A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital

computer used for automation of industrial processes, such as control of machinery

on factory assembly lines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed
for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to
control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be
produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise
unintended operation will result.

Contents
[hide]

1. 1 Features

2. 2 PLC compared with other control

systems

3. 3 Digital and analog signals

1. 3.1 Example

4. 4 System scale

5. 5 Programming

6. 6 User interface

7. 7 Communications

8. 8 History

9. 9 See also

10. 10 External links

[edit] Features
Control panel with PLC (grey elements in the center). The unit consists of separate
elements, from left to right; power supply, controller, relay units for in- and output

The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe
condition (dust, moisture, heat, cold, etc) and have the facility for extensive
input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators.
PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and
pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some even use
machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or
hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays or solenoids, or analog outputs. The
input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have
external I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.
PLCs were invented as replacements for automated systems that would use
hundreds or thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers. Often, a single
PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays. Programmable controllers
were initially adopted by the automotive manufacturing industry, where software
revision replaced the re-wiring of hard-wired control panels when production models
changed.
Many of the earliest PLCs expressed all decision making logic in simple ladder logic
which appeared similar to electrical schematic diagrams. The electricians were quite
able to trace out circuit problems with schematic diagrams using ladder logic. This
program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing
technicians. Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on
a stack-based logic solver.
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include sequential relay
control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems and networking.
The data handling, storage, processing power and communication capabilities of
some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-like
programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop
computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standards-based
programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential
Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers.

[edit] PLC compared with other control systems

PLCs are well-adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial
processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the
automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where
changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain
input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little
electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the
desired sequence of operations in ladder logic (or function chart) notation. PLC
applications are typically highly customized systems so the cost of a packaged PLC
is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built controller design. On the other
hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control systems are
economic due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally chosen
instead of a "generic" solution, and where the non-recurring engineering charges are
spread over thousands of places.
For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are
used. For example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an
electromechanical cam timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities.
A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands
of units will be produced and so the development cost (design of power supplies and
input/output hardware) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user
would not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an example; millions
of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of these
controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit busses economically
use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are low and
the development cost would be uneconomic.
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require
algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs.
Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for
example, aircraft flight controls.
PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analog control loop, a
"proportional, integral, derivative" or "PID controller." A PID loop could be used to
control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for example. Historically PLCs
were usually configured with only a few analog control loops; where processes
required hundreds or thousands of loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would
instead be used. However, as PLCs have become more powerful, the boundary
between DCS and PLC applications has become less clear-cut.

[edit] Digital and analog signals

Digital or discrete signals behave as binary switches, yielding simply an On or Off
signal (1 or 0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, limit switches, and
photoelectric sensors are examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete
signals are sent using either voltage or current, where a specific range is designated
as On and another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values
above 22 V DC representing On, values below 2VDC representing Off, and
intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.
Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of values between zero and
full-scale. These are typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with
various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits
available to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors,
the integer values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature,
flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals. Analog signals can use
voltage or current with a magnitude proportional to the value of the process signal.
For example, an analog 4-20 mA or 0 - 10 V input would be converted into an
integer value of 0 - 32767.
Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. from welders or electric
motor starts) than voltage inputs.
[edit] Example
As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The water is drawn from
the tank by another system, as needed, and our example system must manage the
water level in the tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from float switches (tank
empty and tank full). The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve
into the tank.
When the water level drops enough so that the tank empty float switch is off (down),
the PLC will open the valve to let more water in. Once the water level raises enough
so that the tank full switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water
from overflowing.

| |
| Low Level High Level Fill Valve |
|------[/]------|------[/]----------------------(OUT)---------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Fill Valve | |
|------[ ]------| |
| |
| |

An analog system might use a water pressure sensor or a load cell, and an
adjustable (throttling)dripping out of the tank, the valve adjusts to slowly drip water
back into the tank.
In this system, to avoid 'flutter' adjustments that can wear out the valve, many PLCs
incorporate "hysteresis" which essentially creates a "deadband" of activity. A
technician adjusts this deadband so the valve moves only for a significant change in
rate. This will in turn minimize the motion of the valve, and reduce its wear.
A real system might combine both approaches, using float switches and simple
valves to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill rates and
prevent water hammer. Backup and maintenance methods can make a real system
very complicated.

[edit] System scale

A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built in for inputs and outputs.
Typically, expansions are available if the base model does not have enough I/O.
Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into which is placed modules with
different functions. The processor and selection of I/O modules is customised for the
particular application. Several racks can be administered by a single processor, and
may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high speed serial I/O link is
used so that racks can be distributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring
costs for large plants.
PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer (P2P) communication
between processors. This allows separate parts of a complex process to have
individual control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over the
communication link. These communication links are also often used for HMI
(Human-Machine Interface) devices such as keypads or PC-type workstations.
Some of today's PLCs can communicate over a wide range of media including RS-
485, Coaxial, and even Ethernet for I/O control at network speeds up to 100 Mbit/s.

[edit] Programming
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming
panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated
function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs
were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation
were very minimal due to lack of memory capacity. More recently, PLC programs are
typically written in a special application on a personal computer, then downloaded by
a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The very oldest PLCs used
non-volatile magnetic core memory but now the program is stored in the PLC either
in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory.
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were
programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of
relay logic. Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from ladder logic
to more traditional programming languages such as BASIC and C. Another method
is State Logic, a Very High Level Programming Language designed to program
PLCs based on State Transition Diagrams.
Recently, the International standard IEC 61131-3 has become popular. IEC 61131-3
currently defines five programming languages for programmable control systems:
FBD (Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to
the Pascal programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar to assembly language)
and SFC (Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize logical
organization of operations.
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all
manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction
sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different
makers. Even within the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models
may not be directly compatible.

[edit] User interface

PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm
reporting or everyday control. A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is employed for this
purpose. HMI's are also referred to as MMI's (Man Machine Interface) and GUI
(Graphical User Interface).
A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text displays
are available as well as graphical touch screens. Most modern PLCs can
communicate over a network to some other system, such as a computer running a
SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) system or web browser.

[edit] Communications
PLCs usually have built in communications ports usually 9-Pin RS232, and
optionally for RS485 and Ethernet. Modbus or DF1 is usually included as one of the
communications protocols. Others' options include various fieldbuses such as
DeviceNet or Profibus. Other communications protocols that may be used are listed
in the List of automation protocols.

[edit] History
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive
industry. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for
manufacturing automobiles was accomplished using relays, timers and dedicated
closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for the yearly model
change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as the relay systems needed
to be rewired by skilled electricians. In 1968 GM Hydramatic (the automatic
transmission division of General Motors) issued a request for proposal for an
electronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems.
The winning proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts.
The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth
project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to
developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this new product: Modicon, which
stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on that project
was Dick Morley, who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC. The Modicon
brand was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, and later acquired by German
Company AEG and then by French Schneider Electric, the current owner.
One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Modicon's headquarters in
North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented to Modicon by GM, when the unit
was retired after nearly twenty years of uninterrupted service.
The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs, and Modicon still
numbers some of its controller models such that they end with eighty-four.
PLCs are used in many different industries and machines such as packaging and
semiconductor machines. Well known PLC brands are Siemens, Allen-Bradley,
ABB, Mitsubishi, Omron, and General Electric.