Firebird 2.

1 Release Notes
Helen Borrie (Collator/Editor)
4 September 2009 - Document v.0213_13 - for Firebird 2.1.3

Firebird 2.1 Release Notes

4 September 2009 - Document v.0213_13 - for Firebird 2.1.3 Helen Borrie (Collator/Editor)

Table of Contents
1. General Notes .................................................................................................................................... 1 Patch Release 2.1.3 ........................................................................................................................ 1 Issues to Note ........................................................................................................................ 1 Patch Release 2.1.2 ........................................................................................................................ 2 Patch Release 2.1.1 ........................................................................................................................ 2 Bug Reporting ............................................................................................................................... 3 Additional Documentation .............................................................................................................. 3 2. New in Firebird 2 .............................................................................................................................. 5 New Features Implemented ............................................................................................................ 5 On-Disk Structure .................................................................................................................. 5 Database Triggers .................................................................................................................. 5 SQL and Objects ................................................................................................................... 5 Procedural SQL ..................................................................................................................... 7 Security ................................................................................................................................. 7 International Language Support .............................................................................................. 7 Platform Support .................................................................................................................... 8 Administrative ....................................................................................................................... 8 Remote Interface .................................................................................................................... 8 Derived Tables ....................................................................................................................... 9 PSQL Now Supports Named Cursors ...................................................................................... 9 Reimplemented Protocols on Windows ................................................................................... 9 Reworking of Garbage Collection ......................................................................................... 10 Porting of the Services API to Classic is Complete ................................................................ 11 Lock Timeout for WAIT Transactions ................................................................................... 11 New Implementation of String Search Operators .................................................................... 11 Reworking of Updatable Views ............................................................................................ 11 Additional Database Shutdown Modes Introduced .................................................................. 12 UDFs Improved re NULL Handling ...................................................................................... 12 Run-time Checking for Concatenation Overflow .................................................................... 12 Changes to Synchronisation Logic ........................................................................................ 13 Support for 64-bit Platforms ................................................................................................. 13 Record Enumeration Limits Increased ................................................................................... 13 Debugging Improvements ..................................................................................................... 13 Improved Connection Handling on POSIX Superserver .......................................................... 14 PSQL Invariant Tracking Reworked ...................................................................................... 14 ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax Support ................................................................................. 14 No More Registry Search on Win32 Servers .......................................................................... 14 More Optimizer Improvements ............................................................................................. 15 3. Changes to the Firebird API and ODS .............................................................................................. 16 API (Application Programming Interface) ..................................................................................... 16 User Restrictions in the DPB ................................................................................................ 16 Cleanup of ibase.h ................................................................................................................ 17 Lock Timeout for WAIT Transactions ................................................................................... 17 isc_dsql_sql_info() Now Includes Relation Aliases ................................................................ 17 Enhancement to isc_blob_lookup_desc() ................................................................................ 17 API Identifies Client Version ................................................................................................ 17 Additions to the isc_database_info() Structure ....................................................................... 18 Additions to the isc_transaction_info() Structure .................................................................... 18 iv

Firebird 2.1 Release Notes Improved Services API ......................................................................................................... New Function for Delivering Error Text ................................................................................ Accommodation of New Shutdown <state> Parameters .......................................................... ODS (On-Disk Structure) Changes ................................................................................................ New ODS Number ............................................................................................................... Size limit for exception messages increased ........................................................................... New Description Field for Generators ................................................................................... New Description Field for SQL Roles ................................................................................... ODS Type Recognition ..................................................................................................... Smarter DSQL Error Reporting ............................................................................................. New Column in RDB$Index_Segments ................................................................................. 4. Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1 ................................................................................................. Forced Writes on Linux Now Works! ........................................................................................... Forensics .............................................................................................................................. Instant Fix for an Older Firebird ........................................................................................... Databases on Raw Devices ........................................................................................................... Moving a Database to a Raw Device .................................................................................... Special Issues for nbak/nbackup ............................................................................................ Further Advice about Raw Devices ....................................................................................... Remote Interface Improvements .................................................................................................... API Changes ................................................................................................................................ XSQLVAR .......................................................................................................................... Optimization ................................................................................................................................ Optimization for Multiple Index Scans .................................................................................. Optimize sparse bitmap operations ........................................................................................ Configuration and Tuning ............................................................................................................. Increased Lock Manager Limits & Defaults ........................................................................... Page sizes of 1K and 2K Deprecated .................................................................................... Enlarge Disk Allocation Chunks ........................................................................................... Bypass Filesystem Caching on Superserver ........................................................................... Other Global Improvements .......................................................................................................... Garbage Collector Rationalisation ......................................................................................... Immediate Release of External Files ..................................................................................... Synchronization of DSQL metadata cache objects in Classic server ......................................... BLOB Improvements ........................................................................................................... Type Flag for Stored Procedures ........................................................................................... Help for Getting Core Dumps on Linux ................................................................................ 5. Data Definition Language (DDL) ...................................................................................................... Quick Links ................................................................................................................................. Database Triggers ................................................................................................................. Global Temporary Tables ..................................................................................................... Views Enhancements ............................................................................................................ SQL2003 compliance for CREATE TRIGGER ...................................................................... SQL2003 Compliant Alternative for Computed Fields ............................................................ CREATE SEQUENCE ......................................................................................................... REVOKE ADMIN OPTION ................................................................................................. SET/DROP DEFAULT Clauses for ALTER TABLE ............................................................. Syntaxes for Changing Exceptions ........................................................................................ ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION ........................................................................................ COMMENT Statement ......................................................................................................... Extensions to CREATE VIEW Specification ......................................................................... RECREATE TRIGGER Statement Implemented .................................................................... 19 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 26 27 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 33 33 33 35 36 37 37 38 39 39 39 40 40 41 41

Firebird 2.1 Release Notes Usage Enhancements ............................................................................................................ 6. Data Manipulation Language (DML) ................................................................................................. Quick Links ................................................................................................................................. Common Table Expressions .................................................................................................. The LIST Function ............................................................................................................... The RETURNING Clause .................................................................................................... UPDATE OR INSERT Statement ......................................................................................... MERGE Statement ............................................................................................................... New JOIN Types ................................................................................................................. INSERT with Defaults ......................................................................................................... BLOB Subtype 1 Compatibility with VARCHAR .................................................................. Full Equality Comparisons Between BLOBs .......................................................................... RDB$DB_KEY Returns NULL in Outer Joins ...................................................................... Sorting on BLOB and ARRAY Columns is Restored ............................................................. Built-in Functions ................................................................................................................. Functions Enhanced in V.2.0.x ............................................................................................. DSQL Parsing of Table Names is Stricter .............................................................................. EXECUTE BLOCK Statement .............................................................................................. Derived Tables ..................................................................................................................... ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax .............................................................................................. ROWS Syntax ...................................................................................................................... Enhancements to UNION Handling ....................................................................................... Enhancements to NULL Logic .............................................................................................. Subqueries and INSERT Statements Can Now Accept UNION Sets ........................................ New Extensions to UPDATE and DELETE Syntaxes ............................................................. Extended Context Variables .................................................................................................. Improvements in Handling User-specified Query Plans .......................................................... Improvements in Sorting ...................................................................................................... NEXT VALUE FOR Expression ........................................................................................... Articles ........................................................................................................................................ SELECT Statement & Expression Syntax .............................................................................. Data Type of an Aggregation Result ..................................................................................... A Useful Trick with Date Literals ......................................................................................... 7. Procedural SQL (PSQL) ................................................................................................................... Quick Links ................................................................................................................................. Domains in PSQL ................................................................................................................ COLLATE in Stored Procedures and Parameters ................................................................... WHERE CURRENT OF Now Allowed for Views ................................................................. Context Variable ROW_COUNT Enhanced ........................................................................... Explicit Cursors ................................................................................................................... Defaults for Stored Procedure Arguments .............................................................................. LEAVE <label> Syntax Support ........................................................................................... OLD Context Variables Now Read-only ................................................................................ PSQL Stack Trace ................................................................................................................ Call a UDF as a Void Function (Procedure) .......................................................................... 8. New Reserved Words and Changes ................................................................................................... Newly Reserved Words ................................................................................................................ Changed from Non-reserved to Reserved ....................................................................................... Keywords Added as Non-reserved ................................................................................................ Keywords No Longer Reserved .................................................................................................... No Longer Reserved as Keywords ................................................................................................ 9. Indexing & Optimizations ................................................................................................................. 41 43 43 44 47 48 50 51 52 53 54 54 54 54 54 56 58 60 61 62 63 63 65 67 67 68 72 73 75 75 75 76 77 79 79 79 80 80 80 81 82 84 85 86 87 89 89 89 89 91 91 92

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Firebird 2.1 Release Notes Optimizations in V.2.1 ................................................................................................................. 92 Improved PLAN Clause ............................................................................................................... 92 Optimizer Improvements .............................................................................................................. 92 For All Databases ................................................................................................................ 93 For ODS 11 Databases only ................................................................................................. 94 Enhancements to Indexing ............................................................................................................ 95 252-byte index length limit is gone ....................................................................................... 95 Expression Indexes ............................................................................................................... 95 Changes to Null keys handling ............................................................................................. 96 Improved Index Compression ............................................................................................... 96 Selectivity Maintenance per Segment .................................................................................... 97 10. International Language Support (INTL) ........................................................................................... 98 New INTL Interface for Non-ASCII Character Sets ....................................................................... 98 Architecture ......................................................................................................................... 98 Enhancements ...................................................................................................................... 98 INTL Plug-ins .................................................................................................................... 100 New Character Sets/Collations ............................................................................................ 101 Developments in V.2.1 ....................................................................................................... 102 ICU Character Sets ............................................................................................................. 102 The UNICODE Collations .................................................................................................. 104 Specific Attributes for Collations ........................................................................................ 104 Collation Changes in V.2.1 ................................................................................................. 105 Metadata Text Conversion .......................................................................................................... 106 Repairing Your Metadata Text ............................................................................................ 106 Supported Character Sets ............................................................................................................ 107 11. Administrative Features ................................................................................................................ 108 Monitoring Tables ...................................................................................................................... 108 The Concept ....................................................................................................................... 108 Scope and Security ............................................................................................................. 108 Metadata ............................................................................................................................ 109 Usage ................................................................................................................................. 112 Cancel a Running Query ..................................................................................................... 114 Performance Guidelines for Using MON$ Under Load ......................................................... 114 More Context Information .......................................................................................................... 115 12. Security ........................................................................................................................................ 117 Summary of Changes ................................................................................................................. 117 New security database ........................................................................................................ 117 Using Windows Security to Authenticate Users .................................................................... 117 Better password encryption ................................................................................................. 117 Users can modify their own passwords ................................................................................ 117 Non-server access to security database is rejected ................................................................ 118 Active protection from brute-force attack ............................................................................. 118 Vulnerabilities have been closed ......................................................................................... 118 Details of the Security Changes in Firebird 2 ............................................................................... 118 Authentication .................................................................................................................... 119 gsec in Firebird 2 ............................................................................................................... 120 Protection from Brute-force Hacking ................................................................................... 120 Using Windows Security to Authenticate Users ........................................................................... 120 SQL Privileges ................................................................................................................... 121 Administrators .................................................................................................................... 121 Configuration Parameter Authentication ........................................................................... 121 Forcing Trusted Authentication ........................................................................................... 122

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Firebird 2.1 Release Notes Classic Server on POSIX ............................................................................................................ For Any Platform ....................................................................................................................... Other Security Improvements ...................................................................................................... isc_service_query() wrongly revealed the full database file spec ............................................ Any user could view the server log through the Services API ................................................ Dealing with the New Security Database ..................................................................................... Doing the Security Database Upgrade ................................................................................. 13. Command-line Utilities ................................................................................................................. General Enhancements ................................................................................................................ Utilities Support for Database Triggers ................................................................................ Password Hiding ................................................................................................................ Firebird Services ........................................................................................................................ New Command-line Utility fbsvcmgr .................................................................................. Backup Tools ............................................................................................................................. New On-line Incremental Backup ........................................................................................ gbak Backup/Porting/Restore Utility .................................................................................... ISQL Query Utility .................................................................................................................... New Switches .................................................................................................................... New Commands and Enhancements .................................................................................... gsec Authentication Manager ...................................................................................................... gsec return code ................................................................................................................. gfix Server Utility ...................................................................................................................... New Shutdown States (Modes) ........................................................................................... Builds and Installs ...................................................................................................................... Parameter for Instance name added to instsvc.exe ................................................................ Revised Win32 Installer Docs ............................................................................................. Gentoo/FreeBSD detection during install ............................................................................. 14. External Functions (UDFs) ............................................................................................................ Ability to Signal SQL NULL via a Null Pointer .......................................................................... UDF library diagnostic messages improved ................................................................................. UDFs Added and Changed ......................................................................................................... IB_UDF_rand() vs IB_UDF_srand() .................................................................................... IB_UDF_lower ................................................................................................................... General UDF Changes ................................................................................................................ Build Changes .................................................................................................................... 15. New Configuration Parameters and Changes .................................................................................. Authentication ............................................................................................................................ RelaxedAliasChecking ................................................................................................................ MaxFileSystemCache ................................................................................................................. DatabaseGrowthIncrement .......................................................................................................... ExternalFileAccess ..................................................................................................................... LegacyHash ............................................................................................................................... Redirection ................................................................................................................................. About Multi-hop ................................................................................................................. GCPolicy ................................................................................................................................... OldColumnNaming ..................................................................................................................... UsePriorityScheduler .................................................................................................................. TCPNoNagle has changed .......................................................................................................... IPCName Behaviour Has Changed .............................................................................................. Renamed Parameters .................................................................................................................. SortMemBlockSize Changed to TempCacheBlockSize ......................................................... SortMemUpperLimit Changed to TempCacheUpperLimit ..................................................... 122 123 123 123 123 123 124 126 126 126 126 126 126 129 130 132 133 133 136 138 139 139 139 140 140 140 140 141 141 142 142 142 143 143 143 144 144 144 145 145 146 146 146 146 147 147 147 147 147 148 148 148

viii

Firebird 2.1 Release Notes Removed or Deprecated Parameters ............................................................................................ CreateInternalWindow ........................................................................................................ DeadThreadsCollection is no longer used ............................................................................ 16. Firebird 2 Project Teams ............................................................................................................... Appendix A: New Built-in Functions .................................................................................................. Appendix B: International Character Sets ............................................................................................ New Character Sets and Collations Implemented ......................................................................... Narrow Character Sets ................................................................................................................ ICU Character Sets ..................................................................................................................... Appendix C: Security Database Upgrade for Firebird 2 ........................................................................ Security Upgrade Script .............................................................................................................. 148 148 148 149 151 161 161 162 162 168 168

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List of Tables
16.1. Firebird Development Teams ...................................................................................................... 149

Chapter 1

General Notes
Firebird 2.1 is a full version release that builds on the architectural changes introduced in the V.2.0 series. Thanks to all who field-tested the Alphas and Betas during 2007 and the first quarter of 2008 we have a release that is bright with new features and improvements, including the long-awaited global temporary tables, a catalogue of new run-time monitoring mechanisms, database triggers and the injection of dozens of internal functions into the SQL language set.

Patch Release 2.1.3

Important
Firebird 2.1.3 corrects several bugs discovered soon after the release of V.2.1.2. This sub-release completely supersedes V.2.1.2, as well as V.2.1.1 and the original V.2.1. The previous 2.1.x releases should be replaced with V.2.1.3 once it is in full release.

Issues to Note
The default authentication method on Windows platforms is no longer mixed. It has been changed to native. For more information, see the notes on the configuration parameter Authentication. A fix in Firebird 2.5 that alleviates the hogging behaviour of the nBackup utility has been backported to this patch release. For more information, see the Improvement in V.2.1.3 note in the nBackup section of the Utilities chapter. By popular request, Dmitry Yemanov adds some helpful performance guidelines pertaining to the internals of the database monitoring system (a.k.a. MON$). The purpose is to assist those using this facility on heavily loaded systems to employ it in ways that provide the information you want while minimising its impact on the end-user experience. Known Issue At some point in V.2.1 development, a breakage occurred in the behaviour of TempDirectories, the configuration parameter by which you can configure a list of spaces where the engine can write the intermediate sets for sorting when it finds it does not have enough RAM available for these sets. Since V.2.1 (and still), although the engine will use the first space listed in TempDirectories, it fails to hand on sets to the any of the other configured spaces if the first space is exhausted. (Tracker reference CORE-2422). Because of the impact on related code, this regression cannot be fixed for the V.2.1.3 patch release. The workaround for now is to ensure that you configure enough space in the single location that the engine can address.

General Notes

Patch Release 2.1.2

Firebird 2.1.2 corrects a significant number of bugs that have shown up since the v.2.1 and 2.1.1 releases. Important Change to API DPB Parameters
A long-standing, legacy loophole in the handling of DPB parameters enabled ordinary users to make connection settings that could lead to database corruptions or give them access to SYSDBA-only operations. The loophole has been closed, a change that could affect several existing applications, database tools and connectivity layers (drivers, components). Details are in Chapter 3, Changes to the Firebird API and ODS.

It also includes three minor improvements that have come from user requests: Requested in Tracker CORE-2243 was an improvement to reduce the duplication and confusion of the Microsoft Visual C 8 runtime assembly rules for XP, Server2003 and Vista platforms, that have wracked the installation of the v.2.1.x Windows packages so far. Vlad Khorsun has met that request for this sub-release. For more information, refer to Windows installation section of the accompanying Firebird 2 Migration & Installation document. Dmitry Yemanov has improved database monitoring to enable a non-SYSDBA user to monitor all of its own attachments, not just the one which is that user's CURRENT_CONNECTION. This improvement was requested in Tracker CORE-2233. See also Monitor Multiple Attachments in the Administrative Features chapter. Dmitry has addressed a complaint about slowness in executing cross joins across three or more tables, particularly when one or more tables are empty. See the notes here and Tracker item CORE-2200.

Patch Release 2.1.1

Firebird 2.1.1 is a patch release that corrects a number of bugs, regressions or shortcomings that were reported following the v.2.1 final release. Included are fixes for the problems that made the nBackup utility unserviceable in that release, some changes to improve the new database monitoring feature's handling of a heavily loaded system and other changes to address complaints of slowness in some DML operations. For details, refer to the latest version of the Bugfix document accompanying these notes. Important
It was discovered that, until now, Firebird's security database had been created with Forced Writes OFF. Like any database with FW disabled, the security database is vulnerable to corruption in an environment where the power supply is not guaranteed to be stable. The v.2.1.1 sub-release and all future builds rectify this situation and create security2.fdb with FW ON. If you are importing an existing security database from any older release, it is recommended that you use the gfix utility to activate Forced Writes. Note, however, that setting Forced Writes ON in any database on a Firebird 1.5.x or lower version server on Linux will have no effect. FW does not work on Linux in these lower Firebird servers.

General Notes

About These Notes

Editions of the v.2.1 release notes are merged with the notes developed over the course of developments and releases from V.2.0 to this v.2.1.x release. Note that the separate v.2.0.x documentation is not distributed with the v.2.1 binaries. The Installation, Migration/Compatibility and Bug Fixes sections have been removed from the release notes document and are now distributed in the $fbroot$/doc/ subdirectory as separate documents. Like the release notes, they cover both the v.2.0.x and v.2.1 release series. To help smoothe the transition from older versions, it will be essential to study both the release notes and the migration/installation guide thoroughly. We encourage you to take your time testing this release with your applications and stressing it with real-world data and loads. Some legacy queries might not work, or might not perform as they did previously, due to a number of logic corrections that have been implemented. Temporary workarounds for legacy applications in such situations are available in some cases. We prefer that you research such issues in the documentation before you consider posting support questions or bug reports about them.

From the QA Team

Although this is a designated stable release, intended for production environments, it does introduce much that is new. We encourage you to see what you can achieve with these new features and let us know about any deficiency, sooner rather than later. You are enthusiastically invited to post to the firebird-devel list good descriptions of any bugs or beasts you encounter, or post bug reports directly to our Issue Tracker. Regular sub-releases will follow, whose quality and timeliness depend heavily on the reports that come in from the field.

Bug Reporting
If you think you have discovered a new bug in this release, please make a point of reading the instructions for bug reporting in the article How to Report Bugs Effectively, at the Firebird Project website. If you think a bug fix hasn't worked, or has caused a regression, please locate the original bug report in the Tracker, reopen it if necessary, and follow the instructions below. Follow these guidelines as you attempt to analyse your bug: 1. 2. Write detailed bug reports, supplying the exact build number of your Firebird kit. Also provide details of the OS platform. Include reproducible test data in your report and post it to our Tracker. You are warmly encouraged to make yourself known as a field-tester by subscribing to the field-testers' list and posting the best possible bug description you can. If you want to start a discussion thread about a bug or an implementation, please do so by subscribing to the firebird-devel list. In that forum you might also see feedback about any tracker ticket you post regarding this release.

3.

Additional Documentation
You will find README documents for many of the new v.2 and v.2.1 features in your installation kit, installed by default in the /doc/ sub-directory. 3

General Notes An automated "Release Notes" page in the Tracker provides access to lists and links for all of the Tracker tickets associated with this version and its various builds. Use this link. For your convenience, the many bug-fixes and regressions fixed during the development of Firebird 2.0.x and 2.1 are listed in descending chronological order in the separate Bugfixes document. Firebird 2 Project Team

Chapter 2

New in Firebird 2
New Features Implemented
This chapter summarises the new features implemented in Firebird 2, encompassing both v.2.1 and the v.2.0.x series. Important Change to API DPB Parameters in V.2.1.2
A long-standing, legacy loophole in the handling of DPB parameters enabled ordinary users to make connection settings that could lead to database corruptions or give them access to SYSDBA-only operations. The loophole has been closed, a change that could affect several existing applications, database tools and connectivity layers (drivers, components). Details are in Chapter 3, Changes to the Firebird API and ODS.

On-Disk Structure
Databases created or restored under Firebird 2 have an on-disk structure (ODS) of 11 or higher. Firebird 2.1 creates databases with an ODS of 11.1. It can read databases of lower ODS but most of its new features will be unavailable to such databases. Firebird 2.0.x servers create databases with an ODS of 11 (sometimes expressed as 11.0). If you wish to have the full range of v.2.1 features available, you should upgrade ODS 11 and lower databases by backing them up and restoring them under v.2.1.

Database Triggers
(v.2.1) Newly implemented database triggers are user-defined PSQL modules that can be designed to fire in various connection-level and transaction- level events. See Database Triggers.

SQL and Objects

Global Temporary Tables
(v.2.1) SQL standards-compliant global temporary tables have been implemented. These pre-defined tables are instantiated on request for connection-specific or transaction-specific use with non-persistent data, which the Firebird engine stores in temporary files. See Global Temporary Tables.

New in Firebird 2

Common Table Expressions, Recursive DSQL Queries

(v.2.1) Standards-compliant common table expressions, which make dynamic recursive queries possible, are introduced. See Common Table Expressions.

RETURNING Clause
(v.2.1) Optional RETURNING clause for all singleton operations update, insert and delete operations. See RETURNING Clause.

UPDATE OR INSERT Statements

(v.2.1) Now you can write a statement that is capable of performing either an update to an existing record or an insert, depending on whether the targeted record exists. See UPDATE OR INSERT Statement.

MERGE Statement
(v.2.1) New statement syntax that performs either an update to an existing record if a condition is met or an insert if the condition is not met. See MERGE Statement.

LIST() function
(v.2.1) A new aggregate function LIST(<SOMETHING>) retrieves all of the SOMETHINGs in a group and aggregates them into a comma-separated list. See LIST Function.

Lots of New Built-in Functions

(v.2.1) Built-in functions replacing many of the UDFs from the Firebird-distributed UDF libraries. For a full list with examples, see Built-in Functions.

Short BLOBs Can Masquerade as Long VARCHARs

(v.2.1) At various levels of evaluation, the engine now treats text BLOBs that are within the 32,765-byte size limit as though they were varchars. Now functions like cast, lower, upper, trim and substring will work with these BLOBs, as well as concatenation and assignment to string types. See Text BLOB Compatibility. Important Note about Use of SUBSTRING() with a BLOB
The SUBSTRING() function now returns a BLOB, not a VARCHAR as previously.

New in Firebird 2

Procedural SQL
Domains for Defining PSQL Variables and Arguments
(v.2.1) PSQL local variables and input and output arguments for stored procedures can now be declared using domains in lieu of canonical data types. See Domains in PSQL.

COLLATE in Stored Procedures and Parameters

(v.2.1) Collations can now be applied to PSQL variables and arguments. See COLLATE in Stored Procedures.

Enhancement to PSQL error stack trace

V. Khorsun Feature request CORE-970 (v.2.1) A PSQL error stack trace now shows line and column numbers.

Security
Windows Security to Authenticate Users
(v.2.1) Windows Trusted User security can be applied for authenticating Firebird users on a Windows host. See Windows Trusted User Security.

International Language Support

The CREATE COLLATION Command
(v.2.1) The DDL command CREATE COLLATION has been introduced for implementing a collation, obviating the need to use the script for it. See CREATE COLLATION statement.

Unicode Collations Anywhere

(v.2.1) Two new Unicode collations can be applied to any character set using a new mechanism. See UNICODE Collations.

New in Firebird 2

Platform Support
Ports to Windows 2003 64-bit
D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-819 and CORE-682 (v.2.1) 64-bit Windows platform (AMD64 and Intel EM64T) ports of Classic, Superserver and Embedded models.

Administrative
Database Monitoring via SQL
(v.2.1) Implementation of run-time database snapshot monitoring (transactions, tables, etc.) via SQL over some new virtualized system tables. See Monitoring Tables. Included in the set of tables is one named MON$DATABASE that provides a lot of the database header information that could not be obtained previously via SQL: such details as the on-disk structure (ODS) version, SQL dialect, sweep interval, OIT and OAT and so on. It is possible to use the information from the monitoring tables to cancel a rogue query. See Cancel a Running Query.

More Context Information

Context information providing the server engine version has been added, for retrieving via SELECT calls to the RDB$GET_CONTEXT function. See More Context Information.

New Command-line Utility fbsvcmgr

(V.2.1) The new utility fbsvcmgr provides a command-line interface to the Services API, enabling access to any service that is implemented in Firebird. Although there are numerous database administration tools around that surface the Services API through graphical interfaces, the new tool addresses the problem for admins needing to access remote Unix servers in broad networks through a text-only connection. Previously, meeting such a requirement needed a programmer. Details here.

Remote Interface
(v.2.1) The remote protocol has been slightly improved to perform better in slow networks once drivers are updated to utilise the changes. Testing showed that API round trips were reduced by about 50 percent, resulting in about 40 per cent fewer TCP round trips. See Remote Interface Improvement. 8

New in Firebird 2

Derived Tables
A. Brinkman Implemented support for derived tables in DSQL (subqueries in FROM clause) as defined by SQL200X. A derived table is a set, derived from a dynamic SELECT statement. Derived tables can be nested, if required, to build complex queries and they can be involved in joins as though they were normal tables or views. More details under Derived Tables in the DML chapter.

PSQL Now Supports Named Cursors

D. Yemanov Multiple named (i.e. explicit) cursors are now supported in PSQL and in DSQL EXECUTE BLOCK statements. More information in the PSQL chapter Explicit Cursors.

Reimplemented Protocols on Windows

D. Yemanov Two significant changes have been made to the Windows-only protocols.-

Local Protocol--XNET
Firebird 2.0 has replaced the former implementation of the local transport protocol (often referred to as IPC or IPServer) with a new one, named XNET. It serves exactly the same goal, to provide an efficient way to connect to server located on the same machine as the connecting client without a remote node name in the connection string. The new implementation is different and addresses the known issues with the old protocol. Like the old IPServer implementation, the XNET implementation uses shared memory for inter-process communication. However, XNET eliminates the use of window messages to deliver attachment requests and it also implements a different synchronization logic.

Benefits of the XNET Protocol over IPServer Besides providing a more robust protocol for local clients, the XNET protocol brings some notable benefits: it works with Classic Server it works for non-interactive services and terminal sessions it eliminates lockups when a number of simultaneous connections are attempted

Performance The XNET implementation should be similar to the old IPServer implementation, although XNET is expected to be slightly faster. 9

New in Firebird 2

Disadvantages The one disadvantage is that the XNET and IPServer implementations are not compatible with each other. This makes it essential that your fbclient.dll version should match the version of the server binaries you are using (fbserver.exe or fb_inet_server.exe) exactly. It will not be possible to to establish a local connection if this detail is overlooked. (A TCP localhost loopback connection via an ill-matched client will still do the trick, of course).

Change to WNET (NetBEUI) Protocol

WNET (a.k.a. NetBEUI) protocol no longer performs client impersonation. In all previous Firebird versions, remote requests via WNET are performed in the context of the client security token. Since the server serves every connection according to its client security credentials, this means that, if the client machine is running some OS user from an NT domain, that user should have appropriate permissions to access the physical database file, UDF libraries, etc., on the server filesystem. This situation is contrary to what is generally regarded as proper for a client-server setup with a protected database. Such impersonation has been removed in Firebird 2.0. WNET connections are now truly client-server and behave the same way as TCP ones, i.e., with no presumptions with regard to the rights of OS users.

Reworking of Garbage Collection

V. Khorsun Since Firebird 1.0 and earlier, the Superserver engine has performed background garbage collection, maintaining information about each new record version produced by an UPDATE or DELETE statement. As soon as the old versions are no longer interesting, i.e. when they become older than the Oldest Snapshot transaction (seen in the gstat -header output) the engine signals for them to be removed by the garbage collector. Background GC eliminates the need to re-read the pages containing these versions via a SELECT COUNT(*) FROM aTable or other table-scanning query from a user, as occurs in Classic and in versions of InterBase prior to v.6.0. This earlier GC mechanism is known as cooperative garbage collection. Background GC also averts the possibility that those pages will be missed because they are seldom read. (A sweep, of course, would find those unused record versions and clear them, but the next sweep is not necessarily going to happen soon.) A further benefit is the reduction in I/O, because of the higher probability that subsequently requested pages still reside in the buffer cache. Between the point where the engine notifies the garbage collector about a page containing unused versions and the point when the garbage collector gets around to reading that page, a new transaction could update a record on it. The garbage collector cannot clean up this record if this later transaction number is higher than the Oldest Snapshot or is still active. The engine again notifies the garbage collector about this page number, overriding the earlier notification about it and the garbage will be cleaned at some later time. In Firebird 2.0 Superserver, both cooperative and background garbage collection are now possible. To manage it, the new configuration parameter GCPolicy was introduced. It can be set to: cooperative - garbage collection will be performed only in cooperative mode (like Classic) and the engine will not track old record versions. This reverts GC behaviour to that of IB 5.6 and earlier. It is the only option for Classic.

10

New in Firebird 2 background - garbage collection will be performed only by background threads, as is the case for Firebird 1.5 and earlier. User table-scan requests will not remove unused record versions but will cause the GC thread to be notified about any page where an unused record version is detected. The engine will also remember those page numbers where UPDATE and DELETE statements created back versions. combined (the installation default for Superserver) - both background and cooperative garbage collection are performed. Note
The Classic server ignores this parameter and always works in cooperative mode.

Porting of the Services API to Classic is Complete

N. Samofatov Porting of the Services API to Classic architecture is now complete. All Services API functions are now available on both Linux and Windows Classic servers, with no limitations. Known issues with gsec error reporting in previous versions of Firebird are eliminated.

Lock Timeout for WAIT Transactions

A. Karyakin, D. Yemanov All Firebird versions provide two transaction wait modes: NO WAIT and WAIT. NO WAIT mode means that lock conflicts and deadlocks are reported immediately, while WAIT performs a blocking wait which times out only when the conflicting concurrent transaction ends by being committed or rolled back. The new feature extends the WAIT mode by making provision to set a finite time interval to wait for the concurrent transactions. If the timeout has passed, an error (isc_lock_timeout) is reported. Timeout intervals are specified per transaction, using the new TPB constant isc_tpb_lock_timeout in the API or, in DSQL, the LOCK TIMEOUT <value> clause of the SET TRANSACTION statement.

New Implementation of String Search Operators

N. Samofatov 1. The operators now work correctly with BLOBs of any size. Issues with only the first segment being searched and with searches missing matches that straddle segment boundaries are now gone. Pattern matching now uses a single-pass Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm, improving performance when complex patterns are used. The engine no longer crashes when NULL is used as ESCAPE character for LIKE

2. 3.

Reworking of Updatable Views

D. Yemanov A reworking has been done to resolve problems with views that are implicitly updatable, but still have update triggers. This is an important change that will affect systems written to take advantage of the undocumented [mis]behaviour in previous versions. 11

New in Firebird 2 For details, see the notes in the Compatibility chapter of the separate Installation Notes document.

Additional Database Shutdown Modes Introduced

N. Samofatov Single-user and full shutdown modes are implemented using new [state] parameters for the gfix -shut and gfix -online commands. Syntax Pattern
gfix <command> [<state>] [<options>] <command>> ::= {-shut | -online} <state> ::= {normal | multi | single | full} <options> ::= {-force <timeout> | -tran | -attach}

normal state = online database multi state = multi-user shutdown mode (the legacy one, unlimited attachments of SYSDBA/owner are allowed) single state = single-user shutdown (only one attachment is allowed, used by the restore process) full state = full/exclusive shutdown (no attachments are allowed) For more details, refer to the section on Gfix New Shutdown Modes, in the Utilities chapter. For a list of shutdown state flag symbols and an example of usage, see Shutdown State in the API.

UDFs Improved re NULL Handling

C. Valderrama

Signalling SQL NULL

Ability to signal SQL NULL via a NULL pointer (see Signal SQL NULL in UDFs). External function library ib_udf upgraded to allow the string functions ASCII_CHAR, LOWER, LPAD, LTRIM, RPAD, RTIM, SUBSTR and SUBSTRLEN to return NULL and have it interpreted correctly. The script ib_udf_upgrade.sql can be applied to pre-v.2 databases that have these functions declared, to upgrade them to work with the upgraded library. This script should be used only when you are using the new ib_udf library with Firebird v2 and operation requests are modified to anticipate nulls.

Run-time Checking for Concatenation Overflow

D. Yemanov Compile-time checking for concatenation overflow has been replaced by run-time checking. 12

New in Firebird 2 From Firebird 1.0 onward, concatenation operations have been checked for the possibility that the resulting string might exceed the string length limit of 32,000 bytes, i.e. overflow. This check was performed during the statement prepare, using the declared operand sizes and would throw an error for an expressions such as:
CAST('qwe' AS VARCHAR(30000)) || CAST('rty' AS VARCHAR(30000))

From Firebird 2.0 onward, this expression throws only a warning at prepare time and the overflow check is repeated at runtime, using the sizes of the actual operands. The result is that our example will be executed without errors being thrown. The isc_concat_overflow exception is now thrown only for actual overflows, thus bringing the behaviour of overflow detection for concatenation into line with that for arithmetic operations.

Changes to Synchronisation Logic

N. Samofatov 1. Lock contention in the lock manager and in the SuperServer thread pool manager has been reduced significantly A rare race condition was detected and fixed, that could cause Superserver to hang during request processing until the arrival of the next request Lock manager memory dumps have been made more informative and OWN_hung is detected correctly Decoupling of lock manager synchronization objects for different engine instances was implemented

2. 3. 4.

Support for 64-bit Platforms

A. Peshkov, N. Samofatov Firebird 2.0 will support 64-bit platforms.

Record Enumeration Limits Increased

N. Samofatov 40-bit (64-bit internally) record enumerators have been introduced to overcome the ~30GB table size limit imposed by 32-bit record enumeration.

Debugging Improvements
Various Contributors

Improved Reporting from Bugchecks

BUGCHECK log messages now include file name and line number. (A. Brinkman)

Updated Internal Structure Reporting

Routines that print out various internal structures (DSQL node tree, BLR, DYN, etc) have been updated. (N. Samofatov) 13

New in Firebird 2

New Debug Logging Facilities

Thread-safe and signal-safe debug logging facilities have been implemented. (N. Samofatov)

Diagnostic Enhancement
Syslog messages will be copied to the user's tty if a process is attached to it. (A. Peshkov)

Improved Connection Handling on POSIX Superserver

A. Peshkov Posix SS builds now handle SIGTERM and SIGINT to shutdown all connections gracefully. (A. Peshkov)

PSQL Invariant Tracking Reworked

N. Samofatov Invariant tracking in PSQL and request cloning logic were reworked to fix a number of issues with recursive procedures, for example SF bug #627057. Invariant tracking is the process performed by the BLR compiler and the optimizer to decide whether an "invariant" (an expression, which might be a nested subquery) is independent from the parent context. It is used to perform one-time evaluations of such expressions and then cache the result. If some invariant is not determined, we lose in performance. If some variant is wrongly treated as invariant, we see wrong results. Example
select * from rdb$relations where rdb$relation_id < ( select rdb$relation_id from rdb$database )

This query performs only one fetch from rdb$database instead of evaluating the subquery for every row of rdb $relations.

ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax Support

D. Yemanov Firebird 2.0 adds an optional RETAIN clause to the DSQL ROLLBACK statement to make it consistent with COMMIT [RETAIN]. See ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax in the chapter about DML.

No More Registry Search on Win32 Servers

D. Yemanov The root directory lookup path has changed so that server processes on Windows no longer use the Registry. 14

New in Firebird 2

Important
The command-line utilities still check the Registry.

More Optimizer Improvements

A. Brinkman Better cost-based calculation has been included in the optimizer routines.

15

Chapter 3

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

API (Application Programming Interface)
Some needed changes have been performed in the Firebird API. They include.-

User Restrictions in the DPB

A. Peshkov From v.2.1.2 onward Several DPB parameters have been made inaccessible to ordinary users, closing some dangerous loopholes. In some cases, they are settings that would alter the database header settings and potentially cause corruptions if not performed under administrator control; in others, they initiate operations that are otherwise restricted to the SYSDBA. They are. isc_dpb_shutdown and isc_dpb_online isc_dpb_gbak_attach, isc_dpb_gfix_attach and isc_dpb_gstat_attach isc_dpb_verify isc_dpb_no_db_triggers isc_dpb_set_db_sql_dialect isc_dpb_sweep_interval isc_dpb_force_write isc_dpb_no_reserve isc_dpb_set_db_readonly isc_dpb_set_page_buffers (on Superserver) The parameter isc_dpb_set_page_buffers can still be used by ordinary users on Classic and it will set the buffer size temporarily for that user and that session only. When used by the SYSDBA on either Superserver or Classic, it will change the buffer count in the database header, i.e., make a permanent change to the default buffer size.

16

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

Important Note for Developers and Users of Data Access Drivers and Tools
This change will affect any of the listed DPB parameters that have been explicitly set, either by including them in the DPB implementation by default property values or by enabling them in tools and applications that access databases as ordinary users. For example, a Delphi application that included 'RESERVE PAGE SPACE=TRUE' and 'FORCED WRITES=TRUE' in its database Params property, which caused no problems when the application connected to Firebird 1.x, 2.0.x or 2.1.0/2.1.1, now rejects a connection by a non-SYSDBA user with ISC ERROR CODE 335544788, Unable to perform operation. You must be either SYSDBA or owner of the database.

Cleanup of ibase.h
D. Yemanov, A. Peshkov The API header file, ibase.h has been subjected to a cleanup. with the result that public headers no longer contain private declarations.

Lock Timeout for WAIT Transactions

A. Karyakin, D. Yemanov The new feature extends the WAIT mode by making provision to set a finite time interval to wait for the concurrent transactions. If the timeout has passed, an error (isc_lock_timeout) is reported. Timeout intervals can now be specified per transaction, using the new TPB constant isc_tpb_lock_timeout in the API. Note
The DSQL equivalent is implemented via the LOCK TIMEOUT <value> clause of the SET TRANSACTION statement.

isc_dsql_sql_info() Now Includes Relation Aliases

D. Yemanov The function call isc_dsql_sql_info() has been extended to enable relation aliases to be retrieved, if required.

Enhancement to isc_blob_lookup_desc()
A. dos Santos Fernandes isc_blob_lookup_desc() now also describes blobs that are outputs of stored procedures

API Identifies Client Version

N. Samofatov The macro definition FB_API_VER is added to ibase.h to indicate the current API version. The number corresponds to the appropriate Firebird version. 17

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS The current value of FB_API_VER is 20 (two-digit equivalent of 2.0). This macro can be used by client applications to check the version of ibase.h its being compiled with.

Additions to the isc_database_info() Structure

V. Khorsun The following items have been added to the isc_database_info() function call structure:

isc_info_active_tran_count
Returns the number of currently active transactions.

isc_info_creation_date
Returns the date and time when the database was [re]created. To decode the returned value, call isc_vax_integer twice to extract (first) the date and (second) the time portions of the ISC_TIMESTAMP. Then, use isc_decode_timestamp() as usual.

Additions to the isc_transaction_info() Structure

V. Khorsun The following items have been added to the isc_transaction_info() function call structure:

isc_info_tra_oldest_interesting
Returns the number of the oldest [interesting] transaction when the current transaction started. For snapshot transactions, this is also the number of the oldest transaction in the private copy of the transaction inventory page (TIP).

isc_info_tra_oldest_active
For a read-committed transaction, returns the number of the current transaction. For all other transactions, returns the number of the oldest active transaction when the current transaction started.

isc_info_tra_oldest_snapshot
Returns the number of the lowest tra_oldest_active of all transactions that were active when the current transaction started. Note
This value is used as the threshold ("high-water mark") for garbage collection.

18

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

isc_info_tra_isolation
Returns the isolation level of the current transaction. The format of the returned clumplets is:
isc_info_tra_isolation, 1, isc_info_tra_consistency | isc_info_tra_concurrency | 2, isc_info_tra_read_committed, isc_info_tra_no_rec_version | isc_info_tra_rec_version

That is, for Read Committed transactions, two items are returned (isolation level and record versioning policy) while, for other transactions, one item is returned (isolation level).

isc_info_tra_access
Returns the access mode (read-only or read-write) of the current transaction. The format of the returned clumplets is:
isc_info_tra_access, 1, isc_info_tra_readonly | isc_info_tra_readwrite

isc_info_tra_lock_timeout
Returns the lock timeout set for the current transaction.

Improved Services API

The following improvements have been added to the Services API:

Parameter isc_spb_trusted_auth
(V.2.1, ODS 11.1) isc_spb_trusted_auth applies only to Windows and is used to force Firebird to use Windows trusted authentication for the requested service.

Parameter isc_spb_dbname
(V.2.1, ODS 11.1) For any services related to the security database, provides the ability to supply the name of the security database when invoking a security service remotely. It is equivalent to supplying the -database switch when calling the gsec utility remotely.

Task Execution Optimized

D. Yemanov Services are now executed as threads rather than processes on some threadable CS builds (currently 32- bit Windows and Solaris). 19

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

New Function for Delivering Error Text

C. Valderrama The new function fb_interpret() replaces the former isc_interprete() for extracting the text for a Firebird error message from the error status vector to a client buffer. Important
isc_interprete() is vulnerable to overruns and is deprecated as unsafe. The new function should be used instead.

Accommodation of New Shutdown <state> Parameters

D. Yemanov API Access to database shutdown is through flags appended to the isc_dpb_shutdown parameter in the DBP argument passed to isc_attach_database(). The symbols for the <state> flags are:
#define #define #define #define #define #define #define #define #define #define isc_dpb_shut_cache isc_dpb_shut_attachment isc_dpb_shut_transaction isc_dpb_shut_force isc_dpb_shut_mode_mask isc_dpb_shut_default isc_dpb_shut_normal isc_dpb_shut_multi isc_dpb_shut_single isc_dpb_shut_full 0x1 0x2 0x4 0x8 0x70 0x0 0x10 0x20 0x30 0x40

Example of Use in C/C++

char dpb_buffer[256], *dpb, *p; ISC_STATUS status_vector[ISC_STATUS_LENGTH]; isc_db_handle handle = NULL; dpb = dpb_buffer; *dpb++ = isc_dpb_version1; const char* user_name = SYSDBA; const int user_name_length = strlen(user_name); *dpb++ = isc_dpb_user_name; *dpb++ = user_name_length; memcpy(dpb, user_name, user_name_length); dpb += user_name_length; const char* user_password = masterkey; const int user_password_length = strlen(user_password); *dpb++ = isc_dpb_password; *dpb++ = user_password_length; memcpy(dpb, user_password, user_password_length); dpb += user_password_length;

20

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

// Force *dpb++ = *dpb++ = *dpb++ =

an immediate full database shutdown isc_dpb_shutdown; 1; isc_dpb_shut_force | isc_dpb_shut_full;

const int dpb_length = dpb - dpb_buffer; isc_attach_database(status_vector, 0, employee.db, &handle, dpb_length, dpb_buffer); if (status_vector[0] == 1 && status_vector[1]) { isc_print_status(status_vector); } else { isc_detach_database(status_vector, &handle); }

ODS (On-Disk Structure) Changes

On-disk structure (ODS) changes include the following:

New ODS Number

Firebird 2.0 creates databases with an ODS (On-Disk Structure) version of 11.

Size limit for exception messages increased

V. Khorsun Maximum size of exception messages raised from 78 to 1021 bytes.

New Description Field for Generators

C. Valderrama Added RDB$DESCRIPTION to RDB$GENERATORS, so now you can include description text when creating generators.

New Description Field for SQL Roles

C. Valderrama Added RDB$DESCRIPTION and RDB$SYSTEM_FLAG to RDB$ROLES to allow description text and to flag user-defined roles, respectively. 21

Changes to the Firebird API and ODS

ODS Type Recognition

N. Samofatov Introduced a concept of ODS type to distinguish between InterBase and Firebird databases.

Smarter DSQL Error Reporting

C. Valderrama The DSQL parser will now try to report the line and column number of an incomplete statement.

New Column in RDB$Index_Segments

D. Yemanov, A. Brinkman A new column RDB$STATISTICS has been added to the system table RDB$INDEX_SEGMENTS to store the per-segment selectivity values for multi-key indexes. Note
The column of the same name in RDB$INDICES is kept for compatibility and still represents the total index selectivity, that is used for a full index match.

22

Chapter 4

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Some global improvements and changes have been implemented in Firebird 2.1, as engine development moves towards the architectural changes planned for Firebird 3. Note
Unless otherwise indicated, these improvements apply from v.2.1 forward.

Forced Writes on Linux Now Works!

A. Peshkov For maximum database safety, we configure databases for synchronous writes, a.k.a. Forced Writes ON. This modestrongly recommended for normal production usagemakes the write() system call return only after the physical write to disk is complete. In turn, it guarantees that, after a COMMIT, any data modified by the transaction is physically on the hard-drive, not waiting in the operating system's cache. Its implementation on Linux was very simple - invoke fcntl(dbFile, F_SETFL, O_SYNC). Yet databases on Linux were sometimes corrupted anyway.

Forensics
Speed tests on Linux showed that setting O_SYNC on a file has no effect at all on performance! Fine, fast operating system we may think? Alas, no, it's a documented bug in the Linux kernel! According to the Linux manual, On Linux this command (i.e. fcntl(fd, F_SETFL, flags)) can only change the O_APPEND, O_ASYNC, O_DIRECT, O_NOATIME, and O_NONBLOCK flags. Though it is not documented in any place known to me, it turns out that an attempt to set any flag other than those listed in the manual (such as O_SYNC, for example) won't work but it does not cause fcntl() to return an error, either. For Firebird and for InterBase versions since Day One, it means that Forced Writes has never worked on Linux. It certainly works on Windows. It seems likely that this is not a problem that affects other operating systems, although we cannot guarantee that. To make sure, you can check whether the implementation of fcntl() on your OS is capable of setting the O_SYNC flag. The technique used currently, introduced in the Beta 2 release of Firebird 2.1, is to re-open the file. It should guarantee correct operation on any OS, provided the open() system call works correctly in this respect. It appears that no such problems are reported. The Firebird developers have no idea why such a bug would remain unfixed almost two years after getting into the Linux kernel's bug-tracker. Apparently, in Linux, a documented bug evolves into a feature... 23

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Instant Fix for an Older Firebird

Here's a tip if you want to do an instant fix for the problem in an older version of Firebird: use the sync option when mounting any partition with a Firebird database on board. An example of a line in /etc/fstab:

/dev/sda9

/usr/database

ext3

noatime,sync

1 2

Databases on Raw Devices

A. Peshkov File system I/O can degrade performance severely when a database in Forced Writes mode grows rapidly. On Linux, which lacks the appropriate system calls to grow the database efficiently, performance with Forced Writes can be as much as three times slower than with asynchronous writes. When such conditions prevail, performance may be greatly enhanced by bypassing the file system entirely and restoring the database directly to a raw device. A Firebird database can be recreated on any type of block device.

Moving a Database to a Raw Device

Moving your database to a raw device can be as simple as restoring a backup directly to an unformatted partition in the local storage system. For example,
gbak -c my.fbk /dev/sda7

will restore your database on the third logical disk in the extended partition of your first SCSI or SATA harddrive (disk0). Note
The database does not have a database name other than the device name itself. In the example given, the name of the database is '/dev/sda7'.

Special Issues for nbak/nbackup

The physical backup utility nbackup must be supplied with an explicit file path and name for its difference file, in order to avoid this file being written into the /dev/ directory. You can achieve this with the following statement, using isql:
# isql /dev/sda7

24

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

SQL> alter database add difference file '/tmp/dev_sda7';

To keep the size of the nbak copy within reasonable bounds, it is of benefit to know how much storage on the device is actually occupied. The '-s' switch of nbackup will return the size of the database in database pages:
# nbackup -s -l /dev/sda7 77173

Don't confuse the result here with the block size of the device. The figure returned77173is the number of pages occupied by the database. Calculate the physical size (in bytes) as (number of pages * page size). If you are unsure of the page size, you can query it from the database header using gstat -h:

# gstat -h /dev/sda7 Database "/dev/sda7" Database header page information: Flags 0 Checksum 12345 Generation 43 Page size 4096 < ODS version 11.1 .......

Examples of nbackup Usage with a Raw Device

1. A backup can be performed in a script, using the output from the '-s' switch directly. For example,
# # # # DbFile=/dev/sda7 DbSize=`nbackup -L $DbFile -S` || exit 1 dd if=$DbFile ibs=4k count=$DbSize | # compress and record DVD nbackup -N $DbFile

2.

A physical backup using nbackup directly from the command line:

# nbackup -B 0 /dev/sda7 /tmp/lvl.0

Further Advice about Raw Devices

Although no other specific issues are known at this point about the use of raw device storage for databases, keep in mind that the growth and potential growth of the database is less obvious to end-users than one that lives as a file within a file system. If control of the production system's environment is out of your direct reach, be certain to deploy adequate documentation for any monitoring that will be required!

25

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1 the very Windows-knowledgeable might want to try out the concept of raw device storage on Windows systems. It has not been a project priority to explore how it might be achieved on that platform. However, if you think you know a way to do it, please feel welcome to test the idea in your Windows lab and report your observationsgood or bad or indifferentback to the firebird-devel list. Tip
Maintain your raw devices in aliases.conf. That way, in the event of needing to reconfigure the storage hardware, there will be no need to alter any connection strings in your application code.

Remote Interface Improvements

V. Khorsun, D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-971 The remote protocol has been slightly improved to perform better in slow networks. In order to achieve this, more advanced packets batching is now performed, along with some buffer transmission optimizations. In a real world test scenario, these changes showed about 50 per cent fewer API round trips, thus incurring about 40 per cent fewer TCP roundtrips. In Firebird 2.1 the remote interface limits the packet size of the response to various isc_XXX_info calls to the real used length of the contained data, whereas before it sent the full specified buffer back to the client buffer, even if only 10 bytes were actually filled. Firebird 2.1 remote interface sends back only 10 bytes in this case. Some of our users should see a benefit from the changes, especially two-tier clients accessing databases over the Internet. The changes can be summarised as a. Batched packets delivery. Requires both server and client of version v2.1, enabled upon a successful protocol handshake. Delays sending packets of certain types which can be deferred for batched transfer with the next packet. (Allocate/deallocate statement operations come into this category, for example.) Pre-fetching some pieces of information about a statement or request and caching them on the client side for (probable) following API calls. Implemented on the client side only, but relies partly on the benefits of reduced round trips described in (a). It works with any server version, even possibly providing a small benefit for badly written client applications, although best performance is not to be expected if the client is communicating with a pre-V.2.1 server. c. Reduced information responses from the engine (no trailing zeroes). As the implementation is server-side only, it requires a V.2.1 server and any client. Even old clients will work with Firebird 2.1 and see some benefit from the reduction of round trips, although the old remote interface, unlike the new, will still send back big packets for isc_dsql_prepare(). Another round-trip saver, termed defer execute, whereby SELECT requests will be held at the point just before execution of the isc_dsql_execute until the next API call on the same statement. The benefit of the saved round-trip becomes most visible where there is a bunch of SELECT requests whose result set fits into one or two network packets. This enhancement takes effect only if both client and server are v.2.1 or higher. 26

b.

d.

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Note
A faintly possible side-effect is that, if isc_dsql_execute should happen to fail with a certain exception, this exception is returned to the client in the response to the API call that was actually responsible; i.e., instead of being returned by isc_dsql_execute it would be returned by isc_dsql_fetch, isc_dsql_info, or whichever API call actually dispatched the op_execute call. In most cases, the side-effect would be transparent: it might show up in a case where some error occurred with default values for PSQL parameters or variables and would be noticed as an exception array where the exceptions were delivered in an unusual sequence.

The changes work with either TCP/IP or NetBEUI. They are backward-compatible, so existing client code will not be broken. However, when you are using a driver layer that implements its own interpretation of the remote protocolsuch as the Jaybird JDBC and the FirebirdClient .NET driversyour existing code will not enable the enhancements unless you usedrivers are updated.

API Changes
XSQLVAR
A. dos Santos Fernandes The identifier of the connection character set or, when the connection character set is NONE, the BLOB character set, is now passed in the XSQLVAR::sqlscale item of text BLOBs.

Optimization
Optimization for Multiple Index Scans
V. Khorsun Feature request CORE-1069 An optimization was done for index scanning when more than one index is to be scanned with AND conjunctions.

Optimize sparse bitmap operations

V. Khorsun Feature request CORE-1070 Optimization was done for sparse bitmap operations (set, test and clear) when values are mostly consecutive.

27

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Configuration and Tuning

Increased Lock Manager Limits & Defaults
D. Yemanov Feature requests CORE-958 and CORE-937 the maximum number of hash slots is raised from 2048 to 65,536. Because the actual setting should be a prime number, the exact supported maximum is 65,521 (the biggest prime number below 65,536). The minimum is 101. the new default number of hash slots is 1009 the default lock table size has been increased to 1 Mb on all platforms

Page sizes of 1K and 2K Deprecated

D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-969 Page sizes of 1K and 2K are deprecated as inefficient. Note
The small page restriction applies to new databases only. Old ones can be attached to regardless of their page size.

Enlarge Disk Allocation Chunks

V. Khorsun Feature request CORE-1229 Until v.2.1, Firebird had no special rules about allocating disk space for database file pages. Because of dependencies between pages that it maintains itself, to service its careful write strategy, it has just written to newly-allocated pages in indeterminate order. For databases using ODS 11.1 and higher, Firebird servers from v.2.1 onward use a different algorithm for allocating disk space, to address two recognised problems associated with the existing approach: 1. Corruptions resulting from out-of-space conditions on disk The indeterminate order of writes can give rise to a situation that, at a point where the page cache contains a large number of dirty pages and Firebird needs to request space for a new page in the process of writing them out, there is insufficient disk space to fulfil the request. Under such conditions it often happens that the administrator decides to shut down the database in order to make some more disk space available, causing the remaining dirty pages in the cache to be lost. This leads to serious corruptions. 28

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

2.

File fragmentation Allocating disk space in relatively small chunks can lead to significant fragmentation of the database file at file system level, impairing the performance of large scans, as during a backup, for example.

The Solution
The solution is to introduce some rules and rationales to govern page writes according to the state of available disk space, as follows.a. Each newly allocated page writes to disk immediately before returning to the engine. If the page cannot be written then the allocation does not happen: the PIP bit remains uncleared and the appropriate I/O error is raised. Corruption cannot arise, since it is guaranteed that all dirty pages in cache have disk space allocated and can be written safely. Because this change adds an extra write for each newly-allocated page, some performance penalty is to be expected. To mitigate the effect, writes of newly-allocated pages are performed in batches of up to 128 Kb and Firebird keeps track of the number of these initialized pages in the PIP header. Note
A page that has been allocated, released and re-allocated is already space in hand, meaning that no further verification is required in order to initialize it. Hence, a newly allocated page is subjected to this double-write only if it is a block that has never been allocated before.

b.

To address the issue of file fragmentation, Firebird now uses the appropriate call to the API of the file system to preallocate disk space in relatively large chunks. Preallocation also gives room to avoid corruptions in the event of an out of disk space condition. Chances are that the database will have enough space preallocated to continue operating until the administrator can make some disk space available. Important
Windows Only (for Now) Currently, only Windows file systems publish such API calls, which means that, for now, this aspect of the solution is supported only in the Windows builds of Firebird. However, similar facilities have recently been added to the Linux API, allowing the prospect that a suitable API function call will appear in such popular file systems as ext3 in future.

DatabaseGrowthIncrement Configuration Parameter

For better control of disk space preallocation, the new parameter DatabaseGrowthIncrement has been added to firebird.conf. It represents the upper limit for the preallocation chunk size in bytes. Important
Please be sure to read the details regarding this configuration, under DatabaseGrowthIncrement in the chapter entitled New Configuration Parameters and Changes.

29

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Bypass Filesystem Caching on Superserver

V. Khorsun Feature requests CORE-1381 and CORE-1480 Firebird uses and maintains its own cache in memory for page buffers. The operating system, in turn, may recache Firebird's cache in its own filesystem cache. If Firebird is configured to use a cache that is large relative to the available RAM and Forced Writes is on, this cache duplication drains resources for little or no benefit. Often, when the operating system tries to cache a big file, it moves the Firebird page cache to the swap, causing intensive, unnecessary paging. In practice, if the Firebird page cache size for Superserver is set to more than 80 per cent of the available RAM, resource problems will be extreme. Note
Filesystem caching is of some benefit on file writes, but only if Forced Writes is OFF, which is not recommended for most conditions.

Now, Superserver on both Windows and POSIX can be configured by a new configuration parameter, MaxFileSystemCache, to prevent or enable filesystem caching. It may provide the benefit of freeing more memory for other operations such as sorting and, where there are multiple databases, reduce the demands made on host resources. Note
For Classic, there is no escaping filesystem caching.

For details of the MaxFileSystemCache parameter, see MaxFileSystemCache.

Other Global Improvements

Garbage Collector Rationalisation
V. Khorsun Feature request CORE-1071 The background garbage collector process was reading all back versions of records on a page, including those created by active transactions. Since back versions of active records cannot be considered for garbage collection, it was wasteful to read them.

Immediate Release of External Files

V. Khorsun Feature request CORE- 961 The engine will now release external table files as soon as they are no longer in use by user requests. 30

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1

Synchronization of DSQL metadata cache objects in Classic server

A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-976 No details.

BLOB Improvements
A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-1169 Conversion of temporary blobs to the destination blob type now occurs when materializing.

Type Flag for Stored Procedures

D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-779 Introduced a type flag for stored procedures, adding column RDB$PROCEDURE_TYPE to the table RDB $PROCEDURES. Possible values are: - 0 or NULL legacy procedure (no validation checks are performed) -1selectable procedure (one that contains a SUSPEND statement) -2executable procedure (no SUSPEND statement, cannot be selected from)

Help for Getting Core Dumps on Linux

A. Peshkov Feature request CORE-1558 The configuration parameter BugcheckAbort provides the capability to make the server stop trying to continue operation after a bugcheck and instead, to call abort() immediately and dump a core file. Since a bugcheck usually occurs as a result of a problem the server does not recognise, continuing operation with an unresolved problem is not usually possible anyway, and the core dump can provide useful debug information. In the more recent Linux distributions the default setups no longer dump core automatically when an application crashes. Users often have troubles trying to get them working. Differing rules for Classic and Superserver, combined with a lack of consistency between the OS setup tools from distro to distro, make it difficult to help out with any useful general rule. Code has been added for Classic and Superserver on Linux to bypass these problems and automate generation of a core dump file when an abort() on BUGCHECK occurs. The Firebird server will make the required 'cwd' (change 31

Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1 working directory) to an appropriate writable location (/tmp) and set the core file size limit so that the 'soft' limit equals the 'hard' limit. Note
In a release version, the automated core-dumping is active only when the BugcheckAbort parameter in firebird.conf is set to true (1). In a debug version, it is always active. If you need to enable the facility, don't forget that the server needs to be restarted to activate a parameter change.

32

Chapter 5

Data Definition Language (DDL)

In this chapter are the additions and improvements that have been added to the SQL data definition language subset in the Firebird 2 development cycle. Those marked as introduced in v.2.1 are available only to ODS 11.1 and higher databases.

Quick Links
Database Triggers Global Temporary Tables Column Aliases in CREATE VIEW CREATE TRIGGER SQL2003 Variant Alternative Syntax for Computed Fields CREATE SEQUENCE REVOKE ADMIN OPTION SET/DROP DEFAULT Clauses Syntaxes for Changing Exceptions ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION COMMENT Statement CREATE VIEW Extensions Create FKs Without Exclusive Access Changed Logic for View Updates Descriptive Identifiers for BLOB Subtypes CREATE COLLATION statement

Database Triggers
Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) A database trigger is a PSQL module that is executed when a connection or transaction event occurs. The events and the timings of their triggers are as follows.CONNECT

Database connection is established A transaction is started Triggers are fired; uncaught exceptions roll back the transaction, disconnect the attachment and are returned to the client The transaction is committed
DISCONNECT

A transaction is started

33

Data Definition Language (DDL) Triggers are fired; uncaught exceptions roll back the transaction, disconnect the attachment and are swallowed The transaction is committed The attachment is disconnected
TRANSACTION START

Triggers are fired in the newly-created user transaction; uncaught exceptions are returned to the client and the transaction is rolled back.
TRANSACTION COMMIT

Triggers are fired in the committing transaction; uncaught exceptions roll back the trigger's savepoint, the commit command is aborted and the exception is returned to the client. Note
For two-phase transactions, the triggers are fired in the prepare, not in the commit.

TRANSACTION ROLLBACK

Triggers are fired during the roll-back of the transaction. Changes done will be rolled back with the transaction. Exceptions are swallowed Syntax
<database-trigger> ::= {CREATE | RECREATE | CREATE OR ALTER} TRIGGER <name> [ACTIVE | INACTIVE] ON <event> [POSITION <n>] AS BEGIN ... END <event> ::= CONNECT | DISCONNECT | TRANSACTION START | TRANSACTION COMMIT | TRANSACTION ROLLBACK

Rules and Restrictions 1. 2. Database triggers type cannot be changed. Permission to create, recreate, create or alter, or drop database triggers is restricted to the database owner and SYSDBA.

Utilities Support for Database Triggers

New parameters were added to gbak, nbackup and isql to suppress database triggers from running. They are available only to the database owner and SYSDBA: 34

Data Definition Language (DDL)

gbak -nodbtriggers isql -nodbtriggers nbackup -T

Global Temporary Tables

Vlad Khorsun (v.2.1) Global temporary tables (GTTs) are tables that are stored in the system catalogue with permanent metadata, but with temporary data. Data from different connections (or transactions, depending on the scope) are isolated from each other, but the metadata of the GTT are shared among all connections and transactions. There are two kinds of GTT: with data that persists for the lifetime of connection in which the specified GTT was referenced; and with data that persists only for the lifetime of the referencing transaction.

Syntax and Rules for GTTs

CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE ... [ON COMMIT <DELETE | PRESERVE> ROWS]

Creates the metadata for the temporary table in the system catalogue. The clause ON COMMIT sets the kind of temporary table: ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS Data left in the given table after the end of the transaction remain in database until the connection ends. ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS Data in the given table are deleted from the database immediately after the end of the transaction. ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS is used by default if the optional clause ON COMMIT is not specified. CREATE GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE is a regular DDL statement that is processed by the engine the same way as a CREATE TABLE statement is processed. Accordingly, it not possible to create or drop a GTT within a stored procedure or trigger. Relation Type GTT definitions are distinguished in the system catalogue from one another and from permanent tables by the value of RDB$RELATIONS.RDB$RELATION_TYPE: A GTT with ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS option has RDB$RELATION_TYPE = 4 A GTT with ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS option has RDB$RELATION_TYPE = 5. Note
For the full list of values, see RDB$TYPES.

35

Data Definition Language (DDL) Structural Feature Support The same structural features that you can apply to regular tables (indexes, triggers, field-level and table level constraints) are also available to a GTT, with certain restrictions on how GTTs and regular tables can interrelate.a. b. references between persistent and temporary tables are forbidden A GTT with ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS cannot have a reference on a GTT with ON COMMIT DELETE ROWS A domain constraint cannot have a reference to any GTT.

c.

Implementation Notes
An instance of a GTTa set of data rows created by and visible within the given connection or transaction is created when the GTT is referenced for the first time, usually at statement prepare time. Each instance has its own private set of pages on which data and indexes are stored. The data rows and indexes have the same physical storage layout as permanent tables. When the connection or transaction ends, all pages of a GTT instance are released immediately. It is similar to what happens when a DROP TABLE is performed, except that the metadata definition is retained, of course. This is much quicker than the traditional row-by-row delete + garbage collection of deleted record versions. Note
This method of deletion does not cause DELETE triggers to fire, so do not be tempted to define Before or After Delete triggers on the false assumption that you can incorporate some kind of last rites that will be execute just as your temporary data breathes its last!

The data and index pages of all GTT instances are placed in separate temporary files. Each connection has its own temporary file created the first time the connection references some GTT. Note
These temporary files are always opened with Forced Writes = OFF, regardless of the database setting for Forced Writes.

No limit is placed on the number of GTT instances that can coexist. If you have N transactions active simultaneously and each transaction has referenced some GTT then you will have N instances of the GTT.

Views Enhancements
D. Yemanov A couple of enhancements were made to view definitions in v.2.1.-

Use Column Aliases in CREATE VIEW

Feature requestCORE-831 36

Data Definition Language (DDL) (v.2.1) Column aliases can now be processed as column names in the view definition. Example
CREATE VIEW V_TEST AS SELECT ID, COL1 AS CODE, COL2 AS NAME FROM TAB;

SQL2003 compliance for CREATE TRIGGER

A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-711 (v.2.1) Alternative syntax is now available for CREATE TRIGGER that complies with SQL2003. Syntax Patterns Existing Form
create trigger t1 FOR atable [active] before insert or update as begin ... end

SQL2003 Form
create trigger t2 [active] before insert or update ON atable as begin ... end

Note the different positions of the clause identifying the table and the different keywords pointing to the table identifier (existing: FOR; SQL2003: ON). Both syntaxes are valid and are available also for all CREATE TRIGGER, RECREATE TRIGGER and CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER statements.

SQL2003 Compliant Alternative for Computed Fields

D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-1386 37

Data Definition Language (DDL) (v.2.1) SQL-compliant alternative syntax GENERATED ALWAYS AS was implemented for defining a computed field in CREATE/ALTER TABLE. Syntax Pattern
<column name> [<type>] GENERATED ALWAYS AS ( <expr> )

It is fully equivalent semantically with the legacy form:

<column name> [<type>] COMPUTED [BY] ( <expr> )

Example
CREATE TABLE T (PK INT, EXPR GENERATED ALWAYS AS (PK + 1))

CREATE SEQUENCE
D. Yemanov SEQUENCE has been introduced as a synonym for GENERATOR, in accordance with SQL-99. SEQUENCE is a syntax term described in the SQL specification, whereas GENERATOR is a legacy InterBase syntax term. Use of the standard SEQUENCE syntax in your applications is recommended. A sequence generator is a mechanism for generating successive exact numeric values, one at a time. A sequence generator is a named schema object. In dialect 3 it is a BIGINT, in dialect 1 it is an INTEGER. Syntax patterns
CREATE { SEQUENCE | GENERATOR } <name> DROP { SEQUENCE | GENERATOR } <name> SET GENERATOR <name> TO <start_value> ALTER SEQUENCE <name> RESTART WITH <start_value> GEN_ID (<name>, <increment_value>) NEXT VALUE FOR <name>

Examples 1.
CREATE SEQUENCE S_EMPLOYEE;

2.
ALTER SEQUENCE S_EMPLOYEE RESTART WITH 0;

See also the notes about NEXT VALUE FOR. 38

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Warning
ALTER SEQUENCE, like SET GENERATOR, is a good way to screw up the generation of key values!

REVOKE ADMIN OPTION

D. Yemanov SYSDBA, the database creator or the owner of an object can grant rights on that object to other users. However, those rights can be made inheritable, too. By using WITH GRANT OPTION, the grantor gives the grantee the right to become a grantor of the same rights in turn. This ability can be removed by the original grantor with REVOKE GRANT OPTION FROM user. However, there's a second form that involves roles. Instead of specifying the same rights for many users (soon it becomes a maintenance nightmare) you can create a role, assign a package of rights to that role and then grant the role to one or more users. Any change to the role's rights affect all those users. By using WITH ADMIN OPTION, the grantor (typically the role creator) gives the grantee the right to become a grantor of the same role in turn. Until FB v2, this ability couldn't be removed unless the original grantor fiddled with system tables directly. Now, the ability to grant the role can be removed by the original grantor with REVOKE ADMIN OPTION FROM user.

SET/DROP DEFAULT Clauses for ALTER TABLE

C. Valderrama Domains allow their defaults to be changed or dropped. It seems natural that table fields can be manipulated the same way without going directly to the system tables. Syntax Pattern
ALTER TABLE t ALTER [COLUMN] c SET DEFAULT default_value; ALTER TABLE t ALTER [COLUMN] c DROP DEFAULT;

Note
Array fields cannot have a default value. If you change the type of a field, its default may remain in place. This is because a field could be changed to a defaulted domain, while the field definition itself could override the domain's default. On the other hand, if the field is given a new type directly, any default belongs logically to the field and is maintained on the implicit domain created for it behind the scenes.

Syntaxes for Changing Exceptions

D. Yemanov The DDL statements RECREATE EXCEPTION and CREATE OR ALTER EXCEPTION (feature request SF #1167973) have been implemented, allowing either creating, recreating or altering a custom exception, depending on whether it already exists. 39

Data Definition Language (DDL)

RECREATE EXCEPTION
RECREATE EXCEPTION is exactly like CREATE EXCEPTION if the exception does not already exist. If it does exist, its definition will be completely replaced, if there are no dependencies on it.

CREATE OR ALTER EXCEPTION

CREATE OR ALTER EXCEPTION will create the exception if it does not already exist, or will alter the definition if it does, without affecting dependencies.

ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION

C. Valderrama ALTER EXTERNAL FUNCTION has been implemented, to enable the entry_point or the module_name to be changed when the UDF declaration cannot be dropped due to existing dependencies.

COMMENT Statement
C. Valderrama The COMMENT statement has been implemented for setting metadata descriptions. Syntax Pattern
COMMENT COMMENT COMMENT COMMENT ON ON ON ON DATABASE IS {'txt'|NULL}; <basic_type> name IS {'txt'|NULL}; COLUMN tblviewname.fieldname IS {'txt'|NULL}; PARAMETER procname.parname IS {'txt'|NULL};

An empty literal string '' will act as NULL since the internal code (DYN in this case) works this way with blobs.
<basic_type>: DOMAIN TABLE VIEW PROCEDURE TRIGGER EXTERNAL FUNCTION FILTER EXCEPTION GENERATOR SEQUENCE INDEX ROLE CHARACTER SET COLLATION SECURITY CLASS1
1

not implemented, because this type is hidden. 40

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Extensions to CREATE VIEW Specification

D. Yemanov FIRST/SKIP and ROWS syntaxes and PLAN and ORDER BY clauses can now be used in view specifications. From Firebird 2.0 onward, views are treated as fully-featured SELECT expressions. Consequently, the clauses FIRST/SKIP, ROWS, UNION, ORDER BY and PLAN are now allowed in views and work as expected. Syntax For syntax details, refer to Select Statement & Expression Syntax in the chapter about DML.

RECREATE TRIGGER Statement Implemented

D. Yemanov The DDL statement RECREATE TRIGGER statement is now available in DDL. Semantics are the same as for other RECREATE statements.

Usage Enhancements
The following changes will affect usage or existing, pre-Firebird 2 workarounds in existing applications or databases to some degree.

Creating Foreign Key Constraints No Longer Requires Exclusive Access

V. Horsun Now it is possible to create foreign key constraints without needing to get an exclusive lock on the whole database.

Changed Logic for View Updates

Apply NOT NULL constraints to base tables only, ignoring the ones inherited by view columns from domain definitions.

Descriptive Identifiers for BLOB Subtypes

A. Peshkov, C. Valderrama Previously, the only allowed syntax for declaring a blob filter was:
declare filter <name> input_type <number> output_type <number> entry_point <function_in_library> module_name <library_name>;

The alternative new syntax is:

41

Data Definition Language (DDL)

declare filter <name> input_type <mnemonic> output_type <mnemonic> entry_point <function_in_library> module_name <library_name>;

where <mnemonic> refers to a subtype identifier known to the engine. Initially they are binary, text and others mostly for internal usage, but an adventurous user could write a new mnemonic in rdb$types and use it, since it is parsed only at declaration time. The engine keeps the numerical value. Remember, only negative subtype values are meant to be defined by users. To get the predefined types, do
select RDB$TYPE, RDB$TYPE_NAME, RDB$SYSTEM_FLAG from rdb$types where rdb$field_name = 'RDB$FIELD_SUB_TYPE'; RDB$TYPE RDB$TYPE_NAME RDB$SYSTEM_FLAG ========= ============================ ================= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 BINARY TEXT BLR ACL RANGES SUMMARY FORMAT TRANSACTION_DESCRIPTION EXTERNAL_FILE_DESCRIPTION 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Examples Original declaration:

declare filter pesh input_type 0 output_type 3 entry_point 'f' module_name 'p';

Alternative declaration:
declare filter pesh input_type binary output_type acl entry_point 'f' module_name 'p';

Declaring a name for a user defined blob subtype (remember to commit after the insertion):
SQL> CON> SQL> SQL> CON> SQL> BLOB insert into rdb$types values('RDB$FIELD_SUB_TYPE', -100, 'XDR', 'test type', 0); commit; declare filter pesh2 input_type xdr output_type text entry_point 'p2' module_name 'p'; show filter pesh2; Filter: PESH2 Input subtype: -100 Output subtype: 1 Filter library is p Entry point is p2

42

Chapter 6

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

In this chapter are the additions and improvements that have been added to the SQL data manipulation language subset in the Firebird 2 development cycle. Those marked as introduced in v.2.1 are available only to ODS 11.1 and higher databases. Important
A new configuration parameter, named RelaxedAliasChecking was added to the firebird.conf in Firebird 2.1 to permit a slight relaxation of the Firebird 2.0.x restrictions on mixing relation aliases and table names in a query (see DSQL Parsing of Table Names is Stricter, below). This parameter will not be a permanent fixture in Firebird but is intended as a migration aid for those needing time to adjust existing code. More information under RelaxedAliasChecking in the chapter New Configuration Parameters.

Quick Links
Common Table Expressions LIST Function RETURNING Clause UPDATE OR INSERT Statement MERGE Statement New JOIN Types - NAMED COLUMNS & NATURAL JOIN - CROSS JOIN INSERT with Defaults Text BLOB Compatibility Compare BLOB=BLOB Sorting on BLOBs RDB$DB_KEY Returns NULL in Outer Joins New Built-in Functions Enhancements to Built-in Functions IIF() Expression Improvement in CAST() Behaviour Expression Arguments for SUBSTRING() DSQL Parsing of Table Names is Stricter EXECUTE BLOCK Statement Derived Tables ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax ROWS Syntax UNION DISTINCT Improved Type Coercion in UNIONs UNIONs Allowed in ANY/ALL/IN Subqueries 43

Data Manipulation Language (DML) New [NOT] DISTINCT Predicate NULL Comparison Rule Relaxed NULLs Ordering Changed UNION Sets in Subquery Constructs Extended Context Variables Query Plans Improvements GROUP or ORDER by Alias Name GROUP BY Arbitrary Expressions Order * Sets by Implicit Degree Number NEXT VALUE FOR Articles 1. Select Statement & Expression Syntax 2. Data Type of an Aggregation Result 3. A Useful Trick with Date Literals

Common Table Expressions

Vlad Khorsun Based on work by Paul Ruizendaal for Fyracle project (v.2.1) A common table expression (CTE) is like a view that is defined locally within a main query. The engine treats a CTE like a derived table and no intermediate materialisation of the data is performed.

Benefits of CTEs
Using CTEs allows you to specify dynamic queries that are recursive: The engine begins execution from a non-recursive member. For each row evaluated, it starts executing each recursive member one-by-one, using the current values from the outer row as parameters. If the currently executing instance of a recursive member produces no rows, execution loops back one level and gets the next row from the outer result set. The memory and CPU overhead of a recursive CTE is much less than that of an equivalent recursive stored procedure.

Recursion Limit
Currently the recursion depth is limited to a hard-coded value of 1024.

Syntax and Rules for CTEs

select : select_expr for_update_clause lock_clause select_expr : with_clause select_expr_body order_clause rows_clause | select_expr_body order_clause rows_clause with_clause : WITH RECURSIVE with_list | WITH with_list

44

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

with_list : with_item | with_item ',' with_list with_item : symbol_table_alias_name derived_column_list AS '(' select_expr ')' select_expr_body : query_term | select_expr_body UNION distinct_noise query_term | select_expr_body UNION ALL query_term

A less formal representation:

WITH [RECURSIVE] CTE_A [(a1, a2, )] AS ( SELECT ), CTE_B [(b1, b2, )] AS ( SELECT ), ... SELECT ... FROM CTE_A, CTE_B, TAB1, TAB2 ... WHERE ...

Rules for Non-Recursive CTEs Multiple table expressions can be defined in one query Any clause legal in a SELECT specification is legal in table expressions Table expressions can reference one another References between expressions should not have loops Table expressions can be used within any part of the main query or another table expression The same table expression can be used more than once in the main query Table expressions (as subqueries) can be used in INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements Table expressions are legal in PSQL code WITH statements can not be nested Example of a non-recursive CTE
WITH DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET AS ( SELECT FISCAL_YEAR, DEPT_NO, SUM(PROJECTED_BUDGET) AS BUDGET FROM PROJ_DEPT_BUDGET GROUP BY FISCAL_YEAR, DEPT_NO ) SELECT D.DEPT_NO, D.DEPARTMENT, B_1993.BUDGET AS B_1993, B_1994.BUDGET AS B_1994, B_1995.BUDGET AS B_1995, B_1996.BUDGET AS B_1996 FROM DEPARTMENT D

45

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1993 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1993.DEPT_NO AND B_1993.FISCAL_YEAR = 1993 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1994 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1994.DEPT_NO AND B_1994.FISCAL_YEAR = 1994 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1995 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1995.DEPT_NO AND B_1995.FISCAL_YEAR = 1995 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1996 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1996.DEPT_NO AND B_1996.FISCAL_YEAR = 1996 WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT * FROM PROJ_DEPT_BUDGET B WHERE D.DEPT_NO = B.DEPT_NO)

Rules for Recursive CTEs A recursive CTE is self-referencing (has a reference to itself) A recursive CTE is a UNION of recursive and non-recursive members: - At least one non-recursive member (anchor) must be present - Non-recursive members are placed first in the UNION - Recursive members are separated from anchor members and from one another with UNION ALL clauses, i.e., non-recursive member (anchor) UNION [ALL | DISTINCT] non-recursive member (anchor) UNION [ALL | DISTINCT] non-recursive member (anchor) UNION ALL recursive member UNION ALL recursive member

References between CTEs should not have loops Aggregates (DISTINCT, GROUP BY, HAVING) and aggregate functions (SUM, COUNT, MAX etc) are not allowed in recursive members A recursive member can have only one reference to itself and only in a FROM clause A recursive reference cannot participate in an outer join Example of a recursive CTE
WITH RECURSIVE DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET AS (

46

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

SELECT FISCAL_YEAR, DEPT_NO, SUM(PROJECTED_BUDGET) AS BUDGET FROM PROJ_DEPT_BUDGET GROUP BY FISCAL_YEAR, DEPT_NO ), DEPT_TREE AS ( SELECT DEPT_NO, HEAD_DEPT, DEPARTMENT, CAST('' AS VARCHAR(255)) AS INDENT FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE HEAD_DEPT IS NULL UNION ALL SELECT D.DEPT_NO, D.HEAD_DEPT, D.DEPARTMENT, H.INDENT || ' ' FROM DEPARTMENT D JOIN DEPT_TREE H ON D.HEAD_DEPT = H.DEPT_NO ) SELECT D.DEPT_NO, D.INDENT || D.DEPARTMENT AS DEPARTMENT, B_1993.BUDGET AS B_1993, B_1994.BUDGET AS B_1994, B_1995.BUDGET AS B_1995, B_1996.BUDGET AS B_1996 FROM DEPT_TREE D LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1993 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1993.DEPT_NO AND B_1993.FISCAL_YEAR = 1993 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1994 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1994.DEPT_NO AND B_1994.FISCAL_YEAR = 1994 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1995 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1995.DEPT_NO AND B_1995.FISCAL_YEAR = 1995 LEFT JOIN DEPT_YEAR_BUDGET B_1996 ON D.DEPT_NO = B_1996.DEPT_NO AND B_1996.FISCAL_YEAR = 1996

The LIST Function

Oleg Loa Dmitry Yemanov (v.2.1) This function returns a string result with the concatenated non-NULL values from a group. It returns NULL if there are no non-NULL values. Format
<list function> ::=

47

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

LIST '(' [ {ALL | DISTINCT} ] <value expression> [',' <delimiter value> ] ')' <delimiter value> ::= { <string literal> | <parameter> | <variable> }

Syntax Rules 1. 2. If neither ALL nor DISTINCT is specified, ALL is implied. If <delimiter value> is omitted, a comma is used to separate the concatenated values.

Other Notes 1. 2. 3. Numeric and date/time values are implicitly converted to strings during evaluation. The result value is of type BLOB with SUB_TYPE TEXT for all cases except list of BLOB with different subtype. Ordering of values within a group is implementation-defined.

Examples
/* A */ SELECT LIST(ID, ':') FROM MY_TABLE /* B */ SELECT TAG_TYPE, LIST(TAG_VALUE) FROM TAGS GROUP BY TAG_TYPE

The RETURNING Clause

Dmitry Yemanov Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) The purpose of this SQL enhancement is to enable the column values stored into a table as a result of the INSERT, UPDATE OR INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements to be returned to the client. The most likely usage is for retrieving the value generated for a primary key inside a BEFORE-trigger. The RETURNING clause is optional and is available in both DSQL and PSQL, although the rules differ slightly. In DSQL, the execution of the operation itself and the return of the set occur in a single protocol round trip. Because the RETURNING clause is designed to return a singleton set in response to completing an operation on a single record, it is not valid to specify the clause in a statement that inserts, updates or deletes multiple records. Note
In DSQL, the statement always returns the set, even if the operation has no effect on any record. Hence, at this stage of implementation, the potential exists to return a set that is all nulls. (This may be changed in future.) In PSQL, if no row was affected by the statement, nothing is returned and values of the receiving variables are unchanged.

48

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Syntax Patterns

INSERT INTO ... VALUES (...) [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]] INSERT INTO ... SELECT ... [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]] UPDATE OR INSERT INTO ... VALUES (...) ... [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]] UPDATE ... [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]] DELETE FROM ... [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]]

Rules for Using a RETURNING Clause

1. 2. The INTO part (i.e. the variable list) is allowed in PSQL only, for assigning the output set to local variables. It is rejected in DSQL. The presence of the RETURNING clause causes an INSERT statement to be described by the API as isc_info_sql_stmt_exec_procedure rather than isc_info_sql_stmt_insert. Existing connectivity drivers should already be capable of supporting this feature without special alterations. The RETURNING clause ignores any explicit record change (update or delete) that occurs as a result of the execution of an AFTER trigger. OLD and NEW context variables can be used in the RETURNING clause of UPDATE and INSERT OR UPDATE statements. In UPDATE and INSERT OR UPDATE statements, field references that are unqualified or qualified by table name or relation alias are resolved to the value of the corresponding NEW context variable.

3. 4.

5.

Examples 1.
INSERT INTO T1 (F1, F2) VALUES (:F1, :F2) RETURNING F1, F2 INTO :V1, :V2;

2.
INSERT INTO T2 (F1, F2) VALUES (1, 2) RETURNING ID INTO :PK;

3.
DELETE FROM T1 WHERE F1 = 1 RETURNING F2;

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

4.
UPDATE T1 SET F2 = F2 * 10 RETURNING OLD.F2, NEW.F2;

UPDATE OR INSERT Statement

Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) This syntax has been introduced to enable a record to be either updated or inserted, according to whether or not it already exists (checked with IS NOT DISTINCT). The statement is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Syntax Pattern
UPDATE OR INSERT INTO <table or view> [(<column_list>)] VALUES (<value_list>) [MATCHING (<column_list>)] [RETURNING <column_list> [INTO <variable_list>]]

Examples 1.
UPDATE OR INSERT INTO T1 (F1, F2) VALUES (:F1, :F2);

2.
UPDATE OR INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (ID, NAME) VALUES (:ID, :NAME) RETURNING ID;

3.
UPDATE OR INSERT INTO T1 (F1, F2) VALUES (:F1, :F2) MATCHING (F1);

4.
UPDATE OR INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (ID, NAME) VALUES (:ID, :NAME) RETURNING OLD.NAME;

Usage Notes
1. 2. When MATCHING is omitted, the existence of a primary key is required. INSERT and UPDATE permissions are needed on <table or view>. 50

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

3.

If the RETURNING clause is present, then the statement is described as isc_info_sql_stmt_exec_ procedure by the API; otherwise, it is described as isc_info_sql_stmt_insert. Note
A multiple rows in singleton select error will be raised if the RETURNING clause is present and more than one record matches the search condition.

MERGE Statement
Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) This syntax has been introduced to enable a record to be either updated or inserted, according to whether or not a stated condition is met. The statement is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Syntax Pattern
<merge statement> ::= MERGE INTO <table or view> [ [AS] <correlation name> ] USING <table or view or derived table> [ [AS] <correlation name> ] ON <condition> [ <merge when matched> ] [ <merge when not matched> ] <merge when matched> ::= WHEN MATCHED THEN UPDATE SET <assignment list> <merge when not matched> ::= WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN INSERT [ <left paren> <column list> <right paren> ] VALUES <left paren> <value list> <right paren>

Rules for MERGE

1. 2. At least one of <merge when matched> and <merge when not matched> should be specified Neither should be specified more than once. Note
A right join is made between the INTO and USING tables using the condition. UPDATE is called when a matching record exists in the left (INTO) table, otherwise INSERT is called. If no record is returned from the join, INSERT is not called.

Example
MERGE INTO customers c

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

USING (SELECT * FROM customers_delta WHERE id > 10) cd ON (c.id = cd.id) WHEN MATCHED THEN UPDATE SET name = cd.name WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN INSERT (id, name) VALUES (cd.id, cd.name)

New JOIN Types

Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) Two new JOIN types are introduced: the NAMED COLUMNS join and its close relative, the NATURAL join.

Syntax and Rules

<named columns join> ::= <table reference> <join type> JOIN <table reference> USING ( <column list> ) <natural join> ::= <table reference> NATURAL <join type> JOIN <table primary>

Named columns join 1. 2. 3. 4. All columns specified in <column list> should exist in the tables at both sides. An equi-join (<left table>.<column> = <right table>.<column>) is automatically created for all columns (ANDed). The USING columns can be accessed without qualifiersin this case, the result is equivalent to COALESCE(<left table>.<column>, <right table>.<column>). In SELECT *, USING columns are expanded once, using the above rule.

Natural join 1. 2. A named columns join is automatically created with all columns common to the left and right tables. If there is no common column, a CROSS JOIN is created.

Examples
/* 1 */ select * from employee join department

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using (dept_no); /* 2 */ select * from employee_project natural join employee natural join project;

CROSS JOIN
D. Yemanov (V.2.0.x) CROSS JOIN is now supported. Logically, this syntax pattern:
A CROSS JOIN B

is equivalent to either of the following:

A INNER JOIN B ON 1 = 1

or, simply:
FROM A, B

Performance Improvement at V.2.1.2 D. Yemanov In the rare case where a cross join of three or more tables involved table[s] that contained no records, extremely slow performance was reported (CORE-2200). A performance improvement was gained by teaching the optimizer not to waste time and effort on walking through populated tables in an attempt to find matches in empty tables.

INSERT with Defaults

D. Yemanov Feature request (v.2.1) It is now possible to INSERT without supplying values, if Before Insert triggers and/or declared defaults are available for every column and none is dependent on the presence of any supplied 'NEW' value. Example
INSERT INTO <table> DEFAULT VALUES [RETURNING <values>]

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BLOB Subtype 1 Compatibility with VARCHAR

A. dos Santos Fernandes (v.2.1) At various levels of evaluation, the engine now treats text BLOBs that are within the 32,765-byte string size limit as though they were VARCHARs. Operations that now allow text BLOBs to behave like strings are assignments, conversions and concatenations, as well as the functions CAST, LOWER, UPPER, TRIM and SUBSTRING. Note Carefully!
SUBSTRING(), when applied to a text BLOB, now returns a text BLOB as its result, instead of the VARCHAR result that was implemented previously. This change has the potential to break expressions in existing client and PSQL code.

Full Equality Comparisons Between BLOBs

(v.2.0.x) Comparison can be performed on the entire content of a text BLOB.

RDB$DB_KEY Returns NULL in Outer Joins

A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-979 (v.2.1) By some anomaly, the physical RDB$DB_KEY has always returned a value on every output row when specified in an outer join, thereby making a test predicated on the assumption that a non-match returns NULL in all fields return False when it ought to return True. Now, RDB$DB_KEY returns NULL when it should do so.

Sorting on BLOB and ARRAY Columns is Restored

Dmitry Yemanov (v.2.1) In earlier pre-release versions of Firebird 2.1, changes were introduced to reject sorts (ORDER BY, GROUP BY and SELECT DISTINCT operations) at prepare time if the sort clause implicitly or explicitly involved sorting on a BLOB or ARRAY column. That change was reversed in the RC2 pre-release version, not because it was wrong but because so many users complained that it broke the behaviour of legacy applications. Important
This reversion to bad old behaviour does not in any way imply that such queries will magically return correct results. A BLOB cannot be converted to a sortable type and so, as previously, DISTINCT sortings and ORDER BY arguments that involve BLOBs, will use the BLOB_ID. As before, GROUP BY arguments that are BLOB types will prepare successfully, but will cause run-time exceptions.

Built-in Functions
(v.2.1) Some existing built-in functions have been enhanced, while a large number of new ones has been added. 54

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

New Built-in Functions

Adriano dos Santos Fernandes Oleg Loa Alexey Karyakin A number of built-in functions has been implemented in V.2.1 to replace common UDFs with the same names. The built-in functions will not be used if the UDF of the same name is declared in the database. Note
The choice between UDF and built-in function is decided when compiling the statement. If the statement is compiled in a PSQL module whilst the UDF is available in the database, then the module will continue to require the UDF declaration to be present until it is next recompiled. The new built-in function DECODE() does not have an equivalent UDF in the libraries that are distributed with Firebird.

The functions are detailed in Appendix A. Note

Several of these built-in functions were already available in Firebird 2/ODS 11, viz., LOWER(), TRIM(), BIT_LENGTH(), CHAR_LENGTH() and OCTET_LENGTH().

Enhancements to Functions
A. dos Santos Fernandes EXTRACT(WEEK FROM DATE) Feature request CORE-663 The EXTRACT() function is extended to support the ISO-8601 ordinal week numbers. For example:
EXTRACT (WEEK FROM date '30.09.2007')

returns 39
alter table xyz add WeekOfTheYear computed by ( case when (extract(month from CertainDate) = 12) and (extract(week from CertainDate) = 1) then 'Week '||extract (WEEK from CertainDate)||' of year ' || (1 + (extract( year from CertainDate))) else 'Week '||extract (WEEK from CertainDate)||' of year ' ||extract( year from CertainDate) end )

55

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Specify the Scale for TRUNC() Feature request CORE-1340 In Beta 1 the implementation of the TRUNC() function supported only one argument, the value to be truncated. From Beta 2, an optional second argument can be supplied to specify the scale of the truncation. For example:
select trunc(987.65, 1), trunc(987.65, -1) from rdb$database;

returns 987.60, 980.00 For other examples of using TRUNC() with and without the optional scale argument, refer to the alphabetical listing of functions in Appendix A. Milliseconds Handling for EXTRACT(), DATEADD() and DATEDIFF() Feature request CORE-1387 From v.2.1 Beta 2, EXTRACT(), DATEADD() and DATEDIFF() can operate with milliseconds (represented as an integer number). For example:
EXTRACT ( MILLISECOND FROM timestamp '01.01.2000 01:00:00.1234' )

returns 123

DATEADD ( MILLISECOND, 100, timestamp '01.01.2000 01:00:00.0000' ) DATEDIFF ( MILLISECOND, timestamp '01.01.2000 02:00:00.0000', timestamp '01.01.2000 01:00:00.

For more explanatory examples of using DATEADD() and DATEDIFF(), refer to the alphabetical listing of functions in Appendix A.

Functions Enhanced in V.2.0.x

Some function enhancements were already available in the V.2.0.x releases:

IIF() Expression
O. Loa (V.2.0.x) An IIF() expression can be used as a shortcut for a CASE expression that tests exactly two conditions. It returns the value of the first sub-expression if the given search condition evaluates to TRUE, otherwise it returns a value of the second sub-expression.
IIF (<search_condition>, <value1>, <value2>)

is implemented as a shortcut for 56

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

CASE WHEN <search_condition> THEN <value1> ELSE <value2> END

Example
SELECT IIF(VAL > 0, VAL, -VAL) FROM OPERATION

Improvement in CAST() Behaviour

D. Yemanov (V.2.0.x) The infamous Datatype unknown error (SF Bug #1371274) when attempting some castings has been eliminated. It is now possible to use CAST to advise the engine about the data type of a parameter. Example
SELECT CAST(? AS INT) FROM RDB$DATABASE

Expression Arguments for SUBSTRING() O. Loa, D. Yemanov (V.2.0.x) The built-in function SUBSTRING() can now take arbitrary expressions in its parameters. Formerly, the inbuilt SUBSTRING() function accepted only constants as its second and third arguments (start position and length, respectively). Now, those arguments can be anything that resolves to a value, including host parameters, function results, expressions, subqueries, etc. Tip
If your attempts to use this feature fail with invalid token errors, bear in mind that expression arguments often need to be enclosed in brackets!

Changes to Results Returned from SUBSTRING() (V.2.1.x) To conform with standards, the character length of the result of applying SUBSTRING() to a VARCHAR or CHAR is now a VARCHAR of the same character length declared for or deduced from the value in the first argument. In Firebird 2.0 and 1.5, the returned value was a CHAR with the same character length as the declared or implied value of the first argument, too. That implementation could become a bug in Firebird 2.0 under conditions where the input string was a CHAR and the FOR argument was presented as an expression whose result was not known at the point where memory was prepared to receive the result string. The V.2.1 change addresses that. It is not necessary to redefine any PSQL variables you have declared to receive the results from SUBSTRING(). It is still correct to declare its size just big enough to accommodate the actual data returned. Just be sure that any FOR argument that is an expression cannot resolve to an integer that is larger than the number of characters declared for your variable. 57

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

GOTCHA for BLOBs

Clearly, a text BLOB, being of indeterminate character length, cannot fit into a paradigm that populates a string of known maximum dimension. Therefore, the result returned from applying SUBSTRING() to a text BLOB is not a VARCHAR() as previously, but a text BLOB. This change can break existing PSQL and expression code. Watch out for overflows! Take particular care with CASTs and concatenations. Pay attention to memory usage when assigning to temporary BLOBs in loops! The engine allocates a minimum of one database page of memory for each temporary BLOB, regardless of its actual size.

DSQL Parsing of Table Names is Stricter

A. Brinkman Alias handling and ambiguous field detecting have been improved. In summary: 1. 2. When a table alias is provided for a table, either that alias, or no alias, must be used. It is no longer valid to supply only the table name. Ambiguity checking now checks first for ambiguity at the current level of scope, making it valid in some conditions for columns to be used without qualifiers at a higher scope level.

Examples 1. When an alias is present it must be used; or no alias at all is allowed. a. This query was allowed in FB1.5 and earlier versions:
SELECT RDB$RELATIONS.RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS R

but will now correctly report an error that the field "RDB$RELATIONS.RDB$RELATION_NAME" could not be found. Use this (preferred):
SELECT R.RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS R

or this statement:
SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS R

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Data Manipulation Language (DML) b. The statement below will now correctly use the FieldID from the subquery and from the updating table:
UPDATE TableA SET FieldA = (SELECT SUM(A.FieldB) FROM TableA A WHERE A.FieldID = TableA.FieldID)

Note
In Firebird it is possible to provide an alias in an update statement. Although many other database vendors do not support it, this capability should help those developers who have requested it to make Firebird's SQL more interchangeable with SQL database products that do support it.

c.

This example did not run correctly in Firebird 1.5 and earlier:
SELECT RDB$RELATIONS.RDB$RELATION_NAME, R2.RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS JOIN RDB$RELATIONS R2 ON (R2.RDB$RELATION_NAME = RDB$RELATIONS.RDB$RELATION_NAME)

If RDB$RELATIONS contained 90 records, it would return 90 * 90 = 8100 records, but in Firebird 2 it will correctly return 90 records. 2. a. This would except with a syntax error in Firebird 1.5, but is possible in Firebird 2:
SELECT (SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$DATABASE) FROM RDB$RELATIONS

b.

Ambiguity checking in subqueries: the query below would run in Firebird 1.5 without reporting an ambiguity, but will report it in Firebird 2:
SELECT (SELECT FIRST 1 RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS R1 JOIN RDB$RELATIONS R2 ON (R2.RDB$RELATION_NAME = R1.RDB$RELATION_NAME)) FROM RDB$DATABASE

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

EXECUTE BLOCK Statement

V. Khorsun The SQL language extension EXECUTE BLOCK makes "dynamic PSQL" available to SELECT specifications. It has the effect of allowing a self-contained block of PSQL code to be executed in dynamic SQL as if it were a stored procedure. Syntax pattern
EXECUTE BLOCK [ (param datatype = ?, param datatype = ?, ...) ] [ RETURNS (param datatype, param datatype, ...) ] AS [DECLARE VARIABLE var datatype; ...] BEGIN ... END

For the client, the call isc_dsql_sql_info with the parameter isc_info_sql_stmt_type returns isc_info_sql_stmt_select if the block has output parameters. The semantics of a call is similar to a SELECT query: the client has a cursor open, can fetch data from it, and must close it after use. isc_info_sql_stmt_exec_procedure if the block has no output parameters. The semantics of a call is similar to an EXECUTE query: the client has no cursor and execution continues until it reaches the end of the block or is terminated by a SUSPEND. The client should preprocess only the head of the SQL statement or use '?' instead of ':' as the parameter indicator because, in the body of the block, there may be references to local variables or arguments with a colon prefixed. Example The user SQL is
EXECUTE BLOCK (X INTEGER = :X) RETURNS (Y VARCHAR) AS DECLARE V INTEGER; BEGIN INSERT INTO T(...) VALUES (... :X ...); SELECT ... FROM T INTO :Y; SUSPEND; END

The preprocessed SQL is

EXECUTE BLOCK (X INTEGER = ?) RETURNS (Y VARCHAR) AS DECLARE V INTEGER; BEGIN INSERT INTO T(...) VALUES (... :X ...); SELECT ... FROM T INTO :Y;

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SUSPEND; END

Derived Tables
A. Brinkman Implemented support for derived tables in DSQL (subqueries in FROM clause) as defined by SQL200X. A derived table is a set, derived from a dynamic SELECT statement. Derived tables can be nested, if required, to build complex queries and they can be involved in joins as though they were normal tables or views. Syntax Pattern
SELECT <select list> FROM <table reference list> <table reference list> ::= <table reference> [{<comma> <table reference>}...] <table reference> ::= <table primary> | <joined table> <table primary> ::= <table> [[AS] <correlation name>] | <derived table> <derived table> ::= <query expression> [[AS] <correlation name>] [<left paren> <derived column list> <right paren>] <derived column list> ::= <column name> [{<comma> <column name>}...]

Examples a) Simple derived table:

SELECT * FROM (SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME, RDB$RELATION_ID FROM RDB$RELATIONS) AS R (RELATION_NAME, RELATION_ID)

b) Aggregate on a derived table which also contains an aggregate

SELECT DT.FIELDS, Count(*) FROM (SELECT R.RDB$RELATION_NAME,

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Count(*) FROM RDB$RELATIONS R JOIN RDB$RELATION_FIELDS RF ON (RF.RDB$RELATION_NAME = R.RDB$RELATION_NAME) GROUP BY R.RDB$RELATION_NAME) AS DT (RELATION_NAME, FIELDS) GROUP BY DT.FIELDS

c) UNION and ORDER BY example:

SELECT DT.* FROM (SELECT R.RDB$RELATION_NAME, R.RDB$RELATION_ID FROM RDB$RELATIONS R UNION ALL SELECT R.RDB$OWNER_NAME, R.RDB$RELATION_ID FROM RDB$RELATIONS R ORDER BY 2) AS DT WHERE DT.RDB$RELATION_ID <= 4

Points to Note Every column in the derived table must have a name. Unnamed expressions like constants should be added with an alias or the column list should be used. The number of columns in the column list should be the same as the number of columns from the query expression. The optimizer can handle a derived table very efficiently. However, if the derived table is involved in an inner join and contains a subquery, then no join order can be established and performance will suffer.

ROLLBACK RETAIN Syntax

D. Yemanov The ROLLBACK RETAIN statement is now supported in DSQL. A rollback retaining feature was introduced in InterBase 6.0, but this rollback mode could be used only via an API call to isc_rollback_retaining(). By contrast, commit retaining could be used either via an API call to isc_commit_retaining() or by using a DSQL COMMIT RETAIN statement. Firebird 2.0 adds an optional RETAIN clause to the DSQL ROLLBACK statement to make it consistent with COMMIT [RETAIN]. Syntax pattern: follows that of COMMIT RETAIN. 62

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

ROWS Syntax
D. Yemanov ROWS syntax is used to limit the number of rows retrieved from a select expression. For an uppermost-level select statement, it would specify the number of rows to be returned to the host program. A more understandable alternative to the FIRST/SKIP clauses, the ROWS syntax accords with the latest SQL standard and brings some extra benefits. It can be used in unions, any kind of subquery and in UPDATE or DELETE statements. It is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Syntax Pattern
SELECT ... [ORDER BY <expr_list>] ROWS <expr1> [TO <expr2>]

Examples 1.
SELECT * FROM T1 UNION ALL SELECT * FROM T2 ORDER BY COL ROWS 10 TO 100

2.
SELECT COL1, COL2, ( SELECT COL3 FROM T3 ORDER BY COL4 DESC ROWS 1 ) FROM T4

3.
DELETE FROM T5 ORDER BY COL5 ROWS 1

Points to Note 1. When <expr2> is omitted, then ROWS <expr1> is semantically equivalent to FIRST <expr1>. When both <expr1> and <expr2> are used, then ROWS <expr1> TO <expr2> means the same as FIRST (<expr2> - <expr1> + 1) SKIP (<expr1> - 1) There is nothing that is semantically equivalent to a SKIP clause used without a FIRST clause.

2.

Enhancements to UNION Handling

The rules for UNION queries have been improved as follows: 63

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

UNION DISTINCT Keyword Implementation

D. Yemanov UNION DISTINCT is now allowed as a synonym for simple UNION, in accordance with the SQL-99 specification. It is a minor change: DISTINCT is the default mode, according to the standard. Formerly, Firebird did not support the explicit inclusion of the optional keyword DISTINCT. Syntax Pattern
UNION [{DISTINCT | ALL}]

Improved Type Coercion in UNIONs

A. Brinkman Automatic resolution of the data type of the result of an aggregation over values of compatible data types, such as case expressions and columns at the same position in a union query expression, now uses smarter rules. Syntax Rules Let DTS be the set of data types over which we must determine the final result data type. 1. 2. All of the data types in DTS shall be comparable. Case: a. If any of the data types in DTS is character string, then: i. If any of the data types in DTS is variable-length character string, then the result data type is variable-length character string with maximum length in characters equal to the largest maximum amongst the data types in DTS. Otherwise, the result data type is fixed-length character string with length in characters equal to the maximum of the lengths in characters of the data types in DTS.

ii.

iii. The characterset/collation is used from the first character string data type in DTS. b. If all of the data types in DTS are exact numeric, then the result data type is exact numeric with scale equal to the maximum of the scales of the data types in DTS and the maximum precision of all data types in DTS. Note
NOTE :: Checking for precision overflows is done at run-time only. The developer should take measures to avoid the aggregation resolving to a precision overflow.

c.

If any data type in DTS is approximate numeric, then each data type in DTS shall be numeric else an error is thrown. If some data type in DTS is a date/time data type, then every data type in DTS shall be a date/time data type having the same date/time type.

d.

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Data Manipulation Language (DML) e. If any data type in DTS is BLOB, then each data type in DTS shall be BLOB and all with the same sub-type.

UNIONs Allowed in ANY/ALL/IN Subqueries

D. Yemanov The subquery element of an ANY, ALL or IN search may now be a UNION query.

Enhancements to NULL Logic

The following features involving NULL in DSQL have been implemented:

New [NOT] DISTINCT Test Treats Two NULL Operands as Equal

O. Loa, D. Yemanov A new equivalence predicate behaves exactly like the equality/inequality predicates, but, instead of testing for equality, it tests whether one operand is distinct from the other. Thus, IS NOT DISTINCT treats (NULL equals NULL) as if it were true, since one NULL (or expression resolving to NULL) is not distinct from another. It is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Syntax Pattern
<value> IS [NOT] DISTINCT FROM <value>

Examples 1.
SELECT * FROM T1 JOIN T2 ON T1.NAME IS NOT DISTINCT FROM T2.NAME;

2.
SELECT * FROM T WHERE T.MARK IS DISTINCT FROM 'test';

Points to note
1. Because the DISTINCT predicate considers that two NULL values are not distinct, it never evaluates to the truth value UNKNOWN. Like the IS [NOT] NULL predicate, it can only be True or False.

Read More About NULL

For more understanding of the way NULL comparisons are evaluated, please read the Firebird Null Guide, available through the Documentation Index at the Firebird website. 2. The NOT DISTINCT predicate can be optimized using an index, if one is available.

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NULL Comparison Rule Relaxed

D. Yemanov A NULL literal can now be treated as a value in all expressions without returning a syntax error. You may now specify expressions such as
A B A B = NULL > NULL + NULL || NULL

Note
All such expressions evaluate to NULL. The change does not alter nullability-aware semantics of the engine, it simply relaxes the syntax restrictions a little.

NULLs Ordering Changed to Comply with Standard

N. Samofatov Placement of nulls in an ordered set has been changed to accord with the SQL standard that null ordering be consistent, i.e. if ASC[ENDING] order puts them at the bottom, then DESC[ENDING] puts them at the top; or vice-versa. This applies only to databases created under an on-disk structure of 11 or higher, since it needs to use the index changes in order to work. Important
If you override the default nulls placement, no index can be used for sorting. That is, no index will be used for an ASCENDING sort if NULLS LAST is specified, nor for a DESCENDING sort if NULLS FIRST is specified.

Examples
Database: proc.fdb SQL> create table gnull(a int); SQL> insert into gnull values(null); SQL> insert into gnull values(1); SQL> select a from gnull order by a; A ============ <null> 1 SQL> select a from gnull order by a asc; A ============ <null> 1 SQL> select a from gnull order by a desc; A

66

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============ 1 <null> SQL> select a from gnull order by a asc nulls first; A ============ <null> 1 SQL> select a from gnull order by a asc nulls last; A ============ 1 <null>

SQL> select a from gnull order by a desc nulls last; A ============ 1 <null> SQL> select a from gnull order by a desc nulls first; A ============ <null> 1

Subqueries and INSERT Statements Can Now Accept UNION Sets

D. Yemanov SELECT specifications used in subqueries and in INSERT INTO <insert-specification> SELECT.. statements can now specify a UNION set.

New Extensions to UPDATE and DELETE Syntaxes

O. Loa ROWS specifications and PLAN and ORDER BY clauses can now be used in UPDATE and DELETE statements. Users can now specify explicit plans for UPDATE/DELETE statements in order to optimize them manually. It is also possible to limit the number of affected rows with a ROWS clause, optionally used in combination with an ORDER BY clause to have a sorted recordset. Syntax Pattern
UPDATE ... SET ... WHERE ... [PLAN <plan items>] [ORDER BY <value list>]

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[ROWS <value> [TO <value>]]

or
DELETE ... FROM ... [PLAN <plan items>] [ORDER BY <value list>] [ROWS <value> [TO <value>]]

Extended Context Variables

A number of new facilities have been added to extend the context information that can be retrieved:

Sub-second Values Enabled for Time and DateTime Variables

D. Yemanov CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, 'NOW' Now Return Milliseconds The context variable CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and the date/time literal 'NOW' will now return the sub-second time part in milliseconds. Seconds Precision Enabled for CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP now optionally allow seconds precision The feature is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Syntax Pattern
CURRENT_TIME [(<seconds precision>)] CURRENT_TIMESTAMP [(<seconds precision>)]

Examples
1. SELECT CURRENT_TIME FROM RDB$DATABASE; 2. SELECT CURRENT_TIME(3) FROM RDB$DATABASE; 3. SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(3) FROM RDB$DATABASE;

Note
1. 2. The maximum possible precision is 3 which means accuracy of 1/1000 second (one millisecond). This accuracy may be improved in the future versions. If no seconds precision is specified, the following values are implicit: 0 for CURRENT_TIME 3 for CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

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New System Functions to Retrieve Context Variables

N. Samofatov Values of context variables can now be obtained using the system functions RDB$GET_CONTEXT and RDB $SET_CONTEXT. These new built-in functions give access through SQL to some information about the current connection and current transaction. They also provide a mechanism to retrieve user context data and associate it with the transaction or connection. Syntax Pattern
RDB$SET_CONTEXT( <namespace>, <variable>, <value> ) RDB$GET_CONTEXT( <namespace>, <variable> )

These functions are really a form of external function that exists inside the database instead of being called from a dynamically loaded library. The following declarations are made automatically by the engine at database creation time: Declaration
DECLARE EXTERNAL FUNCTION RDB$GET_CONTEXT VARCHAR(80), VARCHAR(80) RETURNS VARCHAR(255) FREE_IT; DECLARE EXTERNAL FUNCTION RDB$SET_CONTEXT VARCHAR(80), VARCHAR(80), VARCHAR(255) RETURNS INTEGER BY VALUE;

Usage RDB$SET_CONTEXT and RDB$GET_CONTEXT set and retrieve the current value of a context variable. Groups of context variables with similar properties are identified by Namespace identifiers. The namespace determines the usage rules, such as whether the variables may be read and written to, and by whom. Note
Namespace and variable names are case-sensitive.

RDB$GET_CONTEXT retrieves current value of a variable. If the variable does not exist in namespace, the function returns NULL. RDB$SET_CONTEXT sets a value for specific variable, if it is writable. The function returns a value of 1 if the variable existed before the call and 0 otherwise. To delete a variable from a context, set its value to NULL. Pre-defined Namespaces A fixed number of pre-defined namespaces is available: 69

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

USER_SESSION Offers access to session-specific user-defined variables. You can define and set values for variables with any name in this context. USER_TRANSACTION Offers similar possibilities for individual transactions. SYSTEM Provides read-only access to the following variables: NETWORK_PROTOCOL :: The network protocol used by client to connect. Currently used values: TCPv4, WNET, XNET and NULL. CLIENT_ADDRESS :: The wire protocol address of the remote client, represented as a string. The value is an IP address in form "xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx" for TCPv4 protocol; the local process ID for XNET protocol; and NULL for any other protocol. DB_NAME :: Canonical name of the current database. It is either the alias name (if connection via file names is disallowed DatabaseAccess = NONE) or, otherwise, the fully expanded database file name. ISOLATION_LEVEL :: The isolation level of the current transaction. The returned value will be one of "READ COMMITTED", "SNAPSHOT", "CONSISTENCY". TRANSACTION_ID :: The numeric ID of the current transaction. The returned value is the same as would be returned by the CURRENT_TRANSACTION pseudo-variable. SESSION_ID :: The numeric ID of the current session. The returned value is the same as would be returned by the CURRENT_CONNECTION pseudo-variable. CURRENT_USER :: The current user. The returned value is the same as would be returned by the CURRENT_USER pseudo-variable or the predefined variable USER. CURRENT_ROLE :: Current role for the connection. Returns the same value as the CURRENT_ROLE pseudo-variable.

Notes To avoid DoS attacks against the Firebird Server, the number of variables stored for each transaction or session context is limited to 1000. Example of Use
set term ^; create procedure set_context(User_ID varchar(40), Trn_ID integer) as begin RDB$SET_CONTEXT('USER_TRANSACTION', 'Trn_ID', Trn_ID); RDB$SET_CONTEXT('USER_TRANSACTION', 'User_ID', User_ID); end ^

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Data Manipulation Language (DML)

create table journal ( jrn_id integer not null primary key, jrn_lastuser varchar(40), jrn_lastaddr varchar(255), jrn_lasttransaction integer )^ CREATE TRIGGER UI_JOURNAL FOR JOURNAL BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE as begin new.jrn_lastuser = rdb$get_context('USER_TRANSACTION', 'User_ID'); new.jrn_lastaddr = rdb$get_context('SYSTEM', 'CLIENT_ADDRESS'); new.jrn_lasttransaction = rdb$get_context('USER_TRANSACTION', 'Trn_ID'); end ^ commit ^ execute procedure set_context('skidder', 1) ^ insert into journal(jrn_id) values(0) ^ set term ;^

Since rdb$set_context returns 1 or zero, it can be made to work with a simple SELECT statement. Example
SQL> select rdb$set_context('USER_SESSION', 'Nickolay', 'ru') CNT> from rdb$database; RDB$SET_CONTEXT =============== 0

0 means not defined already; we have set it to 'ru'

SQL> select rdb$set_context('USER_SESSION', 'Nickolay', 'ca') CNT> from rdb$database; RDB$SET_CONTEXT =============== 1

1 means it was defined already; we have changed it to 'ca'

SQL> select rdb$set_context('USER_SESSION', 'Nickolay', NULL) CNT> from rdb$database; RDB$SET_CONTEXT =============== 1

1 says it existed before; we have changed it to NULL, i.e. undefined it.

SQL> select rdb$set_context('USER_SESSION', 'Nickolay', NULL) CNT> from rdb$database;

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RDB$SET_CONTEXT =============== 0

0, since nothing actually happened this time: it was already undefined .

Improvements in Handling User-specified Query Plans

D. Yemanov 1. 2. 3. 4. Plan fragments are propagated to nested levels of joins, enabling manual optimization of complex outer joins A user-supplied plan will be checked for correctness in outer joins Short-circuit optimization for user-supplied plans has been added A user-specified access path can be supplied for any SELECT-based statement or clause

Syntax rules The following schema describing the syntax rules should be helpful when composing plans.
PLAN ( { <stream_retrieval> | <sorted_streams> | <joined_streams> } ) <stream_retrieval> ::= { <natural_scan> | <indexed_retrieval> | <navigational_scan> } <natural_scan> ::= <stream_alias> NATURAL <indexed_retrieval> ::= <stream_alias> INDEX ( <index_name> [, <index_name> ...] ) <navigational_scan> ::= <stream_alias> ORDER <index_name> [ INDEX ( <index_name> [, <index_name> ...] ) ] <sorted_streams> ::= SORT ( <stream_retrieval> ) <joined_streams> ::= JOIN ( <stream_retrieval>, <stream_retrieval> [, <stream_retrieval> ...] ) | [SORT] MERGE ( <sorted_streams>, <sorted_streams> )

Details Natural scan means that all rows are fetched in their natural storage order. Thus, all pages must be read before search criteria are validated. Indexed retrieval uses an index range scan to find row ids that match the given search criteria. The found matches are combined in a sparse bitmap which is sorted by page numbers, so every data page will be read only once. After that the table pages are read and required rows are fetched from them. Navigational scan uses an index to return rows in the given order, if such an operation is appropriate. The index b-tree is walked from the leftmost node to the rightmost one.

72

Data Manipulation Language (DML) If any search criterion is used on a column specified in an ORDER BY clause, the navigation is limited to some subtree path, depending on a predicate. If any search criterion is used on other columns which are indexed, then a range index scan is performed in advance and every fetched key has its row id validated against the resulting bitmap. Then a data page is read and the required row is fetched. Note
Note that a navigational scan incurs random page I/O, as reads are not optimized.

A sort operation performs an external sort of the given stream retrieval. A join can be performed either via the nested loops algorithm (JOIN plan) or via the sort merge algorithm (MERGE plan). An inner nested loop join may contain as many streams as are required to be joined. All of them are equivalent. An outer nested loops join always operates with two streams, so you'll see nested JOIN clauses in the case of 3 or more outer streams joined. A sort merge operates with two input streams which are sorted beforehand, then merged in a single run. Examples
SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS WHERE RDB$RELATION_NAME LIKE 'RDB$%' PLAN (RDB$RELATIONS NATURAL) ORDER BY RDB$RELATION_NAME SELECT R.RDB$RELATION_NAME, RF.RDB$FIELD_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS R JOIN RDB$RELATION_FIELDS RF ON R.RDB$RELATION_NAME = RF.RDB$RELATION_NAME PLAN MERGE (SORT (R NATURAL), SORT (RF NATURAL))

Notes 1. A PLAN clause may be used in all select expressions, including subqueries, derived tables and view definitions. It can be also used in UPDATE and DELETE statements, because they're implicitly based on select expressions. If a PLAN clause contains some invalid retrieval description, then either an error will be returned or this bad clause will be silently ignored, depending on severity of the issue. ORDER <navigational_index> INDEX ( <filter_indices> ) kind of plan is reported by the engine and can be used in the user-supplied plans starting with FB 2.0.

2.

3.

Improvements in Sorting
A. Brinkman Some useful improvements have been made to SQL sorting operations: 73

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Order By or Group By <alias-name>

Column aliases are now allowed in both these clauses. Examples: 1. ORDER BY
SELECT RDB$RELATION_ID AS ID FROM RDB$RELATIONS ORDER BY ID

2.

GROUP BY
SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME AS ID, COUNT(*) FROM RDB$RELATION_FIELDS GROUP BY ID

GROUP BY Arbitrary Expressions

A GROUP BY condition can now be any valid expression. Example
... GROUP BY SUBSTRING(CAST((A * B) / 2 AS VARCHAR(15)) FROM 1 FOR 2)

Order * Sets by Implicit Degree Number

Order by degree (ordinal column position) now works on a select * list. Example
SELECT * FROM RDB$RELATIONS ORDER BY 9

Parameters and Ordinal Sorts--a Gotcha

According to grammar rules, since v.1.5, ORDER BY <value_expression> is allowed and <value_expression> could be a variable or a parameter. It is tempting to assume that ORDER BY <degree_number> could thus be validly represented as a replaceable input parameter, or an expression containing a parameter. However, while the DSQL parser does not reject the parameterised ORDER BY clause expression if it resolves to an integer, the optimizer requires an absolute, constant value in order to identify the position in the output 74

Data Manipulation Language (DML) list of the ordering column or derived field. If a parameter is accepted by the parser, the output will undergo a dummy sort and the returned set will be unsorted.

NEXT VALUE FOR Expression

D. Yemanov Added SQL-99 compliant NEXT VALUE FOR <sequence_name> expression as a synonym for GEN_ID(<generator-name>, 1), complementing the introduction of CREATE SEQUENCE syntax as the SQL standard equivalent of CREATE GENERATOR. Examples 1.
SELECT GEN_ID(S_EMPLOYEE, 1) FROM RDB$DATABASE;

2.
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (ID, NAME) VALUES (NEXT VALUE FOR S_EMPLOYEE, 'John Smith');

Note
1. Currently, increment ("step") values not equal to 1 (one) can be used only by calling the GEN_ID function. Future versions are expected to provide full support for SQL-99 sequence generators, which allows the required increment values to be specified at the DDL level. Unless there is a vital need to use a step value that is not 1, use of a NEXT VALUE FOR value expression instead of the GEN_ID function is recommended. GEN_ID(<name>, 0) allows you to retrieve the current sequence value, but it should never be used in insert/update statements, as it produces a high risk of uniqueness violations in a concurrent environment.

2.

Articles
SELECT Statement & Expression Syntax
Dmitry Yemanov About the semantics A select statement is used to return data to the caller (PSQL module or the client program) Select expressions retrieve parts of data that construct columns that can be in either the final result set or in any of the intermediate sets. Select expressions are also known as subqueries. Syntax rules
<select statement> ::= <select expression> [FOR UPDATE] [WITH LOCK]

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<select expression> ::= <query specification> [UNION [{ALL | DISTINCT}] <query specification>] <query specification> ::= SELECT [FIRST <value>] [SKIP <value>] <select list> FROM <table expression list> WHERE <search condition> GROUP BY <group value list> HAVING <group condition> PLAN <plan item list> ORDER BY <sort value list> ROWS <value> [TO <value>] <table expression> ::= <table name> | <joined table> | <derived table> <joined table> ::= {<cross join> | <qualified join>} <cross join> ::= <table expression> CROSS JOIN <table expression> <qualified join> ::= <table expression> [{INNER | {LEFT | RIGHT | FULL} [OUTER]}] JOIN <table expression> ON <join condition> <derived table> ::= '(' <select expression> ')'

Conclusions FOR UPDATE mode and row locking can only be performed for a final dataset, they cannot be applied to a subquery Unions are allowed inside any subquery Clauses FIRST, SKIP, PLAN, ORDER BY, ROWS are allowed for any subquery Notes Either FIRST/SKIP or ROWS is allowed, but a syntax error is thrown if you try to mix the syntaxes An INSERT statement accepts a select expression to define a set to be inserted into a table. Its SELECT part supports all the features defined for select statments/expressions UPDATE and DELETE statements are always based on an implicit cursor iterating through its target table and limited with the WHERE clause. You may also specify the final parts of the select expression syntax to limit the number of affected rows or optimize the statement. Clauses allowed at the end of UPDATE/DELETE statements are PLAN, ORDER BY and ROWS.

Data Type of an Aggregation Result

Arno Brinkman When aggregations, CASE evaluations and UNIONs for output columns are performed over a mix of comparable data types, the engine has to choose one data type for the result. The developer often has to prepare a variable 76

Data Manipulation Language (DML) or buffer for such results and is mystified when a request returns a data type exception. The rules followed by the engine in determining the data type for an output column under these conditions are explained here. 1. 2. 3. Let DTS be the set of data types over which we must determine the final result data type. All of the data types in DTS shall be comparable. In the case that a. any of the data types in DTS is character string i. If all data types in DTS are fixed-length character strings, then the result is also a fixed-length character string; otherwise the result is a variable-length character string. The resulting string length, in characters, is equal to the maximum of the lengths, in characters, of the data types in DTS. ii. The character set and collation used are taken from the data type of the first character string in DTS.

b.

all of the data types in DTS are exact numeric the result data type is exact numeric with scale equal to the maximum of the scales of the data types in DTS and precision equal to the maximum precision of all data types in DTS.

c.

any data type in DTS is approximate numeric each data type in DTS must be numeric, otherwise an error is thrown.

d.

any data type in DTS is a date/time data type every data type in DTS must be a date/time type having the same date/time type, otherwise an error is thrown.

e.

any data type in DTS is BLOB each data type in DTS must be BLOB and all with the same sub-type.

A Useful Trick with Date Literals

H. Borrie In days gone by, before the advent of context variables like CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, et al., we had predefined date literals, such as 'NOW', 'TODAY', 'YESTERDAY' and so on. These predefined date literals survive in Firebird's SQL language set and are still useful. In InterBase 5.x and lower, the following statement was legal and returned a DATE value ( remembering that the DATE type then was what is now TIMESTAMP):
select 'NOW' from rdb$database /* returns system date and time */

In a database of ODS 10 or higher, that statement returns the string 'NOW'. We have had to learn to cast the date literal to get the result we want:

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select cast('NOW' as TIMESTAMP) from rdb$database

For a long timeprobably since IB 6 there has been an undocumented short expression syntax for casting not just the predefined date/time literals but any date literals. Actually, it is defined in the standard. Most of us were just not aware that it was available. It takes the form <data type> <date literal>. Taking the CAST example above, the short syntax would be as follows:
select TIMESTAMP 'NOW' from rdb$database

This short syntax can participate in other expressions. The following example illustrates a date/time arithmetic operation on a predefined literal:
update mytable set OVERDUE = 'T' where DATE 'YESTERDAY' - DATE_DUE > 10

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Chapter 7

Procedural SQL (PSQL)

A handful of improvements was added to the collection of PSQL extensions that came with Firebird 2. The highlights are new capabilities to use domains and collation sequences when declaring variables and arguments in procedures and triggers.

Quick Links
Domains in PSQL COLLATE in Stored Procedures WHERE CURRENT OF for Views ROW_COUNT Counts Rows Returned by SELECT Explicit Cursors Stored Procedure Arguments Can Take Defaults LEAVE <label> Flow Control Operator OLD Variables Now Read-only Stack Trace for PSQL Exceptions Call UDFs as Procedures

Domains in PSQL
Adriano dos Santos Fernandes (V.2.1) It is now possible to use a domain when declaring the data types of arguments and variables in PSQL modules. Depending on your requirements, you can declare the argument or variable using the domain identifier alone, in lieu of the native data type identifier, to have the variable inherit all of the attributes of the domain; or the data type of the domain, without inheriting CHECK constraints and the DEFAULT value (if declared in the domain), by including the TYPE OF keyword in the declaration (see the syntax below) Syntax
data_type ::= <builtin_data_type> | <domain_name> | TYPE OF <domain_name>

Examples
CREATE DOMAIN DOM AS INTEGER; CREATE PROCEDURE SP ( I1 TYPE OF DOM, I2 DOM)

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RETURNS ( O1 TYPE OF DOM, O2 DOM) AS DECLARE VARIABLE V1 TYPE OF DOM; DECLARE VARIABLE V2 DOM; BEGIN ... END

Note
A new field RDB$VALID_BLR was added in RDB$PROCEDURES and RDB$TRIGGERS to indicate whether the procedure/trigger is valid after an ALTER DOMAIN operation. The value of RDB$VALID_BLR is shown in the ISQL commands SHOW PROCEDURE or SHOW TRIGGER.

COLLATE in Stored Procedures and Parameters

A. dos Santos Fernandes (V.2.1) Collations can now be applied to PSQL variables, including stored procedure parameters.

WHERE CURRENT OF Now Allowed for Views

Feature request CORE-1213 (V.2.1) The cursor operator WHERE CURRENT OF can now step through a cursor set selected from a view set, just as it does in a cursor set output from a SELECT on a table. For example:
... FOR SELECT ... FROM MY_VIEW INTO ... AS CURSOR VIEW_CURSOR DO BEGIN ... DELETE FROM MY_VIEW WHERE CURRENT OF VIEW_CURSOR; ... END

Context Variable ROW_COUNT Enhanced

D. Yemanov ROW_COUNT has been enhanced so that it can now return the number of rows returned by a SELECT statement. For example, it can be used to check whether a singleton SELECT INTO statement has performed an assignment:
..

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BEGIN SELECT COL FROM TAB INTO :VAR; IF (ROW_COUNT = 0) THEN EXCEPTION NO_DATA_FOUND; END ..

See also its usage in the examples below for explicit PSQL cursors.

Explicit Cursors
D. Yemanov It is now possible to declare and use multiple cursors in PSQL. Explicit cursors are available in a DSQL EXECUTE BLOCK structure as well as in stored procedures and triggers. Syntax pattern
DECLARE [VARIABLE] <cursor_name> CURSOR FOR ( <select_statement> ); OPEN <cursor_name>; FETCH <cursor_name> INTO <var_name> [, <var_name> ...]; CLOSE <cursor_name>;

Examples 1.
DECLARE RNAME CHAR(31); DECLARE C CURSOR FOR ( SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS ); BEGIN OPEN C; WHILE (1 = 1) DO BEGIN FETCH C INTO :RNAME; IF (ROW_COUNT = 0) THEN LEAVE; SUSPEND; END CLOSE C; END

2.
DECLARE RNAME CHAR(31); DECLARE FNAME CHAR(31); DECLARE C CURSOR FOR ( SELECT RDB$FIELD_NAME FROM RDB$RELATION_FIELDS WHERE RDB$RELATION_NAME = :RNAME ORDER BY RDB$FIELD_POSITION ); BEGIN FOR SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME

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FROM RDB$RELATIONS INTO :RNAME DO BEGIN OPEN C; FETCH C INTO :FNAME; CLOSE C; SUSPEND; END END

Note
Cursor declaration is allowed only in the declaration section of a PSQL block/procedure/trigger, as with any regular local variable declaration. Cursor names are required to be unique in the given context. They must not conflict with the name of another cursor that is "announced", via the AS CURSOR clause, by a FOR SELECT cursor. However, a cursor can share its name with any other type of variable within the same context, since the operations available to each are different. Positioned updates and deletes with cursors using the WHERE CURRENT OF clause are allowed. Attempts to fetch from or close a FOR SELECT cursor are prohibited. Attempts to open a cursor that is already open, or to fetch from or close a cursor that is already closed, will fail. All cursors which were not explicitly closed will be closed automatically on exit from the current PSQL block/procedure/trigger. The ROW_COUNT system variable can be used after each FETCH statement to check whether any row was returned.

Defaults for Stored Procedure Arguments

V. Khorsun Defaults can now be declared for stored procedure arguments. The syntax is the same as a default value definition for a column or domain, except that you can use '=' in place of 'DEFAULT' keyword. Arguments with default values must be last in the argument list; that is, you cannot declare an argument that has no default value after any arguments that have been declared with default values. The caller must supply the values for all of the arguments preceding any that are to use their defaults. For example, it is illegal to do something like this: supply arg1, arg2, miss arg3, set arg4... Substitution of default values occurs at run-time. If you define a procedure with defaults (say P1), call it from another procedure (say P2) and skip some final, defaulted arguments, then the default values for P1 will be substituted by the engine at time execution P1 starts. This means that, if you change the default values for P1, it is not necessary to recompile P2. However, it is still necessary to disconnect all client connections, as discussed in the Borland InterBase 6 beta "Data Definition Guide" (DataDef.pdf), in the section "Altering and dropping procedures in use". 82

Procedural SQL (PSQL) Examples

CONNECT ... ; SET TERM ^; CREATE PROCEDURE P1 (X INTEGER = 123) RETURNS (Y INTEGER) AS BEGIN Y = X; SUSPEND; END ^ COMMIT ^ SET TERM ;^ SELECT * FROM P1; Y ============ 123 EXECUTE PROCEDURE P1; Y ============ 123 SET TERM ^; CREATE PROCEDURE P2 RETURNS (Y INTEGER) AS BEGIN FOR SELECT Y FROM P1 INTO :Y DO SUSPEND; END ^ COMMIT ^ SET TERM ;^ SELECT * FROM P2; Y ============ 123 SET TERM ^; ALTER PROCEDURE P1 (X INTEGER = CURRENT_TRANSACTION) RETURNS (Y INTEGER) AS BEGIN Y = X; SUSPEND; END; ^ COMMIT ^ SET TERM ;^ SELECT * FROM P1; Y ============

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5875 SELECT * FROM P2; Y ============ 123 COMMIT; CONNECT ... ;

SELECT * FROM P2; Y ============ 5880

Note
1. 2. The source and BLR for the argument defaults are stored in RDB$FIELDS. As was pointed out in a Tracker entry, the examples above should not be taken as a recommendation to use a SUSPEND statement to handle return values in an executable stored procedure. The author used SUSPEND here in order to illustrate the aspects of the new feature.

LEAVE <label> Syntax Support

D. Yemanov New LEAVE <label> syntax now allows PSQL loops to be marked with labels and terminated in Java style. The purpose is to stop execution of the current block and unwind back to the specified label. After that execution resumes at the statement following the terminated loop. Syntax pattern
<label_name>: <loop_statement> ... LEAVE [<label_name>]

where <loop_statement> is one of: WHILE, FOR SELECT, FOR EXECUTE STATEMENT. Examples 1.
FOR SELECT COALESCE(RDB$SYSTEM_FLAG, 0), RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS ORDER BY 1 INTO :RTYPE, :RNAME

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DO BEGIN IF (RTYPE = 0) THEN SUSPEND; ELSE LEAVE; -- exits current loop END

2.
CNT = 100; L1: WHILE (CNT >= 0) DO BEGIN IF (CNT < 50) THEN LEAVE L1; -- exists WHILE loop CNT = CNT - l; END

3.
STMT1 = 'SELECT RDB$RELATION_NAME FROM RDB$RELATIONS'; L1: FOR EXECUTE STATEMENT :STMT1 INTO :RNAME DO BEGIN STMT2 = 'SELECT RDB$FIELD_NAME FROM RDB$RELATION_FIELDS WHERE RDB$RELATION_NAME = '; L2: FOR EXECUTE STATEMENT :STMT2 || :RNAME INTO :FNAME DO BEGIN IF (RNAME = 'RDB$DATABASE') THEN LEAVE L1; -- exits the outer loop ELSE IF (RNAME = 'RDB$RELATIONS') THEN LEAVE L2; -- exits the inner loop ELSE SUSPEND; END END

Note
Note that LEAVE without an explicit label means interrupting the current (innermost) loop.

OLD Context Variables Now Read-only

D. Yemanov The set of OLD context variables available in trigger modules is now read-only. An attempt to assign a value to OLD.something will be rejected. 85

Procedural SQL (PSQL)

Note
NEW context variables are now read-only in AFTER-triggers as well.

PSQL Stack Trace

V. Khorsun The API client can now extract a simple stack trace Error Status Vector when an exception occurs during PSQL execution (stored procedures or triggers). A stack trace is represented by one string (2048 bytes max.) and consists of all the stored procedure and trigger names, starting from the point where the exception occurred, out to the outermost caller. If the actual trace is longer than 2Kb, it is truncated. Additional items are appended to the status vector as follows:
isc_stack_trace, isc_arg_string, <string length>, <string>

isc_stack_trace is a new error code with value of 335544842L.

Examples Metadata creation

CREATE TABLE ERR ( ID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, NAME VARCHAR(16)); CREATE EXCEPTION EX '!'; SET TERM ^; CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE ERR_1 AS BEGIN EXCEPTION EX 'ID = 3'; END ^ CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER ERR_BI FOR ERR BEFORE INSERT AS BEGIN IF (NEW.ID = 2) THEN EXCEPTION EX 'ID = 2'; IF (NEW.ID = 3) THEN EXECUTE PROCEDURE ERR_1; IF (NEW.ID = 4) THEN NEW.ID = 1 / 0; END ^ CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE ERR_2 AS BEGIN INSERT INTO ERR VALUES (3, '333'); END ^

1. User exception from a trigger: 86

Procedural SQL (PSQL)

SQL" INSERT INTO ERR VALUES (2, '2'); Statement failed, SQLCODE = -836 exception 3 -ID = 2 -At trigger 'ERR_BI'

2. User exception from a procedure called by a trigger:

SQL" INSERT INTO ERR VALUES (3, '3'); Statement failed, SQLCODE = -836 exception 3 -ID = 3 -At procedure 'ERR_1' At trigger 'ERR_BI'

3. Run-time exception occurring in trigger (division by zero):

SQL" INSERT INTO ERR VALUES (4, '4'); Statement failed, SQLCODE = -802 arithmetic exception, numeric overflow, or string truncation -At trigger 'ERR_BI'

4. User exception from procedure:

SQL" EXECUTE PROCEDURE ERR_1; Statement failed, SQLCODE = -836 exception 3 -ID = 3 -At procedure 'ERR_1'

5. User exception from a procedure with a deeper call stack:

SQL" EXECUTE PROCEDURE ERR_2; Statement failed, SQLCODE = -836 exception 3 -ID = 3 -At procedure 'ERR_1' At trigger 'ERR_BI' At procedure 'ERR_2'

Call a UDF as a Void Function (Procedure)

N. Samofatov In PSQL, supported UDFs, e.g. RDB$SET_CONTEXT, can be called as though they were void functions (a.k.a procedures in Object Pascal). For example:
BEGIN ...

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RDB$SET_CONTEXT('USER_TRANSACTION', 'MY_VAR', '123'); ... END

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Chapter 8

New Reserved Words and Changes

The following keywords have been added, or have changed status, since Firebird 1.5. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are not present in the SQL standard.

Newly Reserved Words

BIT_LENGTH (v.2.0) BOTH (v.2.0) CHAR_LENGTH (v.2.0) CHARACTER_LENGTH (v.2.0) CLOSE (v.2.0) CONNECT (v.2.1) << CROSS (v.2.0) DISCONNECT (v.2.1) << FETCH (v.2.0) GLOBAL (v.2.1) << INSENSITIVE (v.2.1) << LEADING (v.2.0) LOWER (v.2.0) OCTET_LENGTH (v.2.0) OPEN (v.2.0) RECURSIVE (v.2.1) << ROWS (v.2.0) SENSITIVE (v.2.1) << START (v.2.1) << TRAILING (v.2.0) TRIM (v.2.0)

Changed from Non-reserved to Reserved

USING (v.2.0)

Keywords Added as Non-reserved

ABS (v.2.1) << ACCENT * (v.2.1) << ACOS * (v.2.1) << ALWAYS * (v.2.1) << ASCII_CHAR * (v.2.1) << ASCII_VAL * (v.2.1) <<

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New Reserved Words and Changes

ASIN * (v.2.1) << ATAN * (v.2.1) << ATAN2 * (v.2.1) << BACKUP * (v.2.0) BIN_AND * (v.2.1) << BIN_OR * (v.2.1) << BIN_SHL * (v.2.1) << BIN_SHR * (v.2.1) << BIN_XOR * (v.2.1) << BLOCK * (v.2.0) CEIL (v.2.1) << CEILING (v.2.1) << COLLATION (v.2.0) COMMENT * (v.2.0) COS * (v.2.1) << COSH * (v.2.1) << COT * (v.2.1) << DATEADD * (v.2.1) << DATEDIFF * (v.2.1) << DECODE * (v.2.1) << DIFFERENCE * (v.2.0) EXP (v.2.1) << FLOOR (v.2.1) << GEN_UUID (v.2.1) << GENERATED (v.2.1) << HASH * (v.2.1) << IIF * (v.2.0) LIST * (v.2.1) << LN (v.2.1) << LOG * (v.2.1) << LOG10 * (v.2.1) << LPAD * (v.2.1) << MATCHED (v.2.1) << MATCHING * (v.2.1) << MAXVALUE * (v.2.1) << MILLISECOND * (v.2.1) << MINVALUE * (v.2.1) << MOD (v.2.1) << NEXT (v.2.0) OVERLAY (v.2.1) << PAD (v.2.1) << PI * (v.2.1) << PLACING (v.2.1) << POWER (v.2.1) << PRESERVE (v.2.1) << RAND * (v.2.1) << REPLACE * (v.2.1) << RESTART (v.2.0) RETURNING * (v.2.0) REVERSE * (v.2.1) << ROUND * (v.2.1) << RPAD * (v.2.1) << SCALAR_ARRAY * (v.2.0) SEQUENCE (v.2.0) SIGN * (v.2.1) << SIN * (v.2.1) << SINH * (v.2.1) << SPACE (v.2.1) << SQRT (v.2.1) << TAN * (v.2.1) << TANH * (v.2.1) <<

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TEMPORARY (v.2.1) << TRUNC * (v.2.1) << WEEK * (v.2.1) <<

Keywords No Longer Reserved

ACTION (v.2.0) CASCADE (v.2.0) FREE_IT * (v.2.0) RESTRICT (v.2.0) ROLE (v.2.0) TYPE (v.2.0) WEEKDAY * (v.2.0) YEARDAY * (v.2.0)

No Longer Reserved as Keywords

BASENAME * (v.2.0) GROUP_COMMIT_WAIT * (v.2.0) NUM_LOG_BUFS * (v.2.0) CACHE * (v.2.0) LOGFILE * (v.2.0) RAW_PARTITIONS * (v.2.0) CHECK_POINT_LEN * (v.2.0) LOG_BUF_SIZE * (v.2.0)

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Chapter 9

Indexing & Optimizations

Optimizations in V.2.1
Optimization improvements in v.2.1 include: (v.2.1) Economising on Indexed Reads for MIN() and MAX() Indexed MIN/MAX aggregates would produce three indexed reads instead of the expected single read. So, with an ASC index on the non-nullable COL, the query
SELECT MIN(COL) FROM TAB

should be completely equivalent, to

SELECT FIRST 1 COL FROM TAB ORDER BY 1 ASC

with both performing a single record read. However, formerly, the first query required three indexed reads while the second one required just the expected single read. Now, they both resolve to a single read. The same optimization applies to the MAX() function when mapped to a DESC index.

Improved PLAN Clause

D. Yemanov (V.2.0.x) A PLAN clause optionally allows you to provide your own instructions to the engine and have it ignore the plan supplied by the optimizer. Firebird 2 enhancements allow you to specify more possible paths for the engine. For example:
PLAN (A ORDER IDX1 INDEX (IDX2, IDX3))

For more details, please refer to the topic Query Plans Improvements in the DML chapter.

Optimizer Improvements
This section represents a collection of changes done in Firebird 2 to optimize many aspects of performance.

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For All Databases

The first group of changes affect all databases, including those not yet upgraded to ODS 11.x.

Some General Improvements

O. Loa, D. Yemanov Much faster algorithms to process the dirty pages tree Firebird 2 offers a more efficient processing of the list of modified pages, a.k.a. the dirty pages tree. It affects all kinds of batch data modifications performed in a single transaction and eliminates the known issues with performance getting slower when using a buffer cache of >10K pages. This change also improves the overall performance of data modifications. Increased maximum page cache size to 128K pages (2GB for 16K page size)

Faster Evaluation of IN() and OR

O. Loa Constant IN predicate or multiple OR booleans are now evaluated faster. Sparse bitmap operations were optimized to handle multiple OR booleans or an IN (<constant list>) predicate more efficiently, improving performance of these operations.

Improved UNIQUE Retrieval

A. Brinkman The optimizer will now use a more realistic cost value for unique retrieval.

More Optimization of NOT Conditions

D. Yemanov NOT conditions are simplified and optimized via an index when possible. Example
(NOT NOT A = 0) -> (A = 0) (NOT A > 0) -> (A <= 0)

Distribute HAVING Conjunctions to the WHERE Clause

If a HAVING clause or any outer-level select refers to a field being grouped by, this conjunct is distributed deeper in the execution path than the grouping, thus allowing an index scan to be used. In other words, it allows the HAVING clause not only be treated as the WHERE clause in this case, but also be optimized the same way. 93

Indexing & Optimizations Examples

select rdb$relation_id, count(*) from rdb$relations group by rdb$relation_id having rdb$relation_id > 10 select * from ( select rdb$relation_id, count(*) from rdb$relations group by rdb$relation_id ) as grp (id, cnt) where grp.id > 10

In both cases, an index scan is performed instead of a full scan.

Distribute UNION Conjunctions to the Inner Streams

Distribute UNION conjunctions to the inner streams when possible.

Improved Handling of CROSS JOIN and Merge/SORT

Improved cross join and merge/sort handling

Better Choice of Join Order for Mixed Inner/Outer Joins

reasonable join order for intermixed inner and outer joins

Equality Comparison on Expressions

MERGE PLAN may now be generated for joins using equality comparsion on expressions

For ODS 11 Databases only

This group of optimizations affects databases that were created or restored under Firebird 2 or higher.

Segment-level Selectivities are Used

See Selectivity Maintenance per Segment.

Better Support for IS NULL and STARTING WITH

Previously, IS NULL and STARTING WITH predicates were optimized separately from others, thus causing non-optimal plans in complex ANDed/ORed boolean expressions. From v2.0 and ODS11, these predicates are optimized in a regular way and hence benefit from all possible optimization strategies. 94

Indexing & Optimizations

Matching of Both OR and AND Nodes to Indexes

Complex boolean expressions consisting of many AND/OR predicates are now entirely mapped to available indices if at all possible. Previously, such complex expressions could be optimized badly.

Better JOIN Orders

Cost estimations have been improved in order to improve JOIN orders.

Indexed Order Enabled for Outer Joins

It is now possible for indexed order to be utilised for outer joins, i.e. navigational walk.

Enhancements to Indexing
252-byte index length limit is gone
A. Brinkman New and reworked index code is very fast and tolerant of large numbers of duplicates. The old aggregate key length limit of 252 bytes is removed. Now the limit depends on page size: the maximum size of the key in bytes is 1/4 of the page size (512 on 2048, 1024 on 4096, etc.) A 40-bit record number is included on non leaf-level pages and duplicates (key entries) are sorted by this number.

Expression Indexes
O. Loa, D. Yemanov, A. Karyakin Arbitrary expressions applied to values in a row in dynamic DDL can now be indexed, allowing indexed access paths to be available for search predicates that are based on expressions. Syntax Pattern
CREATE [UNIQUE] [ASC[ENDING] | DESC[ENDING]] INDEX <index name> ON <table name> COMPUTED BY ( <value expression> )

Examples 1.

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CREATE INDEX IDX1 ON T1 COMPUTED BY ( UPPER(COL1 COLLATE PXW_CYRL) ); COMMIT; /* */ SELECT * FROM T1 WHERE UPPER(COL1 COLLATE PXW_CYRL) = '' -- PLAN (T1 INDEX (IDX1))

2.
CREATE INDEX IDX2 ON T2 COMPUTED BY ( EXTRACT(YEAR FROM COL2) || EXTRACT(MONTH FROM COL2) ); COMMIT; /* */ SELECT * FROM T2 ORDER BY EXTRACT(YEAR FROM COL2) || EXTRACT(MONTH FROM COL2) -- PLAN (T2 ORDER IDX2)

Note
1. The expression used in the predicate must match exactly the expression used in the index declaration, in order to allow the engine to choose an indexed access path. The given index will not be available for any retrieval or sorting operation if the expressions do not match. Expression indices have exactly the same features and limitations as regular indices, except that, by definition, they cannot be composite (multi-segment).

2.

Changes to Null keys handling

V. Khorsun, A. Brinkman Null keys are now bypassed for uniqueness checks. (V. Khorsun) If a new key is inserted into a unique index, the engine skips all NULL keys before starting to check for key duplication. It means a performance benefit as, from v.1.5 on, NULLs have not been considered as duplicates. NULLs are ignored during the index scan, when it makes sense to ignore them. (A. Brinkman). Prevously, NULL keys were always scanned for all predicates. Starting with v.2.0, NULL keys are usually skipped before the scan begins, thus allowing faster index scans. Note
The predicates IS NULL and IS NOT DISTINCT FROM still require scanning of NULL keys and they disable the aforementioned optimization.

Improved Index Compression

A. Brinkman A full reworking of the index compression algorithm has made a manifold improvement in the performance of many queries. 96

Indexing & Optimizations

Selectivity Maintenance per Segment

D. Yemanov, A. Brinkman Index selectivities are now stored on a per-segment basis. This means that, for a compound index on columns (A, B, C), three selectivity values will be calculated, reflecting a full index match as well as all partial matches. That is to say, the selectivity of the multi-segment index involves those of segment A alone (as it would be if it were a single-segment index), segments A and B combined (as it would be if it were a double-segment index) and the full three-segment match (A, B, C), i.e., all the ways a compound index can be used. This opens more opportunities to the optimizer for clever access path decisions in cases involving partial index matches. The per-segment selectivity values are stored in the column RDB$STATISTICS of table RDB $INDEX_SEGMENTS. The column of the same name in RDB$INDICES is kept for compatibility and still represents the total index selectivity, that is used for a full index match.

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Chapter 10

International Language Support (INTL)

Adriano dos Santos Fernandes
This chapter describes the new international language support interface that was introduced with Firebird 2. Since then, a number of additions and improvements have been added, including the ability to implement UNICODE collations from external libraries generically. New DDL syntax has been introduced to assist with this task, in the form of the CREATE COLLATION statement.

New INTL Interface for Non-ASCII Character Sets

A. dos Santos Fernandes Originally described by N. Samofatov, Firebird 2's new interface for international character sets features many enhancements that have been implemented by me.

Architecture
Firebird allows character sets and collations to be declared in any character field or variable declaration. The default character set can also be specified at database create time, to cause every CHAR/VARCHAR declaration that does not specifically include a CHARACTER SET clause to use this default. At attachment time you normally specify the character set that the client is to use to read strings. If no "client" (or "connection") character set is specified, character set NONE is assumed. Two special character sets, NONE and OCTETS, can be used in declarations. However, OCTETS cannot be used as a connection character set. The two sets are similar, except that the space character of NONE is ASCII 0x20, whereas the space character OCTETS is 0x00. NONE and OCTETS are special in the sense that they follow different rules from those applicable to other character sets regarding conversions. With other character sets, conversion is performed as CHARSET1->UNICODE->CHARSET2. With NONE/OCTETS the bytes are just copied: NONE/OCTETS->CHARSET2 and CHARSET1->NONE/ OCTETS.

Enhancements
Enhancements that the new system brings include:

Well-formedness checks
Some character sets (especially multi-byte) do not accept just any string. Now, the engine verifies that strings are well-formed when assigning from NONE/OCTETS and when strings sent by the client (the statement string and parameters). 98

International Language Support (INTL)

Uppercasing
In Firebird 1.5.x, only the ASCII-equivalent characters are uppercased in any character set's default (binary) collation order, which is the one that is used if no collation is specified. For example,
isql SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> -q -ch create create insert insert insert insert dos850 database 'test.fdb'; table t (c char(1) character set dos850); into t values ('a'); into t values ('e'); into t values (''); into t values ('');

select c, upper(c) from t;

C UPPER ====== ====== a A e E

In Firebird 2 the result is:

C UPPER ====== ====== a A e E

Maximum String Length

In v.1.5.x the engine does not verify the logical length of multi-byte character set (MBCS) strings. Hence, a UNICODE_FSS field takes three times as many characters as the declared field size, three being the maximum length of one UNICODE_FSS character. This has been retained for compatibility for legacy character sets. However, new character sets (UTF8, for example) do not inherit this limitation.

sqlsubtype and Attachment Character Set

When the character set of a CHAR or VARCHAR column is anything but NONE or OCTETS and the attachment character set is not NONE, the sqlsubtype member of an XSQLVAR pertaining to that column now contains the attachment (connection) character set number instead of the column's character set.

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Enhancements for BLOBs

Several character set-related enhancements have been added for text BLOBs.

COLLATE clauses for BLOBs A DML COLLATE clause is now allowed with BLOBs. Example
select blob_column from table where blob_column collate unicode = 'foo';

Full equality comparisons between BLOBs Comparison can be performed on the entire content of a text BLOB.

Character set conversion for BLOBs Conversion between character sets is now possible when assigning to a BLOB from a string or another BLOB

INTL Plug-ins
Character sets and collations are installed using a manifest file. The manifest file should be put in the $rootdir/intl with a .conf extension. It is used to locate character sets and collations in the libraries. If a character set/collation is declared more than once, it is not loaded and the error is reported in the log. The file /intl/fbintl.conf is an example of a manifest file. The following snippet is an excerpt from / intl/fbintl.conf:
<intl_module fbintl> filename $(this)/fbintl </intl_module> <charset ISO8859_1> intl_module fbintl collation ISO8859_1 collation DA_DA collation DE_DE collation EN_UK collation EN_US collation ES_ES collation PT_BR collation PT_PT </charset> <charset WIN1250>

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intl_module collation collation collation collation </charset> fbintl WIN1250 PXW_CSY PXW_HUN PXW_HUNDC

Note
The symbol $(this) is used to indicate the same directory as the manifest file and the library extension should be omitted.

New Character Sets/Collations

Two character sets introduced in Firebird 2 will be of particular interest if you have struggled with the shortcomings of UNICODE_FSS in past versions.

UTF8 character set

The UNICODE_FSS character set has a number of problems: it's an old version of UTF8 that accepts malformed strings and does not enforce correct maximum string length. In FB 1.5.X UTF8 is an alias to UNICODE_FSS. Now, UTF8 is a new character set, without the inherent problems of UNICODE_FSS.

UNICODE collations (for UTF8)

UCS_BASIC works identically to UTF8 with no collation specified (sorts in UNICODE code-point order). The UNICODE collation sorts using UCA (Unicode Collation Algorithm). Sort order sample:
isql SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> SQL> -q -ch create create insert insert insert insert insert select dos850 database 'test.fdb'; table t (c char(1) character set utf8); into t values ('a'); into t values ('A'); into t values (''); into t values ('b'); into t values ('B'); * from t order by c collate ucs_basic;

C ====== A B a b SQL> select * from t order by c collate unicode; C

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====== a A b B

Developments in V.2.1
The 2.1 release sees further capabilities implemented for 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. using ICU charsets through fbintl UNICODE collation (charset_UNICODE) being available for all fbintl charsets using collation attributes CREATE/DROP COLLATION statements SHOW COLLATION and collation extraction in ISQL Verifying that text blobs are well-formed Transliterating text blobs automatically

ICU Character Sets

All non-wide and ASCII-based character sets present in ICU can be used by Firebird 2.1. To reduce the size of the distribution kit, we customize ICU to include only essential character sets and any for which there was a specific feature request. If the character set you need is not included, you can replace the ICU libraries with another complete module, found at our site or already installed in your operating system.

Registering an ICU Character Set Module

To use an alternative character set module, you need to register it in two places: 1. 2. in the server's language configuration file, intl/fbintl.conf in each database that is going to use it

Registering a Character Set on the Server Using a text editor, register the module in intl/fbintl.conf, as follows.<charset intl_module collation </charset> NAME> fbintl NAME [REAL-NAME]

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Registering a Character Set in a Database To register the module in a database, run the procedure sp_register_character_set, the source for which can be found in misc/intl.sql beneath your Firebird 2.1 root Using the Stored Procedure A Sample Here is the sample declaration in fbintl.conf:
<charset intl_module collation </charset> GB> fbintl GB GB18030

The stored procedure takes two arguments: a string that is the character set's identifier as declared in the configuration file and a smallint that is the maximum number of bytes a single character can occupy in the encoding. For our example:
execute procedure sp_register_character_set ('GB', 4);

The CREATE COLLATION Statement Syntax for CREATE COLLATION

CREATE COLLATION <name> FOR <charset> [ FROM <base> | FROM EXTERNAL ('<name>') ] [ NO PAD | PAD SPACE ] [ CASE SENSITIVE | CASE INSENSITIVE ] [ ACCENT SENSITIVE | ACCENT INSENSITIVE ] [ '<specific-attributes>' ]

Note
Specific attributes should be separated by semicolon and are case sensitive.

Examples
/* 1 */ CREATE COLLATION UNICODE_ENUS_CI FOR UTF8 FROM UNICODE CASE INSENSITIVE 'LOCALE=en_US'; /* 2 */ CREATE COLLATION NEW_COLLATION FOR WIN1252

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International Language Support (INTL)

PAD SPACE; /* NEW_COLLATION should be declared in .conf file in the $root/intl directory */

The UNICODE Collations

The UNICODE collations (case sensitive and case insensitive) can be applied to any character set that is present in fbintl. They are already registered in fbintl.conf, but you need to register them in the databases, with the desired associations and attributes. Naming Conventions The naming convention you should use is charset_collation. For example,
create collation win1252_unicode for win1252; create collation win1252_unicode_ci for win1252 from win1252_unicode case insensitive;

Note
The character set name should be as in fbintl.conf (i.e. ISO8859_1 instead of ISO88591, for example).

Specific Attributes for Collations

Note
Some attributes may not work with some collations, even though they do not report an error.

DISABLE-COMPRESSIONS Disable compressions (aka contractions) changing the order of a group of characters. Valid for collations of narrow character sets. Format: DISABLE-COMPRESSIONS={0 | 1} Example DISABLE-COMPRESSIONS=1 DISABLE-EXPANSIONS Disable expansions changing the order of a character to sort as a group of characters. Valid for collations of narrow character sets. Format: DISABLE-EXPANSIONS={0 | 1} 104

International Language Support (INTL) Example DISABLE-EXPANSIONS=1 ICU-VERSION Specify what version of ICU library will be used. Valid values are the ones defined in the config file (intl/ fbintl.conf) in entry intl_module/icu_versions. Valid for UNICODE and UNICODE_CI. Format: ICU-VERSION={default | major.minor} Example ICU-VERSION=3.0 LOCALE Specify the collation locale. Valid for UNICODE and UNICODE_CI. Requires complete version of ICU libraries. Format: LOCALE=xx_XX Example LOCALE=en_US MULTI-LEVEL Uses more than one level for ordering purposes. Valid for collations of narrow character sets. Format: MULTI-LEVEL={0 | 1} Example MULTI-LEVEL=1 SPECIALS-FIRST Order special characters (spaces, symbols, etc) before alphanumeric characters. Valid for collations of narrow character sets. Format: SPECIALS-FIRST={0 | 1} Example SPECIALS-FIRST=1

Collation Changes in V.2.1

Spanish ES_ES (as well as the new ES_ES_CI_AI) collation automatically uses attributes DISABLE-COMPRESSIONS=1;SPECIALS-FIRST=1. 105

International Language Support (INTL)

Note
The attributes are stored at database creation time, so the changes do not apply to databases with ODS < 11.1.

The ES_ES_CI_AI collation was standardised to current usage. UTF-8 Case-insensitive collation for UTF-8. See feature request CORE-972

Metadata Text Conversion

Firebird versions 2.0.x had two problems related to character sets and metadata extraction: 1. When creating or altering objects, text associated with metadata was not transliterated from the client character set to the system (UNICODE_FSS) character set of these BLOB columns. Instead, raw bytes were stored there. The types of text affected were PSQL sources, descriptions, text associated with constraints and defaults, and so on. Note
Even in the current version (2.1 Beta 1) the problem can still occur if CREATE or ALTER operations are performed with the connection character set as NONE or UNICODE_FSS and you are using nonUNICODE_FSS data.

2.

In reads from text BLOBs, transliteration from the BLOB character set to the client character set was not being performed.

Repairing Your Metadata Text

If your metadata text was created with non-ASCII encoding, you need to repair your database in order to read the metadata correctly after upgrading it to v.2.1. Important
The procedure involves multiple passes through the database, using scripts. It is strongly recommended that you disconnect and reconnect before each pass. The database should already have been converted to ODS11.1 by way of a gbak backup and restore. Before doing anything, make a copy of the database. In the examples that follow, the string $fbroot$ represents the path to your Firebird installation root directory, e.g. /opt/firebird.

Create the procedures in the database

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International Language Support (INTL)

[1] isql /path/to/your/database.fdb [2] SQL> input '$fbroot$/misc/upgrade/metadata/metadata_charset_create.sql';

Check your database

[1] isql /path/to/your/database.fdb [2] SQL> select * from rdb$check_metadata;

The rdb$check_metadata procedure will return all objects that are touched by it. If no exception is raised, your metadata is OK and you can go to the section Remove the upgrade procedures. Otherwise, the first bad object is the last one listed before the exception.

Fixing the metadata

To fix the metadata, you need to know in what character set the objects were created. The upgrade script will work correctly only if all your metadata was created using the same character set.
[1] [2] [3] [4] isql SQL> SQL> SQL> /path/to/your/database.fdb input '$fbroot$/misc/upgrade/metatdata/metadata_charset_create.sql'; select * from rdb$fix_metadata('WIN1252'); -- replace WIN1252 by your charset commit;

The rdb$fix_metadata procedure will return the same data as rdb$check_metadata, but it will change the metadata texts. Important
It should be run once!

After this, you can remove the upgrade procedures.

Remove the upgrade procedures

[1] isql /path/to/your/database.fdb [2] SQL> input '$fbroot$/misc/upgrade/metadata/metadata_charset_drop.sql';

Supported Character Sets

See Appendix B at the end of these notes, for a full listing of the supported character sets.

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Chapter 11

Administrative Features
Firebird is gradually adding new features to assist in the administration of databases. Firebird 2.1 sees the introduction of a new set of system tables through which administrators can monitor transactions and statements that are active in a database. These facilities employ a new v.2.1 DDL feature, Global Temporary Tables to provide snapshots.

Monitoring Tables
Dmitry Yemanov Firebird 2.1 introduces the ability to monitor server-side activity happening inside a particular database. The engine offers a set of so-called virtual tables that provides the user with a snapshot of the current activity within the given database. The word virtual means that the table data is not materialised until explicitly asked for. However, the metadata of the virtual table is stable and can be retrieved from the schema. Note
Virtual monitoring tables exist only in ODS 11.1 (and higher) databases, so a migration via backup/restore is required in order to use this feature.

The Concept
The key term of the monitoring feature is an activity snapshot. It represents the current state of the database, comprising a variety of information about the database itself, active attachments and users, transactions, prepared and running statements, and more. A snapshot is created the first time any of the monitoring tables is being selected from in the given transaction and it is preserved until the transaction ends, in order that multiple-table queries (e.g., master-detail ones) will always return a consistent view of the data. In other words, the monitoring tables always behave like a snapshot table stability (consistency) transaction, even if the host transaction has been started with a lower isolation level. To refresh the snapshot, the current transaction should be finished and the monitoring tables should be queried in a new transaction context.

Scope and Security

Access to the monitoring tables is available in both DSQL and PSQL. Complete database monitoring is available to SYSDBA and the database owner. Regular users are restricted to the information about their own attachments onlyother attachments are invisible to them. 108

Administrative Features

Monitor Multiple Attachments

D. Yemanov Under v.2.1.0 and 2.1.1, a non-SYSDBA user with more than one attachment could monitor only the one that was CURRENT_CONNECTION. From v.2.1.2 (Improvement CORE-2233), a non-SYSDBA user with more than one attachment can monitor all its own attachments.

Metadata
MON$DATABASE (connected database) - MON$DATABASE_NAME (database pathname or alias) - MON$PAGE_SIZE (page size) - MON$ODS_MAJOR (major ODS version) - MON$ODS_MINOR (minor ODS version) - MON$OLDEST_TRANSACTION (OIT number) - MON$OLDEST_ACTIVE (OAT number) - MON$OLDEST_SNAPSHOT (OST number) - MON$NEXT_TRANSACTION (next transaction number) - MON$PAGE_BUFFERS (number of pages allocated in the cache) - MON$SQL_DIALECT (SQL dialect of the database) - MON$SHUTDOWN_MODE (current shutdown mode) 0: online 1: multi-user shutdown 2: single-user shutdown 3: full shutdown - MON$SWEEP_INTERVAL (sweep interval) - MON$READ_ONLY (read-only flag) - MON$FORCED_WRITES (sync writes flag) - MON$RESERVE_SPACE (reserve space flag) - MON$CREATION_DATE (creation date/time) - MON$PAGES (number of pages allocated on disk) - MON$BACKUP_STATE (current physical backup state) 0: normal 1: stalled 2: merge - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID)

MON$ATTACHMENTS (connected attachments) - MON$ATTACHMENT_ID (attachment ID) - MON$SERVER_PID (server process ID) - MON$STATE (attachment state) 0: idle 1: active - MON$ATTACHMENT_NAME (connection string) - MON$USER (user name) - MON$ROLE (role name) - MON$REMOTE_PROTOCOL (remote protocol name) 109

Administrative Features - MON$REMOTE_ADDRESS (remote address) - MON$REMOTE_PID (remote client process ID) - MON$REMOTE_PROCESS (remote client process pathname) - MON$CHARACTER_SET_ID (attachment character set) - MON$TIMESTAMP (connection date/time) - MON$GARBAGE_COLLECTION (garbage collection flag) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID)

columns MON$REMOTE_PID and MON$REMOTE_PROCESS contains non-NULL values only if the client library is version 2.1 or higher column MON$REMOTE_PROCESS can contain a non-pathname value if an application has specified a custom process name via DPB column MON$GARBAGE_COLLECTION indicates whether GC is allowed for this attachment (as specified via the DPB in isc_attach_database). MON$TRANSACTIONS (started transactions) - MON$TRANSACTION_ID (transaction ID) - MON$ATTACHMENT_ID (attachment ID) - MON$STATE (transaction state) 0: idle (state after prepare, until execution begins) 1: active (state during execution and fetch. Idle state returns after cursor is closed) - MON$TIMESTAMP (transaction start date/time) - MON$TOP_TRANSACTION (top transaction) - MON$OLDEST_TRANSACTION (local OIT number) - MON$OLDEST_ACTIVE (local OAT number) - MON$ISOLATION_MODE (isolation mode) 0: consistency 1: concurrency 2: read committed record version 3: read committed no record version - MON$LOCK_TIMEOUT (lock timeout) -1: infinite wait 0: no wait N: timeout N - MON$READ_ONLY (read-only flag) - MON$AUTO_COMMIT (auto-commit flag) - MON$AUTO_UNDO (auto-undo flag) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID)

MON$TOP_TRANSACTION is the upper limit used by the sweeper transaction when advancing the global OIT. All transactions above this threshold are considered active. It is normally equivalent to the MON$TRANSACTION_ID but COMMIT RETAINING or ROLLBACK RETAINING will cause MON $TOP_TRANSACTION to remain unchanged (stuck) when the transaction ID is incremented. MON$AUTO_UNDO indicates the auto-undo status set for the transaction, i.e., whether a transaction-level savepoint was created. The existence of the transaction-level savepoint allows changes to be undone if ROLLBACK is called and the transaction is then just committed. If this savepoint does not

110

Administrative Features exist, or it does exist but the number of changes is very large, then an actual ROLLBACK is executed and the the transaction is marked in the TIP as dead. MON$STATEMENTS (prepared statements) - MON$STATEMENT_ID (statement ID) - MON$ATTACHMENT_ID (attachment ID) - MON$TRANSACTION_ID (transaction ID) - MON$STATE (statement state) 0: idle 1: active - MON$TIMESTAMP (statement start date/time) - MON$SQL_TEXT (statement text, if appropriate) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID) column MON$SQL_TEXT contains NULL for GDML statements columns MON$TRANSACTION_ID and MON$TIMESTAMP contain valid values for active statements only The execution plan and the values of parameters are not available MON$CALL_STACK (call stack of active PSQL requests) - MON$CALL_ID (call ID) - MON$STATEMENT_ID (top-level DSQL statement ID) - MON$CALLER_ID (caller request ID) - MON$OBJECT_NAME (PSQL object name) - MON$OBJECT_TYPE (PSQL object type) - MON$TIMESTAMP (request start date/time) - MON$SOURCE_LINE (SQL source line number) - MON$SOURCE_COLUMN (SQL source column number) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID) column MON$STATEMENT_ID groups call stacks by the top-level DSQL statement that initiated the call chain. This ID represents an active statement record in the table MON$STATEMENTS. columns MON$SOURCE_LINE and MON$SOURCE_COLUMN contain line/column information related to the PSQL statement currently being executed MON$IO_STATS (I/O statistics) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID) - MON$STAT_GROUP (statistics group) 0: database 1: attachment 2: transaction 3: statement 4: call - MON$PAGE_READS (number of page reads) - MON$PAGE_WRITES (number of page writes) - MON$PAGE_FETCHES (number of page fetches)

111

Administrative Features - MON$PAGE_MARKS (number of pages with changes pending) MON$RECORD_STATS (record-level statistics) - MON$STAT_ID (statistics ID) - MON$STAT_GROUP (statistics group) 0: database 1: attachment 2: transaction 3: statement 4: call - MON$RECORD_SEQ_READS (number of records read sequentially) - MON$RECORD_IDX_READS (number of records read via an index) - MON$RECORD_INSERTS (number of inserted records) - MON$RECORD_UPDATES (number of updated records) - MON$RECORD_DELETES (number of deleted records) - MON$RECORD_BACKOUTS (number of records where a new primary record version or a change to an existing primary record version is backed out due to rollback or savepoint undo) - MON$RECORD_PURGES (number of records where record version chain is being purged of versions no longer needed by OAT or younger transactions) - MON$RECORD_EXPUNGES (number of records where record version chain is being deleted due to deletions by transactions older than OAT)

Note
Textual descriptions of all state and mode values can be found in the system table RDB$TYPES.

Usage
Creation of a snapshot is usually quite a fast operation, but some delay could be expected under high load (especially in the Classic Server). For guidelines to minimising the impact of monitoring under such conditions, see Performance Guidelines, below. A valid database connection is required in order to retrieve the monitoring data. The monitoring tables return information about the attached database only. If multiple databases are being accessed on the server, each of them has to be connected to and monitored separately. The system variables CURRENT_CONNECTION and CURRENT_TRANSACTION could be used to select data about the caller's current connection and transaction respectively. These variables correspond to the ID columns of the appropriate monitoring tables. Examples 1. Retrieve IDs of all CS processes loading CPU at the moment
SELECT MON$SERVER_PID FROM MON$ATTACHMENTS

112

Administrative Features
WHERE MON$ATTACHMENT_ID <> CURRENT_CONNECTION AND MON$STATE = 1

2.

Retrieve information about client applications

SELECT MON$USER, MON$REMOTE_ADDRESS, MON$REMOTE_PID, MON$TIMESTAMP FROM MON$ATTACHMENTS WHERE MON$ATTACHMENT_ID <> CURRENT_CONNECTION

3.

Get isolation level of the current transaction

SELECT MON$ISOLATION_MODE FROM MON$TRANSACTIONS WHERE MON$TRANSACTION_ID = CURRENT_TRANSACTION

4.

Get statements that are currently active

SELECT ATT.MON$USER, ATT.MON$REMOTE_ADDRESS, STMT.MON$SQL_TEXT, STMT.MON$TIMESTAMP FROM MON$ATTACHMENTS ATT JOIN MON$STATEMENTS STMT ON ATT.MON$ATTACHMENT_ID = STMT.MON$ATTACHMENT_ID WHERE ATT.MON$ATTACHMENT_ID <> CURRENT_CONNECTION AND STMT.MON$STATE = 1

5.

Retrieve call stacks for all connections

WITH RECURSIVE HEAD AS ( SELECT CALL.MON$STATEMENT_ID, CALL.MON$CALL_ID, CALL.MON$OBJECT_NAME, CALL.MON$OBJECT_TYPE FROM MON$CALL_STACK CALL WHERE CALL.MON$CALLER_ID IS NULL UNION ALL SELECT CALL.MON$STATEMENT_ID, CALL.MON$CALL_ID, CALL.MON$OBJECT_NAME, CALL.MON$OBJECT_TYPE FROM MON$CALL_STACK CALL JOIN HEAD ON CALL.MON$CALLER_ID = HEAD.MON$CALL_ID ) SELECT MON$ATTACHMENT_ID, MON$OBJECT_NAME, MON$OBJECT_TYPE FROM HEAD JOIN MON$STATEMENTS STMT

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Administrative Features
ON STMT.MON$STATEMENT_ID = HEAD.MON$STATEMENT_ID WHERE STMT.MON$ATTACHMENT_ID <> CURRENT_CONNECTION

Cancel a Running Query

Runaway and long-running queries can now be cancelled from a separate connection. There is no API function call directed at this feature. It will be up to the SysAdmin (SYSDBA or Owner) to make use of the data available in the monitoring tables and devise an appropriate mechanism for reining in the rogue statements. Example As a very rough example, the following statement will kill all statements currently running in the database, other than any that belong to the separate connection that the SysAdmin is using himself:
delete from mon$statements where mon$attachment_id <> current_connection

Performance Guidelines for Using MON$ Under Load

The monitoring is implemented around two cornerstones: shared memory and notifications.

Shared Memory
All server processes share some region of memory where the information about current activity is stored. The information consists of multiple variable-length items describing the details of various activities. All items belonging to a particular process are grouped into a single cluster, enabling them to be processed as a whole. Collection of the monitoring information and population of the tables do not happen in real time. Instead, server processes write their data into the shared memory only when explicitly asked to. Upon writing, the newer clusters supersede the old ones. Then, when the shared memory region is being read, the reading process scans all the clusters and performs garbage collection, removing clusters that belong to dead processes and compacting the shared memory space.

Notifications
Every server process has a flag that indicates its capability to react to someone's monitoring request as soon as it arrives. When some user connection runs a query against some monitoring table, the worker process of that connection sends a broadcast notification to other processes, requesting an up-to-date information. Those processes react to this request by updating their clusters inside the shared memory region and clearing their ready flags. Once every notified process has finished its update, the requesting process reads the shared memory region, filters the necessary tags according to its user permissions, transforms the internal representation into records and fields and populates the in-memory monitoring tables cache. 114

Administrative Features Any processes that have been idle since the last monitoring exchange have their ready flag clear, indicating that they have nothing to update in the shared memory. The clear flag means they will be ignored by the notification broadcast and will be exempt from making the next round trip. The ready flag is set as soon as something significant changes inside the process and the process starts responding to monitoring requests again.

Locking
While coordinating the write/read operations, the requester holds an exclusive lock that affects all user connections that are currently active as well as any connections with attachments in the process of being established. Multiple simultaneous monitoring requests are serialized.

Limitations and Known Issues

1. In a heavily loaded system running Classic, monitoring requests may take noticeable time to execute. In the meantime, other activity (both running statements and new connection attempts) may be blocked until the monitoring request completes. Note
Improved in v2.1.3.

2.

Sometimes, an out-of-memory condition can cause monitoring requests to fail, or cause other worker processes to swap. A major source of this problem is the fact that every record in MON$STATEMENTS has a blob MON$SQL_TEXT which is created for the duration of the monitoring transaction. In V.2.1.x, every blob occupies <page size> bytes of memory, even if its actual content is smaller. When the number of prepared statements in the system is huge, it becomes possible to exhaust memory and get this failure.

3.

Another possible source of this memory exhaustion could be the temporary (in practice, very short-lived) growth of the transaction pool into which the monitoring data are cached while the clusters are being merged into a single fragment. Note
There is no relief for this condition in v.2.1.3. However, it has been improved for v.2.5.0.

More Context Information

More context information about the server and database ('SYSTEM') is available via SELECT calls to the RDB $GET_CONTEXT function, including the engine version. Example
SELECT RDB$GET_CONTEXT('SYSTEM', 'ENGINE_VERSION') FROM RDB$DATABASE

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Administrative Features

For detailed information about using these context calls, refer to the v.2.0.1 release notes.

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Chapter 12

Security
In this chapter are details of the changes to Firebird security that came with the release of Firebird 2 and its successors. Further changes and enhancements introduced in V.2.1 are highlighted.

Summary of Changes
Improving security has had a lot of focus in Firebird 2.0 development. The following is a summary of the major changes.

New security database

The new security database is renamed as security2.fdb. Inside, the user authentication table, where user names and passwords are stored, is now called RDB$USERS. There is no longer a table named users but a new view over RDB$USERS that is named USERS. Through this view, users can change their passwords. For details of the new database, see New Security Database in the section about authentication later in this chapter. For instructions on updating previous security databases, refer to the section Dealing with the New Security Database at the end of this chapter.

Using Windows Security to Authenticate Users

(V.2.1) From Firebird 2.1 onward, Windows Trusted User security can be applied for authenticating Firebird users on a Windows host. The Trusted User's security context is passed to the Firebird server instead of the Firebird user name and password and, if it succeeds, it is used to determine the Firebird security user name. For details see the section below, Windows Trusted User Security.

Better password encryption

A. Peshkov Password encryption/decryption now uses a more secure password hash calculation algorithm.

Users can modify their own passwords

A. Peshkov The SYSDBA remains the keeper of the security database. However, users can now modify their own passwords. 117

Security

Non-server access to security database is rejected

A. Peshkov gsec now uses the Services API. The server will refuse any access to security2.fdb except through the Services Manager.

Active protection from brute-force attack

A. Peshkov Attempts to get access to the server using brute-force techniques on accounts and passwords are now detected and locked out. Login with password is required from any remote client Clients making too many wrong login attempts are blocked from further attempts for a period Support for brute-force attack protection has been included in both the attachment functions of the Firebird API and the Services API. For more details, see Protection from Brute-force Hacking

Vulnerabilities have been closed

A. Peshkov, C. Valderrama Several known vulnerabilities in the API have been closed. Caution
It must be noted that the restoration of the server redirection ("multi-hop") capability to Firebird 2 potentially throws up a new vulnerability. For that reason, it is controlled by a parameter (Redirection) in firebird. conf, which you should not enable unless you really understand its implications. These days, the ability to redirect requests to other servers is dangerous. Suppose you have one carefully protected firebird server, access to which is possible from the Internet. In a situation where this server has unrestricted access to your internal LAN, it will work as a gateway for incoming requests like firebird.your.domain.com:internal_server:/private/database.fdb . Knowing the name or IP address of some internal server on your LAN is enough for an intruder: he does note even need login access to the external server. Such a gateway easily overrides a firewall that is protecting your LAN from outside attack.

Details of the Security Changes in Firebird 2

Security focus was directed at some recognised weaknesses in Firebird's security from malicious attacks: the lack of brute-force resistant passwords encryption in the security database the ability for any remote user with a valid account to open the security database and read hashes from it (especially interesting in combination with the first point) the inability for users to change their own passwords 118

Security

the lack of protection against remote brute-forcing of passwords on the server directly

Authentication
Firebird authentication checks a server-wide security database in order to decide whether a database or server connection request is authorised. The security database stores the user names and passwords of all authorised login identities.

Firebird 1.5 Authentication

In Firebird 1.5 the DES algorithm is used twice to hash the password: first by the client, then by the server, before comparing it with the hash stored in security database. However, this sequence becomes completely broken when the SYSDBA changes a password. The client performs the hash calculation twice and stores the resulting hash directly in the security database. Therefore, hash management is completely client-dependent (or, actually, client-defined).

Firebird 2: Server-side Hashing

To be able to use stronger hashes, another approach was called for. The hash to be stored on the server should always be calculated on the server side. Such a schema already exists in Firebird -- in the Services API. This led to the decision to use the Services API for any client activity related to user management. Now, gsec and the isc_user_add(modify, delete) API functions all use services to access the security database. (Embedded access to Classic server on POSIX is the exception --see below). It became quite easy to make any changes to the way passwords are hashed - it is always performed by the server. It is no longer gsec's problem to calculate the hash for the security database: it simply asks services to do the work! It is worth noting that the new gsec works successfully with older Firebird versions, as long as the server's architecture supports services. The SHA-1 Hashing Algorithm This method leads to the situation where 1. 2. a hash valid for user A is invalid for user B when a user changes his password -- even to exactly the same string as before -- the data stored in RDB $USERS.RDB$PASSWD is new.

Although this situation does not increase resistance to a brute-force attempt to crack the password, it does make "visual" analysis of a stolen password database much harder.

The New Security Database

The structure of security database was changed. In general, now it contains a patch by Ivan Prenosil, with some minor differences, enabling any user to change his/her own password, . In firebird 1.5 the table USERS has to be readable by PUBLIC, an engine requirement without which the password validation process would fail. Ivan's patch solution used a view, with the condition "WHERE USER 119

Security = ''". That worked due to another bug in the engine that left the SQL variable USER empty, not 'authenticator', as it might seem from engine's code. Once that bug was fixed, it was certainly possible to add the condition "USER = 'authenticator'". For the short term, that was OK, because the username is always converted to upper case. A better solution was found, that avoids making user authentication depend on an SQL trick. The result is that the non-SYSDBA user can see only his own login in any user-management tool (gsec, or any graphical interface that use the Services API). SYSDBA continues to have full access to manage users' accounts.

New security database structure The Firebird 2 security database is named security2.fdb. For user authentication it has a new table named RDB$USERS that stores the new hashed passwords. A view over this table replaces the old USERS table and enables users to change their own passwords. The DDL for the new structures can be found in Appendix C.

gsec in Firebird 2
Special measures were thus taken to make remote connection to the security database completely impossible. Don't be surprised if some old program fails on attempting direct access: this is by design. Users information may now be accessed only through the Services API and the equivalent internal access to services now implemented in the isc_user_* API functions.

Protection from Brute-force Hacking

Current high-speed CPUs and fast WAN connections make it possible to try to brute-force Firebird server users' passwords. This is especially dangerous for Superserver which, since Firebird 1.5, performs user authentication very fast. Classic is slower, since it has to create new process for each connection, attach to the security database within that connection and compile a request to the table RDB$USERS before validating login and password. Superserver caches the connection and request, thus enabling a much faster user validation. Given the 8-byte maximum length of the traditional Firebird password, the brute-force hacker had a reasonable chance to break into the Firebird installation. The v.2.0 Superserver has active protection to make a brute-force attack more difficult. After a few failed attempts to log in, the user and IP address are locked for a few seconds, denying any attempt to log in with that particular user name OR from that particular IP address for a brief period. No setup or configuration is required for this feature. It is active automatically as soon as the Firebird 2.0 SuperServer starts up.

Using Windows Security to Authenticate Users

Alex Peshkov (V.2.1) From Firebird 2.1 onward, Windows Trusted User security can be applied for authenticating Firebird users on a Windows host. The Trusted User's security context is passed to the Firebird server and, if it succeeds, it is used to determine the Firebird security user name. 120

Security Simply omitting the user and password parameters from the DPB/SPB will automatically cause Windows Trusted User authentication to be applied, in almost all cases. See the Environment section, below, for exceptions. Illustration Suppose you have logged in to the Windows server SRV as user 'John'. If you connect to server SRV with isql, without specifying a Firebird user name and password:
isql srv:employee

and do:
SQL> select CURRENT_USER from rdb$database;

you will get something like:

USER ==================================================== SRV\John

SQL Privileges
Windows users can be granted rights to access database objects and roles in the same way as regular Firebird users, emulating the capability that has been always been available users of Unix and Linux hosted Firebird databases.

Administrators
If a local Adminstrator or a member of the built-in Domain Admins group connects to Firebird using trusted authentication, he/she will be connected as SYSDBA.

Configuration Parameter Authentication

The new parameter Authentication has been added to firebird.conf for configuring the authentication method on Windows. Possible values are.Authentication = Native Provides full compatibility with previous Firebird versions, avoiding trusted authentication. Authentication = Trusted The Security database is ignored and only Windows authentication is used. In some respects, on Windows this is more secure than Native, in the sense that it is no less and no more secure than the security of the host operating system. Authentication = Mixed This is the default setting. To retain the legacy behaviour, when the ISC_USER and ISC_PASSWORD variables are set in the environment, they are picked and used instead of trusted authentication. 121

Security

Note
Trusted authentication can be coerced to override the environment variables if they are setrefer to the notes below.

Forcing Trusted Authentication

For the situation where trusted authentication is needed and there is a likelihood that ISC_USER and ISC_ PASSWORD are set, there is a new DPB parameter that you can add to the DPBisc_dpb_trusted_auth. Most of the Firebird command-line utilities support parameter by means of the switch -tru[sted] (the abbreviated form is available, according to the usual rules for abbreviating switches). Note
The qli and nbackup utilities do not follow the pattern: they use single-letter switches that are somewhat arcane. The switch of interest for qli is -K). For nbackup, watch this space. The facility to force trusted authentication is yet to be implemented for it.

Example
C:\Pr~\bin>isql srv:db -- log in using trusted authentication C:\Pr~\bin>set ISC_USER=user1 C:\Pr~\bin>set ISC_PASSWORD=12345 C:\Pr~\bin>isql srv:db -- log in as 'user1' from environment C:\Pr~\bin>isql -trust srv:db -- log in using trusted authentication

Important
Windows rules for full domain user names allow names longer than the maximum 31 characters allowed by Firebird for user names. The 31-character limit is enforced and, from V.2.1, logins passing longer names are disabled. This will remain the situation until the mapping of OS objects to database objects is implemented in a later Firebird version.

Classic Server on POSIX

For reasons both technical and historical, a Classic server on POSIX with embedded clients is especially vulnerable to security exposure. Users having embedded access to databases MUST be given at least read access to the security database. This is the main reason that made implementing enhanced password hashes an absolute requirement. A malicious user with user-level access to Firebird could easily steal a copy of the security database, take it home and quietly brute-force the old DES hashes! Afterwards, he could change data in critical databases stored on that server. Firebird 2 is much less vulnerable to this kind of compromise. But the embedded POSIX server had one more problem with security: its implementation of the Services API calls the command-line gsec, as normal users do. Therefore, an embedded user-maintenance utility must have full access to security database. 122

Security The main reason to restrict direct access to the security database was to protect it from access by old versions of client software. Fortuitously, it also minimizes the exposure of the embedded Classic on POSIX at the same time, since it is quite unlikely that the combination of an old client and the new server would be present on the production box.

For Any Platform

Caution
The level of Firebird security is still not satisfactory in one serious respect, so please read this section carefully before opening port 3050 to the Internet.

An important security problem with Firebird still remains unresolved: the transmission of poorly encrypted passwords "in clear" across the network. It is not possible to resolve this problem without breaking old clients. To put it another way, a user who has set his/her password using a new secure method would be unable to use an older client to attach to the server. Taking this into account with plans to upgrade some aspects of the API in the next version, the decision was made not to change the password transmission method in Firebird 2.0. The immediate problem can be solved easily by using any IP-tunneling software (such as ZeBeDee) to move data to and from a Firebird server, for both 1.5 and 2.0. It remains the recommended way to access your remote Firebird server across the Internet.

Other Security Improvements

isc_service_query() wrongly revealed the full database file spec
Feature request CORE-1091 (V.2.1) When the server is configured "DatabaseAccess = None", isc_service_query() would return the full database file path and name. It has been corrected to return the database aliasone more argument in favour of making the use of database aliases standard practice!

Any user could view the server log through the Services API
Feature request CORE-1148 This was a minor security vulnerability. Regular users are now blocked from retrieving the server log using the Services API. Requests are explicitly checked to ensure that the authenticated user is SYSDBA.

Dealing with the New Security Database

A. Peshkov If you try to put a pre-Firebird 2 security database -- security.fdb or a renamed isc4.gdb -- into Firebird's new home directory and then try to connect to the server, you will get the message "Cannot attach to password 123

Security database". It is not a bug: it is by design. A security database from an earlier Firebird version cannot be used directly in Firebird 2.0 or higher. The newly structured security database is named security2.fdb. In order to be able to use an old security database, it is necessary to run the upgrade script security_database.sql, that is in the ../upgrade sub-directory of your Firebird server installation. Note
A copy of the script appears in Appendix C.

Doing the Security Database Upgrade

To do the upgrade, follow these steps: 1. Put your old security database in some place known to you, but not in Firebird's new home directory. Keep a copy available at all times! Start Firebird 2, using its new, native security2.fdb. Convert your old security database to ODS11 (i.e. backup and restore it using Firebird 2.0). Without this step, running the security_database.sql script will fail! Connect the restored security database as SYSDBA and run the script. Stop the Firebird service. Copy the upgraded database to the Firebird 2 home directory as security2.fdb. Restart Firebird.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Now you should be able to connect to the Firebird 2 server using your old logins and passwords.

Nullability of RDB$PASSWD
In pre-2.0 versions of Firebird it was possible to have a user with NULL password. From v.2.0 onward, the RDB $PASSWD field in the security database is constrained as NOT NULL. However, to avoid exceptions during the upgrade process, the field is created as nullable by the upgrade script. If you are really sure you have no empty passwords in the security database, you may modify the script yourself. For example, you may edit the line:
RDB$PASSWD RDB$PASSWD,

to be
RDB$PASSWD RDB$PASSWD NOT NULL,

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Security

Caution with LegacyHash

As long as you configure LegacyHash = 1 in firebird.conf, Firebird's security does not work completely. To set this right, it is necessary to do as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Change the SYSDBA password Have the users change their passwords (in 2.0 each user can change his or her own password). Set LegacyHash back to default value of 0, or comment it out. Stop and restart Firebird for the configuration change to take effect.

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Chapter 13

Command-line Utilities
General Enhancements
Utilities Support for Database Triggers
(V. 2.1) A new parameter was added to gbak, nbackup and isql to suppress Database Triggers from running. It is available only to the database owner and SYSDBA:
gbak -nodbtriggers isql -nodbtriggers nbackup -T

Password Hiding
Alex Peshkov Command-line utilities that take a -password parameter are vulnerable to password sniffing, especially when the utility is run from a script. As a step towards hardening against this on POSIX platforms, the [PASSWORD] argument now displays the process list as an asterisk ( * ), where previously it showed in clear.

Firebird Services
New Command-line Utility fbsvcmgr
Alex Peshkov (V.2.1) The new utility fbsvcmgr provides a command-line interface to the Services API, enabling access to any service that is implemented in Firebird. Although there are numerous database administration tools around that surface the Services API through graphical interfaces, the new tool addresses the problem for admins needing to access remote Unix servers in broad networks through a text-only connection. Previously, meeting such a requirement needed a programmer.

Using fbsvcmgr
fbsvcmgr does not emulate the switches implemented in the traditional g* utilities. Rather, it is just a frontend through which the Services API functions and parameters can pass. Users therefore need to be familiar with the Services API as it stands currently. The API header fileibase.h, in the ../include directory of your Firebird installation should be regarded as the primary source of information about what is available, backed up by the InterBase 6.0 beta API Guide. 126

Command-line Utilities

Parameters Specify the Services Manager The first required parameter for a command line call is the Services Manager you want to connect to: For a local connection use the simple symbol service_mgr To attach to a remote host, use the format hostname:service_mgr Specify subsequent service parameter blocks (SPBs) Subsequent SPBs, with values if required, follow. Any SPB can be optionally prefixed with a single '-' symbol. For the long command lines that are typical for fbsvcmgr, use of the '-' improves the readability of the command line. Compare, for example, the following (each a single command line despite the line breaks printed here):
# fbsvcmgr service_mgr user sysdba password masterke action_db_stats dbname employee sts_hdr_pages

and
# fbsvcmgr service_mgr -user sysdba -password masterke -action_db_stats -dbname employee -sts_hdr_pages

SPB Syntax The SPB syntax that fbsvcmgr understands closely matches with what you would encounter in the ibase.h include file or the InterBase 6.0 API documentation, except that a slightly abbreviated form is used to reduce typing and shorten the command lines a little. Here's how it works. All SPB parameters have one of two forms: (1) isc_spb_VALUE or (2) isc_VALUE1_svc_VALUE2. For fbsvcmgr you just need to pick out the VALUE, VALUE1 or VALUE2 part[s] when you supply your parameter. Accordingly, for (1) you would type simply VALUE, while for (2) you would type VALUE1_VALUE2. For example:
isc_spb_dbname => dbname isc_action_svc_backup => action_backup isc_spb_sec_username => sec_username isc_info_svc_get_env_lock => info_get_env_lock

and so on. Note

An exception is isc_spb_user_name: it can be specified as either user_name or simply user.

It is not realistic to attempt to describe all of the SPB parameters in release notes. In the InterBase 6.0 beta documentation it takes about 40 pages! The next section highlights some known differences between the operation of fbsvcmgr and what you might otherwise infer from the old beta documentation. 127

Command-line Utilities

fbsvcmgr Syntax Specifics Do's and Don'ts With fbsvcmgr you can perform a single actionand get its results if applicableor you can use it to retrieve multiple information items from the Services Manager. You cannot do both in a single command. For example,
# fbsvcmgr service_mgr -user sysdba -password masterke -action_display_user

will list all current users on the local firebird server:

SYSDBA QA_USER1 QA_USER2 QA_USER3 QA_USER4 QA_USER5 GUEST SHUT1 SHUT2 QATEST Sql Server Administrator 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

...and...
# fbsvcmgr service_mgr -user sysdba -password masterke -info_server_version -info_implementation

will report both the server version and its implementation:

Server version: LI-T2.1.0.15740 Firebird 2.1 Alpha 1 Server implementation: Firebird/linux AMD64

But an attempt to mix all of this in single command line:

# fbsvcmgr service_mgr -user sysdba -password masterke -action_display_user -info_server_version -info_implementation

raises an error:
Unknown switch -info_server_version

Undocumented Items The function isc_spb_rpr_list_limbo_trans was omitted from the IB6 beta documentation. It is supported in fbsvcmgr.

128

Command-line Utilities Support for New Services API Items in v.2.1 Two new items that were added to the Services API in Firebird 2.1 are supported by fbsvcmgr: isc_spb_trusted_auth (type it as trusted_auth) applies only to Windows. It forces Firebird to use Windows trusted authentication. isc_spb_dbname gives the ability to set a database name parameter (type as dbname) in all service actions related to accessing the security database from a remote client, equivalent to supplying the database switch to the gsec utility. Note
For gsec the -database switch is mostly used to specify a remote server you want to administer. In fbsvcmgr, the name of the server is already given in the first parameter (via the service_mgr symbol) so the [isc_spb_]dbname parameter is mostly unnecessary.

Documentation Bugs The format described for some parameters in the InterBase 6 beta documentation are buggy. When in trouble, treat ibase.h as the primary source for the correct form. Unsupported functions Everything to do with licensing was removed from the original InterBase 6 open source code and is therefore not supported either in Firebird or by fbsvcmgr. The old Config file view/modification functions have been unsupported since Firebird 1.5 and are not implemented by fbsvcmgr.

Backup Service Misbehaviour Fixed

A. Peshkov Feature request CORE-1232 (V.2.1) Some misbehaviours that could occur when the Services Manager was doing backup/restore operations and some parameter items were missing or in the wrong sequence. The problem still affects lower versions, including v.2.0.x, so care should be taken to specify all required switches and supply the database name and backup file spec in the correct order when using the -se[vice_mgr] switch.

Disable Non-SYSDBA Access to Privileged Services

A. Peshkov Feature request CORE-787 Non-SYSDBA access to parts of the Services API that return information about users and database paths has been disabled. A non-privileged user can retrieve information about itself, however.

Backup Tools
Firebird 2 brings plenty of enhancements to backing up databases: a new utility for running on-line incremental backups and some improvements to gbak to avoid some of the traps that sometimes befall end-users. 129

Command-line Utilities

New On-line Incremental Backup

N. Samofatov Fast, on-line, page-level incremental backup facilities have been implemented. The backup engine comprises two parts: NBak, the engine support module NBackup, the tool that does the actual backups

Nbak
The functional responsibilities of NBAK are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. to redirect writes to difference files when asked (ALTER DATABASE BEGIN BACKUP statement) to produce a GUID for the database snapshot and write it into the database header before the ALTER DATABASE BEGIN BACKUP statement returns to merge differences into the database when asked (ALTER DATABASE END BACKUP statement) to mark pages written by the engine with the current SCN [page scan] counter value for the database to increment SCN on each change of backup state

The backup state cycle is: nbak_state_normal -> nbak_state_stalled -> nbak_state_merge -> nbak_state_normal In normal state writes go directly to the main database files. In stalled state writes go to the difference file only and the main files are read-only. In merge state new pages are not allocated from difference files. Writes go to the main database files. Reads of mapped pages compare both page versions and return the version which is fresher, because we don't know if it is merged or not. Note
This merge state logic has one quirky part. Both Microsoft and Linux define the contents of file growth as undefined i.e., garbage, and both zero-initialize them. This is why we don't read mapped pages beyond the original end of the main database file and keep them current in difference file until the end of a merge. This is almost half of NBak fetch and write logic, tested by using modified PIO on existing files containing garbage.

NBackup
The functional responsibilities of NBackup are 130

Command-line Utilities 1. 2. to provide a convenient way to issue ALTER DATABASE BEGIN/END BACKUP to fix up the database after filesystem copy (physically change nbak_state_diff to nbak_state_normal in the database header) to create and restore incremental backups. Incremental backups are multi-level. That means if you do a Level 2 backup every day and a Level 3 backup every hour, each Level 3 backup contains all pages changed from the beginning of the day till the hour when the Level 3 backup is made.

3.

Backing Up Creating incremental backups has the following algorithm: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Issue ALTER DATABASE BEGIN BACKUP to redirect writes to the difference file Look up the SCN and GUID of the most recent backup at the previous level Stream database pages having SCN larger than was found at step 2 to the backup file. Write the GUID of the previous-level backup to the header, to enable the consistency of the backup chain to be checked during restore. Issue ALTER DATABASE END BACKUP Add a record of this backup operation to RDB$BACKUP_HISTORY. Record current level, SCN, snapshot GUID and some miscellaneous stuff for user consumption.

Restoring Restore is simple: we reconstruct the physical database image for the chain of backup files, checking that the backup_guid of each file matches prev_guid of the next one, then fix it up (change its state in header to nbak_state_normal).

Usage
nbackup <options>

Valid Options
-L -N -F -B -R -U -P <database> Lock database for filesystem copy <database> Unlock previously locked database <database> Fixup database after filesystem copy <level> <database> [<filename>] Create incremental backup <database> [<file0> [<file1>...]] Restore incremental backup <user> User name <password> Password

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Note
1. 2. 3. <database> may specify a database alias incremental backup of multi-file databases is not supported yet "stdout" may be used as a value of <filename> for the -B option

Improvement in V.2.1.3
A. Peshkov In the Firebird 2.5 beta, an improvement was done for POSIX versions to address a problem whereby the full backup tool of nBackup would hog I/O resources when backing up large databases, bringing production work to a standstill. This improvement was backported to V.2.1.3. Now, nBackup tries to read from the operating system cache before attempting to read from disk, thus reducing the I/O load substantially. Note
The cost may be a 10 to 15 percent increase in the time taken to complete the full backup under high-load conditions.

Tracker reference CORE-2316.

User Manual
P. Vinkenoog A user manual for NBak/NBackup has been prepared. It can be downloaded from the documentation area at the Firebird website: www.firebirdsql.org/pdfmanual/ - the file name is Firebird-nbackup.pdf.

gbak Backup/Porting/Restore Utility

A number of enhancements have been added to gbak.

Changed Behaviours, New Switches

V. Khorsun The new gbak switch
-RECREATE_DATABASE [OVERWRITE]

is a separate switch designed to make harder for the unsuspecting to overwrite a database accidentally, as could occur easily with the shortened form of the old switch:
-R[EPLACE_DATABASE]

In summary: 132

Command-line Utilities gbak -R (or gbak -r) now applies to the new -R[ECREATE_DATABASE] switch and will never overwrite an existing database if the O[VERWRITE] argument is absent The short form of the old gbak -R[EPLACE_DATABASE] is now -REP[LACE_DATABASE]. This switch does not accept the O[VERWRITE] argument. The -REP[LACE_DATABASE] switch should be considered as deprecated, i.e. it will become unavailable in some future Firebird release. This change means that, if you have any legacy batch or cron scripts that rely on gbak -r or gbak -R without modification, then the operation will except if the database exists. If you want to retain the ability of your script to overwrite your database unconditionally, you will need to modify the command to use either the new switch with the OVERWRITE argument or the new short form for the old -REPLACE_DATABASE switch.

gbak Made More Version-friendly

C. Valderrama (V.2.1) In its latest evolution, gbak can be used to restore a database on any version of Firebird.

Hide User Name & Password in Shell

A. Peshkov Feature request CORE-867 (V.2.1) gbak now changes param0 to prevent the user name and password from being displayed in ps axf.

gbak -V and the Counter Parameter

During Firebird 1 development, an optional numeric <counter> argument was added to the -V[erbose] switch of gbak for both backup and restore. It was intended to allow you to specify a number and get a running count of rows processed as the row counter passed each interval of that number of rows. It caused undesirable side-effects and was removed before Firebird 1.0 was ever released. So, although it never happened, it was documented as implemented in the release notes and other places.

ISQL Query Utility

Work on ISQL has involved a lot of bug-fixing and the introduction of a few new, useful features. One trick to note is that CHAR and VARCHAR types defined in character set OCTETS (alias BINARY) now display in hex format. Currently, this feature cannot be toggled off.

New Switches
The following command-line switches were added: 133

Command-line Utilities

-b[ail] "Bail out"

D. Ivanov, C. Valderrama Command line switch -b to instruct isql to bail out on error when used in non-interactive mode, returning an error code to the operating system. When using scripts as input in the command line, it may be totally unappropriate to let isql continue executing a batch of commands after an error has happened. Therefore, the "-b[ail]" option will cause script execution to stop at the first error it detects. No further statements in the input script will be executed and isql will return an error code to the operating system. Most cases have been covered, but if you find some error that is not recognized by isql, you should inform the project, as this is a feature in progress. Currently there is no differentiation by error code---any non-zero return code should be interpreted as failure. Depending on other options (like -o, -m and -m2) , isql will show the error message on screen or will send it to a file.

Some Features Even if isql is executing nested scripts, it will cease all execution and will return to the operating system when it detects an error. Nested scripts happen when a script A is used as isql input but in turn A contains an INPUT command to load script B an so on. Isql doesn't check for direct or indirect recursion, thus if the programmer makes a mistake and script A loads itself or loads script B that in turn loads script A again, isql will run until it exhaust memory or an error is returned from the database, at whose point -bail if activated will stop all activity. DML errors will be caught when being prepared or executed, depending on the type of error. In many cases, isql will return the line number of a DML statement that fails during execution of a script. (More about error line numbers ...) DDL errors will be caught when being prepared or executed by default, since isql uses AUTODDL ON by default. However, if AUTO DLL is OFF, the server only complains when the script does an explicit COMMIT and this may involve several SQL statements. The feature can be enabled/disabled interactively or from a script by means of the command
SET BAIL [ON | OFF]

As is the case with other SET commands, simply using SET BAIL will toggle the state between activated and deactivated. Using SET will display the state of the switch among many others. Even if BAIL is activated, it doesn't mean it will change isql behavior. An additional requirement should be met: the session should be non-interactive. A non-interactive session happens when the user calls isql in batch mode, giving it a script as input. Example
isql -b -i my_fb.sql -o results.log -m -m2

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Tip
However, if the user loads isql interactively and later executes a script with the input command, this is considered an interactive session even though isql knows it is executing a script.

Example
isql Use CONNECT or CREATE DATABASE to specify a database SQL> set bail; SQL> input my_fb.sql; SQL> ^Z

Whatever contents the script has, it will be executed completely, errors and all, even if the BAIL option is enabled.

-m2 to Output Stats and Plans

C. Valderrama This is a command-line option -M2 to send the statistics and plans to the same output file as the other output (via the -o[utput] switch). When the user specifies that the output should be sent to a file, two possibilities have existed for years: either at the command line, the switch -o followed by a file name is used the command OUTput followed by a file name is used, either in a batch session or in the interactive isql shell. (In either case, simply passing the command OUTput is enough to have the output returned to the console). However, although error messages are shown in the console, they are not output to the file. The -m command line switch was added, to meld (mix) the error messages with the normal output to wherever the output was being redirected. This left still another case: statistics about operations (SET STATs command) and SQL plans as the server returns them. SET PLAN and SET PLANONLY commands have been treated as diagnostic messages and, as such, were always sent to the console. What the -m2 command line switch does is to ensure that stats and plans information go to the same file the output has been redirected to. Note
Neither -m nor -m2 has an interactive counterpart through a SET command. They are for use only as command-line isql options.

-r2 to Pass a Case-Sensitive Role Name

C. Valderrama The sole objective of this parameter is to specify a case-sensitive role name. 135

Command-line Utilities The default switch for this parameter is -r. Roles provided in the command line are uppercased With -r2, the role is passed to the engine exactly as typed in the command line.

New Commands and Enhancements

The following commands have been added or enhanced.

Ctrl-C to cancel query output

M. Kubecek A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-704 (V. 2.1) Output from a SELECT in an interactive isql session can now be stopped using Ctrl-C. Note, this merely stops fetching rows from the buffer, it does not cancel the query.

Extension of isql SHOW SYSTEM command

A. dos Santos Fernandes Feature request CORE-978 (V. 2.1) The SHOW <object_type> command is meant to show user objects of that type. The SHOW SYSTEM commmand is meant to show system objects but, until now, it only showed system tables. Now it lists the predefined system UDFs incorporated into FB 2. It may be enhanced to list system views if we create some of them in the future.

SHOW COLLATIONS command

A. dos Santos Fernandes (V. 2.1) Lists all the character set/collation pairs declared in the database.

SET HEAD[ing] toggle

C. Valderrama Some people consider it useful to be able to do a SELECT inside isql and have the output sent to a file, for additional processing later, especially if the number of columns makes isql display impracticable. However, isql by default prints column headers and. in this scenario, they are a nuisance. Therefore, printing the column headers -- previously a fixed feature -- can now be enabled/disabled interactively or from a script by means of the
SET HEADing [ON | OFF]

command in the isql shell. As is the case with other SET commands, simply using SET HEAD will toggle the state between activated and deactivated. 136

Command-line Utilities

Note
There is no command line option to toggle headings off.

Using SET will display the state of SET HEAD, along with other switches that can be toggled on/off in the isql shell.

SET SQLDA_DISPLAY ON/OFF

A. dos Santos Fernandes This SQLDA_DISPLAY command shows the input SQLDA parameters of INSERTs, UPDATEs and DELETEs. It was previously available only in DEBUG builds and has now been promoted to the public builds. It shows the information for raw SQLVARs. Each SQLVAR represents a field in the XSQLDA, the main structure used in the FB API to talk to clients transferring data into and out of the server. Note
The state of this option is not included in the output when you type SET; in isql to see the current settings of most options.

SET TRANSACTION Enhanced

C. Valderrama The SET TRANSACTION statement has been enhanced so that, now, all TPB options are supported: NO AUTO UNDO IGNORE LIMBO LOCK TIMEOUT <number> Example
SET TRANSACTION WAIT SNAPSHOT NO AUTO UNDO LOCK TIMEOUT 10

See also the document doc/sql.extensions/README.set_transaction.txt.

SHOW DATABASE now Returns ODS Version Number

C. Valderrama ODS (On-Disk Structure) version is now returned in the SHOW DATABASE command (C. Valderrama)

Ability to show the line number where an error happened in a script

C. Valderrama In previous versions, the only reasonable way to know where a script had caused an error was using the switch -e for echoing commands, -o to send the output to a file and -m to merge the error output to the same file. This way, you could observe the commands isql executed and the errors if they exist. The script continued executing to the end. The server only gives a line number related to the single command (statement) that it's executing, for some DSQL failures. For other errors, you only know the statement caused problems. 137

Command-line Utilities With the addition of -b for bail as described in (1), the user is given the power to tell isql to stop executing scripts when an error happens, but you still need to echo the commands to the output file to discover which statement caused the failure. Now, the ability to signal the script-related line number of a failure enables the user to go to the script directly and find the offending statement. When the server provides line and column information, you will be told the exact line of DML in the script that caused the problem. When the server only indicates a failure, you will be told the starting line of the statement that caused the failure, related to the whole script. This feature works even if there are nested scripts, namely, if script SA includes script SB and SB causes a failure, the line number is related to SB. When SB is read completely, isql continues executing SA and then isql continues counting lines related to SA, since each file gets a separate line counter. A script SA includes SB when SA uses the INPUT command to load SB. Lines are counted according to what the underlying IO layer considers separate lines. For ports using EDITLINE, a line is what readline() provides in a single call. The line length limit of 32767 bytes remains unchanged.

Enhanced Command-line Help

M. Kubecek When unknown parameters are used, isql now shows all of the command-line parameters and their explanations instead of just a simple list of allowed switches.
opt/firebird/bin] isql -? Unknown switch: ? usage: isql [options] [<database>] -a(all) extract metadata incl. legacy non-SQL tables -b(ail) bail on errors (set bail on) -c(ache) <num> number of cache buffers -ch(arset) <charset> connection charset (set names) -d(atabase) <database> database name to put in script creation -e(cho) echo commands (set echo on) -ex(tract) extract metadata -i(nput) <file> input file (set input) -m(erge) merge standard error -m2 merge diagnostic -n(oautocommit) no autocommit DDL (set autoddl off) -now(arnings) do not show warnings -o(utput) <file> output file (set output) -pag(elength) <size> page length -p(assword) <password> connection password -q(uiet) do not show the message "Use CONNECT..." -r(ole) <role> role name -r2 <role> role (uses quoted identifier) -sqldialect <dialect> SQL dialect (set sql dialect) -t(erminator) <term> command terminator (set term) -u(ser) <user> user name -x extract metadata -z show program and server version

gsec Authentication Manager

Changes to the gsec utility include: 138

Command-line Utilities

gsec return code

C. Valderrama gsec now returns an error code when used as a non-interactive utility. Zero indicates success; any other code indicates failure.

gfix Server Utility

Changes to the gfix utility include:

New Shutdown States (Modes)

N. Samofatov, D. Yemanov The options for gfix -shut[down] have been extended to include two extra states or modes to govern the shutdown. New Syntax Pattern
gfix <command> [<state>] [<options>] <command> ::= {-shut | -online} <state> ::= {normal | multi | single | full} <options> ::= {-force <timeout> | -tran | -attach}

- normal state = online database - multi state = multi-user shutdown mode (the legacy one, unlimited attachments of SYSDBA/owner are allowed) - single state = single-user shutdown (only one attachment is allowed, used by the restore process) - full state = full/exclusive shutdown (no attachments are allowed) Note
Multi is the default state for -shut, normal is the default state for -online.

The modes can be switched sequentially: normal <-> multi <-> single <-> full Examples
gfix gfix gfix gfix -shut single -force 0 -shut full -force 0 -online single -online

139

Command-line Utilities

You cannot use -shut to bring a database one level more online and you cannot use -online to make a database more protected (an error will be thrown). These are prohibited:
gfix -shut single -force 0 gfix -shut multi -force 0 gfix -online gfix -online full gfix -shut -force 0 gfix -online single

Builds and Installs

Parameter for Instance name added to instsvc.exe
D. Yemanov Feature request CORE-673 (V.2.1) instsvc.exe now supports multi-instance installations.

Revised Win32 Installer Docs

P. Reeves (V.2.1) The documentation for command-line setup on Windows has been revised. See doc/install_windows_manually.txt.

Help on command line switches

Feature request CORE-548 (V.2.1) On-line help is now available on the switches for command-line setup on Windows.

Gentoo/FreeBSD detection during install

A. Peshkov Feature request CORE-1047 Gentoo or FreeBSD is now detected during configuration, making it more likely that the binary install will work out of the box on these platforms.

140

Chapter 14

External Functions (UDFs)

Ability to Signal SQL NULL via a Null Pointer
C. Valderrama Previous to Firebird 2, UDF authors only could guess that their UDFs might return a null, but they had no way to ascertain it. This led to several problems with UDFs. It would often be assumed that a null string would be passed as an empty string, a null numeric would be equivalent to zero and a null date would mean the base date used by the engine. For a numeric value, the author could not always assume null if the UDF was compiled for an environment where it was known that null was not normally recognized. Several UDFs, including the ib_udf library distributed with Firebird, assumed that an empty string was more likely to signal a null parameter than a string of length zero. The trick may work with CHAR type, since the minimum declared CHAR length is one and would contain a blank character normally: hence, binary zero in the first position would have the effect of signalling NULL. However, but it is not applicable to VARCHAR or CSTRING, where a length of zero is valid. The other solution was to rely on raw descriptors, but this imposes a lot more things to check than they would want to tackle. The biggest problem is that the engine won't obey the declared type for a parameter; it will simply send whatever data it has for that parameter, so the UDF is left to decide whether to reject the result or to try to convert the parameter to the expected data type. Since UDFs have no formal mechanism to signal errors, the returned value would have to be used as an indicator. The basic problem was to keep the simplicity of the typical declarations (no descriptors) while at the same time being able to signal null. The engine normally passed UDF parameters by reference. In practical terms, that means passing a pointer to the data to tell the UDF that we have SQL NULL. However, we could not impose the risk of crashing an unknown number of different, existing public and private UDFs that do not expect NULL. The syntax had to be enhanced to enable NULL handling to be requested explicitly. The solution, therefore, is to restrict a request for SQL NULL signaling to UDFs that are known to be capable of dealing with the new scenario. To avoid adding more keywords, the NULL keyword is appended to the UDF parameter type and no other change is required. Example
declare external function sample int null returns int by value...;

If you are already using functions from ib_udf and want to take advantage of null signaling (and null recognition) in some functions, you should connect to your desired database, run the script ../misc/upgrade/ib_udf_upgrade.sql that is in the Firebird directory, and commit afterwards. 141

External Functions (UDFs)

Caution
It is recommended to do this when no other users are connected to the database.

The code in the listed functions in that script has been modified to recognize null only when NULL is signaled by the engine. Therefore, starting with FB v2, rtrim(), ltrim() and several other string functions no longer assume that an empty string means a NULL string. The functions won't crash if you don't upgrade: they will simply be unable to detect NULL. If you have never used ib_udf in your database and want to do so, you should connect to the database, run the script ../udf/ib_udf2.sql, preferably when no other users are connected, and commit afterwards. Note
Note the "2" at the end of the name. The original script for FB v1.5 is still available in the same directory.

UDF library diagnostic messages improved

A. Peshkov Diagnostics regarding a missing/unusable UDF module have previously made it hard to tell whether a module was missing or access to it was being denied due to the UDFAccess setting in firebird.conf. Now we have separate, understandable messages for each case.

UDFs Added and Changed

UDFs added or enhanced in Firebird 2.0's supplied libraries are:

IB_UDF_rand() vs IB_UDF_srand()
F. Schlottmann-Goedde In previous versions, the external function rand() sets the random number generator's starting point based on the current time and then generates the pseudo-random value.
srand((unsigned) time(NULL)); return ((float) rand() / (float) RAND_MAX);

The problem with this algorithm is that it will return the same value for two calls done within a second. To work around this issue, rand() was changed in Firebird 2.0 so that the starting point is not set explicitly. This ensures that different values will always be returned. In order to keep the legacy behaviour available in case somebody needs it, srand() has been introduced. It does exactly the same as the old rand() did. 142

External Functions (UDFs)

IB_UDF_lower
The function IB_UDF_lower() in the IB_UDF library might conflict with the new internal function lower(), if you try to declare it in a database using the ib_udf.sql script from a previous Firebird version.
/* ib_udf.sql declaration that now causes conflict */ DECLARE EXTERNAL FUNCTION lower CSTRING(255) RETURNS CSTRING(255) FREE_IT ENTRY_POINT 'IB_UDF_lower' MODULE_NAME 'ib_udf';

The problem will be resolved in the latest version of the new ib_udf2.sql script, where the old UDF is declared using a quoted identifier.
/* New declaration in ib_udf2.sql */ DECLARE EXTERNAL FUNCTION "LOWER" CSTRING(255) NULL RETURNS CSTRING(255) FREE_IT ENTRY_POINT 'IB_UDF_lower' MODULE_NAME 'ib_udf';

Tip
It is preferable to use the internal function LOWER() than to call the UDF.

General UDF Changes

Build Changes
C. Valderrama Contributors The FBUDF library no longer depends on [lib]fbclient to be built.

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Chapter 15

New Configuration Parameters and Changes

Authentication
A. Peshkov (V.2.1) On Windows server platforms, from V.2.1 forward, Authentication is used for configuring the server authentication mode if you need it to be other than the default native. Important
In Firebird 2.1 releases prior to v.2.1.3, the default was mixed. If you are updating to v.2.1.3 from v.2.1, v.2.1.1 or v.2.1.2 and you did not set this parameter explicitly, trusted user authentication will not work. To revert to the pre-2.1.3 setting, uncomment this parameter and set it to mixed. (Tracker reference CORE-2376.

trusted makes use of Windows trusted authentication which, under the right conditions, may be the most secure way to authenticate on Windows. native sets the traditional Firebird server authentication mode, requiring users to log in using a user name and password defined in the security database. mixed allows both.

RelaxedAliasChecking
V. Khorsun (V.2.1) RelaxedAliasChecking is a new configuration parameter added to permit a slight relaxation of the Firebird 2.0.x restrictions on mixing relation aliases and table names in a query. For example, with RelaxedAliasChecking set to true (=1) in firebird.conf, the following query will succeed in Firebird 2.1, whereas it would fail in v.2.0.x, or in v.2.1 with the parameter set to its default of 0:
SELECT ATABLE.FIELD1, B.FIELD2 FROM ATABLE A JOIN BTABLE B ON A.ID = BTABLE.ID

144

New Configuration Parameters and Changes

Caution
Understand that this is a temporary facility whose purpose is to provide some headspace for migrating systems using legacy code that exploited the tolerance of InterBase and older Firebird server versions to non-standard SQL usage. Don't enable this parameter if you have no offending code in your applications or PSQL modules. It is not intended as an invitation to write sloppy code! Regard it as a time-bomb. It will be permanently removed from a future release.

MaxFileSystemCache
V. Khorsun (V.2.1) Sets a threshold determining whether Firebird will allow the page cache to be duplicated to the filesystem cache or not. If this parameter is set to any (integer) value greater than zero, its effect depends on the current default size of the page cache: if the default page cache (in pages) is less than the value of MaxFileSystemCache (in pages) then filesystem caching is enabled, otherwise it is disabled. Note
This applies both when the page cache buffer size is set implicitly by the DefaultDBCachePages setting or explicitly as a database header attribute.

Thus, To disable filesystem caching always, set MaxFileSystemCache to zero To enable filesystem caching always, set MaxFileSystemCache an integer value that is sufficiently large to exceed the size of the database page cache. Remember that the effect of this value will be affected by subsequent changes to the page cache size. Important
The default setting for MaxFileSystemCache is 65536 pages, i.e. filesystem caching is enabled.

DatabaseGrowthIncrement
V. Khorsun (V.2.1) For better control of disk space preallocation, the new parameter DatabaseGrowthIncrement has been added to firebird.conf. It represents the upper limit for the size, in bytes, of the chunk of disk that will be requested for preallocation as pages for writes from the cache. Default: 134,217,728 bytes (128 MB). For background information, please refer to the topic Enlarge Disk Allocation Chunks in the chapter Global Improvements in Firebird 2.1. When the engine needs to initialize more disk space, it allocates a block that is 1/16th of the space already allocated, but not less than 128 KB and not greater than the DatabaseGrowthIncrement value. The DatabaseGrowthIncrement value can be raised to increase the maximum size of newly-allocated blocks to more than the default 128 MB. Set it to zero to disable preallocation. 145

New Configuration Parameters and Changes

Note
The lower limit of the block size is purposely hard-coded at 128 KB and cannot be reconfigured. Space is not preallocated for database shadow files. Preallocation is disabled for a database that has the No reserve option set.

ExternalFileAccess
A. Peshkov Modified in Firebird 2, to allow the first path cited in ExternalFilesAccess to be used as the default when a new external file is created.

LegacyHash
A. Peshkov This parameter enables you to configure Firebird 2 to reject an old DES hash always in an upgraded security database. If you don't use the security database upgrade procedure, this parameter does not affect Firebird operation. A DES hash cannot arrive in the new security2.fdb. Refer to the Security DB Upgrade Security section for instructions on upgrading your existing Firebird 1.5 security.fdb (or a renamed isc4.gdb) to the new security database layout. The default value is 1 (true).

Redirection
A. Peshkov Parameter for controlling redirection of remote requests. It controls the multi-hop capability that was broken in InterBase 6 and is restored in Firebird 2.

About Multi-hop
When you attach to some database using multiple hosts in the connection string, only the last host in this list is the one that opens the database. The other hosts act as intermediate gateways on port gds_db. Previously, when working, this feature was available unconditionally. Now, it can be configured. Remote redirection is turned off by default. Caution
If you are considering enabling multi-hop capability, please study the Warning text in the chapter on Security and in the documentation for this parameter in the firebird.conf file.

146

New Configuration Parameters and Changes

GCPolicy
V. Khorsun Garbage collection policy. It is now possible to choose the policy for garbage collection on SuperServer. The possible settings are cooperative, background and combined, as explained in the notes for GPolicy in firebird.conf. Not applicable to Classic, which supports only cooperative garbage collection.

OldColumnNaming
P. Reeves The parameter OldColumnNaming has been ported forward from Firebird 1.5.3. This parameter allows users to revert to pre-V1.5 column naming behaviour in SELECT expressions. The installation default is 0 (disabled). If it is enabled, the engine will not attempt to supply run-time identifiers, e.g. CONCATENATION for derived fields where the developer has neglected to provide identifiers. Important
This setting affects all databases on the server and will potentially produce exceptions or unpredicted results where mixed applications are implemented.

UsePriorityScheduler
A. Peshkov Setting this parameter to zero now disables switching of thread priorities completely. It affects only the Win32 SuperServer.

TCPNoNagle has changed

K. Kuznetzov The default value for TcpNoNagle is now TCP_NODELAY.

IPCName Behaviour Has Changed

N. Samofatov (V.2.1, undocumented prior to V.2.1.3) IPCName, defaulting to FIREBIRD since V.2.0, is the kernel namespace where the XNET instance for direct local connection on Windows is created. On Vista and some other Windows platforms, it was usually necessary to edit this parameter to add the prefix Global\ in order to ensure that the local client running under a restricted account would have the authority to create this namespace. A change in V.2.1 made it so that the connection routine would apply the prefix to the default IpcName unconditionally if the user's first attempt failed due to restricted permissions. 147

New Configuration Parameters and Changes

Renamed Parameters
SortMemBlockSize Changed to TempCacheBlockSize
D. Yemanov Considered more appropriate terminology.

SortMemUpperLimit Changed to TempCacheUpperLimit

D. Yemanov Considered more appropriate terminology.

Removed or Deprecated Parameters

CreateInternalWindow
D. Yemanov The option CreateInternalWindow is no longer required to run multiple server instances and it has been removed.

DeadThreadsCollection is no longer used

A. Peshkov The DeadThreadsCollection parameter is no longer used at all. Dead threads are now efficiently released "on the fly", making configuration unnecessary. Firebird 2.0 silently ignores this parameter.

148

Chapter 16

Firebird 2 Project Teams

Table 16.1. Firebird Development Teams Developer Dmitry Yemanov Alex Peshkov Claudio Valderrama Vladislav Khorsun Arno Brinkman Adriano dos Santos Fernandes Nickolay Samofatov Country Russian Federation Russian Federation Chile Ukraine The Netherlands Brazil Major Tasks Full-time database engineer/implementor, core team leader Security features coordinator; buildmaster; porting authority Code scrutineer; bug-finder and fixer; ISQL enhancements; UDF fixer, designer and implementor DB engineer, SQL feature designer/implementor Indexing and Optimizer enhancements; new DSQL features New international character-set handling; text and text BLOB enhancements; new DSQL features; code scrutineering Designed and implemented new inline NBackup; code-fixer and DB engineer during part of V.2.0 development Release Manager; HP-UX builds; MacOS Builds; Solaris Builds QA tools designer/coordinator; maintainer and developer of Python drivers for Firebird QA tester Win32 installers and builds Bugtracker organizer New Jira bugtracker implementor Frequent technical advisor Frequent architectural advisor; occasional bug-fixer Jaybird implementor and co-coordinator Jaybird Type 2 driver developer Java stored procedures implementation

Russian Federation/Canada France Czech Republic France France Canada Greece U.S.A. U.S.A. Germany U.K. Russian Federation Spain

Paul Beach Pavel Cisar Philippe Makowski Paul Reeves Sean Leyne Dimitrios Ioannides Ann Harrison Jim Starkey Roman Rokytskyy Ryan Baldwin Evgeny Putilin Carlos Guzman Alvarez

149

Firebird 2 Project Teams

Developer

Country

Major Tasks Developer and coordinator of .NET providers for Firebird until 2007

Jiri Cincura Alexander Potapchenko David Rushby (d.) Konstantin Kuznetsov Paul Vinkenoog Norman Dunbar Pavel Menshchikov Tomneko Hayashi Umberto (Mimmo) Masotti Olivier Mascia Oleg Loa Grzegorz Prokopski Erik Kunze Helen Borrie

Czech Republic Russia U.S.A. Russian Federation The Netherlands U.K. Russian Federation Japan Italy Belgium Russian Federation Hungary Germany Australia

Developer and coordinator of .NET providers from January 2008 Coordinator of ODBC/JDBC driver for Firebird Developer and coordinator of KInterbase Python interface for Firebird until his accidental death in July, 2007 Solaris Intel builds Coordinator, Firebird documentation project; documentation writer and tools developer/implementor Documentation writer Documentation translator Documentation translator Documentation translator IBPP C++ interface developer; re-implementor of Win32 installation services Contributor Debian builds SINIX-Z port; raw device enablement Release notes editor; Chief of Thought Police

150

Appendix A: New Built-in Functions

(Firebird 2.1) Function ABS Format ABS( <number> ) Description Returns the absolute value of a number.

select abs(amount) from transactions;

ACOS

ACOS( <number> )

Returns the arc cosine of a number. Argument to ACOS must be in the range -1 to 1. Returns a value in the range 0 to PI.

select acos(x) from y;

ASCII_CHAR

ASCII_CHAR( <number> )

Returns the ASCII character with the specified code. The argument to ASCII_CHAR must be in the range 0 to 255. The result is returned in character set NONE.

select ascii_char(x) from y;

ASCII_VAL

ASCII_VAL( <string> )

Returns the ASCII code of the first character of the specified string. 1. 2. Returns 0 if the string is empty Throws an error if the first character is multi-byte

select ascii_val(x) from y;

ASIN

ASIN( <number> )

Returns the arc sine of a number. The argument to ASIN must be in the range -1 to 1. It returns a result in the range -PI/2 to PI/2.

select asin(x) from y;

ATAN

ATAN( <number> )

Returns the arc tangent of a number. Returns a value in the range -PI/2 to PI/2.

select atan(x) from y;

ATAN2

ATAN2( <number>, <number> )

Returns the arc tangent of the first number / the second number. Returns a value in the range -PI to PI.

151

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description

select atan2(x, y) from z;

BIN_AND

BIN_AND( <number> [, <number> ...] )

Returns the result of a binary AND operation performed on all arguments.

select bin_and(flags, 1) from x;

BIN_OR

BIN_OR( <number> [, <number> ...] )

Returns the result of a binary OR operation performed on all arguments.

select bin_or(flags1, flags2) from x;

BIN_SHL

BIN_SHL( <number>, <number> )

Returns the result of a binary shift left operation performed on the arguments (first << second).

select bin_shl(flags1, 1) from x;

BIN_SHR

BIN_SHR( <number>, <number> )

Returns the result of a binary shift right operation performed on the arguments (first >> second).

select bin_shr(flags1, 1) from x;

BIN_XOR

BIN_XOR( <number> [, <number> ...] )

Returns the result of a binary XOR operation performed on all arguments.

select bin_xor(flags1, flags2) from x;

BIT_LENGTH

BIT_LENGTH( <string> | <string_expr> )

Returns the length of a string in bits.

select rdb$relation_name, bit_length(rdb$relation_name), bit_length(trim(rdb$relation_name)) from rdb$relations;

CEIL | CEILING

{ CEIL | CEILING }( <number> ) Returns a value representing the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to the input argument.

1) select ceil(val) from x; 2) select ceil(2.1), ceil(-2.1) from rdb$database;

-- returns 3, -2

152

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description Returns the number of characters in a string or expression result.

CHAR_LENGTH CHAR_LENGTH( <string> | | <string_expr> ) CHARACTER_LENGTH

select rdb$relation_name, char_length(rdb$relation_name), char_length(trim(rdb$relation_name)) from rdb$relations;

COS

COS( <number> )

Returns the cosine of a number. The angle is specified in radians and returns a value in the range -1 to 1.

select cos(x) from y;

COSH

COSH( <number> )

Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a number.

select cosh(x) from y;

COT

COT( <number> )

Returns 1 / tan(argument).

select cot(x) from y;

DATEADD

See below

Returns a date/time/timestamp value increased (or decreased, when negative) by the specified amount of time. Format:

DATEADD( <number> <timestamp_part> TO <date_time> ) DATEADD( <timestamp_part>, <number>, <date_time> ) timestamp_part ::= { YEAR | MONTH | DAY | HOUR | MINUTE | SECOND | MILLISECOND }

1. YEAR, MONTH and DAY cannot be used with time values. 2. HOUR, MINUTE, SECOND and MILLISECOND cannot be used with date values. 3. All timestamp_part values can be used with timestamp values. Example
select dateadd(day, -1, current_date) as yesterday from rdb$database; /* or (expanded syntax) */

153

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description

select dateadd(-1 day to current_date) as yesterday from rdb$database;

DATEDIFF

See below

Returns an exact numeric value representing the interval of time from the first date/time/timestamp value to the second one. Format:

DATEDIFF( <timestamp_part> FROM <date_time> TO <date_time> ) DATEDIFF( <timestamp_part>, <date_time>, <date_time> ) timestamp_part ::= { YEAR | MONTH | DAY | HOUR | MINUTE | SECOND | MILLISECOND }

1. Returns a positive value if the second value is greater than the first one, negative when the first one is greater, or zero when they are equal. 2. Comparison of date with time values is invalid. 3. YEAR, MONTH, and DAY cannot be used with time values. 4. HOUR, MINUTE, SECOND and MILLISECOND cannot be used with date values. 5. All timestamp_part values can be used with timestamp values. Example
select datediff( DAY, (cast('TOMORROW' as date) -10), current_date) as datediffresult from rdb$database;

DECODE

See below

DECODE is a shortcut for a CASE ... WHEN ... ELSE expression. Format:

DECODE( <expression>, <search>, <result> [ , <search>, <result> ... ] [, <default> ]

Example
select decode(state, 0, 'deleted', 1, 'active', 'unknown') from things;

EXP

EXP( <number> )

Returns the exponential e to the argument.

select exp(x) from y;

154

New Built-in Functions

Function FLOOR

Format FLOOR( <number> )

Description Returns a value representing the largest integer that is less than or equal to the input argument.

1) select floor(val) from x; 2) select floor(2.1), floor(-2.1) from rdb$database; -- returns 2, -3

GEN_UUID

GEN_UUID() -- no arguments

Returns a universal unique number.

insert into records (id) value (gen_uuid());

HASH

HASH( <string> )

Returns a HASH of a string.

select hash(x) from y;

LEFT

LEFT( <string>, <number> )

Returns the substring of a specified length that appears at the start of a left-to-right string.

select left(name, char_length(name) - 10) from people where name like '% FERNANDES';

1. The first position in a string is 1, not 0. 2. If the <number> argument evaluates to a non-integer, banker's rounding is applied. LN LN( <number> ) Returns the natural logarithm of a number.

select ln(x) from y;

LOG

LOG( <number>, <number> )

LOG(x, y) returns the logarithm base x of y.

select log(x, 10) from y;

LOG10

LOG10( <number> )

Returns the logarithm base ten of a number.

select log10(x) from y;

LOWER

LOWER( <string> )

(v.2.0.x) Returns the input argument converted to all lower-case characters.

isql -q -ch dos850 SQL> create database 'test.fdb';

155

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description

SQL> create table t (c char(1) character set dos850); SQL> insert into t values ('A'); SQL> insert into t values ('E'); SQL> insert into t values ('');; SQL> insert into t values (''); SQL> select c, lower(c) from t; C LOWER ====== ====== A a E e

LPAD

LPAD( <string>, <number> [, <string> ] )

LPAD(string1, length, string2) prepends string2 to the beginning of string1 until the length of the result string becomes equal to length.

1. If the second string is omitted the default value is one space. 2. If the result string would exceed the length, the second string is truncated. Example
select lpad(x, 10) from y;

MAXVALUE

MAXVALUE( <value> [, <value> ...] )

Returns the maximum value of a list of values.

select maxvalue(v1, v2, 10) from x;

MINVALUE

MINVALUE( <value> [, <value> ... )

Returns the minimun value of a list of values.

select minvalue(v1, v2, 10) from x;

MOD

MOD( <number>, <number> )

Modulo: MOD(X, Y) returns the remainder part of the division of X by Y.

select mod(x, 10) from y;

OCTET_LENGTH

OCTET_LENGTH( <string> | <string_expr> )

Returns the length of a string or expression result in bytes.

select rdb$relation_name, octet_length(rdb$relation_name), octet_length(trim(rdb$relation_name)) from rdb$relations;

156

New Built-in Functions

Function OVERLAY

Format See below

Description Returns string1 replacing the substring FROM start FOR length by string2. Format:

OVERLAY( <string1> PLACING <string2> FROM <start> [ FOR <length> ] )

The OVERLAY function is equivalent to:

SUBSTRING(<string1>, 1 FOR <start> - 1) || <string2> || SUBSTRING(<string1>, <start> + <length>)

1. The first position in a string is 1, not 0. 2. If the <start> and/or <length > argument evaluates to a non-integer, banker's rounding is applied.

If <length> is not specified, CHAR_LENGTH( <string2> ) is implied. PI

val = PI();

PI() -- no arguments

Returns the PI constant (3.1459...).

POSITION

See below

Returns the start position of the first string inside the second string, relative to the beginning of the outer string. In the second form, an offset position may be supplied so that the function will ignore any matches occuring before the offset position and return the first match following that.

POSITION( <string> IN <string> ) POSITION( <string>, <string> [, <offset-position>] )

select rdb$relation_name from rdb$relations where position('RDB$' IN rdb$relation_name) = 1; /* */ position ('be', 'To be or not to be', 10)

returns 17. The first occurrence of 'be' occurs within the offset and is ignored. POWER POWER( <number>, <number> ) POWER(X, Y) returns X to the power of Y.

157

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description

select power(x, 10) from y;

RAND

RAND() -- no argument

Returns a random number between 0 and 1.

select * from x order by rand();

REPLACE

REPLACE( <stringtosearch>, <findstring>, <replstring> )

Replaces all occurrences of <findstring> in <stringtosearch> with <replstring>.

select replace(x, ' ', ',') from y;

REVERSE

REVERSE( <value> )

Returns a string in reverse order. Useful function for creating an expression index that indexes strings from right to left.

create index people_email on people computed by (reverse(email)); select * from people where reverse(email) starting with reverse('.br');

RIGHT

RIGHT( <string>, <number> )

Returns the substring, of the specified length, from the right-hand end of a string.

select right(rdb$relation_name, char_length(rdb$relation_name) - 4) from rdb$relations where rdb$relation_name like 'RDB$%';

ROUND

ROUND( <number>, [<number>] )

Returns a number rounded to the specified scale. Example

select round(salary * 1.1, 0) from people;

If the scale (second parameter) is negative or is omitted, the integer part of the value is rounded. E.g., ROUND(123.456, -1) returns 120.000. RPAD RPAD( <string1>, <length> [, <string2> ] ) Appends <string2> to the end of <string1> until the length of the result string becomes equal to <length>. Example
select rpad(x, 10) from y;

158

New Built-in Functions

Function

Format

Description

1. If the second string is omitted the default value is one space. 2. If the result string would exceed the length, the final application of <string2> will be truncated. SIGN SIGN( <number> ) Returns 1, 0, or -1 depending on whether the input value is positive, zero or negative, respectively.

select sign(x) from y;

SIN

SIN( <number> )

Returns the sine of an input number that is expressed in radians.

select sin(x) from y;

SINH

SINH( <number> )

Returns the hyperbolic sine of a number.

select sinh(x) from y;

SQRT

SQRT( <number> )

Returns the square root of a number.

select sqrt(x) from y;

TAN

TAN( <number> )

Returns the tangent of an input number that is expressed in radians.

select tan(x) from y;

TANH

TANH( <number> )

Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a number.

select tanh(x) from y;

TRIM

See below

(V.2.0.x) Trims characters (default: blanks) from the left and/or right of a string.

TRIM <left paren> [ [ <trim specification> ] [ <trim character> ] FROM ] <value expression> <right paren> <trim specification> ::= LEADING | TRAILING | BOTH

<trim character> ::= <value expression>

Rules 1. If <trim specification> is not specified, BOTH is assumed.

159

New Built-in Functions

Function 2. 3. 4.

Format

Description

If <trim character> is not specified, ' ' is assumed. If <trim specification> and/or <trim character> is specified, FROM should be specified. If <trim specification> and <trim character> is not specified, FROM should not be specified. Example A)

select rdb$relation_name, trim(leading 'RDB$' from rdb$relation_name) from rdb$relations where rdb$relation_name starting with 'RDB$';

Example B)
select trim(rdb$relation_name) || ' is a system table' from rdb$relations where rdb$system_flag = 1;

TRUNC

TRUNC( <number> [, <number> ] )

Returns the integral part (up to the specified scale) of a number.

1) select trunc(x) from y; 2) select trunc(-2.8), trunc(2.8) from rdb$database; -- returns -2, 2 3) select trunc(987.65, 1), trunc(987.65, -1) from rdb$database; -- returns 987.60, 980.00

160

Appendix B: International Character Sets

A. dos Santos Fernandes & Others

New Character Sets and Collations Implemented

The following new character set and/or collation implementations have been added in Firebird 2 releases: Character Set ISO8859_1 Collation ES_ES_CI_AI Description Spanish language case- and accent-insensitive collation for ISO8859_1 character set. Brazil Portuguese collation for ISO8859_1 character set. Polish collation for ISO8859_2 character set. Implemented By A. dos Santos Fernandes A. dos Santos Fernandes, P. H. Albanez J. Glowacki, A. dos Santos Fernandes

"

PT_BR

ISO8859_2 KOI8R KOI8U WIN1250 " " WIN1252

ISO_PLK KOI8_RU KOI8U_UA BS_BA WIN_CZ_AI WIN_CZ_CI_AI WIN_PTBR

Russian language character set and dictio- O. Loa, A. nary collation. Karyakin Ukrainian language character set and dictionary collation. Bosnian language collation for WIN1250 character set. Czech language accent-insensitive collation for WIN1250 character set Czech language case- and accent-insensitive collation for WIN1250 character set Brazil Portuguese collation for WIN1252 character set. Latvian dictionary collation. Lithuanian dictionary collation. Estonian dictionary collation. Vietnamese language subset of charset WIN1258. O. Loa, A. Karyakin F. Hasovic I. Prenosil, A. dos Santos Fernandes I. Prenosil, A. dos Santos Fernandes A. dos Santos Fernandes, P. H. Albanez O. Loa, A. Karyakin O. Loa, A. Karyakin O. Loa, A. Karyakin Nguyen The Phuong, A. dos Santos Fernandes

WIN1257 " " WIN1258

WIN1257_LV WIN1257_LT WIN1257_EE (n/a)

UTF8

UCS_BASIC

Unicode 4.0 support with UTF8 character A. dos Santos Ferset and UCS_BASIC collation. nandes

161

International Character Sets

Character Set " " ISO8859_1 CP943C TIS620

Collation UNICODE UNICODE_CI FR_FR_CI_AI

Description

Implemented By

Unicode 4.0 support with UTF8 character A. dos Santos Ferset and UNICODE collation. nandes Unicode 4.0 support with UTF8 character A. dos Santos Ferset and case-insensitive collation. nandes (V.2.1) French language case-insensitive and accent-insensitive collation. A. dos Santos Fernandes A. dos Santos Fernandes (Not known)

CP943C_UNICODE (V.2.1) Japanese character set. TIS620_UNICODE (V.2.1) Thai character set, single byte.

Narrow Character Sets

CYRL, DOS437, DOS737, DOS775, DOS850, DOS852, DOS857, DOS858, DOS860, DOS861, DOS862, DOS863, DOS864, DOS865, DOS866, DOS869, ISO8859_1, ISO8859_13, ISO8859_2, ISO8859_3, ISO8859_4, ISO8859_5, ISO8859_6, ISO8859_7, ISO8859_8, ISO8859_9, KOI8R, KOI8U, NEXT, TIS620, WIN1250, WIN1251, WIN1252, WIN1253, WIN1254, WIN1255, WIN1256, WIN1257 and WIN1258.

ICU Character Sets

UTF-8 ibm-1208 ibm-1209 ibm-5304 ibm-5305 windows-65001 cp1208 UTF-16 ISO-10646-UCS-2 unicode csUnicode ucs-2 UTF-16BE x-utf-16be ibm-1200 ibm-1201 ibm-5297 ibm-13488 ibm-17584 windows-1201 cp1200 cp1201 UTF16_BigEndian UTF-16LE x-utf-16le ibm-1202 ibm-13490 ibm-17586 UTF16_LittleEndian windows-1200 UTF-32 ISO-10646-UCS-4 csUCS4 ucs-4 UTF-32BE UTF32_BigEndian ibm-1232 ibm-1233 UTF-32LE UTF32_LittleEndian ibm-1234 UTF16_PlatformEndian UTF16_OppositeEndian UTF32_PlatformEndian UTF32_OppositeEndian UTF-7 windows-65000 IMAP-mailbox-name SCSU BOCU-1 csBOCU-1 CESU-8 ISO-8859-1 ibm-819 IBM819 cp819 latin1 8859_1 csISOLatin1 iso-ir-100 ISO_8859-1:1987 l1 819 US-ASCII ASCII ANSI_X3.4-1968 ANSI_X3.4-1986 ISO_646.irv:1991

162

International Character Sets

iso_646.irv:1983 ISO646-US us csASCII iso-ir-6 cp367 ascii7 646 windows-20127 ISO_2022,locale=ja,version=0 ISO-2022-JP csISO2022JP ISO_2022,locale=ja,version=1 ISO-2022-JP-1 JIS JIS_Encoding ISO_2022,locale=ja,version=2 ISO-2022-JP-2 csISO2022JP2 ISO_2022,locale=ja,version=3 JIS7 csJISEncoding ISO_2022,locale=ja,version=4 JIS8 ISO_2022,locale=ko,version=0 ISO-2022-KR csISO2022KR ISO_2022,locale=ko,version=1 ibm-25546 ISO_2022,locale=zh,version=0 ISO-2022-CN ISO_2022,locale=zh,version=1 ISO-2022-CN-EXT HZ HZ-GB-2312 ISCII,version=0 x-iscii-de windows-57002 iscii-dev ISCII,version=1 x-iscii-be windows-57003 iscii-bng windows-57006 x-iscii-as ISCII,version=2 x-iscii-pa windows-57011 iscii-gur ISCII,version=3 x-iscii-gu windows-57010 iscii-guj ISCII,version=4 x-iscii-or windows-57007 iscii-ori ISCII,version=5 x-iscii-ta windows-57004 iscii-tml ISCII,version=6 x-iscii-te windows-57005 iscii-tlg ISCII,version=7 x-iscii-ka windows-57008 iscii-knd ISCII,version=8 x-iscii-ma windows-57009 iscii-mlm gb18030 ibm-1392 windows-54936 LMBCS-1 lmbcs LMBCS-2 LMBCS-3 LMBCS-4 LMBCS-5 LMBCS-6 LMBCS-8 LMBCS-11 LMBCS-16 LMBCS-17 LMBCS-18 LMBCS-19 ibm-367_P100-1995 ibm-367 IBM367 ibm-912_P100-1995 ibm-912 iso-8859-2 ISO_8859-2:1987 latin2 csISOLatin2 iso-ir-101 l2 8859_2 cp912 912 windows-28592 ibm-913_P100-2000 ibm-913 iso-8859-3 ISO_8859-3:1988 latin3 csISOLatin3 iso-ir-109 l3 8859_3 cp913 913 windows-28593 ibm-914_P100-1995 ibm-914 iso-8859-4 latin4 csISOLatin4 iso-ir-110 ISO_8859-4:1988 l4 8859_4 cp914 914 windows-28594 ibm-915_P100-1995 ibm-915 iso-8859-5 cyrillic csISOLatinCyrillic iso-ir-144 ISO_8859-5:1988 8859_5 cp915 915 windows-28595 ibm-1089_P100-1995 ibm-1089 iso-8859-6 arabic csISOLatinArabic iso-ir-127 ISO_8859-6:1987 ECMA-114 ASMO-708 8859_6 cp1089 1089 windows-28596 ISO-8859-6-I ISO-8859-6-E ibm-813_P100-1995 ibm-813 iso-8859-7 greek greek8 ELOT_928 ECMA-118 csISOLatinGreek iso-ir-126 ISO_8859-7:1987 8859_7 cp813 813 windows-28597 ibm-916_P100-1995 ibm-916 iso-8859-8 hebrew csISOLatinHebrew iso-ir-138 ISO_8859-8:1988 ISO-8859-8-I ISO-8859-8-E 8859_8 cp916 916 windows-28598 ibm-920_P100-1995 ibm-920 iso-8859-9 latin5 csISOLatin5 iso-ir-148 ISO_8859-9:1989 l5 8859_9 cp920 920 windows-28599 ECMA-128 ibm-921_P100-1995 ibm-921 iso-8859-13 8859_13 cp921 921 ibm-923_P100-1998 ibm-923 iso-8859-15 Latin-9 l9 8859_15 latin0 csisolatin0 csisolatin9 iso8859_15_fdis cp923 923 windows-28605 ibm-942_P12A-1999 ibm-942 ibm-932 cp932 shift_jis78 sjis78 ibm-942_VSUB_VPUA ibm-932_VSUB_VPUA

163

International Character Sets

ibm-943_P15A-2003 ibm-943 Shift_JIS MS_Kanji csShiftJIS windows-31j csWindows31J x-sjis x-ms-cp932 cp932 windows-932 cp943c IBM-943C ms932 pck sjis ibm-943_VSUB_VPUA ibm-943_P130-1999 ibm-943 Shift_JIS cp943 943 ibm-943_VASCII_VSUB_VPUA ibm-33722_P12A-1999 ibm-33722 ibm-5050 EUC-JP Extended_UNIX_Code_Packed_Format_for_Japanese csEUCPkdFmtJapanese X-EUC-JP eucjis windows-51932 ibm-33722_VPUA IBM-eucJP ibm-33722_P120-1999 ibm-33722 ibm-5050 cp33722 33722 ibm-33722_VASCII_VPUA ibm-954_P101-2000 ibm-954 EUC-JP ibm-1373_P100-2002 ibm-1373 windows-950 windows-950-2000 Big5 csBig5 windows-950 x-big5 ibm-950_P110-1999 ibm-950 cp950 950 macos-2566-10.2 Big5-HKSCS big5hk HKSCS-BIG5 ibm-1375_P100-2003 ibm-1375 Big5-HKSCS ibm-1386_P100-2002 ibm-1386 cp1386 windows-936 ibm-1386_VSUB_VPUA windows-936-2000 GBK CP936 MS936 windows-936 ibm-1383_P110-1999 ibm-1383 GB2312 csGB2312 EUC-CN ibm-eucCN hp15CN cp1383 1383 ibm-1383_VPUA ibm-5478_P100-1995 ibm-5478 GB_2312-80 chinese iso-ir-58 csISO58GB231280 gb2312-1980 GB2312.1980-0 ibm-964_P110-1999 ibm-964 EUC-TW ibm-eucTW cns11643 cp964 964 ibm-964_VPUA ibm-949_P110-1999 ibm-949 cp949 949 ibm-949_VASCII_VSUB_VPUA ibm-949_P11A-1999 ibm-949 cp949c ibm-949_VSUB_VPUA ibm-970_P110-1995 ibm-970 EUC-KR KS_C_5601-1987 windows-51949 csEUCKR ibm-eucKR KSC_5601 5601 ibm-970_VPUA ibm-971_P100-1995 ibm-971 ibm-971_VPUA ibm-1363_P11B-1998 ibm-1363 KS_C_5601-1987 KS_C_5601-1989 KSC_5601 csKSC56011987 korean iso-ir-149 5601 cp1363 ksc windows-949 ibm-1363_VSUB_VPUA ibm-1363_P110-1997 ibm-1363 ibm-1363_VASCII_VSUB_VPUA windows-949-2000 windows-949 KS_C_5601-1987 KS_C_5601-1989 KSC_5601 csKSC56011987 korean iso-ir-149 ms949 ibm-1162_P100-1999 ibm-1162 ibm-874_P100-1995 ibm-874 ibm-9066 cp874 TIS-620 tis620.2533 eucTH cp9066 windows-874-2000 TIS-620 windows-874 MS874 ibm-437_P100-1995 ibm-437 IBM437 cp437 437 csPC8CodePage437 windows-437 ibm-850_P100-1995 ibm-850 IBM850 cp850 850 csPC850Multilingual windows-850 ibm-851_P100-1995 ibm-851 IBM851 cp851 851 csPC851 ibm-852_P100-1995 ibm-852 IBM852 cp852 852 csPCp852 windows-852 ibm-855_P100-1995 ibm-855 IBM855 cp855 855 csIBM855 csPCp855 ibm-856_P100-1995 ibm-856 cp856 856 ibm-857_P100-1995 ibm-857 IBM857 cp857 857 csIBM857 windows-857 ibm-858_P100-1997 ibm-858 IBM00858 CCSID00858 CP00858 PC-Multilingual-850+euro cp858 ibm-860_P100-1995 ibm-860 IBM860 cp860 860 csIBM860 ibm-861_P100-1995 ibm-861 IBM861 cp861 861 cp-is csIBM861 windows-861 ibm-862_P100-1995 ibm-862 IBM862 cp862 862 csPC862LatinHebrew DOS-862 windows-862 ibm-863_P100-1995 ibm-863 IBM863 cp863 863 csIBM863 ibm-864_X110-1999 ibm-864 IBM864 cp864 csIBM864 ibm-865_P100-1995 ibm-865 IBM865 cp865 865 csIBM865 ibm-866_P100-1995 ibm-866 IBM866 cp866 866 csIBM866 windows-866 ibm-867_P100-1998 ibm-867 cp867 ibm-868_P100-1995 ibm-868 IBM868 CP868 868 csIBM868 cp-ar

164

International Character Sets

ibm-869_P100-1995 ibm-869 IBM869 cp869 869 cp-gr csIBM869 windows-869 ibm-878_P100-1996 ibm-878 KOI8-R koi8 csKOI8R cp878 ibm-901_P100-1999 ibm-901 ibm-902_P100-1999 ibm-902 ibm-922_P100-1999 ibm-922 cp922 922 ibm-4909_P100-1999 ibm-4909 ibm-5346_P100-1998 ibm-5346 windows-1250 cp1250 ibm-5347_P100-1998 ibm-5347 windows-1251 cp1251 ibm-5348_P100-1997 ibm-5348 windows-1252 cp1252 ibm-5349_P100-1998 ibm-5349 windows-1253 cp1253 ibm-5350_P100-1998 ibm-5350 windows-1254 cp1254 ibm-9447_P100-2002 ibm-9447 windows-1255 cp1255 windows-1256-2000 windows-1256 cp1256 ibm-9449_P100-2002 ibm-9449 windows-1257 cp1257 ibm-5354_P100-1998 ibm-5354 windows-1258 cp1258 ibm-1250_P100-1995 ibm-1250 windows-1250 ibm-1251_P100-1995 ibm-1251 windows-1251 ibm-1252_P100-2000 ibm-1252 windows-1252 ibm-1253_P100-1995 ibm-1253 windows-1253 ibm-1254_P100-1995 ibm-1254 windows-1254 ibm-1255_P100-1995 ibm-1255 ibm-5351_P100-1998 ibm-5351 windows-1255 ibm-1256_P110-1997 ibm-1256 ibm-5352_P100-1998 ibm-5352 windows-1256 ibm-1257_P100-1995 ibm-1257 ibm-5353_P100-1998 ibm-5353 windows-1257 ibm-1258_P100-1997 ibm-1258 windows-1258 macos-0_2-10.2 macintosh mac csMacintosh windows-10000 macos-6-10.2 x-mac-greek windows-10006 macgr macos-7_3-10.2 x-mac-cyrillic windows-10007 maccy macos-29-10.2 x-mac-centraleurroman windows-10029 x-mac-ce macce macos-35-10.2 x-mac-turkish windows-10081 mactr ibm-1051_P100-1995 ibm-1051 hp-roman8 roman8 r8 csHPRoman8 ibm-1276_P100-1995 ibm-1276 Adobe-Standard-Encoding csAdobeStandardEncoding ibm-1277_P100-1995 ibm-1277 Adobe-Latin1-Encoding ibm-1006_P100-1995 ibm-1006 cp1006 1006 ibm-1098_P100-1995 ibm-1098 cp1098 1098 ibm-1124_P100-1996 ibm-1124 cp1124 1124 ibm-1125_P100-1997 ibm-1125 cp1125 ibm-1129_P100-1997 ibm-1129 ibm-1131_P100-1997 ibm-1131 cp1131 ibm-1133_P100-1997 ibm-1133 ibm-1381_P110-1999 ibm-1381 cp1381 1381 ibm-37_P100-1995 ibm-37 IBM037 ibm-037 ebcdic-cp-us ebcdic-cp-ca ebcdic-cp-wt ebcdic-cp-nl csIBM037 cp037 037 cpibm37 cp37 ibm-273_P100-1995 ibm-273 IBM273 CP273 csIBM273 ebcdic-de cpibm273 273 ibm-277_P100-1995 ibm-277 IBM277 cp277 EBCDIC-CP-DK EBCDIC-CP-NO csIBM277 ebcdic-dk cpibm277 277 ibm-278_P100-1995 ibm-278 IBM278 cp278 ebcdic-cp-fi ebcdic-cp-se csIBM278 ebcdic-sv cpibm278 278 ibm-280_P100-1995 ibm-280 IBM280 CP280 ebcdic-cp-it csIBM280 cpibm280 280 ibm-284_P100-1995 ibm-284 IBM284 CP284 ebcdic-cp-es csIBM284 cpibm284 284 ibm-285_P100-1995 ibm-285 IBM285 CP285 ebcdic-cp-gb csIBM285 ebcdic-gb cpibm285 285 ibm-290_P100-1995 ibm-290 IBM290 cp290 EBCDIC-JP-kana csIBM290 ibm-297_P100-1995 ibm-297 IBM297 cp297 ebcdic-cp-fr csIBM297

165

International Character Sets

cpibm297 297 ibm-420_X120-1999 ibm-420 IBM420 cp420 ebcdic-cp-ar1 csIBM420 420 ibm-424_P100-1995 ibm-424 IBM424 cp424 ebcdic-cp-he csIBM424 424 ibm-500_P100-1995 ibm-500 IBM500 CP500 ebcdic-cp-be csIBM500 ebcdic-cp-ch cpibm500 500 ibm-803_P100-1999 ibm-803 cp803 ibm-838_P100-1995 ibm-838 IBM-Thai csIBMThai cp838 838 ibm-9030 ibm-870_P100-1995 ibm-870 IBM870 CP870 ebcdic-cp-roece ebcdic-cp-yu csIBM870 ibm-871_P100-1995 ibm-871 IBM871 ebcdic-cp-is csIBM871 CP871 ebcdic-is cpibm871 871 ibm-875_P100-1995 ibm-875 IBM875 cp875 875 ibm-918_P100-1995 ibm-918 IBM918 CP918 ebcdic-cp-ar2 csIBM918 ibm-930_P120-1999 ibm-930 ibm-5026 cp930 cpibm930 930 ibm-933_P110-1995 ibm-933 cp933 cpibm933 933 ibm-935_P110-1999 ibm-935 cp935 cpibm935 935 ibm-937_P110-1999 ibm-937 cp937 cpibm937 937 ibm-939_P120-1999 ibm-939 ibm-931 ibm-5035 cp939 939 ibm-1025_P100-1995 ibm-1025 cp1025 1025 ibm-1026_P100-1995 ibm-1026 IBM1026 CP1026 csIBM1026 1026 ibm-1047_P100-1995 ibm-1047 IBM1047 cpibm1047 ibm-1097_P100-1995 ibm-1097 cp1097 1097 ibm-1112_P100-1995 ibm-1112 cp1112 1112 ibm-1122_P100-1999 ibm-1122 cp1122 1122 ibm-1123_P100-1995 ibm-1123 cp1123 1123 cpibm1123 ibm-1130_P100-1997 ibm-1130 ibm-1132_P100-1998 ibm-1132 ibm-1140_P100-1997 ibm-1140 IBM01140 CCSID01140 CP01140 cp1140 cpibm1140 ebcdic-us-37+euro ibm-1141_P100-1997 ibm-1141 IBM01141 CCSID01141 CP01141 cp1141 cpibm1141 ebcdic-de-273+euro ibm-1142_P100-1997 ibm-1142 IBM01142 CCSID01142 CP01142 cp1142 cpibm1142 ebcdic-dk-277+euro ebcdic-no-277+euro ibm-1143_P100-1997 ibm-1143 IBM01143 CCSID01143 CP01143 cp1143 cpibm1143 ebcdic-fi-278+euro ebcdic-se-278+euro ibm-1144_P100-1997 ibm-1144 IBM01144 CCSID01144 CP01144 cp1144 cpibm1144 ebcdic-it-280+euro ibm-1145_P100-1997 ibm-1145 IBM01145 CCSID01145 CP01145 cp1145 cpibm1145 ebcdic-es-284+euro ibm-1146_P100-1997 ibm-1146 IBM01146 CCSID01146 CP01146 cp1146 cpibm1146 ebcdic-gb-285+euro ibm-1147_P100-1997 ibm-1147 IBM01147 CCSID01147 CP01147 cp1147 cpibm1147 ebcdic-fr-297+euro ibm-1148_P100-1997 ibm-1148 IBM01148 CCSID01148 CP01148 cp1148 cpibm1148 ebcdic-international-500+euro ibm-1149_P100-1997 ibm-1149 IBM01149 CCSID01149 CP01149 cp1149 cpibm1149 ebcdic-is-871+euro ibm-1153_P100-1999 ibm-1153 cpibm1153 ibm-1154_P100-1999 ibm-1154 cpibm1154 ibm-1155_P100-1999 ibm-1155 cpibm1155 ibm-1156_P100-1999 ibm-1156 cpibm1156 ibm-1157_P100-1999 ibm-1157 cpibm1157 ibm-1158_P100-1999 ibm-1158 cpibm1158 ibm-1160_P100-1999 ibm-1160 cpibm1160 ibm-1164_P100-1999 ibm-1164 cpibm1164 ibm-1364_P110-1997 ibm-1364 cp1364 ibm-1371_P100-1999 ibm-1371 cpibm1371 ibm-1388_P103-2001 ibm-1388 ibm-9580 ibm-1390_P110-2003 ibm-1390 cpibm1390 ibm-1399_P110-2003 ibm-1399 ibm-16684_P110-2003 ibm-16684

166

International Character Sets

ibm-4899_P100-1998 ibm-4899 cpibm4899 ibm-4971_P100-1999 ibm-4971 cpibm4971 ibm-12712_P100-1998 ibm-12712 cpibm12712 ebcdic-he ibm-16804_X110-1999 ibm-16804 cpibm16804 ebcdic-ar ibm-1137_P100-1999 ibm-1137 ibm-5123_P100-1999 ibm-5123 ibm-8482_P100-1999 ibm-8482 ibm-37_P100-1995,swaplfnl ibm-37-s390 ibm037-s390 ibm-1047_P100-1995,swaplfnl ibm-1047-s390 ibm-1140_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1140-s390 ibm-1142_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1142-s390 ibm-1143_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1143-s390 ibm-1144_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1144-s390 ibm-1145_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1145-s390 ibm-1146_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1146-s390 ibm-1147_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1147-s390 ibm-1148_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1148-s390 ibm-1149_P100-1997,swaplfnl ibm-1149-s390 ibm-1153_P100-1999,swaplfnl ibm-1153-s390 ibm-12712_P100-1998,swaplfnl ibm-12712-s390 ibm-16804_X110-1999,swaplfnl ibm-16804-s390 ebcdic-xml-us

167

Appendix C: Security Database Upgrade for Firebird 2

A. Peshkov

Security Upgrade Script

/* Script security_database.sql * * The contents of this file are subject to the Initial * Developer's Public License Version 1.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the * License. You may obtain a copy of the License at * http://www.ibphoenix.com/main.nfs?a=ibphoenix&page=ibp_idpl. * * Software distributed under the License is distributed AS IS, * WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing rights * and limitations under the License. * * The Original Code was created by Alex Peshkov on 16-Nov-2004 * for the Firebird Open Source RDBMS project. * * Copyright (c) 2004 Alex Peshkov * and all contributors signed below. * * All Rights Reserved. * Contributor(s): ______________________________________. * */ -- 1. temporary table to alter domains correctly. CREATE TABLE UTMP ( USER_NAME VARCHAR(128) CHARACTER SET ASCII, SYS_USER_NAME VARCHAR(128) CHARACTER SET ASCII, GROUP_NAME VARCHAR(128) CHARACTER SET ASCII, UID INTEGER, GID INTEGER, PASSWD VARCHAR(64) CHARACTER SET BINARY, PRIVILEGE INTEGER, COMMENT BLOB SUB_TYPE TEXT SEGMENT SIZE 80 CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS, FIRST_NAME VARCHAR(32) CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS DEFAULT _UNICODE_FSS '', MIDDLE_NAME VARCHAR(32) CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS DEFAULT _UNICODE_FSS '', LAST_NAME VARCHAR(32) CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS DEFAULT _UNICODE_FSS '' ); COMMIT; -- 2. save users data INSERT INTO UTMP(USER_NAME, SYS_USER_NAME, GROUP_NAME, UID, GID, PRIVILEGE, COMMENT, FIRST_NAME, MIDDLE_NAME, LAST_NAME, PASSWD) SELECT USER_NAME, SYS_USER_NAME, GROUP_NAME,

168

Security Database Upgrade for Firebird 2

UID, GID, PRIVILEGE, COMMENT, FIRST_NAME, MIDDLE_NAME, LAST_NAME, PASSWD FROM USERS; COMMIT; -- 3. drop old tables and domains DROP TABLE USERS; DROP TABLE HOST_INFO; COMMIT; DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN COMMIT; COMMENT; NAME_PART; GID; HOST_KEY; HOST_NAME; PASSWD; UID; USER_NAME; PRIVILEGE;

-- 4. create new objects in database CREATE DOMAIN RDB$COMMENT AS BLOB SUB_TYPE TEXT SEGMENT SIZE 80 CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$NAME_PART AS VARCHAR(32) CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS DEFAULT _UNICODE_FSS ''; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$GID AS INTEGER; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$PASSWD AS VARCHAR(64) CHARACTER SET BINARY; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$UID AS INTEGER; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$USER_NAME AS VARCHAR(128) CHARACTER SET UNICODE_FSS; CREATE DOMAIN RDB$USER_PRIVILEGE AS INTEGER; COMMIT;

CREATE TABLE RDB$USERS ( RDB$USER_NAME RDB$USER_NAME NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, /* local system user name for setuid for file permissions */ RDB$SYS_USER_NAME RDB$USER_NAME, RDB$GROUP_NAME RDB$USER_NAME, RDB$UID RDB$UID, RDB$GID RDB$GID, RDB$PASSWD RDB$PASSWD, /* SEE NOTE BELOW */ /* Privilege level of user mark a user as having DBA privilege */ RDB$PRIVILEGE RDB$USER_PRIVILEGE, RDB$COMMENT RDB$FIRST_NAME RDB$MIDDLE_NAME RDB$LAST_NAME COMMIT; RDB$COMMENT, RDB$NAME_PART, RDB$NAME_PART, RDB$NAME_PART);

CREATE VIEW USERS (USER_NAME, SYS_USER_NAME, GROUP_NAME, UID, GID, PASSWD, PRIVILEGE, COMMENT, FIRST_NAME, MIDDLE_NAME, LAST_NAME, FULL_NAME) AS SELECT RDB$USER_NAME, RDB$SYS_USER_NAME, RDB$GROUP_NAME, RDB$UID, RDB$GID, RDB$PASSWD, RDB$PRIVILEGE, RDB$COMMENT,

169

Security Database Upgrade for Firebird 2

RDB$FIRST_NAME, RDB$MIDDLE_NAME, RDB$LAST_NAME, RDB$first_name || _UNICODE_FSS ' ' || RDB$middle_name || _UNICODE_FSS ' ' || RDB$last_name FROM RDB$USERS WHERE CURRENT_USER = 'SYSDBA' OR CURRENT_USER = RDB$USERS.RDB$USER_NAME; COMMIT; GRANT ALL ON RDB$USERS to VIEW USERS; GRANT SELECT ON USERS to PUBLIC; GRANT UPDATE(PASSWD, GROUP_NAME, UID, GID, FIRST_NAME, MIDDLE_NAME, LAST_NAME) ON USERS TO PUBLIC; COMMIT; -- 5. move data from temporary table and drop it INSERT INTO RDB$USERS(RDB$USER_NAME, RDB$SYS_USER_NAME, RDB$GROUP_NAME, RDB$UID, RDB$GID, RDB$PRIVILEGE, RDB$COMMENT, RDB$FIRST_NAME, RDB$MIDDLE_NAME, RDB$LAST_NAME, RDB$PASSWD) SELECT USER_NAME, SYS_USER_NAME, GROUP_NAME, UID, GID, PRIVILEGE, COMMENT, FIRST_NAME, MIDDLE_NAME, LAST_NAME, PASSWD FROM UTMP; COMMIT; DROP TABLE UTMP; COMMIT;

Note
This field should be constrained as NOT NULL. For information about this, see Nullability of RDB$PASSWD in the Security chapter.

170