vobis

ita placet,

/ pass

07>er that, since

you

so

Clauses with Postquam, Ubi,

etc.

187
Ubi,

Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam,

Ut,

Simul
287.
I.

ac,

etc.
ut,

Postquam (posteaquam), after;

ubi,

wJien

cum primum,
used

simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as,

when

to refer to
;

a single occurrence regularly take the Peras,

fect Indicative

Epamlnondas postquam audivit

'

vicisse Boeotios,

'

Satis

'

inquit

vixi,' Epaininondas, after he

heard that the Boeotians had con-

quered, said, 'I have lived enough.'' id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to Corey ra Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesa:^, as

soon as he could, hurried to the

army;

ubi de Caesaris adventii certiores fact! sunt, legates ad eum mittunt, when they were informed of Caesars arrival, they sent
envoys to him.
a.

The

Historical Present

may

take the place of the Perfect in this con-

struction.

2.

To

atque, as often

denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu-

perfect Indicative

(compare 288, 3; 302,

3); as,

ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres^s feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur,

whenever the enemy had seen

attacked them.
a.

any men

disembarking, they

In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
nite
('

Indefi-

Frequency')

as,

id ubi dixisset;

hastam mittebat,

whenever he had said

that,

he

hurled a spear.

3.

fect Indicative of a single occurrence.

Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the PluperThis is regularly the case with
in expressions
etc.),

postquam

months, years,

such as post tertium

:

annis quam.

Thus

denoting a definite interval of time (days, annum quam, tribus post

88

Syntax.

paucis post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniani venit, a few days after he had departed fro/n Luca he catiie to Sardinia
;

postquam occupatae Syracusae

ginem, after Syracuse had been
4.

erant, profectus
seized, he set out

est Carthafor Carthage.

The Imperfect

Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a coittinued

state; as,

postquam

Romam

adventabant, senatus consultus

;

est, after they were

on the march towards Rome, the Semite ivas consulted

postquam
sides

struct! utrimque stabant, and were in position.

after they

had been drawn up on

both

5.

Rarely

postquam, posteaquam,
fieri

following the analogy of

cum,

take

the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,

posteaquam samptu5sa
after funerals

funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt,

were done away with by law.

had begun

to be elaborate, they

Temporal Clauses introduced by Cuxa.

A.

Cum

REFERRING TO THE PAST.

to the past, takes

288.

I.

Cum, when referring

or

A.

The

Indicative (Imperfect,

Historical
zvJiicJi

Perfect,

Pkiperfect) to denote the point of time at

occurs.

something

B.
the

The Subjmictive (Imperfect

situation

or Pluperfect) to denote

or

circumstances

nnder wJiich

something

occurs.

Examples
Indicative.

'/

an turn eras consul, cum in PalatiS mea domus ardebat, or were you const/ 1 at the tiinc when niy house burned up on the l^alatine credo turn cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copils magna artificia fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was powetful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that
island

eo tempore parnit

cum

parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time

;

when
illo die,

it

was

necessary to obey

cum

est lata lex

de me, on

that day

when

the

law concern-

ing

me was passed.

Cum-C/auses.
Subjunctive.

89

Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus

w/ien Lysander desired to chaiige the laws of Lycurgiis, he

est,

was

prevented

Pythagoras

cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered
is

something 7iew in geometry, he

the Muses.
a.

said to have sacrificed an ox to

Note

that the Indicative

is

much

less frequent in

such clauses

than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tem-

pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of %uhen, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix,

nondum as, jam Galli ex^ppido

aegre,
;

fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Ganls were already preparing to (logicall)', the maflee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth trons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee) Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse

cognoscunt,

the Treviri

denly) they learned that two legions

3.

were preparing to attack, when {sudhad arrived

To dtnoit

z.

recurring action \n the past

cum is followed by the In2

;

dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect

(compare 287,

302, 3); as,

cum ad

cum

aliquod oppidum veuerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur, whenever he had arrired at some town, he was (^always) carried in the same litter to his room ; equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
a.

Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive

is

thus used

as,

saepe

videret minus bene vestltum, suum amiculum dedit, often, xvhenever he saw some one more poorly clothed, lie i^ave him his own mantle cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidiain ran arvay.

cum aliquem

This construction

is

frequent in Livy

and subsequent

historians.

'

190
B.

Syntax.

Cum

REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

refers to the Present or Future
;

289.

When cum

larly takes the Indicative

turn tua res agitur, paries

as,

it

regu-

ardet, your own when yo2ir neighbor'' s house is burning; cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know.

cum proximus

interests

are at stake

a.

The

Indicative of the Present or Future

may

denote also a recurring

action; as,

stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest,

cum homines

cu-

pidinibus imperabunt, Jinn friendship can whenever men shall control their desires.
C.

be established

Other Uses of Cum.

290.

I.

Cum

Explicative.

Cum,
is

with the Indicative,

;

is

times used to indicate the identity of one act with another

as,

some-

cum
2.

tacent, clamant, their silence

silent, they shout).

a shout

(Ht.

when

they are

Cum

tum.

When cum
;

tum mean

both

and,

the cum-clause
while, though,

is

in the Indicative

but

when
;

cum

te

it may take the Subjunctive as, semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I am incensed at

cum

has the force of

your

co7tduct.

Clauses introduced by AntequaJtn and

A.

Priusquam.

With the

Indicative.
. . .

291.

quam, prius
actual fact.
1.

Antequam and priusquam (often written ante quam) take the Indicative to denote an
. .
.

Sometimes the Present or F utur e Perfect

as,

prius respondes
nihil contra

quam

rogo, /> answer before [ask;

tiothing in

disputabo priusquam dixerit, / will say

opposition, before he speaks.

2.

Sometimes the
explevit,
his

Perfect, especially after negative clauses

as,

non prius jugulandi

finis fuit,

quam

Sulla

omnes suos

divitiis

tJiere was no end of viurder until Sulla henchmen with wealth.

satisfied all

Clauses ivith Dum, Donee,

B.

etc.

191

With the

SuBjuNt^^wfe!

292.

Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive

to

denote an act as anticipated.

1.

Thus the Subjunctive may denote

a)

act talces place

est,
i.e.
;

An act in preparation for which the main

tion

as,

priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum

By an

in anticipa-

of the pght, a treaty was struck.

extension of this usage, the Subjunctive "s sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,

tempestas minatur antequam surgat,

b)

the tempest threatens before

;

it

rises.

An

act anticipated

and

forestalled

as,

priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.
c)

An act anticipated and deprecated as, animum omittunt priusquam loco demigrent,
;

they die

rather than quit their post.

2.

After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive

is

used, espe-

cially

by post-Augustan
;

practically vanished

as,

writers,

where the notion of anticipation has

sol

antequam
it set

se abderet fugientem vidit

Antonium,

the

sun before

saw Antony fleeing.

Clauses introduced by
293.
I.

Dum, Donee, Quoad.

Dum,

luhile,
;

regularly takes the Indicative of

as,

the Historical Present

inter primores pugnat, sagitta ictus est, AlexAlexander, ander, while he was flghting in the van, was struck by an arrow; dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum pervenit, while these
things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli.
II.

dum

Dum, donee, and quoad, as long

as,

tive

as,

take the Indica-

dum anima

est,

spes

est, as long as there is

life,

there

is

hope

Lacedaemoniorum gens
the race of the

fortis fuit,

dum

Lycurgi leges vigebant,

Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws

lived,

of Lycurgiis were in force Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit, Cato, as long as he increased in the fame of his virtues.

rg2
III.
1.

Syntax.

Dum, donee, and quoad,

until,

take:

The

Indicative, to denote aji actual event ; as,

donee rediit, f uit silentium, there was silence till he came ferrum in corpora retinuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotios vieisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.
a.

In Livy and subsequent historians

dura and donee

as,

in this sense often

take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative;

trepidationis aliquantum edebant, d5nec timor quietem fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet.
2,

The
as,

tancy;

Subjunctive,

to

denote anticipation

or expec-

exspectavit Caesar duni naves convenlrent, Caesar waited for

ships to assemble

the

dum

hostes veniant, morabor, /shall wait for the enemy

to come.

%^
Substantive Clauses.
294.

Substantive Clause

is

serves as the Subject or Object of

one which as a whole a verb, or denotes

some other case

A.
295.

relation.

Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

These are generally used

as

object-clauses,
:

occur with the following classes of verbs

I.

and

With verbs
etc.

signifying to admonish, request, commatid, urge, per-

suade, induce,'^

(conjunctions ut, ne)

as,

/ demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive flat, let it be done I) ; orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away milites cohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he ex-

postulo ut

fiat,

horted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Hehietii
forth.
a.

to

march

Jubeo, command,
:

order, regularly takes the Infinitive.

Especially

flagito;

moneo, admoneo rogo 6ro, peto, postulo. precor, mando, impero, praecipio suadeo, hortor, cohortor; per; ;

suadeo, impello.

Substantive Clauses.
I

193
etc.

2.^

With verbs
;

signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow}

(con-

junction vit)

as,

huic concedo ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by!) ;
cousuli permiasum est ut duas legiones scriberet, the consul was permitted to enroll tiuo legions.

3.

With verbs
;

of hindering, preventingj^
as,

etc.

(conjunctions ne,

quominu^ quiu)

ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishitig the litstritm (dependent form after past tense of ne lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.)
;

prohibuit quominus in
ing together

unum

colrent, he prevented them

from com-

nee, quin eruniperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could

lie

be prevented

from rushingforth
a,

Qmn

is

used only when the verb of hindering

is

accompanied by a
;

negative, or stands in a question implying a negative

sarily used even then.

it

is

not neces-

Clauses introduced by quominus and quin are probably developed from Purpose Clauses.

[4A
as,

With verbs

of deciding, resolving,^

etc.

(conjunctions ut, ne)

constitueram ut pridie Idus Aquini manerem, / had decided to remain at Aquinum on the \2tJ1 decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it convenit ut iinis castrTs miscerentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.

(5y With

verbs oi striving,*

etc.

(conjunctions ut, ne)

as,

laborabat ut reliquas civitates adjungeret, he was striving to Join the ronaining states to him ; contendit ne ea enuntiarentur, he strove that those things should not
be reported.
a.

Conor,

try, alw^avs
all

takes the Infinitive.

Note.
in poetry.
1

Verbs

of

the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially

Especially:
Especially:

2 3

Especially

permitto. concedo, non patior. prohibeo, impedio, deterreo. constituo, decerno, censeo, placuit,

convenit, pa-

ciscor.
4

Especially:

laboro, do opera m. id ago, contendo, impetro.

194
6.

Syntax.

With a few other

expressions, such as
;

necesse

est,

reliquum

est, sequitur, licet,

oportet

as

reliquum est ut doceam,

licet redeas, /

//

remains for
;

7iie

to

show,

may

return

oportet loquamur, we must speak.

On

licet

and oportet without

ut, see paragraph 8.

7.

Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur,
;

quare, quin

non

est cur,

etc.;

nihil est cur,

t/iere is

etc.

as,

nulla caus -^ est ciir timeam,

(originally Deliberative
:

no reason

why I
There'' s

should fear

why

shoiild Ifear ?

no

reason')',

non

timeam, tliere is no reason why / should fear nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say.
est quare
8.

Many

of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Sub-

junctive without ut.

In such cases

we must not recognize any omisregularly the case with

:

sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed

before the ut-clause arose.

est, licet,

This

is

and oportet

see 6.

Other examples are

necesse

eos hoc moneo desinant, / warn them to stop huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to

visit the states.

B.
296.
1.

Substantive Clauses developed from the

O ptativ e.

Here belong clauses

With verbs

of wishing, desiring, especially cupio, opto, vol6,

mal5

(conjunctions ut, ne); as,

opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbiis reperiatur, / ho^e that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur,

may

no bad man be found!) ; cupio ne veniat, / desire that he 7nay not come.
a.

The simple Subjunctive

class.

(without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this

:

(See ^295, 8.) Examples are vellem scriberes, /0/i/ww/4 you were writhig ; vellem scripsisset, I could wish he had written.
2.

that, lest,

With verbs of/^rt:r/;/^ (timeo, metuo, vereor). and ut means that not ; as,

Here ne means

timeo ne veniat, Ifear that he will come (originally may he not come I^m afraid \Jie will'] ) timed ut veniat. I fear that he will not come (originally may he come Ptn afraid {he wonH]).
:

Substantive Clauses.

195

Ne non

sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some

particular

word

in the

dependent clause;
fiat,

as,

non vereor ne hoc non

happen
;

am

not afraid that this will not

vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army.

I fear that

C.

Substantive Clauses of Result.

297.

ut non) are a

Substantive Clauses of Result (introducjd by ut, development of pure Result clauses, and
:

occur with the following classes of words

1

As

object clauses after verbs of doing, accoinplishing (especially

facio, efficio, conficio).

Thus

gravitas niorbi facit ut medicina e^eaxawa, the seventy of disease fI takes us need medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efEcitur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur,

relinquitur.

Thus

ex quo
it

efficitur,

ut voluptas non
is

sit

summum \ion\xra., from which

tints it

follows that pleasure

not the greatest good;

ita

fit,

ut

nemo

esse possit beatus,

happens that no one can

the lack

happy ; accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was (lit. it was added that ships were lacking).
be

of ships

^3) As
es?;

consuetudo est
:

predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc.
;

Thus
est

it

mos hominum
is the

way of men

ut nolint.eundem pluribus rebus excellere, not to wish the same person to excel in

many
D.
298.

thitigs.

Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin.

qum (used somesometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the like, particularly after non dubito, / do not doubt ; quis
Substantive Clauses introduced by

times as subject,

196
dubitat,

(/"^
.

Syntax.
is

doubt.

who doubts f ; non (haud) dubium est, there The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:
,

no

quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae sint who doubts that in virtiie there are riches ? non dubium eiat quin venturus esset, there was no doubt that he

was about
a.

to come.

In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes

takes
tlie

place of the quin-clause after

non dubito

as,

non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found.
b.

Non

dubito, / do not /icsih2ti\ is regularly followed by the though sometimes by a quin-clause.

Infinitive,

E.
299.
I.

Substantive Clauses introduced by Quod.

Quod, the fact

that,

that,

tive Clauses
especiall}^
a)

in the Indicative.

introduces SubstanThis construction occurs

illud, ilia,

In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus
:

illud est admlratione

dignum, quod captivos retinenof admiration,

dos censuit,

this is especially ivorthy

that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept

hoc uno praestamus vel maxime

feris,

mur
b)

inter nos, in this one respect are

to the beasts,
fit,

quod coUoquiwe especially

bene facere,

superior
After
etc.
;

that

we

talk ivith each other.

bene
as

bene

accidit,

male

fit,

bene mihi accidit, quod mittor ad mortem, // is zv ell for me that I am sent to death bene fecisti quod mansisti. you did well in remaining.
;

1.

Quod

at the

beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force

of as regards the fact that.

Thus

quod multitudinem Germanorum

muniendi causa

in

Galliam traduco, id mei

facio, as regards the fact that

I am
doing

transit

porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I

the sake of strengthening myself;

am

for

quod me Agamemnona aemulari

thinking that

putas, falleris, as regards your

mistaken.

I emulate Agamemnon, you are

Substantive Cla?ises.
Indirect Questions.
300.
I.

197

Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used

2ccvd.

after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling

the

like.

They

take their verb in the Subjunctive.^

(see

162) they
d)

may be

introduced

Like Direct Questions

By

Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs

iibi fueris,

as,

where you were,

fluat Arar,

die niihi

quid feceris,
in

tell ine

wJiat you did;

oculis judicari
it

uon potest

utram partem

cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar /lows

bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not

know how

many two
Note.
Relative Clauses.
:

times two were.

Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from The difference between the two appears clearly in the following
effugere
is

nemo

id potest

quod futurum

est,

no one can escape what

often

destined to come to pass ; but

saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but it is not eve7i useful to know what is coming to pass.
b)

By num

or -ne, without distinction of

meaning

as,

Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus

his shield

esset clipeus, or

salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether

was

safe

disputatur
guestion

num
is

interire virtus in

homine

possit, the

raised whether virtue can die in a

man

ex Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the guestion was asked of Socrates whether he
did not think Archelaus happy.
Note.
last

Nonne

in

Indirect Questions occurs only after

quaero,

as in the

example above.
2.

Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive

;

of the direct discourse

as,

neacio quid faciam, / do not know what

to do.

(Direct:

quid faciam,

what
1

shall

I do

.')

Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as con-

sidera
desires

quam

variae sint
(Direct
:

of men.

hominum cupidines, consider how varied are the quam variae sunt hominum cupidines
I)

198

Syntax.

After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspecto, c5nor, 3. experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by SI as,
;

conantur

si

perrumpere possint,

they try whether they can break

throtigh.
a.

Sometimes the governing verb

is

omitted

as,

pergit ad
thither,

proximam speluncam
to the

si

forte e5 vestigia fer-

rent, he proceeded

nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led

4.

Indirect Double Questions are introduced

particles as direct double questions ( 162, 4)
;

in the
viz.
:

same

main by the

utrum
-ne

an an

an;

Examples

sit,

ne.

quaero utrum verum an falsum quaero verumne an falsum sit, quaero verum an falsum sit, quaero verum falsumne sit,
a.

I ask whether it is true orfalse?

J

second member of a double question expressed by necne, less frequently by an non as,

'Or
di

not' in the

is

ordinarily

utrum
or
7tot.

sint necne, quaeritur,

it is

asked whether there are gods

5.

Hand

scio an, nescio an, by omission of the

as,

first

the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense

inclined to think., probably, perhaps
;

member of / avi
:

baud scio an hoc verum

6.

sit,

/ a/u

inclined to think this

is

is true.

In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative

sometimes used

in

Indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301.
(

Conditional

Sentences
of

are

compound sentences
the
nisi,

164) consisting

two

parts,

Protasis (or conor

sin,

dition),

usually introduced
conclusioji).

by

si,

and the

Apodosis (or

We

distinguish the following

:

types of Conditional Sentences

Conditional Sentences.
Type. Nothing

\Qi<)

First

Implied

as

to

the

Reality

of

the

Supposed Case.
302.
I.

Here we regularly have the Indicative

in
as,

Protasis
si

and Apodosis.
si

Any

tense

may

be used

both

hoc credis,

erras, if you believe this,

natiirani

sequemur,

numquam

you are mistaken; -^yr-^ aberrabimus, if we follow

SI

Nature, we shall never go astray ; hoc dixisti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error.
2.

lar (

Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singu356,3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of
;

the Indicative

as,

memoria minuitur,
you
3.

nisi earn exerceas,

memory grows weak

unless

exertise

it.

asis

Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protdenotes a repeated action (compare 287, 2 288, 3); as,
;

si

quis equitum deciddrat, pedites circumsistebant, if 3ny one of the horsemen fell, ttie foot-soldiers gathered about him.
a.

Instead of

tfll

Indicative, Livy

and subsequent

writers

employ the

Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote TEpeaJed

action
si
;

as,

dicendo quis diem eximei'et,

in

if {ever) anybody

consumed a day

pleading ; si

quando adsideret,

if ever he sat by.

4.

Where

the sense

tences of the First

demands it the Apodosis in conditional senType may be an Imperative or one of the Indeetc.)
;

pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative,

SI

as,

SI

hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent; hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep

silent.

Second Type.
303.

Supposed

Case represented as Contingent.

Presas,
be mis-

Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the

if you should say this, taken.

ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis;

si
si

h5c dicas, erres, hoc dixeris, erraveris,

you would

si

velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies

me

deficiat,

I should wish would fail me

if

to describe all the battles

of Hannibal, time

200

Syntax.

haec

mentiar, si negem, /should lie, if I shottld deny it; SI tecum patria loqiiatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country should plead thus with you, -would she not deserve to
obtain her request f
a.

The Subjunctive
is

in

the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type

of the Potential variety.

b.

Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the consummation of a result more positively; as,

aliter si faciat, otherwise, he has no authority.

nullam habet auctoritatem,

if he should do

Third

Type.

Supposed

Case represented as Contrary to

Fact.

304.

I.

Here we regularly have the Subjunctive

in

both

Protasis
time,
SI

and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring and the Pluperfect referring to past; as,

to

present

SI

amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, // my friends were herr, I should not lack assistance; ^ hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, you would have
erred

sapientia

non expeteretur,

si nihil efEceret,

philosophy would not

be desired, if it accomplished nothing;

consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a
senate.
2.

Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive

is

found referring to the

still

past, especially

existing ; as,

to

denote a co7itinued

act,

or a state of things

Laelius, Furius, Cato, si nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato

num

would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been {constantly) helped by them igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae paeniteret, //" he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted {and now be regretting) his old
age?

Conditional Sentences.

201

The Apodosis in conditional sentences of tliis type sometimes 3. stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.
a)

Frequently in expressions of
sity; as,

ability,

obligation,

or neces-

nisi

felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke

In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is repreNote. sented as contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood {and they ivould have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the
Subjunctive
is

used.

eum

esset,

patris loco colere debebas, si ulla in te pietas you ought to revere him as a father, if you had

any sense of devotion.

b)

With both
SI

the Periphrastic Conjugations

as,

if
to

Pompejus occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, Pompey had been slain, would you have proceeded
arms ?

SI

unum
had

fuit, if

'diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus you had delayed one day, you would all have

to die.

Protasis expressed -witliout SI.

305.
I
.

but

may be

The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context as,
;

haec non sciiberentur, otherwise {i.e. if matters were otherwise) these things would not be written non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigeutes, retinere virtutem, you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
alioqiii

pleasure.
2.

Soinetimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive serves as

Protasis.

Thus:

eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow,

ask to-morrow,
etc.)
;

it

shall be given

you

(lit.

haec reputent, videbunt,

;

// they consider this, they will see

(lit.

let

them consider, etc. cave haec facias, beware not to do this ! (Originally do this ! then beware! i.e. if you do it, beware I Hence beware not to do it!)
:

202

Syntax.

Use
306.
I.

of Nisi,

SI Non, Sin.

Nisi,

jinless,
;

negatives the entire protasis; si

non

nega-

tives a single

word

as,

ferreus essem, nisi te

loved you
;

but

amarem, / should

be

hard-hearted unless J

ferreus essem, si te NOT love you.

In the
In the
2.
first

non amarem, / should

it is

be

hard-hearted if I did

example,

the notion of loving you that

is

negatived,

second, the notion of loving.

Si non
a~)

(si

minus) must be employed

an apodosis with
at,

follows
;

When

tamen, certg

as,

if

dolorem si non potuero'frangere, tamen occultabo, I cannot crush my sorro2v,yet I will hide it.
b)

When
as,

an affirmative protasis

is

repeated in negative form

si feceris,

gratiam si non feceris, shall be deeply grateful; ifyou it, I do you ignoscam, if do not do it, I shall pardon you.

magnam habebo

a.

But

if

the verb

is

omitted in the repetition, only si

minus

is

admis-

sible; as,

hoc

si

assecutus sum, gaudeo;

tills,

si

minus,

me

consoler, ///

have attained

am glad;

if not, 1 console myself.

Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in 3. meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin as, hunc mihi timorem eripe si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus,
;

ut tiniere desinam,
fotmded, that
that
4.

relieve

nie

of this fear; if
it

it

is

well

I may

not be destroyed; but if

is

groundless,

I may

cease to fear.
for

Nisi has a fondness

;

combining with negatives (n5n, nemo,

but murder.

nihil)

as,

nihil cogitavit nisi

a.

caedem, he had no thought

Non

and

nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

Nisi forte, nisi vgro, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed 5 (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,
nisi vero,
less

quia perfecta res non est, non videtur punienda, unnot seem indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does

to

merit punislimcnt.

Clauses of Comparison.

Adversative

Clauses.

203

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307.
I.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro-

duced by the particles, ac si, ut sT, quasi, quam si, tamquam They are folsi, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam.
lowed by the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis, as indicated in the following examples
:

tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis asset, as great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates ; sed quid ego his testibus uto r quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, dnt why do I use these witnesses., as (/ should do) if the matter

serviam

were doicbtfid or obscure tibi tamquam si emeris

though you had bought

me

argento, / will

serz'e

you as

me for money.

kind the Latin observes the reguSequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and the Past Perfect.
2.

Note that

in sentences of this

lar principles for the

%^
Concessive Clauses.

Concessive is best restricted to those from the Jussive Subjunctive which developed clauses that, etc. (see 278); as, granted have the force oi
308.

The term

'

'

sit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est

bonus imperator, granted that he is a good commander yet robber, and a thief at hoc verum sit, granted that this is true
sit

he

is

ne

summum malum
is
a.

dolor,
yet

malum
it is

certe est, granted that pain

not the greatest

evil,

cei'tainly

an

evil.

Here also belongs the use of the Subjunctive with licet where licet has the force of he may, they may, etc. ; as,

(see

295, 6)

fremant omnes

licet,

dicam quod

sentio, they may all shout,

{but) I shall say

what I thitik.

Adversative Clauses with QuamvTs,

309.

Quamquam,
classed
as
'

etc.
etsi,

Clauses introduced by quamvis, quamquam,

often

tametsi, cum, aWioitgh, while

sive,'

Conces-

are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive

204
clauses.

Syntax.

As
else.

a rule, they do not gi-aiit or concede anyis

thing, but rather state that something

true in spite of

something
sative

They accordingly emphasize

the adver-

idea,

and are properly Subordinate Adversative

different particles used to introduce these

Clauses.

The

clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows

1.
:

Qiiamvls, howeve?'

iiutcJi, alt/ioiig/i,

does not introduce a state-

ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense as, homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis relaxantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at
;

non

times they relax their energies est potestas opitulandi lei piiblicae quamvis ea prematur periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it
be beset by dangers.

2. fact,

Quaniquam,

etsi, tanietsi, although, introduce a statement of

as,

and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense);

virtus nos
allicit,

quamquam omnis
efiicit,

tamen

jiistitia

id

maxime

although all virttte attracts us, yet justice does so espe-

cially

Caesar, etsi nondum consilium liostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, thougJi lie did not yet know' the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred.
a.

Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. Tiie latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible
for si.

(See \\ 302-304.)
is

3.

Cum,

although,

followed by the Subjunctive; as,

Atticus lionores non

petiit,

cum

ei paterent, Attic us did not seek

honors, though they were open to him.

4.

Licet sometimes loses

its

the level of a conjunction with the force of although.

verbal force (see 308, a) and sinks to It takes the

as,

Subjunctive, Present or Perfect

licet

omnes

terrores in^pendeant, succiirrani, though all terrors

{yet) I will lend aid.

hang over me,

5.

Quaniquam,
;

with the force

principal clauses

as,

and

yet,

is

often used to introduce

quamquam

quid loquor, and yet why do I speak?

Clauses of Proviso.
6.

Relative Clauses.
is

205
Suband takes
words

In post-Augustan writers

quamquam
Thus
:

freely construed with the

junctive, while

quamvis

is

often used to introduce statements of fact,

either the Indicative or the Subjunctive.

q-uamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he was moved by quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought quamvis infesto animo psrveneras, though you had come with
Clauses with

these

hostile intent.

Bum^ Modo, Duinmodo,

or a Proviso.

denoting a

Wish

310.

These

particles

are followed by the Subjunctive

:

(negative ne) and have two distinct uses

I.

They

are used to introduce clauses embodying a zvish

;

entertained by the subject of the leading verb as, multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cSnsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power {if only they

may attain) omnia postposul, dum praeceptis patris paierem, / made everyt/ang
else

secondary, in
tibi,

my

desire to obey the injunctions of

my father
in

nil

obstat

dum
your
are

ne

sit ditior alter, nothing hinders

you

your

desire that

tieighbor

may

not be richer thattyou.

II.

They
;

that

')

as,

used

to

express

a proviso-'

{'

provided

oderint,

dum

metuant,

let

them

hate,

provided they fear

manent ingenia seiybus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their faadties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor
,

nubant,
Note.
original

dum

ne dos
it.

fiat

comes,

let

them marry, provided no dowry

goes with

Of these two uses

;

one

the second has

nal notion of wishing, as in

of dum, modo, and dummodo, the first is the grown out of the first, and frequently retains the origioderint, dum metuant.

Relative Clauses.
311.

Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro-

nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.

312.
I.

Relative clauses usually stand

in

the

Indicative

Mood,
are

especially clauses introduced by those General

Relatives which

doubled or have the

suffix

-cunque

as,

2o6
quidquid id
fear
est,

Syntax.

timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever

it is,

Greeks even ivhcn they offer gifts quidquid oritur, qualecunque est, causam a natura habet, wJiatever comes into being, of tuhatever sort it is, has its primal cause
tlie

in Nature.
2.

Any

simple Relative

may

introduce a conditional sentence of any

;

of the three types mentioned in 302-304

as,

qui h5c dicit, errat, he who says this is /nistaken (First Type) qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type) qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been
;

mistaken.

INDIRECT DISCOURSE {ORATIO OBLIQUA).

313. When the language or thought, of any person is quoted without change, that is called Direct Discourse When, {prdtio Recta); as, Caesar said, 'The die is cast.''

on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, t]iinkiiig, etc., that is called as, Caesar said that Indirect Discourse {Ordtio Obllqtid)
;

the die ivas cast;

victorious.
a.

Caesar thought that his troops zvere

to introduce Indirect

For the verbs most frequently employeS

Discourse, see 331-

MOODS

IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declaratory Sentences.
314.
I.

change
tive

their

Declaratory Sentences upon becoming Indirect main clause to the Infinitive with Subject
all

Accusative, while
;

as,

subordinate clauses take the Subjunc-

Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse ge senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his (Direct quam diu pledge to the enemy he was not a senator.
:

teneor non

sum

senator.)

Indirect Discourse.
2.

207
to be inferred

The verb

of saying,
;

tkinking,

etc., is

sometimes

from the context

turn

as,

Romulus legates circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatem conubiumque peterent urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infinio nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (sayifig that) cities, like everything else, start from a
:

modest beginjiing.

/^

3.

Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of

as,

tRe writer are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, and hence
regularly take the Indicative
;

certior factus

ex ea parte vici, quam Gallls concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, he was iftformed that all had departed by
night from that part of the village which he Jiad granted to the

Gauls.
4.

Sometimes a subordinate clause

in sense is principal.
It

is

such only in

its

external form,

and
qui

then takes the Infinitive with Subject

hic,

Accusative.
is

This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where

equivalent to et hic,

nam

etc.

as,

dixit

urbem Atheniensiuni propiignaculum oppositum

baiis,

esse bar-

apud quam jam

city

bis classes regias fecisse naufra-

gium, he said the

barbarians
like

a bulwark, near which

tivice

of the King had

5.

of the Atlieniaiis had been set against the (= atid near it) the fleets met disaster.
is

Tlie Subject Accusative of the Infinitive

it

sometimes omitted

when

refers

to

the

same person as the subject of the leading

;

verb, or can easily be supplied from the context

as,

cum

id nescire

Mago

diceret,

when Mago said he did

not

know

this (for se nescire).

Interrogative Sentences.
315.
I.

becoming
tive
;

as,

Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon indirect, are regularly put in the Subjuncse prius in Galliam venisse

Ariovistus Caesari respondit

quam

populum Romanum.

Quid

sibi

vellet ?
to

Cur in suas
Caesar that he

possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied

2o8
had come
{Caesar)

Syntax.
into Gaiil before the

Roman
i?ito

people.
his

What did

he

mean ?

quid
2.

tibi vis ?

domain ? cur in meas possessiones veins ?)

did he come

Why

(Direct

Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked

for-effect,

merely
course.

and being equivalent

in force to

emphatic

statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis-

Thus

quid est levius

direct.
3.

(lit.

what

is

inore trivial.,

of the Direct Discourse becomes

= nothing is more trivial) quid esse levius in the In-

Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unin

changed

mood

in the Indirect

as,

quid faceret, what was he

to

do

(Direct

quid faciam ?)

Imperative Sentences.
316.

All

Imperatives or Jussive

Subjunctives of the
in

Direct
direct
;

Discourse
as,

appear

as

Subjunctives

the

In-

mllites

certiores fecit
the
soldiers

paulisper intermitterent proelium, he

to

told

stop

the

battle

for a

little.

(Direct

intermittite.)
a.

The Negative
valor

in

such sentences
let

is

ne

as,

it

ne suae virtuti tribueret,

hi/n not attribute

to his oivn

TENSES
A.
317.

IN

INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Infinitive.

Tenses of the
in

These are used

The

accordance with the regular

principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in

a.

270.

Perfect Infinitive

may represent any past tense of the

Thus
:

Indicative of Direct Discourse.

scio te haec egisse may mean

(Direct:
(Direct: (Direct:

/ know you were doing' this. / know you did this. / know you had done this.

haec agebas.) haec egisti.) haec egeras.)

Indirect Discourse.

209

B.
318.

Tenses of the Subjunctive.

principle for the

These follow the regular

if

Sequence
is

of Tenses, being Principal

the verb of saying

Princi-

pal

Historical

if

it

is

Historical.

Yet

for the sake of

vividness,
after

we

often

find
;

the
as,

an

historical tense

Present

Subjunctive used

Caesar respondit,
a.

si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace,

For the sequence

after the Perfect Infinitive, see 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.
319.
is

A.

The Apodosis.
to the
d).

Any

tense of the Indicative

changed
B.

corresponding tense of the Infinitive

(^270;
the

317,

The

Protasis.

The

protasis takes those tenses of

Subjunctive which

are

required

by the Sequence

of Tenses.

Examples

Indirect.

Direct.
SI

hoc credis, erras,

,

dico, sT
dixT, SI

hoc credas, te errare hoc crederes, te errare.

hoc credas, te erraturum esse _ _ hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.
;

81

hoc credes, errabis,

_ ,.

_,

f
-I

dico,
.

SI
_

dixi,

SI

dico, sT
SI

hoc credideris,
;

te

erraturum
erratiirum

hoc credideris, errabis,

esse
\

dIxT, sT

h5c credidisses, hoc crederes, hoc crederes,

te

esse.
si

hoc credebas, erravisti,

dico, si
dlxT, sT

te
te

erravisse
erravisse.

Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse

regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after

a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.

210

Syntax.
Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

The Present Subjunctive of A. The Apodosis. becomes the Future Infiniregularly Discourse Direct the
320.
tive of the Indirect.

B.

the

The Protasis takes those tenses Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.

The

Protasis.

of

Examples
SI

_ _^_ hoc credas, erres,

dlco, SI
,

-^

.,.

dixi, SI

hoc credas, te erraturum esse -._ _, _ ,hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.

;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321.
I.

A.

The

Apodosis.
of the Direct Discourse

The Imperfect Subjunctive

:

becomes
a)
b)

In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive.

In the Passive Voice

it

takes the form

futurum esse (fore)

ut, with the Imperfect Subjunctive.

2.

The
:

becomes
a)
b)

Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse

In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse. In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut

with the Imperfect Subjunctive.

The protasis in Conditional SenB. The Protasis. tences of this type always remains unchanged.
Examples
sT
:

hoc crederes, errares,

hoc credidisses, erravisses, h5c dixisses, punitus esses,

dico (dixT),

sT

hoc crederes,
;

te

erra-

tiirum esse
sT

dico (dlxT),

sT

hoc crdidisses,

te

erraturum fuisse
SI

dico (dlxT),

sT

hoc dixisses futu-

rum
322.

fuisse ut punireris.

When

an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third

is

Type

referring to the past

at the

same time a Result

clause, or a

Indirect Discourse.
quin-clause (after

2il

non dubito,

etc.),
;

junctive in the form -urus f uerim ita territi sunt, ut

as,

it

stands in the Perfect Sub-

non

arma traditurl fuerint/ nisi Caesar subito advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived; dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturiis fueris,i / do not doubt
that, if you
a.

had said this, you would have made a

mistake.

This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent,
remain unchanged
;

as,

non dubitS quin,

do not doubt
been blamed.
b.

si

that,

h5c dixisses, vituperatus esses, / if you had said this, you would have

When

ditional sentence of the

an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conThird Type, -urus fuerim (rarely

is

-urus fuissem)

used;

as,

quaero,

num,

si

hoc dixisses, erraturus

fueris

(or

fuisses).
c.
it becomes a dependent apodosis Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive

Potui, when

in sentences of this
as.

concursu totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque oratorgs populi studia excitare potuerint,
they -were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that
the interest of the people the most apathetic orators.

would have been enough

to excite

even

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323.

The

Subjunctive
is

is

often used in subordinate clauses

as,

whose

Indirect character

merely implied by the context;

demonstrabautur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortalitate

animorum

disseruisset, there were explained to

me

be-

arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the im?/tortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said,
sides, the

Socrates had set forth)

Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi dSnavit, Paetusgave me all the books which {as he said) his father had left.
1

Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris nre

to

be regarded as repre(See

senting tradittiri

fuerunt and erraturus

fuisti of Direct Discourse.

304.

3. '^)-

212

Syntax.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324.
I.

Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subare

junctive

frequently attracted

into

the

same mood,

especially

when they do

not express a fact, but constitute

;

an essential part of one complex idea

as,

nemo avarus adhuc inventus

had

est, cui,

no miser has yet been found

quod haberet, esset satis, who was satisfied with what tie

cum

diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et ingeuii reddereut, as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of

mind and natural

bent.

quod ego
2.
is

fatear, pudeat, should

be ashatned

of a thing which I

admit ?
Similarly a

subordinate

clause

put in
;

whole

as,

the

Subjunctive

when

the two

dependent upon an Infinitive form one closely united

mos

est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Alliens every year for
those to be publicly eulogised

(Here the notion of 'praising those

an inseparable whole.)

who have been who fell

tcilled

in

battle.

in battle'

forms

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325.

These are the

Infinitive,

Participle,

Gerund, and

Supine.

All of these partake of the nature of the Verb,

on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the

other.

Thus

As Verbs,

They may be limited by adverbs They admit an object They have the properties of voice and
;

rt)

b^
c')

tense.

As Nouns
a)
b)

or Adjectives,

They They

are declined

take

Noun

or Adjective constructions.

Noun and

Adjective Forms of the Verb.

213

THE
Infinitive

INFINITIVE.

without Subject Accusative.

either as Subject or Object.
still

326.
Note.
seen
in

This

may be used

The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are

-will

to

be

the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as,

nec dulces OCCtirto

rent oscula nati praeripere, ajidno sweet children

run

snatch kisses.

A.
327.
I.

As
{

Siibject.

The

Infinitive wIEIiQiii-^Subiect

Accusative

is

used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, pporte t, juvat, delectat,
placet, libet
interest, etc.
.

licet, praestat,
;

as,

conducit, expedit, dece t, pudet,

dulce et decorum ,e^t pro patria

for
one's country
;

niori,

// is

sweet

and
the

noble to die

virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem men to endure pain with patience ;

patT,

// is

part of brave
pleased the

senatui placuit legatSs mittere, the Senate decided Senate) to send envoys.
2.

{\\i. it

Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may Noun or Adjective in the Accusative as, is one thing to be irascible, aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum,
take a Predicate
;

/'/

another

to be

angry

impune quaelibet
a.

facere, id est

regem

esse, to do whatever

you

please with impunity, that

But when licet
is

is to be

a king. same case;

followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate

Noun

or Adjective with

esse

is

attracted into the

lit.

as,

licuit esse otioso Themistocll,

cles to be at leisure.

it

zuas permitted to Themisto-

So sometimes with other Impersonals.

B.

As

Object. is

328.

I.

The

Infinitive

without Subject Accusative

used as the Object of

of the
volo,

many

verbs, to denote another action

same
cupi5,

subject, particularly after

malo,

nolo;

QO^\\.b.va.Qdi\tox, purpose, i7itend',

debeo,

ouglit

neglego, neglect
vereor, timeo, /ear

statuo, constituo, decide;

214
audeo dare
studeo, contends, strive par5, prepare (so paratus)
pergo, continue ; desino, desisto, cease
;

Syntax.
maturo, festino, propero, contendo, hasten ; assuesco, consuesco, accustom
;

incipio, coepi, instituo, begin

myself {&o assuetus, Insuetus, assuef actus)

;

disco, /earn
scio, /enow

possum, can
Conor, try

how;
;

soleo,

am wont

as,

tu hos intueri audes, do you dare

used
2.

to /oo/c on these men f Demosthenes ad fluctum maris declamare solebat, Demosthenes

to

declaim by the waves of the sea.

Predicate

Noun
;

into the

Nominative

as,

or Adjective with these Infinitives

is

attracted

beatus esse sine virtute

virtue

nemo

potest, no one can be happy without

to be

Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred

rather than
to

good

seem

so.

Infinitive

with Subject Accusative.

either as Subject or Object.

329.

This

may be used
A.

As

Subject.

330.

The

Infinitive with

Subject Accusative (like the

simple Infinitive) appears as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, justum est, utile opinio est, turpe est, apertum est, perspicuum est, fama est,
est,

spes est, fas

est,

nefas est, opus est, necesse est, oportet,

etc. ;

/'

apparet, constat, praestat,

nihil in bello oportet

as,

contemni, nothing ought to apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum,
by nature everybody is dearest to himse/f.

be despised in
// is

war

manifest that

B.
331.

As

Object.

The

Infinitive with Subject

Accusative
:

Object after the following classes of verbs

I.

is

used as
perthe

ceiving,

Most and the

frequently after verbs of saying,

like

t /linking,

/inotving,

{Verba Sentiendi

et

Declarandi).

This

is

Noun and

Adjective Forms of the Verb.

215
Verbs
sentio,
;

regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse.

that take this construction are,

among

others, the following

audio, video,

cognosce

memini

dico, affirmo,
(tn/ofyn),

nego

puto, jiidico, spero, confido sci5, (^say that fiot), trado, narro,
. .
.

fateor, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior.

Also the phrases

etc.

certiorem facio Examples

:

memoria teneo

{remember^,

Epicure! putant

cum

corporibus simul animds interire,

;

the Epi-

cureans think that the soul perishes with the body

Thales dixit

aquam

e sse initium

rerum,

Tliales said that

water was

of the nni-verse Democritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritits says

nothing
is

the first principle

everlasting;

spero euni venturum esse, / hope that he will come.

II.

With jubeo,

order,

and

'veto, forbid ; as,

Caesar milites pontem facere make a bridge.

a.

jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to

When

the

name
is

of the person

who

is

ordered or forbidden to do

something

omitted, the Infinitive with

jubeo and vet5

is

put in

the Passive; as,

Caesar pontem

fieri jussit.

III.

With patior and sino, permit, allow

be involved in

as,

to

nullo se implicari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself

any

difficulty.

IV.
tive
is

With V0I6, nolo, malo, cupio, when

different

the Subject of the Infini;

from that of the governing verb

as,

nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error be wrested from me eas res jactari nolebat, he was unwilli>ig that these matters should
discussed
te tuis divitils frui
a.

to

be

cupimus, we

desire that you enjoy

is

your wealth.
is

When

the Subject of both verbs

the same, the simple Infinitive

328,
i.

regularly used in accordance with

pecially in case of

But exceptions occur,

es-

esse and Passive

Infinitives; as,

esse clementem, I desire to be lenient; Timoleon maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred

cupio

me

to

be loved rather than feared.

b.

Vol5 and nolo

(See
\

also

admit the Subjunctive, with or without Ut.

296,

I,

a.)

2i6

Syntax.

V. With Verbs of emotion {Joy, sorro^u, regret, etc.), especially gaudeo, laetor, doleo aegre fero, moleste feio, graviter fero, uf/i annoyed, distressed ; miror, queror, indignor as,
; ;

gaudeo

te salvum advenire, I rejoice that yon arri^ie safely non moleste ferunt se libidinuni vinculis laxatos esse, tJiey are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion miror te ad me nihil scribere, I -wonder that yon write me 7iothing.
;

a.

Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a

clause as Object.

(See

299.)

Thus:

quod-

miror quod non loqueris,

VI.

/ wonder that you do not speak.

Some

verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and

the other of the

Thing
;

second Accusative

as,

( 178, i)

may

substitute an Infinitive for the

cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo) "docui te contentum esse, / taught you to be content (cf. te modestiam docui, / taught you temperance').
;

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332.

Those verbs which

in the

Active are followed by

the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the

personal construction in the Passive.

following
a)
:

This

is

true of the

jubeor, vetor, sinor

milites

as,

pontem facere

jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered

a bridge jussus est, a bridge was ordered built milites castris exire vetiti snnt,'the troops were forbidden
to build

pons

fieri

to go out of the camp ; Sestius Clodium accusare n5n est situs, Sestius was

not allowed to accuse Clodius.

b)

vide or, / am

seen,

f seem

as,

videtur comperisse, he seems

c)

to

have discovered.
all

dicor, putor, existimor, jiidicor (in

persons)
to

as,

dlcitur in Italiam venisse, he

Italy;

is

said

have come into

Romulus primus rex Romanorum

lus is thought to

fuisse putatiir,
kitig

Romu-

have been the first

of the Romans.

Noun and

Adjective

Forms of

the Verb.

217

d) fertur, feruntur, traditur, traduntur (only in the third person) as,

;

fertur

Homerus caecus

fuisse, Hoiner is said to have been

blind;

carmina Archilochi coutumeliis referta esse traduntur, ArcJiilocJtiis's poems are reported to have been fiilt of
abuse.

Note.
verbs, c)
,

In
d),

compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two more commonly take the impersonal construction; as,

classes of

traditum est
blind.

Homerum caecum
Infinitive

fuisse, the story goes that

Homer was

with Adjectives.

333.
etc.;

The
;

Infinitive

with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus,

see 328, i) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose

as,

writers

contentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved; audax omnia perpeti, bold for enduring everything.
Infinitive in Exclamations.

334.
to

The

Infinitive is
et.

used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig-

nation, or regf

An

interrogative (or intensive) -ne

some word

in the clause.

Examples

is

often attached

huncine solem tarn nigrum surrexe rose with such eiiil omen for me
sedere totos dies in
villa, to stay

niihi, to think that to-dafs

sun

whole days at the villa

Historical Infinitive.
335.

The

Infinitive

is

often used in historical narrative instead of the

Imperfect Indicative.

The

Subject stands in the Nominative;

as,

interim cottidie Cae.sar

Aeduos frumentum

flagitare,

meanwhile

Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Aedui.

UPARTICIPLES.
Tenses of the Participle.
336.
I.

The

tenses of the Participle, like those of the

270), express time not absolutely, but with

Infinitive (see

reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.

Syntax.
2.

the verb.

The Present Participle denotes action conternfiorary with that of Thus audio te loquentem you are speaking and I hear yoti; audiebam te loquentem - yoii were speaking and I heard you audiatn te loquentem you will be speakitig and / shall hear you.
:

a.

The Present
force
;

as,

Participle

is

sometimes employed with Conative

the king

assurgentem regem resupinat, as rise, he threw him down.

3.

was t?ying

to

The

Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of

the verb.

Thus

locutus taceo = /have spoken and am silent; locutus tacui = /had spoketi and then was silent; locutus tacebo = / shall speak and then shall be silent.
4.

The absolute
Certain
Perfect

time of the action of a participle, therefore,

finite

ia

determined entirely by the

5.

verb with which

Participles
;

it is

connected.

Passive

of

Deponent and Semiausus, ratus,

Deponent Verbs

are used as Presents

viz. arbitratus,

gavisus, solitus, usus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.

Use
337.

of Participles.

As an

Adjective the Participle

may be used

either

as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.

I.

Attributive Use.
:

amples are

This presents no special

peculiarities.

Ex-

gloria est consentiens laus

bonorum, ^/^aj
reficit,

is

the 7inanimous praise

of the good Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos

destroyed by Lysander.
1.
.

Conon restored

the walls

Predicate Use.

Here the

Participle

is

often equivalent to a
:

subordinate clause.
a')

Thus the

Participle

may denote

Time

as,

facile opprimitur, every evil

is

omne malum nascens

easily

crushed at
;

birth.

b)

A Condition
mente
uti

as,

non possumus cibo et potione completi, if gorged with food and drink, wc cannot use our intellects.

Noun and
c)

Adjective Forfns of the Verb.

219

Manner

as,

Solon senescere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem, Solon said he grew old learning jnany new things every
day.

d)

Means

as,

diem
('

sol oriens
day.
e)

conficit, the sun, by

its rising,

makes

the

Opposition

though

')

as,

mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicenti credimus, we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.
f) Cause
;

as,

ad suos
recessit,
since

perfidiam veritus

he feared

treachery, he returned to his

own

troops.

3.

Video and audio,

besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par;

ticiple in the Predicate use

as,

etc.; as,

video te fugientem, I see yoti fleeing,

a.

So frequently facio, flngo, induco,

eis

Cat5nem respondentem facimus, we

ing
to

represent Cato reply-

them

Homerus Laertem colentem agrum

Laertes tilling the field.

facit,

Homer

represents

4.

The Future
its
it is

Active Participle (except futurus)

is

regularly con-

fined to

use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later

writers

used independently, especially to denote purpose ;

ihey

as,

venerunt castra oppugnaturi,

came

to assault the

camp.

The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is 5. sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive
;

as,

post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city Quinctius defensus, ihe defense of Quinctius ; quibus aninius occupatus, ihe preoccupation of the mind with which] non redditae res, the failure to make restitution.
6.

Habeo

icate construction with a force not far

sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predremoved from that of the Perfect

or Pluperfect Indicative; as,

copias quas coactas habebat, the forces which he had

collected.

220
7.

Syntax.

ticiples

The Gemndive denotes obligation or necessity. Like it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate. a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus
:

other Par-

liber legendus, a book worth reading

leges observandae, laws deservitig of observance.

b)

More
i)

frequently as Predicate.

In

the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation

(amandus

est, etc.).

In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only

impersonally, but
(Gen., Dat., Abl.)
;

admit
as,

their

ordinary case-construction

veniendum

est,

// is

necessary to come;
jmcst forget injuries

obliviscendum est injuriariim, one

numquara proditori credendum

a traitor

est,

you must never trust

use his

su6 cuique utendum est judicio, every ma7i must

OTvnjudg/nent.

2) After euro, provide for do, trado, give over ; relinquo, leave; concgdo, liand over; and some other verbs,
, .

instead of an object clause or to denote purpose

as,

Caesar pontein
vided for the

in

Arare faciendum curavit, Caesar proconstructio)i of a bridge over the Arar

/he
city to the soldiers to

imperator urbeni niilitibus diripieiidani concessit,

general Jianded over the
8.

phuider.
339, i.

For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see

THE GERUND.
338.

As

a verbal
:

noun the Gerund admits noun con-

structions as follows
I.

Genitive.
)

The

Genitive of the Gerund

as
as,

is

used

Genitive (see

With nouns,
200, 202)
;

Objective

or Appositional

cupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling ars scribendi, tJie art of writing.

b)

With Adjectives as, cupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.

c)

With causa, gratia

as,

discendi causa, for the sake of learning.

Noun and
2.

Adjective Forms of the Verb.

of the
as,

221

Dative.
a)

The Dative
;

Gerund

is

used

With Adjectives

is

aqua

utilis est

bibendo, water
;

useful for drinking.

b) With Verbs (rarely)

as,

adf ui scribendo. / was present at the writing.

3.

Accusative.

Prepositions, chiefly

The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with ad and in to denote purpose as,
;

homo ad agendum
4.

natus

est, niafi is born

is

for

action.

Ablative.
a)

The

Ablative of the Gerund

used

etc. is

Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause,

(see 218, 219);

as,
tJie

mens discendo
by learning

alitur et cogitandS,

mifid

nourished

and reflection. Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare tutum reddidit. Themistocles made the sea safe by following
b)
7/p the pirates.
a,

After the prepositions

de, ex, in

as,

summa

voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleas-

ure is derived from learning; multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the stibject of living well and happily.
5.

As

a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative

(without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339.
I.

Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a

Direct Object, another construction

may

be,

and very

often

is,

used.

This consists in putting the Direct Object

in the case of the

Gerund
This

is

(Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with called the Gerundive Construction. Thus
:

it.

Gerund Construction.

Gerundive Construction,

cupidus urbem videndi, desirous

of seeing the city ; delector oratores legendo, / am charmed with reading the orators.

cupidus urbis videndae

delector oratoribus legendis.

222

Syntax.

2. The Gerundive Construction mitst be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon

a Preposition

as,

locus castrls muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp; ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace; multum temporis consumo in legendis poetis, / spend f/iuch time
in reading the poets.
3.

struction

In order to avoid ambiguity (see 236, 2), the Gerundive Conmust not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used

substantively.

Thus

regularly

philosophi cupidi sunt

verum

investigandi, philosophers are eager

;

for discovering triitJi (rarely veri investigandi) studium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium

cognoscendorum)
4.

From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used Gerundive Construction but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (origas, inally transitive) regularly admit it
in the
; ;

hostes in

spem potiundorum castrorum venerant,

the

enemy had

conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.

The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestrT, when used in the 5. Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives

used substantively.

Thus

mulier sui servandi causa aufugit,

the

woman fled for

the sake

of

saving herself ISgatl in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves ;

So nostri servandi causa, /<?;6.

the sake

of saving ourselves.
is

Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction

used

to denote 81

purpose ;

as,

arborum truncT sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbaris missae, tf trunks of trees or boats should be sent down by the
barbarians for the purpose of destroying the structure.
7.

The Dative

of the Gerundive Construction occurs in

;

some

ex-

pressions which have the character of formulas

as,

decemviri legibus scribundia, decenwirs for codifying the laws ; quTndecimviri sacris faciundis, quindecefnvirs for perfonning
sacrifices.

the

Coordinate Conjunctions.

223

THE
340.
I.
;

SUPINE.
used after Verbs of motion to express

The Supine
as,

purpose
legati

in

-um

is

ad Caesarem gratulatum convenerunt, envoys came

sar
a.
to congratulate

to

Cae-

him.

The Supine
voys
to

in

-um may
to

take an Object; as,

pacem petitum
Ro/ne
:

oratores

Romam

mittunt, they send en-

ask for peace.

b.

Note the phrase

in

do (colloco) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter

riage.
2.

mar-

The Supine

in -u is

used as an Ablative of Specification with

facilis, difficilis, incredibilis,

jucundus, optimus,

etc.

fas est, nef as est,

opus est

as,

also with

haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do.
a.

to learn

Only a few Supines

in -u are in

common

use, chiefly

auditu,

cognitu, dictu, factu, visu.

b.

The Supine

in -u never takes

an Object.

Chapter VI.

Particles.

COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
341.

Copulative

Conjunctions.

These join one word,

phrase, or clause to another.

I.
a')

et simply connects.
the two

^)

-que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where members have an internal connection with each
;

other

as,

parentis liberique, parents and children cum homines aestu febrique jactantur, ivhen people are
tossed about with heat

and fever

224
c)

Syntax.
atque (ac)
connected,
usually emphasizes the second of the two things
also,

and a?id indeed, and in fact. of likeness and difference atque (ac) has the than. Thus:
ego idem sentio ac tu, I think the haud aliter ac, not otherwise tlian.
d)
2.

After words
force of as,

satne as you

neque (nee) means and

not, neither, nor.

a)

-que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses it is appended to the first word of the second clause but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next following word as,
;

ob eamque rem, and on

U)

accoioit

of that thing.
;

atque

is

used before vowels and consonants

ac never before

c)

vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu. et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative
rests

upon a

special

word

as,

vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator

d)

For and nowJiere, and never, and

said

no7te, the

Latin regularly
etc.

nee usquam, nee umquam, nee

ullus,

3.

Correlatives.
;

correlatively

as,
.
.

. .

Copulative

Conjunctions are

frequently used

et

et, both
. .

neque (nee)

and neque (nee),

.
. . .

neither

nor;

cum
turn
.

tum, while tum, not only

at the
. .

same time

but also.

Less frequently
et
a.
. . .

neque
;

neque
its

et.
antithetical relations,
.

Note

that the Latin, with

tendency

to
.

emphasize
. .

often uses correlatives, especially

et

et, et

neque, where

the English

employs but a single connective.

4.

In enumerations
a)

members of
a series
;

The

different

may

follow one another

without connectives (Asyndeton

see 346).

Thus

ex cupiditatibus odia,

discidia, diseordiae, seditiones,

bella nascuntur,/)-^/// covetous desires spring up hatred,

dissensions, discord, sedition, wars.

Coordinate Conjunctions.
b)

225
by et

The

different

(Polysyndeton).

members may Thus

:

severally be connected

horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, hours and days and years and niontJis pass away.
c)

The connective may be omitted between

the former members,

;

while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et)

as,

Caesar in Caruutes, Andes Turonesque legiones deducit,

Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the

Carnutes, Andes,

and Turones.

342.
1.

Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.

aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive
;

a)

as,

cita

mors venit aut victoria laeta, glad victory conies.

-ve
;

{^either')

swift death or

b)

vel,
tives

as,

(enclitic)

imply a choice between the alterna-

qui aether vel caelum nominatur, which

or heaven.
2.

is

called aether

Correlatives.
;

tively

as,

Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla. .

.

aut
vel sive
343.
sition.
I.

aut,
vel,

eitiier

.or]
.or',

either

sive, if

orif

Adversative
sed,

Conjunctions.

These

denote

oppo-

d)
b)
c)

1^///',

merely denotes opposition.

verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used. autem, but on the other hand, Iiowever, marks a transition.
It is

always post-positive.

Definition.
tence, but
is

post-positive

word

is

one that cannot begin a sen-

placed after one or more words.

but,
is

d)
^)

at,

used especially

in disputation,

to introduce

an

opposing argument.

atqui means but yet.

yet, usually stands after the

f) tamen,
always.

emphatic word, but not

g) vero, however, indeed, in truth,

is

always post-positive.

226
2.

Syntax.
Note the
correlative expressions
. . :

only
...
.

non solum (non modo) sed etiam, iioi quidem, sed ne non modo non
. .
. . .

hit also

',

even

as,

not only not, but not

non modo

tibi

non

irascor,

sed ne reprehendo quidem factum

tuum, / not only your action.

a.

am

not angry 7vith yon, but I do not even blame

non modo non; as, adsentatiS non modo amico sed ne libero quidem digna
for

But when the sentence has but one member, n5n modo may be used

verb,

and

this

stands with the second

est, flattery

is

not only {not) worthy of a friend, but not even of a

free man.

These represent the state344. Illative Conjunctions. ment which they introduce as folloiving from or as in conformity ivitJi what has preceded. 1 itaque = and so, accordingly ff) b) ergo therefore, accordingly c) igitur (regularly post-positive ^) = therefore, accordingly.
2.

Igitur

is

never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.

345.

Causal Conjunctions.

These denote

cause, or give

an

explajiation.

They

are nam, namque, enim (post-positive),

etenim, for.
346.

Asyndeton.
coordinate

The conjunction
particularly

is

tween

narration.

Thus:

members,

in

sometimes omitted belively or impassioned

a)

Copulative Conjunction
infinita,

is

omitted

as,

avSritia

insatiabilis

est,

avarice

is

boundless

{and )

insatiable

Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeiis Pompcy (and) Marcus Crassus.

The
V)

conjunction

is

regularly omitted between the

names of

consuls when the praenomen {Marcus, Gains, etc. ) is expressed.

An

Adversative Conjunction

may be omitted

as,

rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argutnents were lacking, {buf) abundance of words was not.
1

Except

in Sallust

and

Silver Latin.

Adverbs.

Word-Order.

227

ADVERBS.
347.
I.

The

following particles, sometimes classed as

:

Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs

etiam,
also, even.

quoque quidem

(always post-positive), also. (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but

It. is

ne

more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis. quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between as, ne ille quidem, not even he. tamen and vero, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs.
.

2.

Negatives.

Two

affirmative as in English, as
nihil,
. .
.

Negatives are regularly equivalent to an non niilli, some; but when non, nemo,
. . .

numquam, ^/(;., are accompanied by neque quidem, the latter non, non modo, or ne take up the negation and emphasize it as,
. .
. ;

neque, non

particles simply

habeo hic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, / have

no one, neither friend nor
relative.

here

non enim praetereundum

be
a.

est ne id quidem, /"w not even that must

passed

by.
in

Haud

of Adjectives
writers use
it

Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Later
freely with verbs.

Chapter VII.

Word-Order
Structure.

and

Sentence-

A.
348.

"WORD-ORDER.

In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence

as,

the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the

Predicate at the end

Darius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got

ready a fleet offive Jutndred ships.

228
349.

Syntax.

But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sentence
;

as,

magnus

in

hoc bello Themistocles

ot/ier

fuit,

GREAT was

Themistocles in

this uiar

aliud iter

habemus nullum,

course

we have none.

SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.
350.
I.

Nouns.

Genitive or other oblique case regularly foL

it

lows the word upon which

a)

depends.
:

Thus

Depending upon a Noun

tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs ; filius regis, son of the king; vir niagni aiiimi, a man of noble spirit.
Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scltum.
b')

Depending upon an Adjective

ignarus rerum, ignorant of affairs ; digni amlcitia, ivorthy offriendship plus aequo, more than (what is) fair.
2.

as,

Appositives.

An

Appositive regularly follows

its

Subject;

Philippus. rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians adsentatio. vitiorum ad]vLtiix, /lattery, promoter of evils.
Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always urbs Roma, the city Rome.
3.

in

good prose

The Vocative

usually follows one or

more words

as,

Audi, Caesar,
4.

hear, Caesar

Adjectives.
it.

tion of Adjectives.

No On

general law can be laid

the whole

down

for the posi-

they precede the

noun oftener

than they follow

a.

Adjectives of quantity (including numerals) regularly pre-

cede their noun;

as,

omnes homines,

all

men

septingentae naves, seven hundred

vessels.

Word-Order.
b.

229
:

Note the

force of position in the following

media urbs,

t/ie middle of the eity ; urbs media, //w middle city extremum bellum, the end 0/ the war

bellum extremum,
c.

the last

war.
;

Romanus
People

and Latinus regularly follow

tlie

as,

and

senatus populusque Romanus,

ludi RomanT, the
feriae Latinae,
d.

Ko/naii Senate

Roman games
Latin holidays.

tJie

When
tive,

Noun

is

modified both by an Adjective and by a Geniis

:

a favorite order

Adjective, Genitive,

Noun

as,

summa omnium rerum

dance of all things.

abundantia,

tJie

greatest abun-

Pronouns.
a.

The Demonstrative,
regularly precede the

Relative,

and Interrogative Pronouns

Noun
; ;

as,

hic homo,
ille

this

homo, erant duo

qui

that

man man

itinera,

quibus itineribus,

etc.,

there were

two

routes, by which, etc.

homo ? what
ille in the

sort of a

man ?
as,

b.

But

sense of 'that well known,''

its

usually stands after

Noun

that famous,''

testula

ilia, ilia,

that well-knozun custom of ostracism that famous

Medea
c.

Medea.
Pronouns
usually

Possessive

Noun

as,

and Indefinite

follow their

my father homo quidam, a certain

pater meus,
But
its

jnan

mulier aliqua, some woman.

for

purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes

;

Noun

as,' },i\

meus
d.

pater,
or

father

(i.e.

as

opposed to yours,

his, etc.).

Where two
the Latin
is

more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, fond of putting them in close proximity; as,

nisi forte

seem

to

ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance 1 you to be doing nothing.

230
6.

Syntax.
Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they
;

modify

as,

valde diligens, exlreinely diligent saepe dixi, I Jiave often said; te jam diu hortamur, we have long paulo post, a little after.
7.

been urging y 021

Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.

a.

But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition

and

its

case

as,

de comniuni honiinum memoria, co7icerning memory of me7i ad beate vivendum, for livitig happily.
b.

the commo7i

When

a noun

is

modified by an Adjective, the Adjective

;

often placed before the preposition

as,

is

magno

in dolore, in great grief

summa cum

laude,

witli the highest credit

qua de cansa, for which cause banc ob rem, on account of this

c.

thing.
is

For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition

put after

its

case, see \ 144, 3.

8.

Conjunctions.

Autem, enim, and

third
;

igitur regularly stand in

or

the second place in the sentence, but

sunt they often stand

as,

when combined with est

so

ita est

enim.y^r

it is.

9.

Words
it,

or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to

first
;

part of

regularly stand

as,

some

id ut audivit,

Corcyram demigravit, when

he heard that (referring

//i?

to the contents of the preceding sentence),

moved

to

Corcyra

eo

cum Caesar
timid.
10.

venisset, timentes confirmat, when Caesar had come thither {i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the

The

Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which

;

are etymologically related

as,

ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scrips!, as /, ati old man, wrote to an old }>ian, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I have
written to a friend concerning friendship.

Word-Order.
1
.

231
emphasis
are

Special
:

following

rhetorical

devices

for

indicating

the

a)

Hyp^rbaton, which
Septimus
recepto

consists in the separation of

;

regularly stand together

as,

words that

mihi Originum
'

liber
'

est in manibus, the

seventh book of my

Caesar

under way ; Orico proficlscitur, having recovered

Origines
is

Oricus, Caesar set out.

d)

Anaphora, which
or the

consists in the repetition of the

in successive phrases
;

same word

same word-order

as,

sed pleni onines sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces, plena exeniploruni vetustas, dut all books are full of
it, the voices of sages are full of examples of it.
it,

antiquity is full of

c)

Chiasmus,^ which consists in changing the as, of words in two antithetical phrases
;

relative

order

multos defend!, laesi neminem, many have I defetided, T

have injured no one horribilem ilium diem
dreadful
to others,
aliis, nobis faustum, that day for us forttmate.

d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement.

that of the Imperial Period
as,

This

is

mostly

confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially

;

simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium,

interest in the
12.

pretended

Pompeian party.
a sentence certain cadences

Metrical Close.
;

At the end of

were avoided
)

others were

much employed.
as, as,

Thus

Cadences avoided.

WW
\^ v^

^
w
;

esse videtur (close of hexameter). esse potest (close of pentameter).

b)

Cadences frequently employed.

^
Kj

as,
;

auxerant.

w
\j

as,

comprobavit.
esse videatur.

\j \j \j \j

w
;

as,
as,

rogatu tuo.

1 So named from a Thus

:

fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter

{chi).

multos
defend!

laesi

neminem

232

Syntax.

B.
351.
I.

SENTENCE -STRUCTURE.

Unity of Subject.

In

complex sentences the Latin

regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different

members

aa,

Caesar prlmum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut aequato periculo speni fugae tolleret, cohortatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed
his

own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order., by making the danger equal, to take away hope offlight, encouraged his men atid joined battle.

2.

A word

serving as the

common

Subject or Object of the main

;

clause

and a subordinate one, stands before both

se defendere

as,

Aedui cum
envoys
ille

non possent, legates ad Caesarem

mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves, they sent
to

Caesar

etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate,

tamen paci serviendum

to fight, yet he

putavit, although he was burning with a desire

thought he ought to aim at peace.
a.

The same
i)

is

true also

When

the

Subject

of

the

main clause

is

Object

(Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as,

Caesar,

cum hoc
set

proficisci,

when

hastened to
2)

nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe this had been reported to Caesar he out from the city.
ei
is

When
;

the Subject of a subordinate clause

Indirect)

at the

same time the Object (Direct or

clause
as,

of the

main
tri-

L. Manlio,

cum

dictator fuisset,

M. Pomponius

biinus plebis
lius
3.

diem

dixit, AT. Pomponius, tribune of

the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius

Man-

though he had been dictator.

Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative more commonly precede the main clause indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow as, postquam haec dixit, prof ectus est, after he said this, he set otd ; 81 quis ita agat, imprudens sit, 7/" any one should act so, lie would
clauses
;
;

be devoid of foresight accidit ut iina nocte omnes

Hermae

deicerentur,

that in a single night all the Hertnae were

// happened thrown down.

Sentence-Stmctnre.
4.

Hints
is

on Style.

233

Sometimes
;

in

ordinate clause
si

as,

Latin the main verb

placed within the sub-

quid est in me ingeni, quod sentiS quam is any talent in me, and I know Jiow little
5.

sit

exiguum, if

there

it is.

designates a

The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are
main clause
;

inserted witliin the

as, - -

Caesar

qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestateni in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, tJiough Caesar perceived luliy this was said,, yet,, lest he should be forced to spend the suniiner among
etsi intellegebat
the Treveri, he ordered Indittioniams to

come

to

him.
until the

In the Periodic structure the thought

is

suspended

end of

the sentence
this

is

reached.

Many Roman
and
;

writers were extremely fond of

to the inflectional
it.

sentence-structure,

it

was well adapted

character of their language

6.

in

English we generally avoid

When

there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the

Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs.

Thus

At hostes cum

misissent, qui, quae in castrls gererentur, cognSscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copils

had

subsecuti ad flumen contendunt, b2tt the enemy when they sejit men to learn what was going on in camp., after discovering that they
forces

had been outwitted, followed with and hurried to the river.

all their

Chapter VIII.
352.

Hints

on Latin

Style.
is

In this chapter brief consideration

given

to

a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to

style

than to formal grammar.

NOUNS.
353.
I.

Where
is

a distinct reference to several persons or things

is

is

involved, the Latin

frequently
;

Plural than

the English

as,

much mare

exact in the use

of the

234

Syntax.

domds

eunt, they go home

(i.e.

to their hoines)

Germani corpora curant, the Gertnajts care for the body animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night.

2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singu-

lar

as,

omnia sunt

perdita, everything

is lost;

quae cum ita sint, since t/iis is so haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this
3.

is

very well

known

to all.

The

cially less

Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espeThus bold in the personification of abstract qualities.
:

a puero, a pueris, front boyhood; Sulla dictatore, /;/ Sulla's dictatorship ; me duce, under my leadership Roman! cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fecrunt
peace with Cartilage
liber doctrinae plenus

= Rome made

a learned book

prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est

sight
4.

Themistocles''s fore-

saved Greece.
of

The Nouns

Agency

in -tor

and -sor (see

as,

permajient or characteristic activity ;

147, i)

denote a

accusatorgs (professional) accusers;

oratores, pleaders

cantores, singers

Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius,

a.

liberator

of Germany.

To

denote single instances of an action, other expressions are

;

commonly employed
qui qui
5

as,

Numa, qui R5mul6

successit, Numa, successor of Romulus

mea legunt, my readers me audiunt, my auditors.

we say: 'The war against
on the sea
in
'

The

Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of

In English
'

a Noun.

Carthage''

;
'

'a journey
;
'

through Gaul
at Salaniis''
;

'

cities

'

the book in

my hands

the fight

mode

of

The Latin Thus expression.

etc.
:

such cases usually employs another

a)

Genitive

as,

injuries.

dolor injiiriarum, resentment at

Hints on
b)

Style.

235

An

Adjective

as,

cities

urbes niaritimae,

on the sea

pugna Salaminia,
c)

the figiit at Salatnis.

Participle

as,

facta, the battle at Cannae.

as,
;

pugna ad Cannas
d)

Relative clause

est, the book in

liber qui in nieis

manibus

my

hatids.

Note.
sitional

Yet

within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo-

phrases as

Noun
noun

moditiers.
is

This

is

particularly

frequent

when

the governing
:

typical examples

derived from a verb.

The

following are

transitus in Britanniam, the passage

to

Britain

excessus e vita, departure from

life

odium erga Romanos,

hatred of the
one''s

Romans
;

liber de senectiite, the book on old age

amor

in patriam, love for

country.

ADJECTIVES.
354.
I.

tives are
a)

Special

Latin

Equivalents

for

English

Adjec-

Genitive

as,

= moral virtues = bodily ills.

;

virtutes animi

dolores corporis
b)

An

Abstract

Noun

as,

as,

novitas rei
asperitas
c)

the strange circumstance

=:

viarum

rough roads.
;

Hendiadys (see
ratio et

374, 4)

ordo = systematic order ardor et impetus = eager onset.

Sometimes an Adverb
;

d')

as,

Noun
modified

omnes circa suos semper

2.

populi, all the surrounding tribes;

hostes, their perpetual foes.

is

Often a Latin
;

by an Adjective

as,

Noun

equivalent to an English

doctrina, theoretical knowledge

prudentia, practical knowledge ;

libellus,
little

oppidum, walled town

book

236

Syntax.

Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper 3. names; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name as, Socrates, homo sapiens = the tvise Socratei Scipio, vir f ortissimus = t/ie doKghty Scipio Syracusae, iirbs praeclarissima = famotis Syracuse.
;

4.

An

Adjective

may

be equivalent to a Possessive Genitive

as,

pastor regius, the shepherd of the king; tumultus servilis, the -uprising of the slaves.

PRONOUNS.
355. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondne.ss for connecting itself with the suboixlinate clause rather than the main

one
a

as,

quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when (Less commonly, 'it was asked of him what 7i>as best, he replied.
qui,
2.

cum ab

eo quaereretur, respondit.)

Uterque, ambo.
as,

both

Uterque means
of the

each of two;

ambo means
{i.e.

uterque frater
rately)
;

abiit, each

tiuo brothers

departed

sepa-

ambo

fratres abierunt,
a.

i.e.

the two brothers departed together.

The
i)

Plural of

uterque occurs

in the Plural (see 56)

;

With Nouns used only

as,

in utrisque castris, in each camp.

2)

Where

there
;

is

a distinct reference to two groups of

persons or things

as,

utrique duces eral in number) were famous.

clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev-

VERBS.
356.
supplied
I.
:

In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive

is

a)

By

the corresponding verbal

etc.
;

Nouns

in

combination with

esse,

as,

in odio

in invidia

sumus, 7i>e are hated sum, /am envied

Hints on
admiratioiii est, he
oblivion)

Style.

237

is admired oblivione obruitur, ke is forgotten

(lit. is

overwhelmed by

in usu esse, to be used.

b)

By

the Passive of Verbs of related meaning.

;

Thus

agitarl as Passive of persequi

temptari
2.

as Passive of adoriri.
is

The
a)

lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin

supplied

Sometimes by the Perfect Passive

nent
;

as,

Participle of the

Depo-

adhortatus,

tiainitg exhorted;

veritus, having feared.

b)

By the Ablative Absolute as, hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, hav;

ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back

his
c)

army.
;

By
eo

subordinate clauses

as,

there,

cum

advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived he pitolled a camp ;

hostes qui in

urbem

irruperant, the enemy having burst

into the city.

3.

The

Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of

the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense

the English
drink.'
'

(=

'one'').

Cf.

Yon can drive a horse

in Latin this use is

to water, but

yon

ca?t't

make him

But

mainly confined to certain varieties of

the Subjunctive, especially the Potential ( 280), Jussive ( 275), Deliberative ( 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the
sort included

under

302, 2,
see
;

and 303.

Examples

videres. yon could

utare viribus use your strength ; quid hoc honiine facias, what are you to do with this mati ? mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles exstinguuntur senectute, tJie intellect and mind too are extinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouritig oil
into the

lump

tanto amore possessiones suas amplexl tenebant, ut ab eis membra divellT citius posse diceres, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.

238

Syntax.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

357.
I
.

To

denote

'

so

many

years,

etc.,

afterwards or before

'

the

Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with

post and ante

(see 223), but has other forms of expression.

Thus

post quinque B\va.o^, five years afterward ] paucos ante dies, a fczu days before; ante quadriennium,/"^^'/" ji?fl';\y before; post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus, />//;- days after we
left

the city

ante tertium
died.
2.

annum quam

decesserat, three years before he had

The

Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the

;

same

Infinitive

as,

Romanes Hannibalem

vicisse constat.

Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive
;

as,

Romanos ab Hannibale

victos esse constat,

// is

well established

that the Ro/iians were defeated by Hannibal.

PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OP THE DATIVE.

358.
I.

The English /^r does

is

notion in Latin, but

vis. in the senses

often the equivalent of

not always correspond to a Dative pro with the Ablative,

a)

In defense of;

as,

to die for one''s coitfitry.

as,

pro patria mori,

b)

Instead of in behalf of ;

unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all. haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said
of the law.
c)

in behalf

In proportion

to

as,

in proportion to the

pro multitudine hominum,

tion.

poptda-

Hints on
2.

Style.
indicates

239
motion
is

Similarly, English to

when

it

rendered in

Latin by ad.
a.

Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion
is

or

is

not predominant.

So

in several similar expressions.

3.

take the Dative.

In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contendifig with, sometimes This construction is a Grecism. Thus
:

se miscet viris, he mingles with the men contendis Homero, you contend with Homer.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.

The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, I. Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, Dative of the
359.

hortiis patris est,

the garden

is

my father''s ]

mihi hortus
2.

est,

I possess a garden.

The
;

foolish to say;
itive
as,

Latin can say either stulti or stultum est dicere, it is but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen-

sapientis est haec

consider
this.

secum

reputare,

// is

the

part of a wise

man

to

Part VI.
PROSODY.

360.
361.

Prosody treats of metres and

Latin Verse.
accent,

versification.

Latin Poetry was essentially different

from English. In our own language poetry is and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poetical form consisted in a certain succession of /ojig and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time. This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language in which quantity is relatively subordinate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative language, in which accent was relatively subordinate.
in character

based upon

QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
362.

The

general principles for the quantity of vowels

and

syllables

have been given above

:

peculiarities are to be noted here

I.

in

5.

The

following

A
A.

vowel
2),

is

usually short

when followed by another vowel

( 5.

but the following exceptions occur: 240

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables.

a)
b)

241

totius.

In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius); as, illius, Yet the i may be short in poetry as, illius, totius.
;

In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension

as, diei, aciei.

c)

In fi6,

Thus
d)

spei ( 52, i). excepting fit and forms where i is followed by fiebam, fiat, fiunt but fieri, fierem.

But

fidei, rgi,

er.

In a few other words, especially words derived from the

Greek;
2.

as,

dius, Aeneas,*Dareus, heroes,

etc.

A
in

diphthong

is

prae
3.

composition

is

usually long ( 5. B. 2), but the preposition often shortened before a vowel as, praeacutus.
;

syllable containing a short vowel followed

is

by two consonants
is

( 5. B. 2)
ino^

long, even

when one
are

of the consonants

in the followis

word

as,

terret popiiluni.

Occasionally the syllable

long

when both consonants

spicas.
4.

in the following

word

as,

pro segete
of

A
;

jugum
5.

as,

vowel before j is regularly long, but bijugis, quadrijugis.

of jacio, though written

is

short in

compounds
etc.,

Compounds

illicit,

adicit,

have

the

though written inj-, adj-. The actual pronunciation of such words is not clear. Reicio has e.
first

syllable long, as

Quantity of Final Syllables.

A.
363.
situations
I.
:

Final Syllables
is

ejidiiig

i?i

a Vowel.

Final a

mostly short, but

is

long in the following

a)
b)
c)

In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension

as,

porta.

In the Imperative

as,

lauda.
;

In indeclinable words (except ita, quia)

tra,

as, triginta,

con-

postea, interea,
is

etc.

2.

Final e

usually short, but

is

long

Fifth

a)

In the Ablative
die, re;

Singular of the

Declension

as,

hence hodie, quare.

Here belongs also fame

as,

(59.2.^).
b)

In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation habe, etc. ; yet occasionally cave, vale.
sion,

mone,

c)

In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen-

along with fere and ferme.

se,

Bene, male, temerg,

saep6 have e. d) In e, de, me, te,

R

ne

(^not. lest),

ne

(verily).

242
3.

Prosody.
Final
i is

usually long, but

is

short in nisi and quasi.

i,

Mihi,

tibi, sibi, ibi,

ubi, have regularly

but sometimes

yet always

ibidem, ibique, ubique. Final o is regularly long, but 4.

a)
b)

is

short

and
in

In ego, duo,

modo

{only), cito.

Rarely

in

the First Person Singular of the Verb,

c)

Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amo, le6. In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro as, profundere, proficisci, pr6fugere.

5.

Final

is

always long.

B.
364.
short.
I
.

Fi7tal Syllables ending in a Consonant.

Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are

following words, however, have a long vowel
in e
:

The

sal, sol,
^

Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, lac, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur, hie
{this).
2.

Also adverbs

as, hie,

hue,
as,

istie, illuc, etc.

Final syllables in -as are long;

terras,

amas.

3.

Final syllables in -es are I'egularly long, but are short

a)

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems

( 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles,

dives.
b)
4.

But a few have -es

vis. pes, aries, abies, paries.

In es {thou art), penes.

is

Final -os

usually long, but short in 5s (ossis),

compds,

imp5s.
5.

Final -is

is

usually short, but

is

long

nubis (Ace).
;

a)
b)

In Plurals; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, In the Nominative Singular of

Nouns

of the Third Declenas,

sion with long vowel in the Penult of the Genitive

Samnis
c)

(-itis).

In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of

the Fourth Conjugation

as,

audis.
;

d) In

-via,

force
;

la, t/con

goest

fis

sis; velis
etc.).

nolis

vis.

thou wilt
6.

(mavis, quamvis, quivis,

is

Final -us

is

usually short, but

long

a)

In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative. Accusative,

and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension

1

as,

fructus.

Rarely hic.

Verse-Structure.
b)

243

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris).

365.

Greek Nouns

retain in

Latin their original quantity; as,

Aenea, epitome, Delos, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, Didus, Paridi, Yet Greek nouns in -wp regularly aer, aether, crater, heroas. shorten the vowel as, rhetSr, Hector.
;

VERSE - STRUCTURE

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
366.
I.

The

metrical unit in versification

{yj).

is

a short syllable, techis

nically called a

mora
is

long syllable (_)

regarded as equiva-

lent to two morae.

2.

Foot

a group of syllables.
:

important kinds of feet

The

following are the most

Feet of Three Morae.

Feet of Four Morae.

_
^
3. 4.
tylic,

Trochee.
Iambus.

w w w

v^

Dactyl.

Anapaest.

A Verse is a succession of feet. The different kinds of verses are named

Trochaic, Iambic, Dac-

Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their

structure.
5.

Ictus.

o-reater

prominence.

In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the This prominence is called ictus. ^ It is denoted
Z.

thus
6.

Z.

w w

^
The
syllable

Thesis and Arsis.

;

which receives the

ictus is

the rest of the foot is called the arsis. called the thesis Elision. Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m 7. In are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. Probably the reading, we ordinarily omit the elided syllable entirely.
ancients slurred the words together in

some way.
ille et
;

This may be indi-

cated as follows

corporeln uno
elision
is

multum
hiatus._
as,

monstrum

hor-

rendum
a.

causae irarum.
Omission of
after

called

It

occurs especially before and

monosyllabic Interjections;

et praesidium.

1 Ictus was not accent, neither stress accent nor musical accent, simply tne quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable.

but was

244

Prosody.

8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caesura {cutting). Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis. 9.

lectic verse is

A CataVerses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one
syllables
;

or

more
10.

an Acatalectic verse has

its last

foot complete.

At the end

of a verse a slight pause occurred.

Hence the

final
ter-

syllable

may be

either long or short (syllaba

anceps), and may

minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with

a vowel.
1 1

Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated

as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the nuniber

(pairs of feet)
single feet,

of dipodies

which they contain.

Dactylic verses are measured by

and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,

accordingly.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.
367.
I
.

interior of a

Synizesis (Synaeresis) Two successive vowels word are often united into a long syllable as,
.

in the

aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse.

2.

Diastole.

A
A

syllable usually short

is

sometimes long;

as,

videt, audit.
3.

Systole.

syllable usually long

is

sometimes short;

as,

steterunt.
a.

Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes.

usually represent an earlier pronunciation which

They

had passed

out of vogue in the ordinary speech.

4.

After a consonant,

and u sometimes become

as,

and

v.

The

preceding syllable then becomes long;

abjete for abiete

5.

genva

for

genua.

Sometimes V becomes u
silua for silva
;

as,

dissoluo

for

dissolve.

Such a verse is Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. an Hypermeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synapheia. Thus ignari hominumque locoruinque'^ erramus.
6.

called

Verse-Structure.
7.

245
are occasionally separated

Tmesis

{cutting).
;

Compound words

into their elements

as,

quo me cunque
8.

rapit tempestas, for

is

quocunque,

etc.

Syncope.
;

consonants

as,

short vowel

sometimes dropped between two

repositus.

repostus

for

THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.

Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, But in all the feet except the fifth a spondee (_ _) may take the place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either
368.
I.

The

Dactylic

consists theoretically of six dactyls.

long or short (syllaba anceps).

the scheme of the verse
:

The

following represents

Z.CO, jIowi jIoo. j^ctd,

2.

.rlwv/, /- :^-

Sometimes we

find a

spondee

in the fifth foot.

called Spondaic.
fifth

dactyl usually stands in the fourth place,

Such verses are and the

;

and sixth
cara

feet are generally

made up

of a quadrisyllable

as,

armatumque auro

circum.spicit Oriona

deum

suboles,

magnum

Jovis iiicrementum.

3.

Caesura.
a)

The
eter

favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic

is

after the thesis of the third foot

||

as,

Hexam-

arma virumque cauo

l>)

Trojae qui primus ab

oris.

Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second
foot
;

as,

Inde torS
c)

||

pater Aeneas

||

sic orsus

ab alto

est.
syl-

Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short

lables of the third foot
;

as,

pass! graviora

||

dabit deus his quoque finem.

This caesura is called Feminine as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a and d)

246
d)

Prosody.

pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot.

is

This
the

called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as

it

was borrowed by

Romans from

the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks.

;

Thus

Bolstitium pecori defendite

{|

jam venit

aestas.

DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.
369.
I.

The

Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts,

of the

each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long

syllable.

Spondees may take the place

but not in the second.
the following:

dactyls

in the first part,

The

long syllable

at the close of the first half of the verse

word.

The scheme

is

always ends a

2.

the Hexameter.
giac

The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with The two arranged alternately form the so-called EleThus Distich. Vergilium vidi tantum, nee amara Tibullo Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
:

IAMBIC MEASURES.
370.
I.

The most important Iambic

1

verse

is

the Iambic
is

Trimeter ( 366,
lectic verse.

1) called also Senarius.

This

an acatais
:

It consists of six
\J

Iambi.
\J \J

Its

pure form

W
ille

W
in

Beatus

qui procul negotiis. the third foot

;

The Caesura
quently
2.

usually occurs

less fre-

in

the fourth.

In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach In the

(^

v.y

foot but the last.

odd

feet (first, third,

Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w \j w) occurs.

3.

^) may stand in any and fifth) may stand a two are less frequent.

In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great freeis

dom

permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus,

ijiz.

the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely

admitted in any foot except the

last.

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

JULIAN CALENDAR.
:

I.

I. The names of the Roman months are Januarius, FebruaMartius, Aprllis, Maius, Junius. Julius (Quintilis ^ prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilisi before the Empire), September, October, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood. 2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month

371.

rius,

a)
b)

The Calends, the first of the month. The Nones, usually the fifth of the month,
in

but the seventh

March, May, July, and October.

Ides, usually the thirteenth of the

c)

The

month, but the

fif-

teenth in March, May, July, and October.

all

From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following.
3.

4.

The day

before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any

designated as pridie Kalendas,

fore
larly the third

was designated as day before was designated as die quarto, and so on. These designations, of course, are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series.
5.

month is Nonas, Idus. The second day bedie tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc. Simi-

In indicating dates, the

of an Adjective agreeing with of expression occur, of

name of the month is added in the form Kalendas. N6n5s, Idus. Various forms which that given under d) is most common:

a)
b)

die quinto ante Idus Martias

;

quinto ante Idus Martias c) quinto (V) Idus Martias d) ante diem quintum (V) Idus Martias.
;

Originally the

Quintilis, Sextilis,

Roman year began with March. This explains September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc.
.247

the

names

248
6.

Supplements

to

the

Grammar.
as nouns

These designations may be treated

and combined with

the prepositions in, ad,

ex

as,

ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the 28/// of September. ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, /r^w tlie \th of October.
i

7.

In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February.

24th was designated as ante diem VI the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mart.

The

Kalendas Martias, and

372

Figures of Syntax.

249

II.

ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.

Aulus. Appius. Gaius.

373.

App.

= = C. = Cn. = D. = K. = L. = M. =
A.

Mam. = Mamercus.
N.
P.

Gnaeus. Decimus. Kaeso.

Lucius.

Q.
Sex.
Ser.

Sp.

Marcus. M'.= Manius.

T.
Ti.

= Numerius. = Publius. Quintus. = Septus. = Servius. = Spurius. = Titus. = Tiberius.

III.

FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.

A.
Figures of Syntax.

374.

I.

Ellipsis

is

the omission of one or

(^she

more words

as,
etc.

sed enim audierat, but

2.

was

afraid), for she

had heard,

Brachylogy

is

a brief or condensed form of expression; as,

ut agar sine cultiira friictuosus esse non potest, sic sine doctrina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultivation, so the

mind {cannot

be productive) without learning.

Special varieties of Brachylogy are

is

a)

Zeugma,

in

which one verb

made

to stand for

two

as,:.

minis aut blandimentis corrupta,

or corrupted by flattery.
b)

(terrified) by threats

Compendiary Comparison, by which

object
is

a modifier of an
itself;
as,

mentioned instead of the object

dissimilis erat Chares

eorum

et factis et moribus,

lit.

Chares was different from their conduct i.e. Chares's conduct and character were
3.

and

character,

different, etc.
as,

Pleonasm

is

an unnecessary fullness of expression

lit.

prius praedicam,
4.

I will first

say in advance.
is the use of two noun modified by a

Hendiadys

(eV

Sto.

Suotv, 07ie

through two)

nouns joined by

a conjunction, in the sense of a

;

Genitive or an Adjective

as,

febris et aestus, the heat offever celeritate cursuque, by swift run/iing.

250

Figures of Syntax

and

Rhetoric.

in

Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet 5. advance of the action which makes it appropriate as,
;

Bubmersas obrue puppes,

i.e.

Ut.

overwhelm their submerged

ships,

overwhelm and sink

their ships.

a.

The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we
should expect

Thus

it

to stand as subject of a subordinate clause.

nosti Marcellum
Marcellus

quam

is (lit.

tardus sit, you know how slow you know Marcellus, how slow he is).

Both
6.

varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.

is

Anacoluthon

a lack of grammatical consistency in the con;

struction of the sentence

as,

turn

Anci

filii

impensius
.

eis indignitas crescere, then the sons

of Ancus
7.

their indignation increased all the more.

Hysteron Prdteron
et in

consists in the inversion of the logical

;

order of two words or phrases

as,

moriamur arms and die.

media arma ruamus =

let

us rush into the midst of

B. Figures of Rhetoric.
375.
I.
;

Litotes
as,

affirmative

is

the use

of two

negatives for an emphatic

haud parum laboris, non ignore, / am not

2.

tto little toil (i.e.

much

toil)

ignorant

(i.e. I

am

well aware)

Oxymdron
:

tions

as,

is

the

combination
_
.

of
/-

contradictory
77

concep-

sapiens insania, wise folly.

Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words 3. presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial) as, sensim sine sensu aetas senescit.

Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense as, 4. quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, 'And shake
;

with horny hoofs the solid ground.''

INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.

Note. Compounds
are not given unless they present

some

special irregularity.

The

references are to sections.

ascendo, 122,
abdo, 122,
I, 2.

I,

4.

ColO, 122,

I, 5.

aspicio, 122, III.

assentior, 123, VII.

abicio, 122, III.

^ssuefacio, 122, III.

assuefio, 122, III.

commlniscor, 122, V. comperio, 123, V. compleo, 121, I.

concutio, 122, III.

abnuo, 122,
aboleo, 121,

II.
I.

audio, 123,
aufero, 129.

I.

condo, 122,

I, 2.

abstergeo, 121, III.

conlero, 129.
N. 2.
confiteor, 121, VII. congiuo, 122, II. consenesco, 122, IV,

absum,

125.
I, 4.

augeo, 121, III.

aveo, 121,
II, a,

accendo, 122,
accio, 121,
I,

accidit, 138, III.

2.

N.

accipio. 122, III.

consero, 122, consero, 122,

I,

5.

I,

6 {plant).

acqulro, 122,
actio, 122, II.

I, 6.

cado, 122, I, 2. caedo, 122, I, 2.

calefacio, 122, III.
2.

consido, 122,
consisto, 122,

I, 4. I, 2.

addo, 122, I, 2. adhaeiesco, 122, IV,

adiplscor, 122, V.

conspicio, 122, III.

constat, 138, III.

calefio, 122, III.

caleo, 121, II, a.

i.

constitu5, 122, II.

adolesco, 122, IV,

calesco, 122, IV, 2.

consuesco, 122, IV,

consulo, 122, I, 5. contineo, 121, II,
b.

i.

adsum,

125.

advenio, 123, IV.

affero, 129.
afficio. 122, III.

cano, 122, I, 2. capesso, 122, I,

capio, 122, III.

6.

contingit, 138, III.

careo, 121, II, a.

a.
I.

coqno, 122,

I, I,

a.

affligo, 122,

I,

I,

agnosco, 122, IV,

ago, 122,
alo, 122,
I, 3.

carpo, 122, I, I, cave5, 121, V.

a.

crepo, 120, II.

cresco, 122, IV,
i.

cedo, 122,
cerno, 122,
cieo, 121,

I,

1, b.

cubo, 120,
curro, 122,

II.

algeo, 121, III.

I, 5.

censeo, 121,

II, b.

cupio, 122, III.

I, 2.

I,

6.

amicio, 123, III.

I.

am5,

120,

I.

cingo, 122,

I,

I,

a.
I, 2.

amplectoi", 122, V.

ango, 122,

I, 7.

circumsisto, 122, claudo, 122, I, I,

D.
debeo, 121, II, a. decerno, 122, I, 6.
decet, 138, II.

b.

aperio, 123, II.

claudo, 122,
coenio, 122, coepT, 133.

I,

7. 3.

appeto, 122,
arceo, 121,
arcesso, 122,

I, 6.

I,

II, a.
I,

dedecet, 138,
a.
I.

II.

6.

coerceo, 121, II,

ardeo, 121, III.

aresco, 122, IV,
2.

cognSsco, 122, IV, cogo, 122, I, 3.

colligo, 122,
I,

dedo, 122, I, 2. defendo, 122, I,

deleo, 121,
daligo, 122,
I.

4.

arguo, 122,

II.

3.

I,

3.

251

252
dem5,
122,
I, 3.
I, 5. I,

Index

to the

Principal Parts

The

references are to sections.

ferveo, 121, VI.

figo, 122,
I, I, b.
I, 2, I, I,

ingemlsco, 122, IV,

2.

desero, 122, desino, 122, desuin, 125.

dico, 122,

Insum, 125.
intellego, 122,
I, 3.

6.

findo, 122,
fingo, 122,

N.
a.

interficio, 122, III.

I, I,

a.

flo, 131.

differo, 129. diligo, 122,

I, 3.

flecto, 122, I,
fleo, 121,
I.

I, b.

intersum, 125. invado, p. 87, footnote, invenio, 123, IV.

i.

dimico, 120, dirimo, 122,

II.
I,

floreo, 121, II, a, N.

fiuo, 122, II.

irascor, 122,

V.

3.

diripio, 122, III.

floiesco, 122, IV, 2.

diruo, 122, II.

lodio, 122, III.

I, 6.

discerno, 122,
disco, 122, IV,
dissero, 122,

foveo, 121, V.

jaceo, 121, II, a.

jacio, 122, III.

I.

frango, 122,
frenio, 122,

I, 3.
I, 5.

I, 5.

distinguo, p. 87, footnote, divido, 122, I, I, b.

frico, 120, II.

frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2.

jubeo, 121, III. jungo, 122, I, I, juvo, 120, III.

a.

do, 127.

fruor, 122,
II, b. II, a.

V.
L.
labor, 122, V.
3.

doceo, 121,
doleo, 121,

fugio, 122, III.

fulcio, 123, III.

domo,

120, II.
I, \,

fulgeo, 121, III.

a.

duco, 122,

fulget, 138, I.

fundo, 122,

I,

lacesso, 122,

I, 6.

fungor, 122, V.

laedo, 122,

I, I, ^.

E.
edo, 122, edo, 122,
I, 2.

furo, 122,

I,

7.

lambo,

122,

I,

7.

largior, 123,

VII.
i.

I,

3.

lateo, 121, II, a, N.

effero, 129.

G.

lavo, 120, III.

effugio, 122, III.

gemo,
N.
i.

122,

I, 5. I, I, I,

lego, 122,

I, 3.

egeo, 121,

II, a,

gero, 122,

a.

libet, 138, II.

elicio, 122, III.

gigno, 122,

5.

liceor, 121,

VII.

emineo,

121, II, a, N. i.
I, 3.

gradior, 122, V.

licet, 138, II.

emo,

122,

loquor, 122, V.
liiceo, 121, III.

eo, 132.

esurio, 123, VI.

H.
habeo, 121,
II, a.

ludo, 122,

I, I, b.

evado, p. 87, footnote, evanesco, 122, IV, 3.

excolo, 122,
I,

lugeo, 121, III.

luo, 122, II.

5.

haereo, 121, III. haurio, 123, III.

horreS, 121,
II, a,

excudo, 122,

I,

4.

N.

i.

exerceS, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII.

expleo, 121,
I,

M.
maereo, 121, malo, 130.
II, a, N. 2.

N.

I.

explico, 120, II.

ignosco, 122, IV,

illicio, 122, III.

I.

maneo,

121, III.
3.

exstinguo, p. 87, footnote, extimesco, 122, IV, 2.

matiiresco, 122, IV,

a, N. 2.

imbuo, 122, II. immineo, 121, II,

impleo, 121,
implico, 120,
I,

F.
facio, 122, III.
fallo, 122, I, 2.

N.

II.

incipio, 122, III.

medeor, 121, VII. memini, 133. mereo, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergo, 122, I, i, b.
metior, 123, VII.

incolo, 122,

I, 5. I, 5.

VII. faveo, 121, V. ferio, 123, VI.

fateor, 121,
fero, 129.

incumbo,

122,

metuo,

122, II.
II.

indulged, 121, III. induo, 122, II.

infero, 129.

mico, 120,

minuo,

122, II.
II, b.

misceo, 121,

of the Most Important Verbs.

The
miseret, 138, II.
references are to sections.

253
R.

patefacio, 122, III.

patefio, 122, III.

misereor, 121, VII.

mitto, 122,
I, I, b. I, 5.

rado, 122,
N.
i.

I,

I, b.

pateo, 121,

II, a,

rapio, 122, III.

molo,

122,

patior, 122, V.

moneo, 121, II, a. mordeo, 121, IV.

morior, 122, V. moveo, 121, V.

paveo, 121, V.
pellicio, 122,

HI.

reddo, 122, I, 2. redimo, 122, I, 3.

refercio, 123, III.

pello, 122,

I, 2.

refero, 129.
refert, 138, II.

pendeo, 121, IV. pendo, 122, I, 2.

perago, 122,
I,

rego, 122,
N.
IV^, 3.

I, I,

a.
I, 3.

3.

N.
nanciscor, 122, V.

relinquo, 122,
reor, 121,

percello, 122,

I, 2,

reminlscor, 122, V.

percrebresco, 122,

VII.
i, I, a.

nascor, 122, V.
necto, 122,
I, I, b. I, 3.

perdo, 122,

I, 2.

reperio, 123 V.

perficio, 122, III.

repo, 122,

neglego, 122,
ningit, 138,
I.

perfringo, 122,

I, 3.

resists, 122, I, 2.

perfruor, 122, V.
i.

respuo, 122, II.

restinguo, p. 87, footnote,
retineo, 121, II, b.

niteo, 121, II, a, N.

nitor, 122,

perlego, 122,

I, 3.

V.
II, a.

noceo, 121,
nolo, 130.

permulceo, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. pervado, p. 87, footnote,

peto, 122,
I,

rideo, 121, III.

n5sc6, 122, IV,

6.

I.

rodo, 122, I, I, rubeo, 121, II,

b.

a, N. i.

nubo,

122,

I, I,

a.

piget^ 138, II.

rumpo,
a.

122,

pingo, 122,
placeo, 121,

I, 3.

I, 1,

ruo, 122, II.

II, a.
I, I, b.

O.
obdiiresco, 122, IV,
oblino, 122,
I, 6.

plaudo, 122,
pluit, 138, I.
3.

S.

poUeo,

121, II, a, N. 2.

saepio, 123, III.

salio, 123, II.

polliceor, 121, VII.

oblivTscor, 122, V.

obmutesco, 122, IV, obruo, 122, II.

obsolesco, 122, IV,

3.

poUuo, 122, II. pono, 122, I, 6.

posco, 122, IV, possido, 122, I,
I.

sancio, 123, III.

sapio, 122, III.
sarcio, 123, III.

i.

4.

scindo, 122,
scrlbo, 122,

I, 2,

N.
a. a.

obsum,

125.
b.

possum,

126.
I.

scTsco, 122, IV, 2.

I, I, I, I,

obtineo, 121, II,

odi, 133.
offero, 129.

poto, 120,

praebeo, 121,
I.

II, a.

sculpo, 122,

praestat, 138, III.

seco, 120, II.

oleo, 121, II, a, N.

operio, 123, II.

oportet, 138, II.

opperior, 123, VII. ordior, 123, VII.

orior, 123, VII.

praesum, 125. prandeo, 121, VI. prehendo, 122, I, 4. premo, 122, I, i, b.

prodo, 122,
I, 2.

sedeo, 121, V.
sentio, 123, III.

sepelio, 123,

I.

sequor, 122, V.
sero, 122,
I,

6.
I, I, a.

promo, 122, I, prosum, 125.

prosterno, 122, pudet, 138, II.

3.

serpo, 122,
sino, 122,

sileo, 121, II, a, N. i.

I, 6.

I, 6.
I,

solvo, 122,

4.

paenitet, 138, II.

pungo,
I.

122,

I, 2.

sono, 120,

II.
I, I, ^.

palleo, 121, II, a, N.

spargo, 122, sperno, 122,

pando,

122,

I,

4.

I, 6.

parco, 122, pareo, 121,

I, 2.

splendeo, 121,

II, a,

N.

i.

II, a.

quaer5, 122,

I, 6.

spondeo, 121, IV.

statuo, 122, II.

pario, 122, III.

quatiS, 122, III.

pasco, 122, IV, I. pascor, 122, IV, i.

queror, 122, V. quiesco, 122, iV.

sterno, 122,
i.

I, 6.
I,

-stinguo, 122,

I, a.

254
strepo, 122,
I, 5.

Index

to the

Most Important
I,

Verbs.

The
strideo, 121, VI. stringo, 122, I, i, a. struo, 122, II.

references are to sections.

5.

texo, 122,
tingo, 122,
tollo, 122,

V.
a.

timeo, 121,

II, a, N. i.
I, I,

vado, 122,
veho, 122,
vello, 122,

I, 1, b.

I, 2,

N.

valeo, 121, II, a.

I,

studeo, 121,

II, a, N. i.

tonat, 138,

I.

I,

a.

suadeo, 121,

III.
.

tondeo, 121, IV.

tono, 120, II.

I,

4.

subigo, 122, 1,3.

venio, 123, IV.

i.

subsum, 125. sum, 100. sumo, 122, I,

suo, 122, II.

torpeo, 121, II, a, N. torque5, 121, III.

3.

vereor, 121, VII. vergo, 122, I, 7.

verro, 122,
verto, 122,
I,
I,

torreo, 121, II, b.

4.
4.

supersum, 125. sustineo, 121, II,

trado, 122, traho, 122,

b.

I, 2. I, I,
I,

a.

vescor, 122, V.
veto, 120, II.

tremo, 122,

5.

tribuo, 122, II.

video, 121, V.
b.

trudo, 122, I, I, tueor, 121, VII.

taceo, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II.

vigeo, 121, II, a, N. vincio, 123, III. vinco, 122,

viso, 122,
I, 3.

i.

tundo, 122,

I, 2.

vireo, 121, II, a, N.

I, 4.
I, 1,

i.

tango, 122,
tego, 122,

I, 2.

I, I,

a. a.

U.
ulciscor, 122,

vivo, 122,

a.

temno,

122,

I, i,
I,

V.

V0I6, 130.

tendo, 122, teneo, 121,

tero, 122,

2.

ungu5,

122,

I, I, a.

volvo, 122,

I,

4. 5.

II, b.

urgeo, 121, III.

uro, 122,
I,

vomo,

122,

I,

I, 6.

I,

a.

voveS, 121, V.

terreo, 121, II, a.

ufor, 122, V.

GENERAL INDEX.
The
references are to sections and paragraphs.

Ablative case, with prepositions,

142

213
-a,

f.

for e in

ending of nom. sing., Greek nouns, 22,

;

ist decl.,
i.

20;

with verbs of
ads, 142,
I.

filling,

218, 8.
8.

with adjs. of plenty, 218,

absens, 125.

a, ab, ads, use, 142, i

with town names,

a.

229, 2. to denote agency, 216.

Absolute ablative, 227.

time, of participles, 336, use of verbs, 174, a.
4.

denote separation, 214. with town names, 229, 2.

to
-a- stems, 20.

Abstract nouns,
-abiis, 21, 2, e).

12, 2, b)

55, 4, c).

Abbreviations of proper names, 373. Ablative case, 17 213 f. formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d dec!., 67, a 70, 1-5. genuine abl. uses, 214 f.
;

ac, 341, i,b')

= as, than, 341,

2.

i,

c).

Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. Accent, 6; in gen. of nouns in -ius

and

absolute, 227.
of agent, 216. of

and Accompaniment,
-iu7n, 25, I

abl. of, 222.

accompaniment,

222.

Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3. Accusative case, 17 172 f.

;

of accordance, 220, 3. of attendant circumstance,

227,
2, e).

of duration of time, 181.

221

of result

produced, 173,

176.

of extent of space, 181.

of limit of motion, 182 f. of person or thing affected, 173,
175in

of cause, 219.
of comparison, 217.

of degree of difference, 223.

of fine, 208,
2, d.

exclamations, 183.
,

of manner, 220.

of means, 218.
of penalty, 208,
2, 6.

as subj. of inf 184. with adv. force, 176,

3.

of place where, 228.

with compounds, 175, 2. with passive used as middle, 175,

2,rf).

of place whence, 229.

of price, 225.

of quality, 224.
of separation, 214.

of source, 215.

of specification, 226. of time at which, 230. of time during which, 231, of time within which, 231. of
i.

cognate ace, 176, 4. Greek ace, 180. synecdochical ace, 180. two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace, 177; person affected and result produced, 178; with compounds oi trans,
with other compounds, 179, 2 179 with prepositions, 141; 179 f. retained in pass., 178, 2. Accusing, verbs of, coiistr., 208 f.
;

way by which,

218, 9.

\\'nh/ucid,/}d, 218, 6.

255

256
The
accuso, constr., 178,
acer, 68.
i,

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

d).

aequor, decl., 34.

aequum
of,

est,

271, i, b).

Acquitting, verbs

constr., 208

f.

aes, 57, 7.

ac

si, 2,07,
'

I.
'

aetas, decl., 40,

in vicinity
of,'

i,

e)

id aetatis, 185,

2.

ad,

toward,'

182, 3.

-ades, 148, 6, a.

-aeus, 152, 3. aevoin, 24.

adg-

= agg-,
f,

9, 2.

Adjectives,

62

f.

354;

derivation

of,

Agency, dat. of, 189; Agent, abl., 216.

ager, dec!., 23.
-di,

abl., 216.

150

of 1st

and 2d

decl., 63

ff.

case-ending, gen.
135, N.

sing.,

ist

decl.,

in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a.

poet., 21, 2, b).

ai?i,

of 3d decl., 67 ff. in abl., 70, 5. comparison of adjs., 71 f. in

;

-er,

V'o, 135-

71,

in -ills, 71, 4; comparative 3; lacking, 73, 3; defective comparison,

alacer, comp., 73, 4.

aliqua, 91,
aliqu'i,

2.

73;

admitting comparison, 75; comparison by magis and 7)iaxime, 74. numerals, 78 f.

syntax, 233
ff.

not

91
I.

91, 2.
;

aliquis, 91

252, 2

aliquis dicat, d'lxerit,

280,

-alls, 151, 2.

agreement, 234 f. used substantively, 236 f. denoting part of an object, 241, with force of adverbs, 239.
force of comp.

alius,

66

92,

used correlatively, 253,

3,

i.

i.

alius ac, 341, 1, c). Allia, gender of, 15,

allicio, 109, 2, b).

N.

and

superl., 240,

i.

Alliteration, 375, 3.

not followed by infinitive, 333. not used with proper names, 354, equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4.
special Latin
adjs., 354, i.

Alphabet,
3.

i.
;

alter,

66
I-

92,

used

correlatively,

253.

equivalents of Eng.
clause, 241,
2.

Alternative questions, 162, 4; 300,4.

alter uter, 92, 2.

indirect,

equiv. to

rel.

as pred. ace, 177, 2. position of adj., 350,

adl-

alvus,
4.

gender

of, 26, i, b).

amandus sum,

115.

all-, 9, 2.

am aturus
ambo, 80, amo, loi.
atnplius

admoneo,
adr-

constr., 207.

= arr-, 9, 2. ads- ass-, 9, 2.

ad sensum,
constr., 235, B, 2, c; 254, 4.

sum, 115. 2, a 355,

;

2.

adulescens, 9, 2. adulter, decl., 23,

adultus, 114,
2.

amplius quam, 217, 3. an, 162, 4, and a) 300, 4; haud scib an, nescio an, 300, 5.
;

2.

Adverbs, 76
f.;

formation

and

comparison,

140, 157.

Anacoluthon, 374, 6. Anapaest, 366, 2. Anaphora, 350, 11, b). Anastrophe of prep., 141,
144. 3anceps (syllaba anceps)

2;

142,

3;

in -iter

from

adjs. in -us, 77, 4.

-tus

and

-titn,

77,

5.

366, 10.

in

-o,

77, 2.

Androgeds,AQ'i\., 27.

numeral, 79.
as preps., 144, 2. derivation of, 157.
special meanings, 347. position, 350, 6.

animal,

decl., 39.

aniini, 232, 3.

anndn, 162,

4.

Answers,

162, 5.
i
;

ante in expressions of time, 144,

357,

i.

Adversative clauses, 309.

conjunctions, 343.
acdes, 61.

Antecedent of

rel.,

251.

attraction of, 251, 4.

incorporated with

rel.,

251, 4.

General Index.
The
Antecedent omitted, 251,
references are to sections and paragraphs.
i.

257
B.

repeated with rel., 251, 3. Antepenult, 6, 2. antequain, with ind., 291 with
;

balneum, babieae, 60,

subjv.,
barbitos, decl., 27.
belli, 232, 2.

2.

292.

Anticipation, 374, 5. -anus, 151, 2; 152, I 3. Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.
;

bellum, decl., 23.

^tf^,

comparison, 77,
5,

i.

benevolens, 71,
bijugis, 362, 4.
-(5//w, 150, 4.

a).

Apodosis, 301.
in

conditional

sent,

of

ist

type,

302, 4.

bonus, 63
(^^5,

comparison, 72.

Apposition, 169; partitive, 169, 5; with voc. in nom., 171, 2; genitive, 202. Appositive of locative, 169, 4; with ace. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a; with

41.

Brachylogy, 374, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 368, -bulum, 147, 4.

-butidus, 150, I.

3, d.

town names
229,
2.

in abl. of place

whence,

position

of,

350, 2.

C.
caedes, decl., 40.

Archujs, 22.
argiio, constr., 178,
-aris, 151, 2.
I, rf).

Caesura, 366, 8
368, 3. calcar, decl., 39.

in dactylic

hexameter,

-ariuin, 148, 3. -drius, 151, 2.

atfniger, deal., 23, 2. Arsis, 366, 6.

Calendar, 371 372. Calends, 371, 2, a),

;

canis, 38, 2. capio,

arx, decl., 40. -as, old Gen. sing., ist decl., case-ending,
21, 2, a).

no.
of, 26, I, b).

carbasus, gender

career, carceres, 61.

sing.

ending of Greek nouns, nom.

in, 22.

Cardinals, 78,
caro, 42.

79

81, i

decl., 80.

afis, abl.

of patrials

in, 70, 5, c).

carrus, carruin, 60,

i.
ff.

Aspirates,

2, 3, c). 8,

Assimilation of consonants,

f.

9, 2.

Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 Case-endings, 17, 3.

Asyndeton, 341, at, 343, I. d).

-dtim, 157, 2.

4,

a)

346.

castrum, castr a, 61. Catalectic verses, 366,

g.
etc.,
;

causa, nulla causa est cur,

of, 26, i, c).
;

295, 7.

atomus, gender
atque, 341,
<^il^'t<

Causal
i,

2, (5)
I. ^)-

= as,

341,

c).

286 285 clause of characteristic with accessory notion of

;

clauses,

343.

Attendant circumstance,
227,
2, e).

abl.

of,

221

cause, 283, 3. conjunctions, 345. causa, with gen., 198, i.

Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5 of relatives, 250, 5 subjunctive by attraction, 324; of adjectives, 327, 2, a;
;

Cause, abl.
cave, 363,

of,

219; 227,

2,

d^.

2, (5).
c.

328, 2.

cave ne in prohibitions, 276, -ce, 6, 3 f. 87, footnote 2.

;

audeb, 114, audio, x<yj

aut, 342,
I,

i.
;

cedo, cette, 137, 3.

3.

with pres. partic, 337,

a).
;

celer, 68, 2.
celb, constr., 178, i,
e').

autem, 343, i, c) 350, 8. Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, auxilium, auxilia, 61.
-dx, 150, 2.

cendtus, 114,
5.

2.

cetera, 185, 2.
ceter'i,

253, 4. Characteristic, clauses

of,

283

gen.

of,

203, I

abl., 224.

258
The
Chiasmus, 350,
citerior, 73, i.
cito, 77, 2, a.

General Index.
references are to sections

and paragraphs.

11, c).
i, a.

circumdo, constr., 187,

civitds, decl., 40,

I, e.

clam, 144, 2. Clauses, coord, and subord., 164, 165. Clauses of characteristic, 283 purpose,
;

Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. sentences, ist type, 302; in indir. disc, 319; 2d type, 303 in indir. disc, 320; 3d type, 304; in indir. disc, 321; abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b) introduced by relative pronouns, 312.
;
;

confldb, 219,

I,

a.
i.
;

Conjugation, 11; 93
;

the four conju;

282; result, 284; causal, 285; temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc. with cu/it, 288 substantive 287 clauses, 294 f. condition, 301 f. concessive, 308; adversative, 309; wish
; ; ; ;

gations, 98 periphrastic, 115 iarities of conj., 116.

pecul-

or proviso, 310

relative,
i.

311

f.

283

f.

clipeus, clipeum, 60,

Conjunctions, 341 f. with inf., 295, 5, a. Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. cofisistere, with abl., 218, 4. Consonant stems, 29 f.
cbiior,

Close of sentences, cadences used, 350,

12.

partially

adapted
2
f.
;

to J-stems, 40.

Consonants,
i.
,

2,

3, 3.

coepi, 133; coeptiis est, 133,

double,

2, 9.

Cognate ace,
coj^o, 178, I,

176, 4.
;

combinations
syllables, 4, 2
f.

of,

in

division

into

d)

331, VI.
2,

Collective nouns, 12,

colus,

a).

Consonant changes,
stems, 29
;

8;

omission of
f.

fi-

gender
'Z'Z.

of, 26, i, b').

nals, 8, 3; assimilation of, 8, 4

comedo, 128,
cometes,
comitia, 230,

2.

following analogy of

l-

stems, 40.
I.
i.

cbnspicio, 109, 2, b).

Common

gender, 15, B, N. nouns, 12, I. vowels, 5, A, 2, N. syllables, 5, B, 3.

constare, 218, 4.

Construction ace to sense, 254, 4 235, B, 2, c). consuetudo est, with substantive clause,
;

comiiionefacio, 207.

commoneo, 207. communis, with gen., 204, 2; with

204,
2, a.
f.

297. 3consiievi
dat.,

= pres.,
i.

262,
of,

A.
with dat., 358,
3.

Contending, verbs
contentus, 219,

Comparison of adjs., 71

participles as adjs., 71, 2.

adjs. in -dictis, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5.

contineri, with abl, 218, 4. contra, 144, i.

Contraction,
,

7, 2.
of, 5,

defective, 73.
abl. of, 217.

length of vowel as result

of, constr.,

A,

1,6).

Comparatives, occasional meaning, 240. two required in Latin, 240, 4. Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, V).

Convicting, verbs

208

f.

Coordinate clauses,
cbpia, copiae, 61.

165.
f.

conjunctions, 341

Compounds,

separation into syl158 f. lables, 4, 4; spelling of, 9, 2. Compound sentences, 164.

;

Copulative conjunctions, 341.

cor, 57, 7. cormi, decl., 48.

Conative uses of
260, 3
;

pres., 259, 2 of imperf., of pres. partic, 336, 2, a. Concessive clauses, 308 although as
;

'

'

Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, adverbs, 140.

cotttdie, 9, 2.

2.

accessory idea to clause of characteristic,

283, 3.

-crum, 147,
-ciilitm
,

4.

subjunctive, 278. Conclusion, see Apodosis.

147, 4.
i.

-cuius {a, urn), 148,

Concrete nouns,

12, 2, a).
of, constr.,

Condemning, verbs

208

f.

cum, appended, 142, 4. cum, when,'. 288-290.

'

General Index.
The
cutn, adversative, 309, 3.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

259

causal, 286,

2.

de decet, 175, 2, c). Defective verbs, 133

f.

nouns, 54
;

f.

52,

explicative, 290.
to denote a recurring action, 288, 3 289, a.
' ;

4; 57; comparison, 73. Deliberative subjv., 277 in indir. disc,

315. 3-

when suddenly,' 288, 2. with abl. of manner, 220; with abl.

. .

of accompaniment, 222.
tuiii, 290, 2. cum cum pr'tmum, 287, i.
.

Demonstrative pronouns, 87 Denominative verbs, 156. Dental mutes, 2, 4.

246.

Deponent
114.

stems, 33. verbs, 112

112,

cum, spelling
cupio, 109,
2,

of, 9, i.

meanings,

b)

forms with passive semi-deponents,

-ciindus, 150, I.

331, IV, and a. cur, nulla causa est cur, 295, 7.

a)

Derivatives, 147 f. Desideratives, 155,

deterior, 73,
i.

3.

D.
Dactyl, 366, 2. Dactylic hexameter, 368.

deus, 25, 4. devertor, 114, 3.

pentameter,
;
;

dextrum, 185,
Diastole, 367,
die, 116, 3.

2. d.,

369.

Diaeresis, 366, 8; bucolic

2.

368, 3, d).

dap is, 57,6.

Uates, 371, 2-5; as indeclinable nouns, in leap year, 371, 7. 371, 6
D ative, 17
irregular, ist decl., 21,
;

dicitur,
dico,

2, t)

dictum est, 332, note. accent of compounds of, in imper.,

in, 71, 5.

3d

decl., 47, 5

4th decl., 49,

ff.

2:3; 5th

116, 3.

decl., 52, I

and 3; 186

dicus, comparison of adjs.

of agency, 189.
of direction, 193.

Dido,

decl., 47, 8.
;

dies, decl., 51

gender, 53.
of,

of indir. obj., 187.

Difference, abl. of degree

difficile est, 271, \,b').
difficilis,
2, a). 2, c).
i.

223.

of advantage or disadvantage, so
called, 188,
I.

comp., 71,
;

4.

of local standpoint, 188, of person judging, 188,

of possession, 190; 359, of purpose, 191 339, 7.
;

digmis, 226, 2
282, 3.

in rel. clauses of

purpose,

Dimeter

verses, 366, 11.

i.

Diminutives, 148,

of reference, 188. of separation, 188,

2,

Diphthongs,
d).

2,
;

3,

diphthong
shortened,

stems,

41

diphthongs

with adjs., 192. with compound verbs, 187, III. with intrans. verbs, 187, II. with pass, verbs, 187, with trans, verbs, 187,
II, b.
I.

362, 2. diphthotigus,

gender

of, 26, i, c).

Dipodies, 366, 11. Direct reflexives, 244,

object, 172.

i.

- ethical
de,

with verbs oi tnhigling, 358,

dat., 188, 2, b).

3.

Disjunctive conjunctions, 342.

dissimilis,

comp., 71,
77,
i.

4.
4.

with abl. instead of gen. of whole,

I, a. 2, e).

Distributives, 78, i; 79; 81,

diu,

201,

compared,
I.
c.

dea, deabiis, 21,

dives, 70,

debebam,

debu'i in apodosis, 304, 3, a).

inf.,

dixti, 116, 4,
do, 127.

debut, with pres.

270,

2.

decemvir, gen. plu.

decet, 175, 2, c).

of, 25, 6, b").

doceo, with ace, 178,

I,

b)

with

inf.,

331,

VI.
do7iii, 232, 2.

Declaratory sentences in indir. disc, 314. Declension, 11; heteroclites, 59. stems and gen. terminations, 18.
,

domo, 229, I, b). domos, 182, I, b.

26o
The
domutn, 182,
note.
i,

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

b)\ 'house,' in ace, 182,

I

ep is tula, 9, 2. epitome, 22.

domus, 49,
donee,
III, 2.

4.

epulum, epulae, 60,

with subjv., 293,
equabus, 21,
equos, 24.
-^r, decl.
2, ^).

2.

with ind., 293;

doiio, constr., 187, i, a.

of

nouns

in, 23.

Double consonants,

2, 9.

questions, 162, 4; indirect, 300, 4. Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative.

diibito,

-emus, 154. -^i^, ending of Greek nouns, nom.

in, 22.
,

sin^,.

dubium

est,

constr. with, 298.

in imper.,

due, 116, 3. duco, accent of

116, 3.

gen.

-is,

decl. of

nouns

in, 40, i,

a*

compounds

of,

esse,

100; omitted, 116, 5. est qui, with subj., 283, 2.

341,
is,
.

duim, duint, 127, 2. -dum, 6, 3. du7n, temporal with

293, III, 2;
in

et,

I,

in

enumerations, 341,
3.
2, (5).

4, c).

^/
ind., 293 with subjv., wishes and provisos,
;

247, 4.
.

et

neque, 341,

Ethical dative, 188,

(?, 341, 2, f).

310.

etiam, in answers, 162,

310.
if^

5.

dummodo,
duo, 80,
2.

^A7,
of, 25, 6, ^).

'although,' 309, 2;
2, a.

f/jj,

'even

if,'

duumvir, gen. plu.

dux, decl., 32.

309,

-etum, 148,
-^j, 151,
^;t:,

3.

I.
;

^,

stems, 51. -e, ending of

with abl., instead of gen. oi 142, 2 whole, 201, I, a; with abl. of source.
215,
I.
i,

Greek nouns, nom.

sing, in,

22; in dat., 5th decl., 52, 3. -e, abl. of participles in -ans, -his,
e,

exposed, constr., 178,

in,

a),

70, 3.

ex sis to,

9, 2.

ex, use, 142, 2.

ecquis, 91, 6.
edlc, 116, 3.

exspecto, 9, 2. exteil, exterior, 73, 2.

extremus, 241,

i.

edd, 128.

educ, 116,
^^(7,

3.

84.

/at, 116,
/j!<;/7^,

3.

egomet, 84, 2. -IJ, gen. of 5th decl, 52,

-^w, 148, 6,
f/V/j,
(5).

77, 3.

I.

facilis,

comp.,

71, 4.

facio, 109, 2, a).

i.
,

as poss., 86,

in imper., 116, 3.

Elegiac distich, 369,

Elision, 366, 7.
Ellipsis, 374, I.

2.

falsus, 73, 3.

fame,
I.

59, 2, b).
2,

familias, 21,
fari, 136.
y*^^, 58.

a).

-ellus (a,

um^, 148, Emphasis, 349.

6,3-

Enclitics, accent of

preceding

syllable,

fauces, decl., 40,

I, <^).

Fearing, verbs
;

of,

constr., 296,

2.

Endings, personal of verb, 96 tion of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -ensimus (-ensumus), 79, N.
-ens is, 151, 2; 152, 3. eo, 132; cpds., 132, I.

in

forma-

fellx, 70.

Feminine, see Gender.'

Feminine caesura, 368,

femur,
-y^'r,

3, t.

42, 4.

decl. of

nouns

in, 23,

2; adjs., 65,

1.

y^/o, 129.

Epexegetical genitive, 202. Epistolary tenses, 265.

/^r/, 75,
-ficus,

2.

comparison of adjs.

in, 71, 5.

General Index.
The
Jidei, 362,
I, b.

261
with imperative force,

references are to sections

and paragraphs.
;

Future tense, 261

261, 3.
i, a.

fido, 114, I. fldo, with abl., 219,

ftdiis, 73, 3.

time in the subjv., 269. perfect, 264 with future meaning,

;

fierem, fieri, 362,

Fifth decl., 51
f.

i,

c).

133. 2.

imperative, 281,

i.

Figures of rhetoric, 375.

of syntax, 374.
fill, 25, 3._

futurum

esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.

fUia,filiabus, 21,

2, e).

Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. finis, fines, 61.
Finite verb, 95.

G. gaudeo, 114, i. Gender, 13-15; in ist decl., 20, 21; in 2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d
decl.,

43

f.

in 4th

decl.,

50;

in 5th

fio, 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6.

First conj., loi.
First decl., 20
f.
;

determined by endings, 14; by signification, 15, A heterogeneous nouns, 60.

decl., 53;
;

gener, decl., 23,

2.
;

peculiarities, 21.
i,

Jiagito, constr., 178,

a),

Genitive, 17 ; in -I for -it, 25, i and 2 of 4th decl. in -i, 49, i of 5th decl. in -i, 52, 2; of 5th decl. in -ei, 52, i; in -e,
;

fodio, 109,

2, a).

Foot, in verse, 366, 2. For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, fore, page 57, footnote 3.
'

of 52, 3; of ist decl. in -ai, 21, 2, b) 1st decl. in -as, 21, 2, a) "gen. plu. -uyn
; ;

I.

for -arum, 21, 2, d)

fore ut, 270, 3. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote

foris, 228,
I, c.
f.

-um for -drum, 25,6; gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7; syntax of, 194 f.
;

2.

of characteristic, 203, i. of charge with judicial verbs, 208.

of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefinite value, 203, 3.

Formation of words, 146

fors, forte, 57, 2, a.

fortior, 69.
fortis, 69.

of material, 197.

of measure, 203,
of origin, 196.

2.

fortuna, fortunae, 61.

Fourth Fourth

conj., 107.
decl.,
-i,

of possession, 198.
;

48
;

dat.

in

-,

49,

2;

of quality, 203.
of the whole, 201.

gen. in

49, i

dat. abl. plu. in -ubus,

49,3fraude, 220,

appositional, 202.
2. 2.
2.

objective, 200.

freniim, plu. of, 60,

of separation, 212,
subjective, 199.

3.

Frequentatives, 155,
fretus, 218, 3.
Fricatives,
2, 7.

with
204,
70, 6.
in
I,

adjs.,

204

with

participles,

a.

fr actus,

decl., 48.
;

frugi, compared, 72
//-^^, 57, 6.

with causa, gratia, ig8, i. of plenty and with verbs, 205 f. want, 212 with impers. verbs, 209.
; ;

fruor, with abl, 218,

constr., 339, 4. fugio, 109, 2, a).

gerundive

position of gen., 350,

I.

ful, fuisti, etc., iox sum,

es,

etc.,

genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, I. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; adjs., 65, with object, 338, 5. in com- Gerund, 338
; ;

I,

pound

tenses, p. 60, footnote

p.

61,

footnote.

Gerundive, 337, 7. Gerundive const., 339, 1-6;

in
;

passive

fungor, 218,

in

gerundive

constr., 339, 4.

fur,

dec)., 40, i, d).

gen. deperiphrastic conj., 337, 7 f. noting purpose, 339, 6: with dat. of

furto,

220, 2.

purpose, 192, 3;

339, 7.

262
The
gnarus, not comparer],
75, 2.
;

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

Gnomic

present, 259,
2, c.

perfect, 262,

i.

J,

t-stem, vis, 41. in abl., 3d decl, 38,

adjs., 67, 3,

gradior, 109,

39.

Grammatical gender,
gratia, with gen., 198,
61.

70, 5.

15.
i
;

participles, 70, 3.

gratia, griitiae,

patrials, 70, 5, c).

-ia, 149.

Greek nouns,
exceptions
decl.,

47

2d decl., 27; gender, 26, i, c) 3d Greek ace, 180 Greek nouns

ist decl., 22;
in
; ;

Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370.

trimeter, 370.

in verse, 365.

-ianus, 152,
2.

1.

grus, decl., 41,

-ias, 148, 6, b).

gu=gv,^,

3.
2, 4.

-Ibam, in imperf., 116,

-J(55,

4, ^).
iJ).

Guttural mutes,
stems, 32.

in future, 116, 4, Ictus, 366, 5.

H.
habeo, with perf. pass, partic, 337, 6.

-icus, 151, 2;
?(/

152, 2.

aetatis, 185, 2.

Hadria,

21, i.
2, 3,

id genus, 185, i. /a' temp or is, 185,

i.
ifl'

2.

Hard consonants,
kaud, use, 347,
have, 137, 5.
2,

a), footnote

^t)rf,

247,

I,

iJ.

hand scio

an, 300, 5.

Ideal 'you,' see son.

Indefinite

second per-

Hendiadys, 374,
heri, 232, 2.

4.

Idem, 87; 248.

idem
60.

ac, 248, 2.

Heteroclites, 59.

Ides, 371, 2, c).

-ides, 148, 6, a).

Heterogeneous nouns,
Hiatus, 366, 7, a. hie, 87 246, I 246, hiems, 35, footnote.
;
;

-ides, 148, 6, a).

2.
-Jrf5,

147, 3, c).

idoneus,
;

with

rel.

clause

of

purpose.

Historical tenses, 258

; ;

historical present,

282,3.
-idus, 150, 3.
-ier, inf.

259, 3 268, 3 historical perfect, 262, historical infinitive, 335.

ending, 116,

4, a.

honor, decl., 36.

Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hoscine, 87, footnote 2.

host is, decl., 38. hnjusce, 87, footnote
2.

igttur, 344, I, c). z^/zw, decl., 38.

-lie,

148, 3.

llion, dec]., 27.

-z//>,

151, 2.

-His, 150, 4.
Illative conjunctions, 344.

humi, 232,

2.

humilis, conip., 71,

4.

Hie,

humus, gender of, 26, i, 3). Hyperbaton, 350, 11, ). Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.
I.
J, I,

the following,' 246, 2 87 the former," 246, i; 'the well-known,' 246, 3; position, 350, 5, (5.
' ; ;
'

illuc, 87,

footnote

3.
i.

-illus (a, um'), 148,

-im., in

ace, 3d
,

decl., 38, I.

-im,

-is in subjv., 116, 4, d.

becomes/,
g,
;

367, 4; instead of

in

impedimentum impedimenta,
;

61.
;

some words,
l-stems, 37
_
-I,
;

i.

39

not always ending in

-is,

Imperative, 281 tenses in, 94, 3 !; 281, future indie, with force of, 261, 3.
as protasis of a conditional sent.,
305, 2; as apodosis, 302, 4.
sent, in indir. disc, 316.

38. 3-

gen. of 2d decl, nouns in -ius and -turn

in, 25, I

and

2.
i.

gen. of 4th decl., nouns in -us, 49, gen. of 5th decl., nouns, 52, 2.

Imperfect tense, 260; conative, 260, 3;

with /aw,
etc.,

260, 4.

General Index.
The
Imperfect
subjv.
in

263

references are to sections and paragraphs.

sent,

conditional

referring to the past, 304, 2. Impersonal verbs, 138; gen. with, 209; in passive, 256, 3; 187, \\,b\ with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2; with 327, I 330. impetus, defective, 57, 4.
;

mops, 70, 2. inquam, 134. Inseparable prepositions, 159,

instar, with gen., 198, 2; 58.

3,

N.

infin.,

Implied
inius,
'

indir.

disc, 323.
of,'

bottom

241,

i.

abl., 213; 218 ff. Intensive pron., 88. Intensives (verbs), 155, 2. inter to exprt-ss reciprocal relation, 245. interest, coViSU., 7x0; 211.

Instrumental uses of

in, prep., 143.

interior, 73,

i.

in with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231.

Interjections, 145.

-ma,

148, 5.

Inceptives, 155, i. Inchoatives, 155, I.

Interrogative pronouns, 90. sentences, 162; particles, 162, 2; omitted, 162, 2, d) in indir. disc, 315.
;

Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6. nouns, 58 gender of, 15, 3.

;

Intransitive verbs in passive, 256, 3

11, b.

187,

Indefinite pronouns, 91 252. Indefinite second person, 280, 3 302, 2. Indicative, 271.
;

-inus, 151, 2
;

152,

152, 3.

356, 3

-io,

in

apodosis of conditional sent, of

verbs of 3d conj., 109. ipse, 88 249 as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipslus and ipsorum, with possessive pronouns, 243, 3.
;
;

type, 304, 3 a) and b). indiged, constr., 214, i, N. 2.

ittdignus, with abl., 226, 2
;

3d

-ir, decl.

of

nouns

in, 23.

with

rel.

clause

Irregular nouns, 42; verbs, 124 f. is, 87; 247; as personal pron., 247,
-is,

2.

of purpose, 282, 3.

148, 6, b).

Indirect discourse, 313 f. implied indir. disc, 323 subordinate clauses in ind.,
; ;

-IS,

ace. plu.,
,

3d

decl.,

37

40.

-Itis,

abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c).

->.

314. 3questions,

istaec, 87,

footnote

3.

300
h.

in conditional sent.

iste,

87

246, 4.

of 3d type, 322,
object, 187.

istic, 6, 4.

reflexives, 244, 2.

istuc, 6,
ita, in

4 87, footnote answers, 162, 5.

;

3.

htfertim

inferior, 73, 2.
i.

In Jim us, 241,

itaque, 344, itdque, 6, 6.

i,

a)

accent

of, 6, 6.

Infinitive, in -ier, 116, 4,

a; meaning of
periphrastic

iter, 42, I.

tenses
fut.

in,

270; 326

ff.

-itia, 149.

perf. inf., 270, 4;

-ium, gen. of nouns

b)
-lus,
I

in, 25,
f.;

ending of

future, 270, 3.

gen. plu., 3d decl., 37

;

39; 40; 147,3,

without subj. ace, 326-328 with subj. ace, 329-331.

with adjs., 333.

314, 5.

148, 2.

gen. and

voc

sing, of

nouns

in, 25,

denoting purpose, 326, N.

in abl. abs., 227, 3. in exclamations, 334.

2; of adjs., 63, a: 151,2; 152,2; -lus for -lus, 362, i, a). 152, 3
;

and

-Ivus, 151, 2.

historical
Infitias, 182, 5.

inf.,

335.
y,
I,

length of vowel before,

109, 2, a)
;

5,

A,
of,

i, c).

Inflection, 11.

jacio,
IT.

compounds

9,

Inflections, 11

ingens,Ti,

42.
;

injuria, 220,
injussu, 57, I
inl-

362, 5ja7n, etc., with present tense, 259, 4 imperfect, 260, 4.

with

219, 2.

jecur, 42, 3.
joco, 220, 2.

ill-,

9, 2.
3.

innixus, 218,

JOCUS, plu.

of, 60, 8.

264
The
jiibeo, 295, I, a\

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

331, II.

magnus, compared, 72.

male, comparison, 77, maleduc7is, 71, 5, a),
I.

jugerum,

59,

i.

yapiter, 41. Juratus, 114,

2.

Jure, 220, 2. yj est, with substantive clause, 297, jussu, 57, I 219, 2.
;

malim, 280, 2, a. mallem, 280, 4.

3.

malo, 130; with

subjv., 296,
I,

inf.,

331, IV,

and a; with

a.

Jussive subjv., 275

30s. 2juvat, 175,
2, c).

equiv. to a protasis,

matus, comparison, 72.

Diane, 58.

Manner,

abl. of, 220.

i, t).

juveitis,

38, 2; 73, 4.

tnare, 39, 2; marl, 228,

m.as, decl., 40, i, d).

K.
/^,

Masculine, see Gender.

I,

I.

Masculine caesura, 368, 3

L.
4.

c.

7naleiies, materia, 59, 2, a),

Labial mutes, 2, stems, 31.

laevuin, 185,
2.

mature, compared, 77, I. maturus, compared, 71, 3.

4.

Lacedaemoin, 232,
/rt//j, decl., 33. largior, 113.

mdxiiiie,

compared
9, i.

with, 74.

tnaxumlis,

Means,
medius,

abl. of, 218.

'

middle

of,'

241, i.
b)
2.

Length of syllables, 5, B. Length of vowels, 5, A.

lentus, 151, 3.
leo, (iecl., 35.

t/ied, 84, 3.

Mediae (consonants),
?!!ei,

2, 3,

footnote

2.

as objective gen., 242,

est,

vtelius
2.

271, i b).
i,

Liber, decl., 23,

memiiii, 133; constr., 206,

viejtior, 70, 2.
<?).

a;

2, a.

tibero, constr., 214, i, N. i.

liberta, llbei tabus, 21, 2,

llberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). with subjv., 308, a. ///, 295, 6 and 8 licet, adversative, 309, 4.
;

-men, -mentum, 147, 4. mensis, 38, 2, footnote

I.

men tern

{in
;

mentem
84, 2.

venire), 206, 3.

-met, 6, 3

Lingual mutes,
linter, decl., 40.

2, 4.

Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuo, 296, 2.

zJ, dat., 84, I
;

Liquids,
lis, decl.,

2, 5.

voc,

86, 2.
2.

stems, 34.
40,
I,

ml, voc. of fueus, 86,

d).

Middle voice, verbs

miles, decl., 33. militiae, 232, 2.
2,

in, 175, 2,

aQ,

Litotes, 375,

I.

litter a. Utter ae, 61.

Locative, 17,
25,

in -ae, 21,

c)

in

-t,

vfille, fniltia, 80, 5.

232; apposition with, 169, 4; loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f.

5;
synta.x,
I, b.

minitne, in answers, 162,

5, i5).

vii7iimum, 77,

3.

loco, locis, 228,

minus =
i.

minus quam, 217,

3.

locus, plurals of, 60, 2.

Long

syllables, 5,
5,

B,
I.

mlror, 113. mlrus, 75, 2.

217, 3.

vowels, longius

A,

= lo7igius quani,
est,

miscere, with abl., 218, 5 with dat., 358, 3. misereor, with gen., 209, 2.
;

longuin

271,

I, b.

miseresco, with gen., 209,

miseret, constr., 209.

2.

luhet, lubtdo, 9, i.

ludi, 230,
^-*'.

I.

57. 7-

M.
magis, comparison with, 74.

mcditim, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). modo, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneo, 103 constr., 178, i, <^). months, decl., 68, i 70, 5, a) names,
;
; ;

magnopere, compared, 77,

i.

371.

I.

General Index.
The
references are to sections and paragraphs.

265

Moods,
in in

94, 2.

nihil est cur, qiiare, quin, 295, 7.

f.

independent sentences, 271 dependent clauses, 282 f.

2, c).
I.
;

/, 306,

and

4.

nisi forte, 306, 5.

j-J, 306, 5. nisi vero, 306, 5. J/5r, constr., 218, 3.

morior, 109,

w/

Mora,

366,

mos, decl., 36 mores, 61. 7)ids est, with substantive clause, 297,
mit/iebre
seciis,
;

3.

185,

i.

viultum, jj, 3 compared, 77, i. mvlius, compared, 72 with another

;

i, d). with inf., in prohibitions, 276, nolim, 280, 2, a.

nix, decl., 40,

noli,

c.

adj.,

241. 3-

nolle m, 280, 4. wo/J, 130; with

2,

mus, decl., 40, \,d).

mtitare, with abl., 218, 5.

inf., 331, a; with subjv., 296,

IV and
i, a.

270,

nomen,
190,
1.

decl.,

35
17;

nomen
170;

est,

constr.,

Mutes,

2, 3.

Mute

stems, 30.

Nominative,
171, I
;

used

for

voc,

nom.

N.
n adtilter'inum, -nam, 90, 2, d.
Nasals,
2, 6.
2, 6.

sing, lacking, 57, 6.

Nones, 371,
noir,

2, d).
;

in answers, 162, 5, ^) with poten. subjv., 280; with deliberative, 277.

non modo
35.

Nasal stems,
natu, 57,
I
;

nonne, 162,
;

73, 4, footnotes, 4, 5
14.

226,

i.

rioii

343, 2, a. 2, a) 300, i, (5), N. quia, with ind., 286, i,c\ with subjv.,
;

for noii

modo

?ioii,

Natural gender,
navis, 41, 4.

286,

I, b.

natus, constr., 215.

non quin, with subjv., 286,

7idn
;

i, b.

quod, with ind., 286, i,c; with subjv.,

I, b.

3 f 162, 2, c) ; 300, I, b) -ne . . an, 162, 4 in indir. double questions, 300,4. ne, in prohibitions, 276; with hortatory
-}ie, 6,
; . ;

286,
nosif'i,

as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2 possessive gen., 242. 2., a.

as

subjv., 274 with jussive, 275 with concessive, 278 with optative, 279 in
;
;

Nouns,

12

ff.

353; derivation

of,

147

f.

substantive clauses, 295

ne,
'

f.

lest,'

282, i

296, 2.

ne noil for ui after verbs of fearing, 296,

2, a.

always z-stems, 38, I. of agency, force, 353, 4. used in plu. only, 56. used in sing, only, 55. used only in certain cases, 57.
in -is not

ns...
necesse

quident, 347,
I,

i.

indeclinable, 58.
2,

nee, 341,

d)

nee usquam, 341,

d).

est, 295, 8. necne, 162, 4.

with change of meaning in plural, 61. syntax, 166 f

predicate, agreement
appositives,
of, etc.,
of,

167

f.

fie/ us, 58.

agreement

etc.,

Negatives, 347, 2 two negatives strengthening the negation, 347, 2.

;

169 f.

Noun and
tiovi,

adj.

forms of the verb, 95,

2.

nemo, 57, 3 252, 6. neqam,yo, 6; compared, 72. neque, 341, i, d) neque in

;
;

as pres., 262, A.
I, c).

purpose

-ns, decl.

novus, compared, 73, 3. of nouns in, 40,

clauses, 282,

i, f.

nequeo, i^j,
nequiter,

i.

nulla causa est cur, qudre, quin, 295, nullum, 66; 57, 3; 92, I.
t],
i.

7.

compared,
253, 6
;

nescid

qtiis,

nescio an, 300, 5.

)ium, 162, 2, b)
81.
i, d.

Neuter, see Gender.

neuter, 66
;

16; 94, 4. 300, I, b). Numerals, 78 f. peculiarities in use

;

Number,

cfj

92,

i.

^^

{neu), in purpose clauses, 282,

Jiuper,

compared,

77,

I.

nihil, 58.

-nus, 151, 2,

266
The
o.
-0-,
0,

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

Participles, fut.

act.,

119,

4;

denoting

stems

purpose, 337,
in, 23.
;

4.

instead of u in some words-, 9, i Object, direct, 172 f. indirect, 187

;

perf. act.,
9, 4f.

perf. pass., 336, 3

supplied, 356, 2. as pres., 336, 5. pres. partic, 336, 2; with conative

;

how

Objective gen., 200.

Obhque
odi, 133.
olle,

cases, 17, 2.
2.

force, 336, 2, a. perf. pass., with

active

meaning,

obllv'tstor, constr., 206, 1, b;

archaic for
later

ille, 87.
I.

-olus (a, zati), 148,

-0111,

with noun equivalent to abstract noun, 337, 5; with liabeb, 337, 6. with video, audio, facio, etc., 337, 3. of deponents, 112, b.
114, 2;
Particles, 139
f.
;

2d decl., 23. -on, Greelc nouns, 2d decl. in, Onomatopoeia, 375, 4.

in

-um

341

f.

27.

Partitive apposition, 169, 5.

Partitive gen., so called, 201.

opera, operae, 61.

op'inlone with abl., 217, 4.

Parts of speech, 10.

oph, 57, 6
opo7-tiiit,

opes, 61.

oportet, 295, 6

and

8.
inf.
inf.,
'

with pres.
;

270, 2

with perf.

270, 2, a.

faruv), comparison. 77, I. parvus, comparison, 72. Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, ought to have," 175, 2, d); 256; constr. of passive

Optative subjv., 272; 279: substantive clauses developed from, 296. optim cites, decl., 40, I, d).
optu?nus,
9, I.

verbs of saying, etc., 332, and note; how supplied when missing, 356, i. patior, 109, 2.,c) 113; with inf., 331, III.
;

Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c).

Patronyms,
pallium, 77, paulus, 9, 2.
f.
;

148, 6.
3.

opus

est,

218, 2.

-or, 147, 2.

Oratio Obliqua, 313

pelagus, gender
2.

of, 26, 2.

Ordinals, 78, i 79. oriundus, constr., 215,

orb, with

penates,6.e.c\., 40, i,

d). Pentameter, dactylic, 369.

Penult,
6, 2.

ace, 178, i, a). Orthography, peculiarities,

ortus, constr., 215.
OS, 57. 7-

9.

per with ace. of time and space, 181,

Perfect active ptc,

2.

how supplied
I.

in Latin,

05, 42.
-o.f,

356. 2. Perfect tense, 262; 268,

-OS,

2d decl., 23. later -ii'' in 3d decl., 36, i. -OS, Greek nouns, 2d decl.
later -j in
,

stem, 97,
in, 27.

II

formation, 118.
contracted, 116,
133, 2.
I.

in -avi, -evl, -Ivl

historical perf., 262.

-osus, 151, 3.

with force of pres., 262

2.

Oxymoron,

375,

Periodic structure, 351, 5. Periphrastic conj., 115; 269,3; '" ^^' ditional sentences of the 3d type, 304,
3,

paenitet, with gen., aog.

b)

in indir. disc, 322; in passive,

^< I-

palam,

144, 2.
2, 4.

337. 7.

Palatal mutes,

fut. inf.,

270, 3.

Parasitic vowels, 7, 3.

Persons, 95, 4;
subject, 356, 3.

2d

sing,

of indefinite

paratus with
pai'w, 109,
parte, 228,
^a/".f, pai'tes,

infin.,

333.

2, <i).

61.

Personal pronouns, 84; 242; as subject, omission of, 166, 2; as objective genitives,.

I, ^.

242, 2.

partem, 185,

I.
;

Participial stem, 97, III

Participles, in -ans
tax,

formation, 119,
-f/w, 70, 3;

endings, 96. piget, with gen., 209.

and

syn-

Place whence, 229; place where, 228.

placitus, 114, 2.

336

ff.

General Index.
The
s,

267
;

references are to sections and paragraphs.

2.

59, 2, d')

plebl, 52,
of,

Plenty and Want, verbs

cf.

constr., 212,

Predicate nouns, 167 168 in ace, 177 predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to
; ;

218, 8.
8, a.

plenus, 218,

Pleonasm, 374,

3.

plerdgue, 6, 5. Pluperfect tense, 263; 287, 2; 288, 3; with imperfect meaning, 133, 2. Plural, 16; in 5th decl., 52, 4; of proper of abstract nouns, names, 55, 4, a)
;

a; to nom., 328, 2. 177,2. Prepositions with ace, 141; with abl., inseparable as adverbs, 144 142
dat., 327, 2,

adjectives, 232, 2

prepositions,
;

159,

3,

N.

position,

prepositional phrases as at350, 7 tributive modifiers, 353, 5; anastrophe of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; usage with
abl. of Sep.,

nouns used in, only, 56; stylistic with change of meaning, 61

55, 4, c)
\ ;

214

f.

with abl. of source,

i

215-

use, 353,

2.

Present tense, 259

ative, 259, 2;
2-

gnomic, 259,

Pluralia taiitum, 56; 81, 4, h). plus, jo; 70,4; =plus quam, zij, Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b).
posed, 178,
I,

historical, 259, 3;

conwith

Jafn, etc., 259, 4.

stem, 97, I; formation, 117.

perfect, 262.

a).

Position of clauses, 351, 3. of words, 348; 350; 351.

Price, indefinite, special

203, 4abl. of, 225.
pr'idie,

words

in gen.,

Possessive dat., 190; gen., 198; contrasted with dat. of poss., 359, i. objecPossessive pronouns, 86; 243;

with gen., 201,

3,

with ace,

=
I

144, 2.

tive
I, a.

gen.,

243,

2;

position

of,

243,

Primary tenses, see Principal tenses.

p7-hiius,
'

first

who," 241,
list,

2.

posuini, 126; with present infin.'

271,
post,
I,

might,'

a).
I
;

pruiceps, decl., 31. Principal parts, 99;

tenses, 258
f.

p. 251.

144,

in

expressions
I,

of time,

357- IPost-positive words, 343, posteaqiiam, 287, I 4.

;

c).

prior, compared, 73, prius, compared, jj,

I.
i.

priusquam, wiXh
;

ind., 291;

with subjv.,

posterns, posterior, 73, 2.

292; separated, 291.

procul, 144, 2.

287 separated, 287, 3 with imperf. ind., 287, 4; with subjv., 287, 5. postremus, 241, 2.
postquiiiii,
;

Prohibitions,
276.

method

of

expressing,

postr'idie,

with gen., 201,

I,

3, a.

postulo, constr., 178,

a.

Prohibitive subjv., 276. Prolepsis, 374, 5.

abl., 218, i

Potential subjv., 272; 280.

potior, with gen., 212, 2
in
,
;

with

Pronominal adjs., 253. Pronouns, 82 f. personal, omission

;

of,

as

gerundive

constr., 339, 4.

subject, 166, 2

syntax, 242
.

f.

per-

adj., 73, I.

sonal, 242
77,
i.

f.

possess., 243 f
f.
;

reflex.,

potius,

compared,

244
tive,

f.

reciprocal, 245
.

demonstra;

potui,poteram, in apodosis of conditional sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, 11) in indir.

;

disc, 322,
potu'i,

c.

relative, 250 f. 246 f 252 i. position, 350, 5 355. Pronunciation, Roman, 3.

;
; ;

indef.,

with
2.

pres.

inf.

'

could

have,'

270,

prope, compared, 77, i. Proper names, abbreviated, 373.

potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322,

potus, 114, 2.

c.

nouns,
3-

12, I.
;

propior, compared, 73, 1

2.

with ace, 141,

a; with gen.,

praesens, 125.

pransus, 114,
prec'i,

proprius, with dat., 204,

204, 2.

2,

-em,

-e,

57, 5, a.

Predicate, 163. gen., 198, 3; 203,5.

Prosody, 360 f. pro sum, 125, N.

268
The
Protasis, 301
;

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

302, 3

denoting repeated action, of indef. 2d without SI, 305

;

sing., 302, 2.

in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4; with ind., 281, 3; in indir. disc, 322 and a; nulla causa est quin, 295, 7.

nan

Provisos, 310.

quinam,
with ace, 141,
3.

90,

2,

d.
2,7'!--

proxime,

-us,

Qulntilis

(=

Julius),
3.
i,

prudens, 70.
-pte, 86, 3.

quippe qui, 283,

Quiritcs, decl., 40,

d.

pudet, uith gen., 209.

quis, indef., 91; interr., 90;

I
;

90, 2, c;
si,

252,
nisi,

puer, decl., 23. Purpose, how denoted, 282; 338, 3; 339,

2,6; 340, i; 191; 337.4Purpose clauses, 282; independent of principal verb, 282, 4 339, 6 340, i.
; ;

nescio quis, 253, 6

with ne,

quis

tium, 91, 5. quibus, 89.

quisnam, 90, 2, d. quispiam, 91. quisquam, 91 252,

;

4.

Q-qu-,

quisque, 91
quivis, 91.

252, 5.

both

letters

consonants, 74, a.

quis quis, 91, 8.

quo, in purpose clauses, 282,
I,

qiiaero, 300, \,b), N.

quaeso, 137, 2. Quality, gen., 203

perl., 240, 3.

a.

abl., 224. 224, 3 quain, in comparisons, 217, 2; with su; ;

quoad, with ind., 293;

III, 2.

with subjv., 293,

i

quod, in causal clauses, 286,

stantive clauses, 299;

in

sub'as

quam quam

si,

307,

i.

331, V, a;

with subjv., 284, 4. qiiamquam, with ind., 309, 2; with subjv.,

ut,

regards the fact,' 299, 2. quod audieiim, 283, 5;

283,5-

quod

sciam,

309, 6;

'

and

yet,'

309, 5.
;

quainv'is, with subjv., 309, I

denot-

quod
quoni

si,
,

185, 2.

ing a

fact, 309, 6.
3, b.

9, I.

quando, 286,
Quantity,
of
5.

quo minus, 295, 3. quoniam, 286, I.

5,
5,

of syllables,

vowels,

B A

363 f. 362

in

Greek

quoque, post-positive, 347. -quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.

words, 365.
quasi, 307,
I.

quatib, 109, 2, a),

-que, accent of

word preceding,
;

6,

rapid, 109, 2, a) rastrum, plurals of, 60,

2.

6; 341 queo, 137,

ical,

I,

b); 2, a)

4, c).

Reciprocal pronouns,
253. 3f.
;

85,

245
4,

cf.

I.

Questions, word, sentence, 162

4; indirect, 300; disc, 315.
qui, rel., 89
;

rhetor-

Reduplication in
pres., 117, 7.

perf.,

118,

a);

in

162,3; double (alternative), 162, questions in indir.

interr.,

refert, constr., 210;

211, 4.
;

Reflexive pronouns, 85

244; 249,3.

90

indef.,
2,

91
b;

for

rego, 105.
rei, 362, I, b).

quis in indir. questions, 90,

n'e,

with

si,

nisi,

num,

91,

5;

in

purpose

rcicio, 362, 5.

clauses, 282, 2; abl., 90,

2, a.
I.

Relative clauses, 311;

istic,

312;

character-

quia, in causal clauses, 286,

283.
2.

quicuni, 89.

conditional sentences, 312,

8.

quicumque, 91,
quidain, 91
quilibet, 91.
;

synt.ix, 252, 3.
1.

quidem, post-positive, 347,

quin, in

Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6; agreement, 250; fondness for subordinate clauses, 355.
pronouns, 89;
250
f.;

clauses with dignus, indignus, idoin sub;

result clauses, 284, 3;

neus, 282, 3.

stantive

clauses, 295, 3

298

= qui

of purpose, 282, 2; of result, 284,

2.

General Index.
The
Relative, taking ace.
disc., 314, 4.

269
f.
;

references are to sections and paragraphs.

infin. in

and

indir.

Sentences, classification, 160

simple
2.

and compound, 164;

ure, 351
;

sentence-struct-

religul, 253, 5.
reiiiex, decl., 32.

sentence questions, 162,

of,

senteiitui, 220, 3.

remin'tscor, constr., 206, 2.

reposed, constr., 178,
i,

Separation, dat.
c).

188, 2, d)

gen., 212,

a),
2,

requies, requiem, requietem, 59,

res, decl., 51.

3; abl., 214. Sequence of tenses, 267 sequor, 1 13

Si-rvos, 24.

268.

Result,
of,

ace. of, 173, B; 176; clauses 284; 297; in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; sequence of tense in,
268, 6.

sese. 85.

revert or, 114, 3. Rhetorical questions, 162, 3 indir. disc, 315, 2.

{= Augustus), 271 Short syllables, 5, 5, 2; vowels, si, with indir. questions, 300, 3
Sextllis

5,
;

A,

2.

in pro-

277, a

in

tasis,

301

omitted, 305.

slgni/er, decl., 23, 2.

sileiitio, 220, 2.

Rhotacism,
rogatu, 219,

8, I 2.

36,

i.

silvestris, 68, 3.
i,

rpgo, constr., 178,

c)

178,

i,

a).

similis, with dat., 204, 3;

with gen., 204,

Roman

pronunciation, Root, 17, 3, footnote i.

-rs, decl. of

3.

3
si

comp., 71, minus, 306, 2.

;

4.

nouns

in, 40, I, c).

simul, 144,

2.
;

ru

e,

229,
228,

I, b.
I, c. I,

snnul
57, 7.

ac, 287, I

2. 2.

ruA,

si non, 306, I

and

rus, 182,

sin, 306, 3.

Singular, second person indefinite, 280, 3

-s,
;

356. 3

302, 2.
of, constr., 176, 5.
2, 3, b),

monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, i, b).

decl. of

sino, with inf., 331, III.

Smelling, verbs
Soft consonants,

j--stems, 36.
sa,.er,
satfie,

footnote

2.

65
7

comparison,
"jj, i.

73, 3.

socer, decl., 23, 2.

compared,
;

socium, gen. plu., 25,

J-o/,

6, c).

sa^, 57,

sales, 61.

57, 7.

sa.nbris, 68, 3.
sat-iltaris, 73, 4.

soled, 114, I.

j5/j, 66;

solus est qui with subjv., 283,

2, 3, b),

2.

sajve, salvete, 137, 4.

Sonant consonants,
d).

footnote

2.

Sammtes,

decl., 40,

I,

Soracte, 39,

2.

sane, in answers, 162, 5. sapid, 109, 2, a)

scio,

Sounds,
Source,
2.

classification, 2.

quod sciam, 283, 5. scrlbere ad allquem, 358,

244.
conj., 103
;

of the letters, 3. abl., 215.

Specification, abl. of, 226.

spei, 362, I, b.

j^,

Second
25
;

decl, 23

peculiarities,

Spelling, see Orthography.

second person
;

indefinite, 280,

Spirants,

2, 7.

302, 2. Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses. 356, 3

secus,

Spondaic

verses, 368, 2.

sponte suH, 220, 3.

spontis, -e, 57, 2,
(5.

compared,

77, i.

secus (vir'ile secus), 185, i; 58.

sed, 85, 3.

Stem,
,

17, 3.

5^^,343,

I,

a).
39.
114.

verb, 97, 117. Style, hints on, 352

f.

sed'ile, decl.,

su

= sv,

3, 3.

Semi-deponent verbs, Semivowels, 2, 8. senex, 42 compared,

;

sub, with ace.

;

and

abl., 143.

73, 4.

Subject, 163 nom., 166; ace, 184; subject ace. of inf., 184 omitted, 314, 5.
;

270
The

Genet'al Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

Subjective gen., 199. Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3. in independent sentences, 272; by attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f.

Synecdochical ace, 180.

Synizesis, 367,
i.

Syntax, 160

f.

Systole, 367, 3.

metiiod of expressing future time

in,

269
273
tial,

volitive

(hortatory,

jussive,
taedet, 209.

proiiibitive,
f.
;

deliberative,

concessive),

optative (wislies), 279; poten280; in clauses of purpose, 282;

talentuni, gen. plu., 25, 6, d).

tamen, 343, i,/

tametsi, 309,
tanton, 6, 4.
-tds,
2.
si,

of characteristic, 283; of result, 284; of cause, 286; temporal clauses wuh

tamquam, tamquam
149
;

307.
decl. of

postquam, pos/eagiiani, 287, 5 temporal clauses with aim, 288-290; with antequam and priusguam, 292 with dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub;
;

gen.

-tdtis,

nouns

in,

4P,

I, e).

Tasting, verbs
ted, 84, 3.

of, constr., 176, 5.

questions, 300 in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4 jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2; with with necesse veliit, tamquam, etc., 307 with est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8 with quamvis, licet, 308, a 309, 4
stantive

clauses, 294
;

f.

indir.

Temporal clauses, 287 fF. temporis (id temporis), 185,

tener, 64.

2.

Tenses, 94, 3; 257

inf. in

qiiamquam,

etsi,

cum,' although,' 390

2.

f.

sublatus, p. 99, footnote.

of inf., 270; oi 317; of participles, 336; of subjv., 266; sequence of, 2.^6 in indir. disc, 317; 318. Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote I.
ff.
;

indir. disc,

subm-

= summ-, 9,

tenus, position, 142, 3.

Sutjordinate clauses, 165. Substantive clauses, 294 f. without ut, 295, 8; of result, 297; introduced by
;

Terminations,
-termis, 154.

17, 3.

terra marique, 128,

terrestris, 68, 3.

I, C.

quod, 299.
suiter, 143,
I.
;

Tetrameter verses, 366,

Thesis, 366.
;

11.

Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i 147 f. as objective gen., 244, 2 sill, 85

;

6.
;

= pos-

sessive gen., 244,

su?n, 100.

2.

Third conj., 105 gender in, 43 f.

-tiyn,

109

f.

dec).,

28

/.

157, 2. at which, 230;

I
;

top of,' 241, i. sunt qui, with subjv., 283,

'

summtis,

Time,
a.

during which, 181

2.

231,

within which, 231.

ut,

sudpte, suapte, 86, 3.

timed ne and
-tinus, 154.
-tid,

296,

supellex, 42,

2.

super, 143,
superiis,

I.

147, 3.

compared,

73,

2.

Superlative
240, 2.

lacking,

73,

force

of,

Tmesis, 367, 7. -tor, use of nouns

totus,

in,

353, 4.

66

228,

1,

b).

Supine, 340.

trabs, decl., 31.

2, 3,

Surd consonants,
siis,

a), footnote

i.

traditur, tradifum

est,

332, N.

decl., 41.

trans, constr. of verbs

compounded

with,

sustul'i, p. 99,

footnote.
;

179.
4, a.

suus, 86,

I 244 S7{iis quisque, 244, Syllaba anceps, 366, 10. Syllables, 4; quantity of, 5, i?.
;

Transitive verbs, 174.

ires, 80, 3.

tribus, decl., 49, 3.

Synapheia, 367,
Synaeresis, 367,

6.
i.

Trimeter verses, 366,

trim, 81, 4, b'). triumvir, gen. plu.

11.

Syncliysis, 350, 11, d).

of, 25, 6, ^).

Syncope,

7,

367, 8.

Trochee, 366,

2.

General Index.
The
-trum, 147,
tu, 84.
-tiidd,
4.

271

references are to sections and paragraphs.

utrdqiie, 6, 5.

utrum
149.

an, 162, 4

300, 4.

tut, as

objective gen., 242,

2.

V.
z/,

-tura, 147, 3, a).

tus, 57, 7.
-tits,

becomes

. 36'7,
i7j.

i^.

147, 3;

151, 4.

wa/^, 363, 2,

tussis, decl., 38.

//^, tutemet, 84, 2.

Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, vatmus, gender of, 26, i, b).

vds, 59,
I.
;

3.

U.
a, instead of i in

-ve, 6,
9, i
;

342,
;

1, b").

some words,
9, 4.

in-

vet, 342, I, b)

with super!., 240,

3.

stead of ^,9,
u,

vehm,

280,

2,

a.

becomes

v, 367, 4.

vellem, 280,

4.

M-stems, 48. -stems, 41.

4th decl., 49, 2. aiJ/, with ind., 287, i 2 with gen., 201, -ubus, dat. plu., 4th decl., 49, 3.
-, dat. sing.,
; ;

velut, velutsl, 307, I.

venter, decl., 40,

;

i, rf).
;

3.

Verbs, 94 f. personal endings, 96 deponent, 112; archaic and poetic forms,

116, 4; irregular, 124; defective, 133; impersonal, with substantive 138 clauses of result, 297, 2; omission of, transitive, 174 used abso166, 3 lutely, 174, a; passives used as middles, of smelling and 175, 2, d.) tasting, constr., 176, 5; not used in passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives impersonal in passive, 187, \\, b; 256,
;
;

ullus, 66.

ulterior,

compared,
2.
(fl,

73,

I.

ulthnus, 241,
-/j-,

150, 2;

uni), 148,

I.
;

-w,

1st decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, ^)

2d

decl., 25, 6.

-undus, -undl, in
116, 2.

gerund and gerundive,

i
;

unus,
-wj,

66

92,

unus

est

qui,

with

3;

compounded
III;
;

with

preps.,

constr.,
constr.,

subjv., 283, 2.

187,
in, 26, 2.

of judicial action,
;

neuter nouns of 2d decl. usque ad, 141, i. usus est, with abl., 218, 2. /, temporal, 287, i; 2; ^,

derivation of, 155 f. inceptive 208 or inchoative, 155, i frequentative or

;

intensive,
/Z,

155,

2;

desiderative,

155,
of,

in pur-

3;

denominative, 156;
f.

agreement
of,

pose clauses, 282;

in

result

clauses,

254

284; in substantive clauses, 295 f. substantive clauses without, 295, 8 with verbs of fearing, 296, 2.
ne, 282, i, b. ut ne ut non instead of ^, 282, \, c; in clauses of result, 284, 297. ut qui, introducing clauses of characteristic,

Verb stems, 97; formation

vereor,
13 296, 2. Vfrgilius, gen. of, 25,
1
;

117

f.

i.

vera, 343,

I,

g)

in

answers, 162,
f.

5.

Verse, 366, 3. Verse-structure, 366

Versification, 361.
versus, 141, 2.

283, 3.
I.

ut

si,

307,

verum, 343,
I.

i,

b).
I.

uter, 66; 92,

vescor, vvith abl., 218,

i, d).

ater, decl., 40,

vesper, decl., 23, 2.

vesperi, 232,
2.

utercunique, 92,
uterlibet, 92, 2.

2.

vestri, 242, 2.

uterque, 92, 2
utervis, 92, 2.

355,

2.

vestrum,

as gen. of whole,
2, a.

242,

2;

as

possessive gen., 242,

i,

utilius est, 271,

b).

veto, with inf., 331, II.

utinam, with optative subj., 279, i and 2. utor, with abl., 218, i in gerundive
;

vetus, 70;
vi, 220, 2.

compared,
i
;

73, 3.

constr., 339, 4.

vicetn, 185,

vicis, vice, 57, 5, b.

2/2
The
victor, decl., 34.

General Index.
references are to sections and paragraphs.

Vowel changes,
vulgtis,

7.

viden,

6, 4.

gender

of, 26, 2.

video, with pres. partic, 337, 3.

-iiMw,

-i/a^,

decl. of

nouns

in, 24.

vigil, decl., 34.

violetiter, 77, 4, a.
zz/r,

decl., 23.
,

W.
compounded Wish,
clauses with dum,
in,

gen. plu. of nouns

iJ).

etc.,

expressing

with, 25, 6,
virus,

a, 310.
I.

virile seats, 185,

Wishes, subjunctive
tive subjunctive.

279; see Opta-

gender

of, 26, 2.

z/w, dec!., 41.

Vocative case, 17;

-/>,

19,
of,

171; in

-i

for

Word-formation, 146 Word-order, 348 f.

f.

25, I

position

350, 3.
b).

Word

questions, 162,

i.

Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a. Voiced consonants, 2, 3,

Voiceless consonants,

X.
X, 2, 9.
i.

2, 3, a.

Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, Volitive subjunctive, 272 f.

vohtus,
9, I.

-X, decl. of

monosyllables
cons., 40,

in,
i,

preceded by

one or more

b).

void, 130; with

2,

inf., 331, a; with subjv., 296,

IV and
i,

a; 270,

a.

volt, 9, I.

y, I. I.
I.
'

voltus, 9,

You,' indefinite, 356, 3

280, 3

302,

voluntate, 220,
-volus,

2.

Vowels,

comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. sounds of the, 3, i quan2, I

;

tity of, 5,

A\ contraction

of, 7, 2;

par-

2, 1,

i;

2, 9.

asitic, 7, 3.

Zeugma,

374, 2, a).

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