Topology Course Lecture Notes

Aisling McCluskey and Brian McMaster

August 1997
Chapter 1
Fundamental Concepts
In the study of metric spaces, we observed that:

(i) many of the concepts can be described purely in terms of open sets,
(ii) open-set descriptions are sometimes simpler than metric descriptions,
e.g. continuity,
(iii) many results about these concepts can be proved using only the basic
properties of open sets (namely, that both the empty set and the underlying
set X are open, that the intersection of any two open sets is again open and
that the union of arbitrarily many open sets is open).
This prompts the question: How far would we get if we started with a collection of
subsets possessing these above-mentioned properties and proceeded to define
everything in terms of them?
1.1 Describing Topological Spaces
We noted above that many important results in metric spaces can be proved using
only the basic properties of open sets that
- the empty set and underlying set X are both open,
- the intersection of any two open sets is open, and
- unions of arbitrarily many open sets are open.
We will call any collection of sets on X satisfying these properties a topology. In
the following section, we also seek to give alternative ways of describing this
important collection of sets.
1.1.1 Defining Topological Spaces
Definition 1 A topological space is a pair (X,T) consisting of a set X and a family
T of subsets of X satisfying the following conditions:

(T1) C e T and X e T
(T2) T is closed under arbitrary union
(T3) T is closed under finite intersection.
The set X is called a space, the elements of X are called points of the space and the
subsets of X belonging to T are called open in the space; the family T of open
subsets of X is also called a topology for X.
Examples

(i) Any metric space (X,d) is a topological space where T
d
, the topology for
X induced by the metric d, is defined by agreeing that G shall be declared as
open whenever each x in G is contained in an open ball entirely in G, i.e.


C c G _ X is open in (X, T
d
)

x e G, -r
x
> 0 such that x e B
rx
(x) _ G.



(ii) The following is a special case of (i), above. Let R be the set of real
numbers and let be the usual (metric) topology defined by agreeing that


C c G _ X is open in (R, ) (alternatively, -open)

x e G, -r
x
> 0 such that (x-r
x
, x+r
x
) c G.



(iii) Define T
0
= {C, X}
(iv) Define D = { G _ X: G _ X }
(v) For any non-empty set X, the family C = { G _ X: G = C or X\G is
finite} is a topology for X called the cofinite topology.
(vi) For any non-empty set X, the family L = { G _ X: G = C or X\G is
countable} is a topology for X called the cocountable topology.
1.1.2 Neighbourhoods
Occasionally, arguments can be simplified when the sets involved are not ``over-
described''. In particular, it is sometimes suffices to use sets which contain open
sets but are not necessarily open. We call such sets neighborhoods.
Definition 2 Given a topological space (X, T) with x e X, then N _ X is said to be
a (T)-neighbourhood of x - open set G with x e G _ N.
It follows then that a set U _ X is open iff for every x e U, there exists a
neighbourhood N
x
of x contained in U. (Check this!)
Lemma 1 Let (X, T) be a topological space and, for each x e X, let N(x) be the
family of neighbourhoods of x. Then

(i) U e N(x) x e U.
(ii) N(x) is closed under finite intersections.
(iii) U e N(x) and U _ V V e N(x).
(iv) U e N(x) -W e N(x) such that W _ U and W e N(y) for each y e W.
Proof Exercise!
Examples

(i) Let x e X, and define T
x
= { C, {x}, X }. Then T
x
is a topology for X and
V _ X is a neighbourhood of x iff x e V. However, the only nhd of y e X
where y = x is X itself
(ii) Let x e X and define a topology (x) for X as follows:

(x) = { G _ X: x e G} { C}.
Note here that every nhd of a point in X is open.
(iii) Let x e X and define a topology E(x) for X as follows:

E(x) = { G _ X: x \not e G } {X}.
Note here that {y} is open for every y = x in X, that {x,y} is not open, is not
a nhd of x yet is a nhd of y.
In fact, the only nhd of x is X.
1.1.3 Bases and Subbases
It often happens that the open sets of a space can be very complicated and yet they
can all be described using a selection of fairly simple special ones. When this
happens, the set of simple open sets is called a base or subbase (depending on how
the description is to be done). In addition, it is fortunate that many topological
concepts can be characterized in terms of these simpler base or subbase elements.
Definition 3 Let (X,T) be a topological space. A family B _ T is called a base for
(X,T) if and only if every non-empty open subset of X can be represented as a
union of a subfamily of B.
It is easily verified that B _ T is a base for (X, T) if and only if whenever x e G e
T, -B e B such that x e B _ G.
Clearly, a topological space can have many bases.
Lemma 2 If B is a family of subsets of a set X such that

(B1) for any B
1
, B
2
e B and every point x e B
1
B
2
, there exists B
3
e B with
x e B
3
_ B
1
B
2
, and
(B2) for every x e X, there exists B e B such that x e B,
then B is a base for a unique topology on X.
Conversely, any base B for a topological space (X,T) satisfies (B1) and (B2).
Proof (Exercise!)
Definition 4 Let (X,T) be a topological space. A family S _ T is called a subbase
for (X,T) if and only if the family of all finite intersections
i = 1
k
U
i
, where U
i
e S
for i = 1,2,.,k is a base for (X,T).
Examples

(i) In any metric space (X,d), { B
r
(x):x e X, r > 0 } forms a base for the
induced metric topology T
d
on X.
(ii) For the real line R with its usual (Euclidean) topology, the family {(a,b):
a,b e Q, a < b } is a base.
(iii) For an arbitrary set X, the family { {x}:x e X } is a base for (X, D).
(iv) The family of all `semi-infinite' open intervals (a, ) and (-,b) in R is a
subbase for (R, ).
1.1.4 Generating Topologies
From the above examples, it follows that for a set X one can select in many
different ways a family T such that (X,T) is a topological space. If T
1
and T
2
are
two topologies for X and T
2
_ T
1
, then we say that the topology T
1
is finer than the
topology T
2
, or that T
2
is coarser than the topology T
1
. The discrete topology for X
is the finest one; the trivial topology is the coarsest.
If X is an arbitrary infinite set with distinct points x and y, then one can readily
verify that the topologies (x) and (y) are incomparable i.e. neither is finer than
the other.
By generating a topology for X, we mean selecting a family T of subsets of X
which satisfies conditions (T1)-(T3). Often it is more convenient not to describe
the family T of open sets directly. The concept of a base offers an alternative
method of generating topologies.
Examples
- [Sorgenfrey line] Given the real numbers R, let B be the family of all
intervals [x,r) where x,r e R, x < r and r is rational. One can readily check
that B has properties (B1)-(B2). The space R
s
, generated by B, is called the
Sorgenfrey line and has many interesting properties. Note that the
Sorgenfrey topology is finer than the Euclidean topology on R. (Check!)
- [Niemytzki plane] Let L denote the closed upper half-plane. We define a
topology for L by declaring the basic open sets to be the following:

(I) the (Euclidean) open discs in the upper half-plane;
(II) the (Euclidean) open discs tangent to the `edge' of the L, together
with the point of tangency.
Note If y
n
y in L, then

(i) y not on `edge': same as Euclidean convergence.
(ii) y on the `edge': same as Euclidean, but y
n
must approach y from
`inside'. Thus, for example, y
n
= ([1/n],0) \not (0,0)!
1.1.5 New Spaces from Old
A subset of a topological space inherits a topology of its own, in an obvious way:
Definition 5 Given a topological space (X, T) with A _ X, then the family T
A
= {A
G:G e T } is a topology for A, called the subspace (or relative or induced)
topology for A. (A, T
A
) is called a subspace of (X, T).
Example
The interval I = [0,1] with its natural (Euclidean) topology is a (closed) subspace of
(R, ).
Warning: Although this definition, and several of the results which flow from it,
may suggest that subspaces in general topology are going to be `easy' in the sense
that a lot of the structure just gets traced onto the subset, there is unfortunately a
rich source of mistakes here also: because we are handling two topologies at once.
When we inspect a subset B of A, and refer to it as 'open' (or 'closed', or a
'neighbourhood' of some point p .... ) we must be exceedingly careful as to which
topology is intended. For instance, in the previous example, [0,1] itself is open in
the subspace topology on I but, of course, not in the 'background' topology of R. In
such circumstances, it is advisable to specify the topology being used each time by
saying T-open, T
A
-open, and so on.
1.2 Closed sets and Closure
Just as many concepts in metric spaces were described in terms of basic open sets,
yet others were characterized in terms of closed sets. In this section we
- define closed sets in a general topological space and
- examine the related notion of the closure of a given set.
1.2.1 Closed Sets
Definition 6 Given a topological space (X,T) with F _ X, then F is said to be T-
closed iff its complement X \F is T-open.
From De Morgan's Laws and properties (T1)-(T3) of open sets, we infer that the
family F of closed sets of a space has the following properties:

(F1) X e F and C e F
(F2) F is closed under finite union
(F3) F is closed under arbitrary intersection.
Sets which are simultaneously closed and open in a topological space are
sometimes referred to as clopen sets. For example, members of the base B = {
[x,r):x, r e R, x < r, r rational } for the Sorgenfrey line are clopen with respect to
the topology generated by B. Indeed, for the discrete space (X, D), every subset is
clopen.
1.2.2 Closure of Sets
Definition 7 If (X,T) is a topological space and A _ X, then



A

T

= {F _ X: A _ F and F is closed}
is called the T-closure of A.
Evidently, [A]
T
(or [A] when there is no danger of ambiguity) is the smallest
closed subset of X which contains A. Note that A is closed A = [A].
Lemma 3 If (X, T) is a topological space with A, B _ X, then

(i) [(C)] = C
(ii) A _ [A]
(iii) [([A])] = [A]
(iv) [(AB)] = [A] [B].
Proof Exercise!
Theorem 1 Given a topological space with A _ X, then x e [A] iff for each nhd U
of x, U A = C.
Proof

$\Rightarrow$: Let x e [A] and let U be a nhd of x; then there exists open
G with x e G _ U. If U A = C, then G A = C and so A _ X \G [A]
_ X \G whence x e X \G, thereby contradicting the assumption that U A =
C.
$\Leftarrow$: If x e X \[A], then X \[A] is an open nhd of x so that, by
hypothesis, (X \[A]) A = C, which is a contradiction (i.e., a false
statement).
Examples

(i) For an arbitrary infinite set X with the cofinite topology C, the closed sets
are just the finite ones together with X. So for any A _ X,


_
A

=




A if A is finite
X if A is infinite


Note that any two non-empty open subsets of X have non-empty
intersection.

(ii) For an arbitrary uncountable set X with the cocountable topology L, the
closed sets are the countable ones and X itself. Note that if we let X = R,
then [[0,1]] = R! (In the usual Euclidean topology, [[0,1]] = [0,1].)
(iii) For the space (X, T
x
) defined earlier, if C c A _ X, then


_
A

=




X if x e A
X \{x} if x \not e A



(iv) For (X, (x)) with A _ X,


_
A

=




A if x \not e A
X if x e A



(v) For (X, E(x)) with C c A _ X,


_
A

=




A if x e A
A{x} if x \not e A



(vi) In (X, D), every subset equals its own closure.
1.3 Continuity and Homeomorphism
The central notion of continuity of functions is extended in this section to general
topological spaces. The useful characterization of continuous functions in metric
spaces as those functions where the inverse image of every open set is open is used
as a definition in the general setting.
Because many properties of spaces are preserved by continuous functions, spaces
related by a bijection (one-to-one and onto function) which is continuous in both
directions will have many properties in common. These properties are identified as
topological properties. Spaces so related are called homeomorphic.
1.3.1 Continuity
The primitive intuition of a continuous process is that of one in which small
changes in the input produce small, 'non-catastrophic' changes in the corresponding
output. This idea formalizes easily and naturally for mappings from one metric
space to another: f is continuous at a point p in such a setting whenever we can
force the distance between f(x) and f(p) to be as small as is desired, merely by
taking the distance between x and p to be small enough. That form of definition is
useless in the absence of a properly defined 'distance' function but, fortunately, it is
equivalent to the demand that the preimage of each open subset of the target metric
space shall be open in the domain. Thus expressed, the idea is immediately
transferrable to general topology:
Definition 8 Let (X, T) and (Y, S) be topological spaces; a mapping f:X Y is
called continuous iff f
-1
(U) e T for each U e S i.e. the inverse image of any open
subset of Y is open in X.
Examples

(i) If (X, D) is discrete and (Y, S) is an arbitrary topological space, then any
function f:X Y is continuous!
Again, if (X, T) is an arbitrary topological space and (Y, T
0
) is trivial, any
mapping g:X Y is continuous.
(ii) If (X, T), (Y, S) are arbitrary topological spaces and f:X Y is a
constant map, then f is continuous.
(iii) Let X be an arbitrary set having more than two elements, with x e X.
Let T = I(x), S = T
x
in the definition of continuity; then the identity map
id
X
:X X is continuous. However, if we interchange T with S so that T =
T
x
and S = (x), then id
X
:X X is not continuous! Note that id
X
:(X, T
1
)
(X, T
2
) is continuous if and only if T
1
is finer than T
2
.
Theorem 2 If (X
1
, T
1
), (X
2
, T
2
) and (X
3
, T
3
) are topological spaces and h:X
1
X
2

and g:X
2
X
3
are continuous, then gh:X
1
X
3
is continuous.
Proof Immediate.
There are several different ways to 'recognise' continuity for a mapping between
topological spaces, of which the next theorem indicates two of the most useful
apart from the definition itself:
Theorem 3 Let f be a mapping from a topological space (X
1
, T
1
) to a topological
space (X
2
, T
2
). The following statements are equivalent:

(i) f is continuous,
(ii) the preimage under f of each closed subset of X
2
is closed in X
1
,
(iii) for every subset A of X
1
, f([A]) _ [f(A)].
Proof It is easy to see that (i) implies (ii). Assuming that (ii) holds, apply it to the
closed set [f(A)] and (iii) readily follows. Now if (iii) is assumed and G is a given
open subset of X
2
, use (iii) on the set A = X
1
\f
-1
(G) and verify that it follows that f
-
1
(G) must be open.
1.3.2 Homeomorphism
Definition 9 Let (X, T), (Y, S) be topological spaces and let h:X Y be bijective.
Then h is a homeomorphism iff h is continuous and h
-1
is continuous. If such a
map exists, (X, T) and (Y, S) are called homeomorphic.
Such a map has the property that

G e T f(G) e S.
It follows that any statement about a topological space which is ultimately
expressible solely in terms of the open sets (together with set-theoretic relations
and operations) will be true for both (X, T) and (Y, S) if it is true for either. In
other words, (X, T) and (Y, S) are indistinguishable as topological spaces. The
reader who has had abstract algebra will note that homeomorphism is the analogy
in the setting of topological spaces and continuous functions to the notion of
isomorphism in the setting of groups (or rings) and homomorphisms, and to that of
linear isomorphism in the context of vector spaces and linear maps.
Example
For every space (X, T), the identity mapping id
X
:X X is a homeomorphism.
A property of topological spaces which when possessed by a space is also
possessed by every space homeomorphic to it is called a topological invariant.
We shall meet some examples of such properties later.
One can readily verify that if f is a homeomorphism, then the inverse mapping f
-1
is
also a homeomorphism and that the composition g f of two homeomorphisms f
and g is again a homeomorphism. Thus, the relation `X and Y are homeomorphic'
is an equivalence relation.
In general, it may be quite difficult to demonstrate that two spaces are
homeomorphic (unless a homeomorphism is obvious or can easily be discovered).
For example, to verify that (R, ) is homeomorphic to (0,1) with its induced metric
topology, it is necessary to demonstrate, for instance, that h:(0,1) R where h(x)
= [(2x-1)/(x(x-1))] is a homeomorphism.
It is often easier to show that two spaces are not homeomorphic: simply exhibit an
invariant which is possessed by one space and not the other.
Example
The spaces (X, (x)) and (X, E(x)) are not homeomorphic since, for example, (X,
(x)) has the topological invariant `each nhd is open' while (X, E(x)) does not.
1.4 Additional Observations
Definition 10 A sequence (x
n
) in a topological space (X, T) is said to converge to a
point x e X iff (x
n
) eventually belongs to every nhd of x i.e. iff for every nhd U of x,
there exists n
0
e N such that x
n
e U for all n > n
0
.
Caution
We learnt that, for metric spaces, sequential convergence was adequate to describe
the topology of such spaces (in the sense that the basic primitives of `open set',
`neighbourhood', `closure' etc. could be fully characterised in terms of sequential
convergence). However, for general topological spaces, sequential convergence
fails. We illustrate:

(i) Limits are not always unique. For example, in (X, T
0
), each sequence (x
n
)
converges to every x e X.
(ii) In R with the cocountable topology L, [0,1] is not closed and so G = (-
,0) (1,) is not open - yet if x
n
x where x e G, then Assignment 1
shows that x
n
e G for all sufficiently large n. Further, 2 e [[0,1]]
L
, yet no
sequence in [0,1] can approach 2. So another characterisation fails to carry
over from metric space theory.
Finally, every L-convergent sequence of points in [0,1] must have its limit in
[0,1] - but [0,1] is not closed (in L)!
Hence, to discuss topological convergence thoroughly, we need to develop a new
basic set-theoretic tool which generalises the notion of sequence. It is called a net -
we shall return to this later.
Definition 11 A topological space (X, T) is called metrizable iff there exists a
metric d on X such that the topology T
d
induced by d coincides with the original
topology T on X.
The investigations above show that (X, T
0
) and (R, L) are examples of non-
metrizable spaces. However, the discrete space (X,D) is metrizable, being induced
by the discrete metric
d(x,y) =



1 if x = y



0 if x = y

Topology Course Lecture Notes
Aisling McCluskey and Brian McMaster
August 1997
Chapter 2
Topological Properties
We explained in the previous chapter what a topological property (homeomorphic
invariant) is but gave few good examples. We now explore some of the most
important ones. Recurring themes will be:
- When do subspaces inherit the property?
- How do continuous maps relate to the property?
- Does the property behave specially in metric spaces?
2.1 Compactness
We all recall the important and useful theorem from calculus, that functions which
are continuous on a closed and bounded interval take on a maximum and minimum
value on that interval. The classic theorem of Heine-Borel-Lebesgue asserts that
every covering of such an interval by open sets has a finite subcover. In this
section, we use this feature of closed and bounded subsets to define the
corresponding notion, compactness, in a general topological space. In addition, we
consider important variants of this notion: sequential compactness and local
compactness.
2.1.1 Compactness Defined
Given a set X with A _ X, a cover for A is a family of subsets U = { U
i
: e I } of X
such that A _
i e I
U
i
. A subcover of a given cover U for A is a subfamily V c U
which still forms a cover for A.
If A is a subspace of a space (X, T), U is an open cover for A iff U is a cover for A
such that each member of U is open in X.
The classic theorem of Heine-Borel-Lebesgue asserts that, in R, every open cover
of a closed bounded subset has a finite subcover. This theorem has extraordinarily
profound consequences and like most good theorems, its conclusion has become a
definition.
Definition 1 (X, T) is said to be compact iff every open cover of X has a finite
subcover.
Theorem 1 [Alexander's Subbase Theorem] Let S be any subbase for (X,T). If
every open cover of X by members of S has a finite subcover, then X is compact.
The proof of this deep result is an application of Zorn's lemma, and is not an
exercise for the faint-hearted!
Examples

(i) (R, ) is not compact, for consider U = { (-n,n): n e N }. Similarly, (C,
T
usual
) is not compact.

(ii) (0,1) is not compact, for consider U = { ([1/n],1) :n > 2 }.

(iii) (X, C) is compact, for any X.

(iv) Given x e X, (X, E(x)) is compact; (X, I(x)) is not compact unless X is
finite.

(v) T finite for any X (X, T) compact.

(vi) X finite, T any topology for X (X, T) compact.

(vii) X infinite (X, D) not compact.

(viii) Given (X, T), if (x
n
) is a sequence in X convergent to x, then { x
n
:n e
N } {x} is compact.
2.1.2 Compactness for Subspaces
We call a subset A of (X,T) a compact subset when the subspace (A, T
A
) is a
compact space. It's a nuisance to have to look at T
A
in order to decide on this. It
would be easier to use the original T. Thankfully, we can!
Lemma 1 A is a compact subset of (X,T) iff every T-open cover of A has a finite
subcover.
Proof Exercise.
Lemma 2 Compactness is closed-hereditary and preserved by continuous maps.
Proof Exercise.
Example
The unit circle in R
2
is compact; indeed, paths in any space are compact.
2.1.3 Compactness in Metric Spaces
In any metric space (M, d), every compact subset K is closed and bounded:
(bounded, since given any x
0
e M,



K _ B(x
0
,1) B(x
0
,2) B(x
0
,3) .
K _
i = 1
j
B(x
0
,n
i
)


where we can arrange n
1
< n
2
< . < n
j
. Thus K _ B(x
0
, n
j
) and so any two points
of K lie within n
j
of x
0
and hence within 2n
j
of each other i.e. K is bounded.
K is closed, since if x e [K] and x \not e K, then for each y e K, d
y
= [1/2]d(x,y)
> 0 so we may form the (open) cover of K as follows: {B(y,d
y
):y e K} which
reduces to a finite subcover {B(y
i
,d
yi
): y
i
e K,i = 1,.,n}. The corresponding
neighbourhoods of x, namely B(x, d
yi
), i = 1,.,n, may be intersected giving a
neighbourhood of x which misses K -contradiction!)
Neither half is valid in all topological spaces;
- `compact bounded' doesn't even make sense since `bounded' depends on
the metric.
- `compact closed' makes sense but is not always true. For example, in
(R,C), (0,1) is not closed yet it is compact (since its topology is the cofinite
topology!)
Further, in a metric space, a closed bounded subset needn't be compact (e.g.
consider M with the discrete metric and let A _ M be infinite; then A is closed,
bounded (since A _ B(x,2) = M for any x e M), yet it is certainly not compact!
Alternatively, the subspace (0,1) is closed (in itself), bounded, but not compact.)
However, the Heine-Borel theorem asserts that such is the case for R and R
n
; the
following is a special case of the theorem:
Theorem 2 Every closed, bounded interval [a,b] in R is compact.
Proof Let U be any open cover of [a,b] and let K = { x e [a,b]: [a,x] is covered by
a finite subfamily of U}. Note that if x e K and a s y s x, then y e K. Clearly, K =
C since a e K. Moreover, given x e K, there exists o
x
> 0 such that [x,x+ o
x
) _ K
(since x e some open U e chosen finite subcover of U). Since K is bounded, k
*
=
supK exists.
(i) k
*
e K
: Choose U e U such that k
*
e U; then there exists c >
0 such that (k
*
-c,k
*
] _ U. Since there exists x e K such
that k
*
-c < x < k
*
, k
*
e K.
(ii) k
*
= b
: If k
*
< b, choose U e U with k
*
e U and note that
[k
*
,k
*
+o) _ U for some o > 0 -contradiction!
Note An alternative proof [Willard, Page 116] is to invoke the connected nature of
[a,b] by showing K is clopen in [a,b].
Theorem 3 Any continuous map from a compact space into a metric space is
bounded.
Proof Immediate.
Corollary 1 If (X, T) is compact and f:X R is continuous, then f is bounded and
attains its bounds.
Proof Clearly, f is bounded. Let m = supf(X) and l = inff(X); we must prove that m
e f(X) and l e f(X). Suppose that m \not e f(X). Since [f(X)] = f(X), then there
exists c > 0 such that (m-c,m+c) f(X) = C i.e. for all x e X, f(x) s m-c.contra!
Similarly, if l \not e f(X), then there exists c > 0 such that [l,l+c) f(X) = C
whence l+c is a lower bound for f(X)!
2.1.4 Sequential Compactness
Definition 2 A topological space (X, T) is said to be sequentially compact if and
only if every sequence in X has a convergent subsequence.
Recall from Chapter 1 the definition of convergence of sequences in topological
spaces and the cautionary remarks accompanying it. There we noted that, contrary
to the metric space situation, sequences in topology can have several different
limits! Consider, for example, (X,T
0
) and (R,L). In the latter space, if x
n
l, then
x
n
= l for all n > some n
0
. Thus the sequence 1,[1/2], [1/4], [1/8], . does not
converge in (R,L)!
Lemma 3 Sequential compactness is closed-hereditary and preserved by
continuous maps.
Proof Exercise.
We shall prove in the next section that in metric spaces, sequential compactness
and compactness are equivalent!
Definition 3 Given a topological space (X,T), a subset A of X and x e X, x is said
to be an accumulation point of A iff every neighbourhood of x contains infinitely
many points of A.
Lemma 4 Given a compact space (X,T) with an infinite subset A of X, then A has
an accumulation point.
Proof Suppose not; then for each x e X, there exists a neighbourhood N
x
of x such
that N
x
A is (at most) finite; the family { N
x
:x e X } is an open cover of X and so
has a finite subcover { N
xi
:i = 1, .,n }. But A _ X and A is infinite, whence

A = A X = A (N
xi
) =
i = 1
n
(A N
xi
)
is finite!
Lemma 5 Given a sequentially compact metric space (M,d) and c > 0, there is a
finite number of open balls, radius c, which cover M.
Proof Suppose not and that for some c > 0, there exists no finite family of open
balls, radius c, covering M. We derive a contradiction by constructing a sequence
(x
n
) inductively such that d(x
m
,x
n
) > c for all n, m (n = m), whence no subsequence
is even Cauchy!
Let x
1
e M and suppose inductively that x
1
, .,x
k
have been chosen in M such that
d(x
i
,x
j
) > c for all i, j s k,i = j.By hypothesis, {B(x
i
,c):i = 1,.,k } is not an (open)
cover of M and so there exists x
k+1
e M such that d(x
k+1
,x
i
) > c for 1 s i s k. We
thus construct the required sequence (x
n
), which clearly has no convergent
subsequence.
Theorem 4 A metric space is compact iff it is sequentially compact.
Proof

$\Rightarrow :$ Suppose (M,d) is compact. Given any sequence (x
n
) in M,
either A = {x
1
,x
2
, .} is finite or it is infinite. If A is finite, there must be at
least one point l in A which occurs infinitely often in the sequence and its
occurrences form a subsequence converging to l. If A is infinite, then by the
previous lemma there exists x e X such that every neighbourhood of x
contains infinitely many points of A.
For each k e e, B(x,[1/k]) contains infinitely many x
n
's: select one, call it
x
nk
, making sure that n
k
> n
k-1
> n
k-2
.. We have a subsequence (x
n1
, x
n2
, .,
x
nk
, .) so that d(x,x
nk
) < [1/k] 0 i.e. x
nk
x. Thus in either case there
exists a convergent subsequence and so (M,d) is sequentially compact.
$\Leftarrow :$ Conversely, suppose (M,d) is sequentially compact and not
compact. Then there exists some open cover {G
i
:i e I} of M having no finite
subcover. By Lemma 2.1.4, with c = [1/n] (n e e), we can cover M by a
finite number of balls of radius [1/n]. For each n, there has to be one of
these, say B(x
n
,[1/n]), which cannot be covered by any finite number of the
sets G
i
. The sequence (x
n
) must have a convergent subsequence (x
nk
) which
converges to a limit l. Yet {G
i
:i e I} covers M, so l e some G
i0
, say.
As k , x
nk
l; but also [1/(n
k
)] 0 and 1/n
k
is the radius of the ball
centred on x
nk
. So eventually B(x
nk
,[1/(n
k
)]) is inside G
i0
, contradictory to
their choice! (More rigorously, there exists m e e such that B(l,[2/m]) _
G
i0
. Now B(l,[1/m]) contains x
nk
for all k > k
0
say, so choose k > k
0
such that
n
k
> m. Then B(x
nk
,[1/(n
k
)]) _ B(l, [2/m]) _ G
i0
.) Hence, M is compact.
2.1.5 Compactness and Uniform Continuity
Recall that a map f:(X
1
,d
1
) (X
2
,d
2
), where (X
i
,d
i
) is a metric space for each i, is
uniformly continuous on X
i
if given any c > 0,-o > 0 such that d
1
(x,y) < o for x,y e
X
1
d
2
(f(x),f(y)) < c.
Ordinary continuity of f is a local property, while uniform continuity is a global
property since it says something about the behaviour of f over the whole space X
1
.
Since compactness allows us to pass from the local to the global, the next result is
not surprising:
Theorem 5 If (X,d) is a compact metric space and f:X R is continuous, then f is
uniformly continuous on X.
Note Result holds for any metric space codomain.
Proof Let c > 0; since f is continuous, for each x e X, -o
x
> 0 such that d(x,y) < 2
o
x
,f(x) -f(y), < [(c)/2]. The family {B
ox
(x):x e X } is an open cover of X and so
has a finite subcover {B
oxi
(x
i
):i = 1,.,n} of X. Let o = min{o
xi
:i = 1,.,n}; then,
given x,y e X such that d(x,y) < o, it follows that ,f(x) -f(y), < c
(for x e B
oxi
(x
i
) for some i, whence d(x,x
i
) < o
xi
and so d(y,x
i
) s d(y,x) + d(x,x
i
) <
o+ o
xi
s 2o
xi
,f(y) -f(x
i
), < [(c)/2].
Thus ,f(x)-f(y), s ,f(x) -f(x
i
), + ,f(x
i
) - f(y), < [(c)/2] +[(c)/2] = c).
Note Compactness is not a necessary condition on the domain for uniform
continuity. For example, for any metric space (X,d), let f:X X be the identity
map. Then f is easily seen to be uniformly continuous on X.
2.1.6 Local Compactness
Definition 4 A topological space (X,T) is locally compact iff each point of X has a
compact neighbourhood.
Clearly, every compact space is locally compact. However, the converse is not
true.
Examples

(i) With X infinite, the discrete space (X,D) is clearly locally compact (for
each x e X, {x} is a compact neighbourhood of x!) but not compact.
(ii) With X infinite and x e X, (X, (x)) is locally compact (but not
compact).
(iii) (R,) is locally compact (x e R [x-1,x+1] is a compact
neighbourhood of x).
(iv) The set of rational numbers Q with its usual topology is not a locally
compact space, for suppose otherwise; then 0 has a compact neighbourhood
C in Q so we can choose c > 0 such that J = Q[-c, c] _ C. Now J is closed
in (compact) C and is therefore compact in R. Thus, J must be closed in R-
but [J]
R
= [-c,c]!
Lemma 6

(i) Local compactness is closed-hereditary.
(ii) Local compactness is preserved by continuous open maps - it is not
preserved by continuous maps in general. Consider id
Q
:(Q,D) (Q,
Q
)
which is continuous and onto; (Q, D) is locally compact while (Q,
Q
) isn't!
Proof Exercise.
2.2 Other Covering Conditions
Definition 5 A topological space (X, T) is said to be

(i) Lindelf iff every open cover of X has a countable subcover
(ii) countably compact iff every countable open cover of X has a finite
subcover.
Thus, a space is compact precisely when it is both Lindelf and countably
compact. Further, every sequentially compact space is countably compact,
although the converse is not true. Moreover, sequential compactness neither
implies nor is implied by compactness.
However, for metric spaces, or more generally, metrizable spaces, the conditions
compact, countably compact and sequentially compact are equivalent.
Note Second countable separable; separable + metrizable second countable
... and so in metrizable spaces, second countability and separability are equivalent.
2.3 Connectedness
It is not terribly hard to know when a set on the real line is connected, or `of just
one piece.' This notion is extended to general topological spaces in this section and
alternative characterizations of the notion are given. In addition the relationship
between continuous maps and and connectedness is given. This provides an
elegant restatement of the familiar Intermediate Value Theorem from first term
calculus.
2.3.1 Definition of Connectedness
A partition of (X, T) means a pair of disjoint, non-empty, T-open subsets whose
union is X. Notice that, since these sets are complements of one another, they are
both closed as well as both open. Indeed, the definition of 'partition' is not affected
by replacing the term 'open' by 'closed'.
Definition 6 A connected space (X, T) is one which has no partition. (Otherwise,
(X, T) is said to be disconnected.)
If C = A _ (X, T), we call A a connected set in X whenever (A, T
A
) is a connected
space.
Lemma 7 (X, T) is connected iff X and C are the only subsets which are clopen.
Examples

(i) (X, T
0
) is connected.

(ii) (X, D) cannot be connected unless ,X, = 1. (Indeed the only connected
subsets are the singletons!)

(iii) The Sorgenfrey line R
s
is disconnected (for [x,) is clopen!).

(iv) The subspace Q of (R, ) is not connected because




Q [-\2, \2]

closed in Q
=



Q (-\2, \2)

open in Q
is clopen and is neither universal nor empty.

(v) (X, C) is connected except when X is finite; indeed, every infinite subset
of X is connected.

(vi) (X, L) is connected except when X is countable; indeed, every
uncountable subset of X is connected.

(vii) In (R, ), A _ R is connected iff A is an interval. (Thus, subspaces of
connected spaces are not usually connected - examples abound in (R, ).)
2.3.2 Characterizations of Connectedness
Lemma 8 C c A _ (X, T) is not connected iff there exist T-open sets G, H such
that A _ G H, A G = C, A H = C and A G H = C. (Again, we can replace
'open' by 'closed' here.)
Proof Exercise.
Note By an interval in R, we mean any subset I such that whenever a < b < c and
whenever a e I and c e I then b e I. It is routine to check that the only ones are
(a,b), [a,b], [a,b), (a,b], [a, ), (a, ), (-,b), (-,b], (-,) = R and {a} for real a,
b, a < b where appropriate.
It turns out that these are exactly the connected subsets of (R, ):-
Lemma 9 In R, if [a,b] = F
1
F
2
where F
1
, F
2
are both closed and a e F
1
, b e F
2

then F
1
F
2
= C.
Proof Exercise.
Theorem 6 Let C c I _ (R, ). Then I is connected iff I is an interval.
Proof

$\Rightarrow$: If I is not an interval, then there exist a < b < c with a e I, b
\not e I and c e I. Take A = I (-,b) and B = I (b, ). Then A B = I, A
B = C, A = C, B = C, A c I, B c I and A, B are both open in I i.e. A and
B partition I and so I is not connected.
$\Leftarrow$: Suppose I is not connected and that I is an interval. By the
`closed' version of Lemma 2.3.2, there exist closed subsets K
1
, K
2
of R such
that I _ K
1
K
2
, I K
1
= C, I K
2
= C and I K
1
K
2
= C. Select a e I
K
1
, b e I K
2
; without loss of generality, a < b. Then [a,b] _ I so that [a,b]
= ([a,b] K
1
) ([a,b] K
2
), whence by Lemma 2.3.2, C = [a,b] K
1
K
2
_
I K
1
K
2
= C!
2.3.3 Connectedness and Continuous Maps
Lemma 10 Connectedness is preserved by continuous maps.
Proof Exercise.
Corollary 2 [Intermediate Value Theorem] If f:[a,b] R is continuous and f(a) <
y < f(b), then y must be a value of f.
Proof Exercise.
Corollary 3 [Fixed point theorem for [0,1]] If f:[0,1] [0,1] is continuous, then
it has a `fixed point' i.e. there exists some x e [0,1] such that f(x) = x.
Proof Consider g(x) = f(x)-x. Then g:[0,1] R is continuous. Further, g(0) = f(0)
> 0 and g(1) = f(1)-1 s 0 so that 0 is intermediate between g(0) and g(1). Thus, by
the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists x e [0,1] such that 0 = g(x) = f(x)-x
i.e. such that f(x) = x.
Note Given continuous h:[a,b] [a,b], it follows that h has a fixed point since
[a,b] ~ [0,1] and `every continuous function has a fixed point' is a homeomorphic
invariant.
Lemma 11 Let (X,T) be disconnected with C c Y c X, Y clopen. If A is any
connected subset of X, then A _ Y or A _ X \Y.
Proof If A Y = C = A (X \Y), then C c A Y c A and A Y is clopen in A.
Thus, A is not connected! It follows that either A Y = C or A X \Y = C i.e.
either A _ X \Y or A _ Y.
Lemma 12 If the family {A
i
:i e I} of connected subsets of a space (X,T) has a non-
empty intersection, then its union
i e I
A
i
is connected.
Proof Suppose not and that there exists a non-empty proper clopen subset Y of
i e
I
A
i
. Then for each i e I, either A
i
_ Y or A
i
_
i e I
A
i
\Y. However if for some j, A
j

_ Y, then A
i
_ Y for each i e I (since
i e I
A
i
= C) which implies that
i e I
A
i
_
Y!
Similarly, if for some k e I, A
k
_
i e I
A
i
\Y, then
i e I
A
i
_
i e I
A
i
\Y!
Corollary 4 Given a family {C
i
:i e I} of connected subsets of a space (X,T), if B _
X is also connected and B C
i
= C for all i e I, then B (
i e I
C
i
) is connected.
Proof Take A
i
= B C
i
in Lemma 2.3.3.
Lemma 13 If A is a connected subset of a space (X,T) and A _ B _ [A]
T
, then B
is a connected subset.
Proof If B is not connected, then there exists C c Y c B which is clopen in B . By
Lemma 2.3.3, either A _ Y or A _ B \Y. Suppose A _ Y (a similar argument
suffices for A _ B \Y); then [A]
T
_ [Y]
T
and so B \Y = B (B \Y) = [A]
T
B
(B
\Y) _ [Y]
T
B
(B \Y) = Y (B \Y) = C - a contradiction!
Definition 7 Let (X, T) be a topological space with x e X; we define the
component of x, C
x
, in (X, T) to be the union of all connected subsets of X which
contain x i.e.

C
x
= { A _ X:x e A and A is connected }.
For each x e X, it follows from Lemma 2.3.3 that C
x
is the maximum connected
subset of X which contains x. Also it is clear that if x, y e X, either C
x
= C
y
or C
x

C
y
= C (for if z e C
x
C
y
, then C
x
C
y
_ C
z
_ C
x
C
y
whence C
x
= C
y
( = C
z
)).
Thus we may speak of the components of a space (X, T) (without reference to
specific points of X): they partition the space into connected closed subsets (by
Lemma 2.3.3) and are precisely the maximal connected subsets of X.
Examples
(i) If (X, T) is connected, (X, T) has only one component, namely X!
(ii) For any discrete space, the components are the singletons.
(iii) In Q (with its usual topology), the components are the singletons. (Thus,
components need not be open.)
Definition 8 A space (X, T) is totally disconnected iff the only connected subsets of
X are the singletons (equivalently, the components of (X, T) are the singletons).
Thus, by the previous examples, we see that the space Q of rationals, the space R
\Q of irrationals and any discrete space are all totally disconnected. Further, the
Sorgenfrey line R
s
is totally disconnected.
2.3.4 Pathwise Connectedness
Definition 9 A topological space (X, T) is pathwise connected iff for any x, y e X,
there exists a continuous function f:[0,1] X such that f(0) = x and f(1) = y. Such
a function f is called a path from x to y.
Theorem 7 Every pathwise connected space is connected.
Proof Let (X, T) be pathwise connected and let a e X; for every x e X, there exists
a path p
x
:[0,1] X from a to x. Then, for each x e X, p
x
([0,1]) is connected;
moreover, p
a
(0) = a e
x e X
p
x
([0,1]) so that by Lemma 2.3.3, X =
x e X
p
x
([0,1]) is
connected.
Note well The converse is false. Consider the following example, the topologist's
sine curve :

V = { (x,0):x s 0} {(x, sin
1

x
):x > 0}
is a connected space, but no path can be found from (0,0) to any point (x,sin[1/x])
with x > 0
(for suppose, w.l.o.g., there exists a path p:[0,1] X with p(0) = ([1/(t)],0) and
p(1) = (0,0). Then t
1
p, being continuous, must take all values between 0 and
[1/(t)], in particular [1/((2n+[1/2])t)] for each n i.e. there exists t
n
e [0,1] such that
t
1
p(t
n
) = [1/((2n+[1/2])t)] for each n. Thus, p(t
n
) = ([1/((2n+[1/2])t)],1) (0,1)
as n . Now t
n
e [0,1] for all n which implies that there exists a subsequence
(t
nk
) in [0,1] with t
nk
. Then p(t
nk
) p() and so t
1
p(t
nk
) 0. Thus p() =
(0,y) for some y, whence y = 0 (since p() e X)!)
2.4 Separability
Definition 10 A topological space is said to be

(i) separable iff it has a countable dense subset.
(ii) completely separable (equivalently,second countable) iff it has a
countable base.
Examples

(i) (R, ) is separable (since [Q] = R).
(ii) (X, C) is separable for any X.
(iii) (R, L) is not separable.
Theorem 8

(i) Complete separability implies separability.
(ii) The converse is true in metric spaces.
Proof We prove only (ii). In metric space (M,d), let D = {x
1
,x
2
,.} be dense.
Consider B = {B(x
i
,q):i e e,q e Q, q > 0 }, a countable collection of open sets.
One can show that B is a base for T
d
... over to you!
Theorem 9

(i) Complete separability is hereditary.
(ii) Separability is not hereditary. (Consider the `included point' topology
(0) on R; then (R, (0)) is separable, since [ {0}] = R. However, R \{0} is
not separable because it is discrete.)
Example
Separability does not imply complete separability since, for example, (R, (0)) is
separable but not completely separable.(Suppose there exists a countable base B
for its topology. Given x = 0, {0,x } is an open neighbourhood of x and so there
exists B
x
e B such that x e B
x
_ { 0,x }.Thus B
x
= {0,x } i.e. B is uncountable ...
contradiction!
Theorem 10 Separability is preserved by continuous maps.
Proof Exercise.
Note Complete separability is not preserved by continuous maps.
Topology Course Lecture Notes
Aisling McCluskey and Brian McMaster
August 1997
Chapter 3
Convergence
In Chapter 1, we defined limits of sequences in a topological space (X, T) so as to
assimilate the metric definition. We noted, however, that not everything we knew
about this idea in metric spaces is valid in topological spaces.
We will examine two main ways around this difficulty:
- develop a kind of `super-sequence' or net which does for general topology
what ordinary sequences do for metric spaces.
- identify the class of topological spaces in which the old idea of sequential
limit is good enough.
3.1 The Failure of Sequences
The following important results are probably familiar to us in the context of metric
spaces, or at least in the setting of the real line, R.
Theorem 1 Given (X,T), A _ X, p e X: if there exists some sequence of points of A
tending to p, then p e [A].
Theorem 2 Given (X,T), A _ X: if A is closed, then A includes the limit of every
convergent sequence of points of A.
Theorem 3 Given f:(X,T) (Y,T
'
): if f is continuous, then f `preserves limits of
sequences' i.e. whenever x
n
l in X, then f(x
n
) f(l) in Y.
In each case above, it is routine to prove the statement true in a general topological
space as asserted. We illustrate by proving Theorem 3.1:
Let f be continuous and x
n
l in X. We must show that f(x
n
) f(l). Given a
neighbourhood N of f(l), there exists open G such that f(l) e G _ N. Then l e f
-
1
(G) _ f
-1
(N) i.e. f
-1
(N) is a neighbourhood of l and so x
n
e f
-1
(N) n > n
0
say.
Thus f(x
n
) e N n > n
0
, whence f(x
n
) f(l).
In metric spaces, the converses of these results are also true but our main point
here is that in general topology, the converses are not valid.
Example
In (R, L), [(0,1)] = R. So, for example, 5 e [(0,1)] and yet the only way a
sequence (x
n
) converges to a limit l is for x
n
= l from some stage on. So no
sequence in (0,1) can converge to 5 proving that the converse of Theorem 3.1 is
false.
Continuing, the limit of any convergent sequence in (0,1) must belong to (0,1) for
the same reason and yet (0,1) is not closed. Thus, Theorem 3.1's converse is false.
Further, id
R
:(R, L) (R, ) is not continuous and yet it does preserve limits of
sequences.
Now this is a great nuisance! Sequences are of immense usefulness in real analysis
and in metric spaces and elsewhere - and their failure to describe general topology
adequately is a technical handicap. What to do?
3.2 Nets - A Kind of `Super-Sequence'
Recall that a sequence is just a function having the positive integers as domain.
The set of positive integers, of course, possesses a particularly simple ordering;
there is a first member, second member, third member, etc. Not all sets are
naturally endowed with so simple an ordering. For example, dictionary
(lexographical) ordering of words is more complex (though still relative nice as
orderings go). By replacing the domain of positive integers with a set having a
more complicated ordering we will:
- define a net (in analogy with sequence),
- identify an associated notion of convergence,
- show that net convergence is sufficient to characterize closure of sets,
- and that compactness can be characterized in terms of convergence of
subnets.
Note that these last two items generalize the role of sequences in a metric space.
3.2.1 Definition of Net
Definition 1 A binary relation s on a set P is said to be a pre-order iff

(i) p s p p e P
(ii) p s q and q s r imply p s r p,q,r e P.
We often refer to P as being a pre-ordered set when it is understood that s is the
pre-order in question.
If it is also true that for p,q e P,

{\em (iii)} p s q and q s p imply p = q, P is said to be a partially ordered set
(or poset).
Definition 2 A pre-ordered set P is said to be directed (or updirected) iff each pair
of members of P has an upperbound.
(i.e. if p,q e P, then there exists s e P such that p s s, q s s.)
Definition 3 Let (P, s ) be a poset. Then if x,y e P with x \not s y and y \not s x,
we write x ,,y and say that x and y are incomparable;
If E _ P, then E is said to be totally unordered (or diverse) iff x,y e E implies x =
y or x ,,y.
If C _ P, then C is said to be linear (or a chain or a total order) iff x,y e C implies
x < y, x = y or y < x.
(P, s ) is said to be a lattice iff each pair of members of P has a greatest lower
bound and a least upper bound.
A lattice (P, s ) is said to be complete iff every non-empty subset Y of P has a
greatest lower bound (.Y) and a least upper bound (vY).
An element v of a poset (P, s ) is said to be maximal ( minimal) iff v s x (x s v), x
e P v = x.
Definition 4 A net in a (non-empty set) X is any function x:A X whose domain A
is a directed set.
In imitation of the familiar notation in sequences, we usually write the net value
x(o) as x
o
. A typical net x:A X will usually appear as (x
o
, o e A) or (x
o
)
o e A
or
some such notation.
Examples of Nets

(i) N, Z, N N are all directed sets, where suitable pre-orders are
respectively the usual magnitude ordering for N and Z, and (i,j) s (m,n) iff i
s m and j s n, in N N. Thus, for example, a sequence is an example of a
net.
(ii) The real function f:R \{0} R given by f(x) = 3-[1/x] is a net, since its
domain is a chain. Any real function is a net.
(iii) Given x e (X, T), select in any fashion an element x
N
from each
neighbourhood N of x; then (x
N
)
N e Nx
is a net in X ( since it defines a
mapping from (N
x
, s ) into X). Recall that N
x
is ordered by inverse set
inclusion!
3.2.2 Net Convergence
Definition 5 A net (x
o
)
o e A
in (X, T) converges to a limit l if for each
neighbourhood N of l, there exists some o
N
e A such that x
o
e N for all o > o
N
.
In such a case, we sometimes say that the net (x
o
)
o e A

eventuates N. Clearly, this definition incorporates the old definition of `limit of a
sequence'. The limit of the net f described in (ii) above is 3. In (iii), the net
described converges to x no matter how the values x
N
are chosen ... prove!
3.2.3 Net Convergence and Closure
Our claim is that nets `fully describe' the structure of a topological space. Our first
piece of evidence to support this is that with nets, instead of sequences,
Theorems 3.1, 3.1 and 3.1 have workable converses:
Theorem 4 Given (X,T), A _ X, p e X: p e [A] iff there exists a net in A
converging to p.
Proof If some net of points of A converges to p, then every neighbourhood of p
contains points of A (namely, values of the net) and so we get p e [A].
Conversely, if p is a closure point of A then, for each neighbourhood N of p, it will
be possible to choose an element a
N
of A that belongs also to N. The net which
these choices constitute converges to p, as required.
Theorem 5 Given (X,T), A _ X, A is closed iff it contains every limit of every
(convergent) net of its own points.
Proof This is really just a corollary of the preceding theorem.
Theorem 6 Given f:(X,T) (Y,T
'
), f is continuous iff f preserves net convergence.
Proof Exercise.
3.2.4 Nets and Compactness
Definition 6 Let (x
o
)
o e A
be any net and let o
0
e A. The o
0
th
tail of the net is the set
{x
o
: o > o
0
} = x([o
0
, )). We denote it by x(o
0
).
Definition 7 Let (x
o
)
o e A
and (y
|
)
| e B
be any two nets. We call (y
|
)
| e B
a subnet of
(x
o
)
o e A
provided that every tail of (x
o
) contains a tail of (y
|
) i.e. provided:

o
0
e A -|
0
e B such that x(o
0
) _ y(|
0
).
We expected a definition like `subsequence' to turn up here and we are
disappointed that it has to be so complicated.
Net theory ceases to be a straightforward generalisation of sequence theory
precisely when we have to take a subnet ... so we'll try to avoid this whenever
possible! There is however one result certainly worth knowing:
Theorem 7 (X, T) is compact iff in X, every net has (at least one) convergent
subnet.
(So, for example, (n) is a net in R with no convergent subnet.)
Proof Not required.
Corollary 1 Compactness is closed-hereditary
Proof (for if (x
o
) is a net in a closed set F _ X, then it has a convergent subnet (y
|
)
in X. Thus there exists a subnet (z

) of (y
|
) in F which converges in X, whence its
limit is in F).
Corollary 2 Compactness is preserved by continuous maps
Proof (for if X is compact and f continuous, let (y
o
)
o e A
be a net in f(X). Then for
each o e A, y
o
= f(x
o
) for some x
o
e X. The net (x
o
)
o e A
has a convergent subnet
(z
|
)
| e B
, say z
|
l, whence f(z
|
) f(l). Then (f(z
|
))
| e B
is a convergent subnet of
(y
o
)
o e A
).
Example
If (x
nk
) is a subsequence of a sequence (x
n
), then it is a subnet of it also; because
the i
0
th
tail of the sequence (x
n
) is

{ x
i0
, x
i0 +1
, x
i0+2
, .} .(*)
while the i
0
th
tail of the subsequence (x
nk
) is:

{ x
ni0
, x
ni0 +1
, x
in0+2
, .} .(**)
and we see that (**) _ (*) merely because n
i0
> i
0
.
Lemma 1 If a net (x
o
) converges to a limit l, then so do all its subnets.
Proof Let (y
|
) be a subnet of (x
o
); let N be a neighbourhood of l. Then there exists
o
0
such that x
o
e N for all o > o
0
. Further, there exists |
0
such that {y
|
: | > |
0
} _
{x
o
:o > o
0
} and so y
|
e N for all | > |
0
.
3.3 First Countable Spaces - Where Sequences Suffice
Why do sequences suffice to describe structure in R, C and other metric spaces but
not in many other topological spaces? The key here is recognizing that many
proofs regarding convergence in metric spaces involve constructing sequences of
nested open sets about a point. Sometimes these describe the topological structure
near the point and other times not. In what follows we
- identify the local characteristic of topological space that makes these proofs
work,
- and prove that sequences suffice to describe the topological structure of
spaces with this characteristic.
3.3.1 First Countable Spaces
So what characteristic common to R, C and other metric spaces makes sequences
so `good' at describing their structure?
Definition 8 Let x e (X, T). A countable neighbourhood base at x means: a
sequence N
1
, N
2
, N
3
, ... of particular neighbourhoods of x such that every
neighbourhood of x shall contain one of the N
i
's.
Note that we may assume that N
1
_ N
2
_ N
3
_ . because, if not, then we can
work with N
1
, N
1
N
2
, N
1
N
2
N
3
, ...
Definition 9 We call (X, T) first-countable when every point in X has a countable
neighbourhood base.
Example The classic example of a first-countable space is any metric (or
metrizable) space because if x e (M,d), then B(x,1), B(x, [1/2]), B(x, [1/3]), ... is a
countable neighbourhood base at x.
Theorem 8 First-countability is hereditary and preserved by continuous open onto
maps.
Proof Left to the reader.
Theorem 9

(i) Complete separability implies first countability.
(ii) Converse not always true.
(iii) Converse valid on a countable underlying set.
Proof

(i) If B is a countable base for (X, T) and p e X, consider { B e B: p e B}
which is a countable family of neighbourhoods of p. Moreover, they form a
neighbourhood base at p.
(ii) An uncountable discrete space is first countable ( since metrizable), yet
is not completely separable.
(iii) Suppose X countable and (X, T) first countable. For each x e X, choose
a countable neighbourhood base: N(x,1), N(x,2), N(x,3), .... Each is a
neighbourhood of x and so contains an open neighbourhood of x: G(x,1),
G(x,2), G(x,3), ....
Then B = { G(x,n) :n e N, x e X} is a countable family of open sets and is a
base for (X, T). Thus, (X, T) is completely separable.
Example
The Arens-Fort space (see, for example, Steen and Seebach, Counterexamples in
Topology is not first-countable because otherwise it would be completely separable
which is false!
3.3.2 Power of Sequences in First Countable Spaces
The following three results illustrate that `sequences suffice for first-countable
spaces' in the sense that we don't need to use nets to describe their structure. This is
why sequences are sufficiently general to describe, fully, metric and metrizable
spaces.
Theorem 10 Given a first-countable space (X, T)

(i) p e X, A _ X, then p e [A] iff there exists a sequence of points of A
converging to p.
(ii) A _ X is closed iff A contains every limit of every convergent sequence of
its own points.
(iii) f:(X,T) (Y,T
'
) is continuous iff it preserves limits of (convergent)
sequences.
Proof

(i) Theorem 3.1 said that if there exists a sequence in A converging to some
p e X, then p e [A].
Conversely, if p e [A], then p has a countable base of neighbourhoods N
1

_ N
2
_ N
3
_ ., each of which must intersect A. So choose x
j
e N
j
A for
all j > 1. Then (x
j
) is a sequence in A and, given any neighbourhood H of p,
H must contain one of the N
j
's i.e. H _ N
j0
_ N
j0 + 1
_ . so that x
j
e H for
all j > j
0
. That is, x
j
p.
(ii) Corollary of (i).
(iii) f continuous implies that it must preserve limits of sequences (by
Theorem 3.1). Conversely, if f is not continuous, there exists A _ X such
that f([A]) \not _ [f(A)]. Thus, there exists p e f([A]) \[f(A)] so p =
f(x), some x e [A]. So there exists a sequence (x
n
) in A with x
n
x.
Yet, if f(x
n
) f(x) ( = p), p would be the limit of a sequence in f(A) so that
p e [f(A)] -contradiction! Thus f fails to preserve convergence of this
sequence.
Topology Course Lecture Notes
Aisling McCluskey and Brian McMaster
August 1997
Chapter 4
Product Spaces
A common task in topology is to construct new topological spaces from other
spaces. One way of doing this is by taking products. All are familiar with
identifying the plane or 3-dimensional Euclidean space with ordered pairs or triples
of numbers each of which is a member of the real line. Fewer are probably familar
with realizing the torus as ordered pairs of complex numbers of modulus one. In
this chaper we answer two questions:
- How do the above product constructions generalize to topological spaces?
- What topological properties are preserved by this construction?
4.1 Constructing Products
The process of constructing a product falls naturally into two stages.
- The first stage, which is entirely set-theoretic, consists in describing an
element of the underlying set of the product. This task is primarily one of
generalizing the notion of ordered pair or triple.
- The second stage is describing what open sets look like. This will be done by
describing a subbasis for the topology. The guiding goal is to provide just
enough opens sets to guarantee the continuity of certain important functions.
4.1.1 Set-Theoretic Construction
Suppose throughout that we are given a family of topological spaces {(X
i
, T
i
): i e I
} where I is some non-empty `labelling' or index set.
Our first task is to get a clear mental picture of what we mean by the product of the
sets X
i
. Look again at the finite case where I = {1,2, .,n}. Here, the product set

X = X
1
X
2
X
3
.X
n
=
n
[
i = 1
X
i
= {(p
1
,p
2
, .,p
n
):p
i
e X
i
, i e I }.
i.e. the elements of X are the functions x:I
i = 1
n
X
i
such that x(1) e X
1
, x(2) e
X
2
, ..., x(n) e X
n
i.e. x(i) e X
i
i where, for convenience, we usually write x
i

instead of x(i). In this form, the definition extends immediately to any I, finite or
infinite i.e. if { X
i
: i e I } is any family of sets, then their product is
{x:I
i e I
X
i
for which x(i) e X
i
i e I }
except that we normally write x
i
rather than x(i).
Then a typical element of X = [X
i
will look like: (x
i
)
i e I
or just (x
i
). We will still
call x
i
the i
th
coordinate of (x
i
)
i e I
. ( Note that the Axiom of Choice assures us that
[X
i
is non-empty provided none of the X
i
's are empty.)
4.1.2 Topologizing the Product
Of the many possible topologies that could be imposed on X = [X
i
, we describe
the most useful. This topology is 'just right' in the sense that it is barely fine
enough to guarantee the continuity of the coordinate projection functions while
being just course enough allow the important result of Theorem .
Definition 1 For each i e I, the i
th
projection is the map t
i
:[X
i
X
i
which
`selects the i
th
coordinate' i.e. t
i
((x
i
)
i e I
) = x
i
.
An open cylinder means the inverse projection of some non-empty T
i
-open set i.e.
t
i
-1
(G
i
) where i e I, G
i
= C, G
i
e T
i
.
An open box is the intersection of finitely many open cylinders
j = 1
n
t
ij
-1
(G
ij
). The
only drawable case I = {1,2} may help explain:
(Here will be, eventually, a picture!)
We use these open cylinders and boxes to generate a topology with just enough
open sets to guarantee that projection maps will be continuous. Note that the open
cylinders form a subbase for a certain topology T on X = [X
i
and therefore the
open boxes form a base for T; T is called the [Tychonoff]product topology and
(X, T) is the product of the given family of spaces. We write (X,T) = [{ (X
i
, T
i
): i
e I } = [
i e I
(X
i
, T
i
) or even T = [
i e I
T
i
.
Notice that if
j = 1
n
t
ij
-1
(G
ij
) is any open box, then without loss of generality we can
assume i
1
, i
2
, ... i
n
all different because if there were repetitions like

.t
ik
-1
(G) t
ik
-1
(H) .
we can replace each by

.t
ik
-1
(G H) .
and thus eliminate all repetitions.
It is routine to check that if T
n
is the usual topology on R
n
, and T the usual
topology on R, then

(R, T) (R, T) .(R, T) = (R
n
, T
n
)
as one would hope!
Lemma 1 In a product space (X, T), N is a neighbourhood of p e X iff there exists
some open box B such that p e B _ N.
Lemma 2 For each i e I,

(i) t
i
is continuous
(ii) t
i
is an open mapping.
Proof

(i) Immediate.
(ii) Given open G _ X, then G is a union of basic open sets {B
k
:k e K} in X,
whence t
i
(G) is a union of open subsets {B
k
i
:k e K} of X
i
and is therefore
open. (The notation here is intended to convey that B
k
i
is the 'component
along the i-th coordinate axis' of the open box B
k
.)
Theorem 1 A map into a product space is continuous iff its composite with each
projection is continuous.
Proof Since the projections are continuous, so must be their composites with any
continuous map. To establish the converse, first show that if S is a subbase for the
codomain (target) of a mapping f, then f will be continuous provided that the
preimage of every member of S is open; now use the fact that the open cylinders
constitute a subbase for the product topology.
Worked example Show that (X, T) (Y, S) is homeomorphic to (Y, S) (X, T).
Solution
Define
f:X Y Y X
g:Y X X Y
} by
f(x,y) = (y,x)
g(y,x) = (x,y).
Clearly these are one-one, onto and mutually inverse. It will suffice to show that
both are continuous.
t
1
f = t
2
'
; t
2
f = t
1
'
. Now t
i
'
is continuous for i = 1,2 and so f is continuous!
Similarly, g is continuous.
Worked example Show that the product of infinitely many copies of (N, D) is not
locally compact.
Solution
We claim that no point has a compact neighbourhood. Suppose otherwise; then
there exists p e X, C _ X and G _ X with C compact, G open and p e G _ C.
Pick an open box B such that p e B _ G _ C. B looks like
j = 1
n
t
ij
-1
(G
ij
). Choose
i
n+1
e I \{i
1
,i
2
, .,i
n
}; then t
in+1
(C) is compact (since compactness is preserved by
continuous maps).
Thus, p
in+1
e t
in+1
(B) = X
in+1
_ t
in+1
(C) _ X
in+1
= (N, D). Thus, t
in+1
(C) = (N, D)
. which is not compact!
4.2 Products and Topological Properties
The topological properties possessed by a product depends, of course, on the
properties possessed by the individual factors. There are several theorems which
assert that certain topological properties are productive i.e. are possessed by the
product if enjoyed by each factor. Several of these theorems are given below.
4.2.1 Products and Connectedness
Theorem 2 Any product of connected spaces must be connected.
Proof is left to the reader.
4.2.2 Products and Compactness
Theorem 3 [Tychonoff's theorem] Any product of compact spaces is compact i.e.
compactness is productive.
Proof It suffices to prove that any covering of X by open cylinders has a finite
subcover. Suppose not and let C be a family of open cylinders which covers X but
for which no finite subcover exists. For each i e I, consider

{G
ij
:G
ij
_ X
i
and t
i
-1
(G
ij
) e C }.
This cannot cover X
i
(otherwise, X
i
, being compact, would be covered by finitely
many, say X
i
= G
i1
G
i2
.G
in
, whence

X = t
i
-1
(X
i
) =


t
i
-1
(G
i1
.t
i
-1
(G
in
).

all in C, contrary to the choice of C

Select, therefore, z
i
e X
i
\{ those G
ij
's }; consider z = (z
i
)
i e I
e X. Since C
covered X, z e some C e C. Now C = t
k
-1
(G
k
) for some k e I and so t
k
(z) = z
k
e
G
k
, contradicting the choice of the z
i
's.
To prove the above without Alexander's Subbase Theorem is very difficult in
general, but it is fairly simple in the special case where I is finite. Several further
results show that various topological properties are 'finitely productive' in this
sense.
Theorem 4 If (X
1
, T
1
), (X
2
, T
2
), ..., (X
n
, T
n
) are finitely many sequentially compact
spaces, then their product is sequentially compact.
Proof
Take any sequence (x
n
) e X. The sequence ( t
1
(x
n
))
n > 1
in sequentially compact X
1

has a convergent subsequence t
1
(x
nk
) l
1
e X
1
. The sequence (t
2
(x
nk
))
k > 1
in
sequentially compact X
2
has a convergent subsequence (t
2
(x
nkj
))
j > 1
l
2
e X
2
and
t
1
(x
nkj
) l
1
also.
Do this n times! We get a subsequence (y
p
)
p > 1
of the original sequence such that
t
i
(y
p
) l
i
for i = 1,2, ., n. It's easy to check that y
p
(l
1
, l
2
, ., l
n
) so that X is
sequentially compact, as required.
Lemma 3 `The product of subspaces is a subspace of the product.'
Proof
Let (X, T) = [
i e I
(X
i
, T
i
); let C c Y
i
_ X
i
for each i e I. There appear to be two
different ways to topologise [Y
i
:

{\em either} (i) give it the subspace topology induced by [T
i

{\em or} (ii) give it the product of all the individual subspace topologies
(T
i
)
Yi
.
The point is that these topologies coincide-if G
i0
*
is open in (T
i0
)
Yi0
where i
0
e I i.e.
G
i0
*
= Y
i0
G
i0
for some G
i0
e T
i0
, a typical subbasic open set for (ii) is

{(y
i
) e
[
Y
i
: y
i0
e G
i0
*
}
which equals


[
Y
i
{ (x
i
) e
[
X
i
: x
i0
e G
i0
e T
i0
,i
0
e I }

=
[
Y
i
{ a typical open cylinder in
[
X
i
}
which is a typical subbasic open set in (i). Hence, (i) = (ii).
Theorem 5 Local compactness is finitely productive.
Proof
Given x = (x
1
,x
2
,.,x
n
) e (X, T) = [
i = 1
n
(X
i
,T
i
), we must show that x has a
compact neighbourhood. Now, for all i = 1, ., n, x
i
has a compact neighbourhood
C
i
in (X
i
,T
i
) so we choose T
i
-open set G
i
such that x
i
e G
i
_ C
i
. Then

x e


G
1
G
2
.G
n

1
n
t
i
-1
(G
i
)
_


C
1
C
2
.C
n


compact subset of [X
i


i.e. x has C
1
C
2
.C
n
as a compact neighbourhood. (Note that the previous
lemma is used here, to allow us to apply Tychonoff's theorem to the product of the
compact subspaces C
i
, and then to view this object as a subspace of the full
product!) Thus, X is locally compact.
Lemma 4 [([Y
i
)]
T
= [[(Y
i
)]
T
i
( in notation of previous lemma).
Proof Do it yourself! (`The closure of a product is a product of the closures.')
4.2.3 Products and Separability
Theorem 6 Separability is finitely productive.
Proof
For 1 s i s n, choose countable D
i
_ X
i
where [(D
i
)]
T
i
= X
i
. Consider D = D
1
D
2

.D
n
= [
1
n
D
i
, again countable. Then [D] = [([D
i
)]
T
= [[(D
i
)]
T
i
= [X
i
= X.
Notice that the converses of all such theorems are easily true. For example,
Theorem 7 If (X, T) = [
i e I
(X
i
, T
i
) is

(i) compact
(ii) sequentially compact
(iii) locally compact
(iv) connected
(v) separable
(vi) completely separable
then so is every `factor space' (X
i
, T
i
).
Proof For each i e I, the projection mapping t
i
: X X
i
is continuous, open and
onto. Thus, by previous results, the result follows.
Topology Course Lecture Notes
Aisling McCluskey and Brian McMaster
August 1997
Chapter 5
Separation Axioms
We have observed instances of topological statements which, although true for all
metric (and metrizable) spaces, fail for some other topological spaces. Frequently,
the cause of failure can be traced to there being `not enough open sets' (in senses to
be made precise). For instance, in any metric space, compact subsets are always
closed; but not in every topological space, for the proof ultimately depends on the
observation
`given x = y, it is possible to find disjoint open sets G and H with x e G and y e H'
which is true in a metric space (e.g. put G = B(x,c), H = B(y,c) where c = [1/2]
d(x,y)) but fails in, for example, a trivial space (X, T
0
).
What we do now is to see how `demanding certain minimum levels-of-supply of
open sets' gradually eliminates the more pathological topologies, leaving us with
those which behave like metric spaces to a greater or lesser extent.
5.1 T
1
Spaces
Definition 1 A topological space (X,T) is T
1
if, for each x in X, {x} is closed.
Comment 1

(i) Every metrizable space is T
1

(ii) (X,T
0
) isn't T
1
unless ,X, = 1
Theorem 1

(i) T
1
is hereditary
(ii) T
1
is productive
(iii) T
1
every finite set is closed. More precisely, (X, T) is T
1
iff T _ C,
i.e. C is the weakest of all the T
1
topologies that can be defined on X.
Proof is left to the reader.
The respects in which T
1
-spaces are `nicer' than others are mostly concerned with
`cluster point of a set' (an idea we have avoided!). We show the equivalence, in T
1

spaces, of the two forms of its definition used in analysis.
Theorem 2 Given a T
1
space (X,T), p e X and A _ X, the following are equivalent:

(i) Every neighbourhood of p contains infinitely many points of A
(ii) Every neighbourhood of p contains at least one point of A different from
p.
Proof Obviously, (i) (ii); conversely, suppose (i) fails; so there exists a
neighbourhood N of p such that N A is finite. Consider H = [X\(NA)] { p };
it is cofinite and is thus an (open) neighbourhood of p. Hence N H is a
neighbourhood of p which contains no points of A, except possibly p itself. Thus,
(ii) fails also.
Hence, (i) (ii).
5.2 T
2
(Hausdorff) Spaces
Definition 2 A topological space (X,T) is T
2
(or Hausdorff) iff given x = y in X, -
disjoint neighbourhoods of x and y.
Comment 2

(i) Every metrizable space is T
2

(ii) T
2
T
1
(i.e. any T
2
space is T
1
, for if x, y e T
2
X and y e [{x}], then
every neighbourhood of y contains x, whence x = y.)
(iii) (X,C), with X infinite, cannot be T
2

Theorem 3

(i) T
2
is hereditary
(ii) T
2
is productive.
Proof

{i} The proof is left to the reader.
{ii} Let (X, T) = [
i e I
(X
i
, T
i
) be any product of T
2
spaces. Let x = (x
i
)
i e I

and y = (y
i
)
i e I
be distinct elements of X. Then there exists i
0
e I such that x
i0

= y
i0
in X
i0
. Choose disjoint open sets G, H in (X
i0
, T
i0
) so that x
i0
e G, y
i0
e
H. Then x e t
i0
-1
(G) e T, y e t
i0
-1
(H) e T and since G H = C, t
i0
-
1
(G)t
i0
-1
(H) = C. Hence result.
The T
2
axiom is particularly valuable when exploring compactness. Part of the
reason is that T
2
implies that points and compact sets can be `separated off' by open
sets and even implies that compact sets can be `separated off' from other compact
sets in the same way.
Theorem 4 In a T
2
-space (X, T), if C is a compact set and x \not e C, then there
exist T-open sets G and H so that x e G, C _ H and G H = C.
Proof A valuable exercise: separate each point of C from x using disjoint open sets,
note that the open neighbourhoods of the various elements of C, thus obtained,
make up an open covering of C, reduce it to a finite subcover by appealing to
compactness ...
Corollary 1 In a T
2
-space, any compact set is closed.
Corollary 2 In a T
2
-space, if C and K are non-empty compact and disjoint, then
there exist open G, H such that C _ G, K _ H and G H = C.
A basic formal distinction between algebra and topology is that although the
inverse of a one-one, onto group homomorphism [etc!] is automatically a
homomorphism again, the inverse of a one-one, onto continuous map can fail to be
continuous. It is a consequence of Corollary 5.2 that, amongst compact T
2
spaces,
this cannot happen.
Theorem 5 Let f:(X
1
,T
1
) (X
2
,T
2
) be one-one, onto and continuous, where X
1
is
compact and X
2
is T
2
. Then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof It suffices to prove that f is closed. Given closed K _ X
1
, then K is compact
whence f(K) is compact and so f(K) is closed. Thus f is a closed map.
Theorem 6 (X,T) is T
2
iff no net in X has more than one limit.
Proof

(i) $\Rightarrow$ (ii): Let x = y in X; by hypothesis, there exist disjoint
neighbourhoods U of x, V of y. Since a net cannot eventually belong to each
of two disjoint sets, it is clear that no net in X can converge to both x and y.
(ii) $\Rightarrow$ (i): Suppose that (X, T) is not Hausdorff and that x = y
are points in X for which every neighbourhood of x intersects every
neighbourhood of y. Let N
x
(N
y
) be the neighbourhood systems at x (y)
respectively. Then both N
x
and N
y
are directed by reverse inclusion. We
order the Cartesian product N
x
N
y
by agreeing that

(U
x
,U
y
) > (V
x
,V
y
) U
x
_ V
x
and U
y
_ V
y
.
Evidently, this order is directed. For each (U
x
, U
y
) e N
x
N
y
, U
x
U
y
= C
and hence we may select a point z
(Ux,Uy)
e U
x
U
y
. If W
x
is any
neighbourhood of x, W
y
any neighbourhood of y and (U
x
,U
y
) > (W
x
,W
y
),
then

z
(Ux,Uy)
e U
x
U
y
_ W
x
W
y
.
That is, the net { z
(Ux,Uy)
,(U
x
,U
y
) e N
x
N
y
} eventually belongs to both W
x

and W
y
and consequently converges to both x and y!
Corollary 3 Let f:(X
1
, T
1
) (X
2
, T
2
), g:(X
1
, T
1
) (X
2
, T
2
) be continuous where
X
2
is T
2
. Then their `agreement set' is closed i.e. A = {x:f(x) = g(x)} is closed.
5.3 T
3
Spaces
Definition 3 A space (X, T) is called T
3
or regular provided :-

(i) it is T
1
, and
(ii) given x \not e closed F, there exist disjoint open sets G and H so that x
e G, F _ H.
Comment 3

(i) Every metrizable space is T
3
; for it is certainly T
1
and given x \not e
closed F, we have x e open X \F so there exists c > 0 so that x e B(x, c) _ X
\F. Put G = B(x, [(c)/2]) and H = { y :d(x,y) > [(c)/2] }; the result now
follows.
(ii) Obviously T
3
T
2
.
(iii) One can devise examples of T
2
spaces which are not T
3
.
(iv) It's fairly routine to check that T
3
is productive and hereditary.
(v) Warning: Some books take T
3
to mean Definition 5.3(ii) alone, and
regular to mean Definition 5.3(i) and (ii); others do exactly the opposite!
5.4 T
3[1/2]
Spaces
Definition 4 A space (X, T) is T
3[1/2]
or completely regular or Tychonoff iff

(i) it is T
1
, and
(ii) given x e X, closed non-empty F _ X such that x \not e F, there exists
continuous f:X [0,1] such that f(F) = {0} and f(x) = 1.
Comment 4

(i) Every metrizable space is T
3[1/2]

(ii) Every T
3[1/2]
space is T
3
( such a space is certainly T
1
and given x \not e
closed F, choose f as in the definition; define G = f
-1
([0, [1/3])), H = f
-
1
(([2/3],1]) and observe that T
3
follows.)
(iii) Examples are known of T
3
spaces which fail to be Tychonoff
(iv) T
3[1/2]
is productive and hereditary.
5.5 T
4
Spaces
Definition 5 A space (X, T) is T
4
or normal if

(i) it is T
1
, and
(ii) given disjoint non-empty closed subsets A, B of X, there exist disjoint
open sets G, H such that A _ G, B _ H.
Theorem 7 Every metrizable space (X, T) is T
4
.
Proof Certainly, X is T
1
; choose a metric d on X such that T is T
d
. The distance of
a point p from a non-empty set A can be defined thus:

d(p, A) = inf {d(p,a):a e A}
Given disjoint non-empty closed sets A, B, let

G = {x:d(x, A) < d(x,B) }
H = {x:d(x,B) < d(x,A)}.
Clearly, G H = C. Also, each is open (if x e G and c = [1/2]{d(x,B) - d(x,A)},
then B(x,c) _ G, by the triangle inequality.) Now, if d(p, A) = 0, then for all n e N,
there exists x
n
e A such that d(p, x
n
) < [1/n]. So d(p,x
n
) 0 i.e. x
n
p, whence p
e [A]. Thus for each x e A, x \not e B = [B] so that d(x, B) > 0 = d(x,A) i.e. x
e G. Hence A _ G. Similarly B _ H.
It's true that T
4
T
3[1/2]
but not very obvious. First note that if G
0
, G
1
are open in a
T
4
space with [(G
0
)] _ G
1
, then there exists open G
[1/2]
with [(G
0
)] _ G
[1/2]
and
[(G
[1/2]
)] _ G
1
(because the given [(G
0
)] and X \G
1
are disjoint closed sets so that
there exist disjoint open sets G
[1/2]
, H such that [(G
0
)] _ G
[1/2]
, X\G
1
_ H i.e. G
1
_
(closed) X\H _ G
[1/2]
).
Lemma 1 [Urysohn's Lemma] Let F
1
, F
2
be disjoint non-empty closed subsets of a
T
4
space; then there exists a continuous function f:X [0,1] such that f(F
1
) = {0},
f(F
2
) = {1}.
Proof Given disjoint closed F
1
and F
2
, choose disjoint open G
0
and H
0
so that F
1
_
G
0
, F
2
_ H
0
. Define G
1
= X \F
2
(open). Since G
0
_ (closed) X \H
0
_ X \F
2
= G
1
, we
have [(G
0
)] _ G
1
.
By the previous remark, we can now construct:

(i) G
[1/2]
e T: [(G
0
)] _ G
[1/2]
, [(G
[1/2]
)] _ G
1
.
(ii) G
[1/4]
, G
[3/4]
e T: [(G
0
)] _ G
[1/4]
, [(G
[1/4]
)] _ G
[1/2]
, [(G
[1/2]
)] _ G
[3/4]
,
[(G
[3/4]
)] _ G
1
.
(iii) ... and so on!
Thus we get an indexed family of open sets

{G
r
: r =
m

2
n

, 0 s m s 2
n
, n > 1 }
such that r
1
s r
2
[(G
r1
)] _ G
r2
.
Observe that the index set is dense in [0,1]: if s < t in [0,1], there exists some
[m/(2
n
)] such that s < [m/(2
n
)] < t. Define

f(x) =







inf {r:x e G
r
} x \not e F
2

1 x e F
2
.


Certainly f:X [0,1], f(F
2
) = {1}, f(F
1
) = {0}. To show f continuous, it suffices to
show that f
-1
([0,o)) and f
-1
((o,1]) are open for 0 < o < 1.
Well, f(x) < o iff there exists some r = [m/(2
n
)] such that f(x) < r < o. It follows
that f
-1
([0, o)) =
r < o
G
r
, a union of open sets.
Again, f(x) > o iff there exist r
1
, r
2
such that o < r
1
< r
2
< f(x), implying that x \not
e G
r2
whence x \not e [(G
r1
)]. It follows that f
-1
((o,1]) =
r1 > o
(X \[(G
r1
)]),
which is again open.
Corollary 4 Every T
4
space is T
3[1/2]
.
Proof Immediate from Lemma 5.5. (Note that there exist spaces which are T
3[1/2]

but not T
4
.)
Theorem 8 Any compact T
2
space is T
4
.
Proof Use Corollary 5.2 to Theorem 5.2.
Note Unlike the previous axioms, T
4
is neither hereditary nor productive. The
global view of the hierarchy can now be filled in as an exercise from data supplied
above:-
Metrizable Hereditary? Productive?
T
4


T
3[1/2]


T
3


T
2


T
1


The following is presented as an indication of how close we are to having `come
full circle'.
Theorem 9 Any completely separable T
4
space is metrizable!
Sketch Proof
Choose a countable base; list as { (G
n
,H
n
): n > 1} those pairs of elements of the
base for which [(G
n
)] _ H
n
. For each n, use Lemma 5.5 to get continuous f
n
:X
[0,1] such that f
n
([(G
n
)]) = {0}, f
n
(X \H
n
) = {1}. Define

d(x,y) =
|
(
\



n > 1
{
f
n
(x) - f
n
(y)

2
n

}
2


.
One confirms that d is a metric, and induces the original topology.