The Submarine Torpedo Boat Its Characteristics & Modern Development Allen Hoar 1916

THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT
ITS CHARACTERISTICS
AND MODERN DEVELOPMENT
BY
ALLEN HOAR
JUNIOR MEMBER AMERICAN SOC. OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
84 Illustrations
4 Folding Plates
D.
NEW YORK VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

25
Park Place
1916
EV
COPYRIGHT, 191 6, BY
D.
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
THE 'PLIMPTON 'PRESS NORWOOD'MASS'U'S-'
TO THE MEMORY OF
MY FATHER
PREFACE
It has been the purpose of the author in writing this
volume
to place before the public a book which would be of interest to the general reader, and also of value to
the technical
man and
naval engineer, who, while not

desirous of reliable information
therefore, in a non-
speciaUzing in this
line, is
upon the
subject.
The author has
technical language in so far as possible, brought to the
attention of the reader the inherent characteristics of the submarine boat, the problems involved in
its
design
and construction, the difficulties of operation, its present limitations and its future possibihties. The present European conflict has aroused a general interest in the submarine torpedo boat and has acted as an incentive to many popular writers to flood the press with a great number of misconceptions and erroneous statements. Many of them were unfamiliar with the technical and engineering considerations, and in fact seemingly wholly misinformed. It is only when some
understanding of the problems involved has been gained,
may begin to realize what has been accompHshed in this field of modern "engineering warfare," what further might be expected, and the utter improbability of submarine battleships, transports and the like,
that the public
which have been pet exploitations of popular writers. Since going to press the submarine has once more
been brought into
brilliant
prominence by the successful
VI
PREFACE
3800 mile voyage of the German submarine Deutschland. This vessel, unattended, has successfully eluded all surface craft during her long trip which began at Heligoland on
June 23 and ended at Baltimore July 9. For a part of her voyage the Deutschland was forced to run submerged to escape detection by the blockading English and French
cruisers.
Captain Koenig, her commander, has stated
that in all she
made 90
miles of this trip under the surface.
Although this is perhaps slightly farther than any other submarine has gone alone it is not by any means the only long voyage made by this type of vessel. Submarines of the F, H, and K, classes in the U. S. Navy have made the trip from San Francisco to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, under their own power, a distance of 2100 miles, and on the Atlantic coast the boats have several times made the trip between New York, Pensacola, and Colon, a
somewhat longer distance. Ten of the British H boats by the Fore River Ship Building Company recently made the voyage to England, and from there five of them continued on their way to the Dardanelles, a voyage quite as long as that made by the Deutschland. These
built
British
boats are practically identical with our

of
own
about 450 tons displacement. To those familiar with this type of craft there is nothing remarkable in just the mere mileage covered by the
class
and are
Deutschland on this voyage, but the performance of this vessel is spectacular because it has succeeded in leaving
a well blockaded port and traversed waters abounding

in hostile craft undetected to the end.
It is
very
It
difficult
at this time to obtain
any exact or
reliable information
as to the real dimensions of this vessel.
has been
variously
given
out in widely
conflicting
statements,
PREFACE
vii
purporting to have been uttered by Captain Koenig, as from 200 to 315 feet in length, 20 to 30 feet in breadth
and from 1000

seems to be
to
4000 tons in displacement.

is
There
little
doubt, however, from what reliable

of the
information can be had, that this vessel

general type as those submarines laid
same
down by Germany
in the early part of 1914, the principal characteristics of
which are given in the appendix, as 214 feet in length, 20 feet beam and 900 submerged displacement.
boat of
this
size if stripped of all
torpedo tubes,
torpedoes and handling gear, and with weight of power plant restricted to a capacity for 14 knots on the surface
and 10 knots submerged, would

nage
of
afford a net cargo ton-
about 75 to 100 tons.
This
is
a practical
illus-
tration of the possibiKties for

as a blockade runner
new
uses of the submarine

enterprise.
on Government
The
successful performance of the Deutschland
must
not confuse her as being in the class of the submarine

transports and the hke mentioned above.
is
This vessel
a logical development of a tried type and not the prod-
uct of momentary hysteria.
Previous to the successful
accomplishment of the Deutschland, there recently appeared in print a photograph purporting to be of a 5000ton German submarine boat which was reported to be
about to ply back and forth transporting cargo between New York and Kiel as a blockade runner. It is quite
was based upon the known However, it is rather an intention of the Deutschland. exaggeration of the true dimensions of the vessel. While
possible that this statement
it is of
course not impracticable in
itself to
build a subof cargo,
marine capable of transporting a hmited
amount
the reported dimensions of this craft, about 450 feet in
vm
marine vessel
PREFACE
make
it
length and 40 feet in beam,

of this size
incredible.
sub-
would be excessively unwieldy,, and to make its accredited speed of ten knots an hour across the Atlantic, it would require such an enormous weight in power plant equipment and fuel oil, that, together with the necessary percentage of weight to be allotted to the ballast system for submergence, there would be but a very small percentage of the gross tonnage left for cargo transportation. It would be, to say the least, scarcely an economic means of transportation, no matter what the hazard for surface vessels might be. In the first chapter on the history of submarine development, an attempt has been made to point out rather sketchily only the more important incidents which have had a direct bearing upon the actual development of the submarine boat of today. While the inventors and inventions dealing with the subject number into the thouideas having no practical value at
them are merely freak all, and yet there are a great many very ingenious and worthy of consideration. Space, however, in this little volume forbids going into them, indeed, to do so would require several volumes the size of this. The reader who is interested in this phase of the subject is referred to " Submarine Navigation, Past and Present," in two volumes, by Allan H. Burgoyne. The chapters on the future development of the submarine, and means of defense against it were written somewhat over a year ago, and the author is gratified to state that after two years of employment of the submarine in actual warfare in Europe he finds no occasion to change in any respect his opinions expressed on these matters in
sands, a very large proportion of
this
volume.
Of
late
it is
interesting to note that
much
PREFACE
stress is laid
ix
upon the
effectiveness of the small speedy-
surface craft as a defense against the submarine.

successful
The
re-
employment
its
of these light craft
is,
however,
stricted to
the conditions set forth in the chapter on

effectiveness
is
defense,
and
really
more moral than
physical, since the deck of one of these Httle craft affords
a very poor gun platform from which to shoot with accu-
Our own submarines acting off our own coasts have not much to fear from this type of opponent, but rather would have them to act in consort with. The Author wishes to express his thanks to both the Electric Boat Company and the Lake Torpedo Boat Company for the many excellent photographs which they
racy.
furnished him.
Washington,
July, 1916
ALLEN HOAR
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
Early History and Development.
i
.
II.
Development of the Present -Day Submarine

Characteristics and Requirements
.
III.
26
IV.
Types OF Submarines (Submarines and Submersiblesj
38
V.
Design of the Submarine Torpedo Boat (General

Factors)
....
58
.
VI.
VII.
The Power Plant

Future Development
no
.
134
143 153
VIII.
Means
of Defense Against Submarine Attack
IX.
Tactical Evolutions of the Submarine.
X.
The Torpedo
Tenders and Salvage Ships
List of Accidents
174
185
192
.
.
XL
XII.
XIII.
Submarine Mines
I.
.
.
195
.
Appendix
Index
203
205
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
1. 2.
Bushnell's Turtle
Fulton's Nautilus
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
Le Plongeur The Fenian Ram Hovgaard's Submarine Nordenfelt's Turkish Submarine Le Morse
5 n
8 9
11
12
13 13 17
8.
g.
The Argonaut Jr The Argonaut First

U.
S. S.
10.
11. 12. 13. 14.
T. B. Holland
XJ. S.
Submarine B-^
class class
ig
21 23 27
British
A British B
15.
16. 17.
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Forward Deck of Submarine G-4 S. Submarine C-j C-i Making a dive C-i Coming to the surface Living quarters on Lake boat German U-5 in a heavy sea U. S. Submarine G-i U. S. Submarine G-4 British Submarine H-20 Diagram of early Holland type Diagram of Electric Boat type Diagram of Lauboeuf type Diagram of Lake type Diagram of Krupp type Diagram of Laurenti type Figure 2. Diving Boat Figure 3. "Even Keel" type
U.
29
31 31
33
35
3g 41 43 45 45
47 47 49 49
51
53
55
Experimental submarine with forward propellers Figure 4. Forward propulsion type ii. U. S. Submarines K-s and K-6 34. French submarine of Lauboeuf type
31. 32.
xiii
56
S9 63
XIV
35. 36. 37.
Transverse section through engines
8i
F-3
U.
entering the Golden Gate, California
83 85 87
Crew's quarters, Electric Boat
38.
39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.
Submarine K-6 Midship section, Electric Boat

S.
Steering station, E. B. type
89 go
91
49.
50. 51. 52.
53. 54.
55.
56.
57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

63.
Diving station, Electric Boat Submarine signal set Torpedo tube installation G-i showing deck tubes Lowering torpedo through hatch Submarine German type gun Submarine G-i Submarine C-$ 900 B.H.P. M.A.N. Diesel Engine Southwark-Harris Diesel Engine Submarine D-i Main Motors G-i Switchboard and valve manifolds 900 B.H.P. Italian submarine engine Engine space, experimental boat U. S. Submarine L-i U. S. Submarine K-^
'
96 99
loi
103
104
107
iii
117 118
121
123
125
129
132 135 139 140 143
Wake
of torpedo
Visible disturbance of periscope
High angle
fire
gun
for aeroplanes
149 155
157
British submarines
German submarine U-28

Effectiveness of torpedo
fire
at various ranges
163
64.
65.
Diagram Diagram
of Limit
Angle of Submarine attack
164
165
of effect of error in estimation of course
66.
67.
Submarine H-3 coming to the surface Submarine K-s at full speed

Submarines in column formation Hoisting on board a torpedo
Section through a torpedo
167 169
171
68.
69.
70.
71
175
177 179 183 184 186 187
Spent torpedo coming to the surface
72.
73. 74. 75.
Diagram of torpedo angle fire Torpedo fitted with lance-head
German submarine
tender
76.
Monitor Tonopah and flotilla French submarine entering " Kangaroo ship "
189
77. 78.
xv
189
Open bow of " Kangaroo Italian Mother ship

Simple contact mine
ship "
190
ig8
of sinking
79. 80.
Diagram showing method
mines
199
PLATE
I.
StabiUty curves
Facing page
44
II.
Speed and power curves

Section through engine
74) 7S
III.
114, 115
IV. Plan and profile of 600-ton Laurenti submarine
V. Plan and profile of 800-ton
German submarine
VI. Profile of 830-ton Electric Boat type submarine
Appendix Appendix Appendix
The Submarine Torpedo

Its
Boat
Characteristics and
Modern Development
I
CHAPTER
Although
EARLY HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

become recognized as being of any practical value in Naval Warfare, the first known device of this kind was conceived by a fHoUander, Dr. Cornelius van Drebbel, and was constructed by him in 1624. This boat was merely a wooden shell, decked over and covered with leather, and fitted up
the submarine has only recently
so as to be capable of sinking below the surface of the water.
It
was a one-man
affair
and propelled by oars passed

flexible
through the sides of the boat, and working in

leather stufi&ng-boxes
this
to
keep them watertight.
With [\
very crude device Dr. van Drebbel successfully demon-
strated the practicability of submarine navigation.
No further developments of any consequence along these

lines
were effected until taken up in this country by David Bushnell in 1772. Bushnell, who was then a student at
Yale,
was the
its
first to
invent and construct a submarine
boat actually used in warfare.

cause of
peculiar shape,
His
Turtle, so called be-
was
just large
modate one man in a sitting posture; it ordinary manner and propelled by a screw-propeller turned by hand from an interior crank. Submersion was accomplished by taking on water ballast, and a torpedo was
carried outside the hull, so arranged that
it
enough to accomwas steered in the
could be at-

tached to the hull of an enemy's vessel by means of a screw
operated from within.
the submarine and fired
set in
After being screwed tot he hull of
the enemy's vessel, the torpedo was then to be released from
by a time
clock device which

of
was
motion by the withdrawing

Tbfpec/c
a pin when
released.
Sc>-eiv
/'/^Y>e//ef
Bushnell's "Turtle."'
1776
In 1775 Bushnell was called upon to take his submarine and make an attack upon the British vessels lying in New York harbor. Unfortunately for Bushnell, he was too frail
physically to undertake this arduous task in person, so a
corporal from Putnam's army, Ezra Lee, was chosen
trained to navigate the craft
and and to make an attack upon the British flagship Eagle which was lying off Staten Island. Lee succeeded in navigating the submarine and reached
a vantage point under the Eagle's stern, but owing to the copper sheathing on the vessel's bottom and the small
downward
resistance of the Turtle, he found it difficult to
As daylight approached he became nervous and, probably because of the need of fresh air, gave
attach the torpedo.
and making his own escape. The torpedo exploded as was intended and as it had been timed to, but as it had drifted some httle distance down stream from the Eagle, it did no harm other than to throw up a veritable geyser of water giving those on board a mighty scare;
adrift the torpedo
up the attempt, cutting
After this one attempt, notwithstanding the fact that

the
little
of its
nell's
vessel had demonstrated both the practicability maneuvering qualities and of its armament, BushTurtle became the object of much ridicule and was
fair consideration.
never afterward given
Bushnell, thor-
oughly discouraged at the treatment accorded his ingenious

device and the lack of appreciation of
its
value, soon dis-
appeared from the pages of the history of the submarine torpedo boat.
Robert Fulton, the inventor of the steamboat, was the make any practical advancement in the development of the submarine, taking it up from the point at which
->
next to
left off. He first laid his plans before the American Naval authorities in 1799 but received no encouragement from them. Thereupon he journeyed to France
Bushnell
where three years were spent in trying to gain recognition. Finally, Napoleon Bonaparte gave him audience. Bonaparte became at once interested in the proposition and appointed a commission to investigate and report upon it. After due deliberation a favorable report was returned with
the result that the
sum
of io,coo francs
was appropriated

boat and the conducting of experiaccording to Fulton's
for the construction of a
ments.
The Nautilus was

nell's Turtle, it
finally built
plans and tried out on the Seine, but of course, like Bush-
be operated at a very slow speed.
tended for
was propelled by hand power and could only This vessel was inoffense against the English fleet and was to be
Several attacks
capable of crossing the English Channel.
against the blockading English fleet were unsuccessful,
however.
The English by keeping themselves posted

of
fit
about what was going on simply kept out Fulton's sorties. Bonaparte, therefore, in a
range of
of impet-
uous rage and disgust, decided that the Nautilus was of no military value and dropped the entire matter, calling
Fulton a hair-brained
fool.
Fulton next took his idea to England, where he was cordially received by William Pitt, who at once grasped the
significance of the device
it
and believed, with Fulton, that would annihilate the naval supremacy of nations.
The Admirality, however,

development
of
refused
to
encourage the
any device which they believed would, if broadly taken up, relieve England of her naval supremacy.
They
tion
offered Fulton a
to
sum
of
money
to suppress the invenit.
and
prevent the enemy from using
This
offer
Fulton refused, but finding that at
this time
he would be
unable to accomplish anything further with his submarine, he returned to the United States and devoted all his
energies to the development of the steamboat.
The next
in the
sixty years
saw nothing
of
any practical value
development
of the
submarine, until during the
period of the Civil

of small boats
War
the Confederates built a
number
which they called "Davids." These vessels

of steel
were built
and were propelled by steam engines,
the only radical departures from the earlier types.
They
carried torpedoes fixed to the ends of outriggers or spars
and
their
mode
of attack
the attack was to be

the latter to explode
was to ram the vessel upon which made with these torpedoes, causing
by the shock, and blow up the boat. none of these "Davids" succeeded in making an attack under water, but one of them did succeed in
I believe that
ramming with a spar torpedo

tonic while she
the Federal gunboat Housawas at anchor, the ensuing explosion sinkas well as the gunboat.
ing the
"David"
In 1863 the French again took up the problem of sub-
marine boats and succeeded in turning out Le Plongeur,
which was the
first
large submarine ever built, having a

It
displacement of nearly 500 tons.

years.
It
was
in fact larger
than anything that had been constructed up to very recent
was equipped with compressed air engines for motive power and carried a number of containers for holding air under pressure for driving the engines.
At
this
time however, compressed
air
engineering was
undeveloped
state,
and the
vessel
was able
to
an remain under
still
in
water but a very short time and could only make a speed Le Plongcur was also found to be of four or five knots.
uncontrollable under water, having no stability.
the French
However, Government experimented with this boat until 1874 and then gave up the project of submarines once more as being impractical. Mr. John P. Holland in this country was the next of note to take up submarine development. His first boat, called the Foticui Raw, was built at New Haven, Conn., in the early eighties, for the Fenian Society of New Haven, the necessary funds having been raised by the Society
<^-i
-^.
<i
|CI==#
Ph
zh
-"f^
through popular subscription for the rather visionary purpose of making an attack upon the EngHsh Coast and the
an aid in securing Home did not materialize put to any practical use. however, and the vessel was never
destruction of England's
for Ireland.
fleet, as
Rule
The heralded war
Holland's Fenian
Ram.
1877
In the next few years the two factors which have made the present development of the submarine possible, reached
/
the period where they were

value.
become of some practicable These factors are the automobile torpedo and
storage battery.
the
electric
furnished the submarine with a
The automobile torpedo weapon with which it

means
of
could
make an
attack upon another vessel without disitself
astrous results to
and
in fact afforded a
reaching the ship attacked which lack of speed on the part

of
the submarine
itself
The
storage battery effected the
had hitherto made impossible. first satisfactory means of
propelling the vessel under water.
After the completion of the Fenian
Ram
Holland con-
tinued to develop the submarine boat and to him must be
accorded the credit for bringing it to its present day state He constructed four or five experiof practical value.
mental boats and in 1890 built the first submarine to meet the requirements set forth by the United States Navy Department. This vessel was called the Holland
E
[/3
lO

is
and
now
at the United States
Naval Academy at
"Annapolis.
The Holland was

for
fitted
with gasoline engines for surface

It
propulsion and with electric storage batteries and motors
was the first boat in naval service to be equipped in this manner, and in fact was the first submarine having any power by which it could be run when submerged to any considerable depth. In Europe attempts had been made to use the steam engine while submerged by running ventilating pipes to the surface. These vessels could submerge to a depth just barely sufficient to cover their decks and were therefore in a very precarious position, at the mercy of the elements as well as the hostility of the enemy. One of the novel features of the Holland boat was the ability to dive by inclining the axis of the boat and plunging to the desired depth. This had never been accomplished before and was viewed with much skepticism by other engineers. Meanwhile in Europe, Lieutenant Hovgaard of the Danish Navy had taken up the problem of submarine development, while in England it had been pursued by a Swedish engineer, Mr. Nordenfelt. Nordenfelt believed that the best solution of the problem lay in the evolution of a single power unit system for both surface and submerged work, and adopted as a means to this end the steam engine. He was only partially successful however, and not at all so from a tactical standpoint. The French Government once more took up the problem and in 1888 designed a boat which was operated by primary batteries; these were later taken out and replaced by
submerged
cruising.
accumulator
of the
cells.
Later, in the early nineties, Lc

built.
Morse
same type was
It
may
be of interest to state
II
-3
12

here that Le Morse was one of the
first
boats to be fitted with a periscope, which
however was a very crude

tive plans,
affair.
In the
middle nineties, after receiving competithe French adopted a type
designed by Lauboeuf, a naval constructor.
To
this
type they have adhered

ever
since.
more
built
or less
The
Narval,
according to the Laubeouf plans
and launched in 1899, '^^-s ^ double hull boat and fitted with fore and aft hydroplanes.
During
?<
this period the
number
of in-
ventors and inventions relating to sub-
marine boats ran up into the hundreds. The inventors counted amongst their
numbers doctors, lawyers, priests, farmers, and shoemakers; in fact men from almost every walk of life, and as might be expected almost nothing of any practical value was accompHshed by them.
One name stands out however, that

in the pages of
of
Bauer, a German, and should be recorded
submarine history.
Bauer
was the first German to take up this development and evolved some excellent and very practical ideas. These ideas he laid before the German Government, but was confronted with political enmity as well as professional jealousy and publicly derided. He then took his plans to Russia where he was given the support nee-
13
By
courtesy Lake Torpedo Boat Co.
Lake's First Submarine.
The Argonaut
Jr.
By
Courtesy Lake Torpedo Boat Co.
Simon Lake's Argonaut
First
14

Misfortune however seemed to
essary to build a boat.
dog
his footsteps,
through no fault of his own, until he
died without having accomplished his purpose.
In the United States, Mr. Simon Lake took up the development of submarines shortly after Holland. His first designs were primarily for the recovery of lost treasure and wrecking purposes, but later he went in for the development of war craft as well and has made great progress along the lines of the control and the military efficiency of the submarine. Mr. Lake is probably one of the best informed of the submarine builders today. He was, in fact, the first to advocate the ship-shape hull form and the use of hydroplanes, having submitted plans involving these features to the Navy Department about five years before the Narval was designed.
CHAPTER
II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE

Although
back
the inception of the submarine boat dates
it
to the seventeenth century,
has been only within
the last fifteen years that any systematic or practical
development was begun.
In fact in 1902 Lieutenant L. H.
Chandler, U.S.N., in discussing tactical torpedo warfare

before the Naval Institute at the United States Naval
Academy
said in closing his remarks,
"The submarine
has
not yet developed far enough to be of any practical use in

warfare," and "is not yet ripe for consideration."
The
rapid development then that has taken place between that
time and the present day may be realized by the results shown in the present European conflict. The rapid advance during these last few years has been
due to the systematic study given to the submarine both from a military and an engineering standpoint by naval experts and authorities who have had experience in handling the subject, and by the requirements laid down by naval officers who have gained experience in this particular field under actual service conditions. In 1893, the United States Navy Department when first
contemplating
the
adoption
of
submarines
to
service
requirements laid
which all These requirements included, safety; controllability, submerged; surface speed; submerged speed; endurance, both on the
set of standards to
down a
submarines to be acceptable must conform.
IS
i6
surface

and submerged;
offensive power;
stability;
and
visibility of the object to
be attacked.
These requirements were given relative value in the order named and have not changed greatly up to the present time, and where changed, only in point of their
relative values.
The development
class built for the
attained in these years might be
more
strongly pointed out
by a comparison between
the Adder
acme of submarine construction and efficiency at that time, and the M-i laid down in 19 14, and the equivalent of any of The Adder had a submerged displacethe foreign boats. ment of 122 tons, a submerged speed of 7 knots, a surface
United States
in 1899, the
Navy
speed of 9 knots, a radius of action on the surface of 500 nautical miles, and a radius of action at a 4.5 knot speed
submerged
of
about 70 nautical miles.
She carried one
torpedo tube in the bow, and was propelled by gasoline

engines on the surface and
batteries
by
electric
motors and storage
when submerged. The M-i is a twin screw
ship of about 630 tons sub-
merged displacement, has Diesel engines of about 1600 brake horse power for driving on the surface at a speed of 14 knots, and has a radius of action on the surface of 5500 nautical miles. Submerged, she is driven by electrical machinery and is capable of making a speed of 10.5 knots
for
one hour or a speed
of 8.5
knots for three hours.
speed of 4.5 knots submerged she will be able to
about 65 miles. She carries four torpedo tubes in and a spare torpedo for each tube.
At a make the bow
It may be seen from the foregoing comparison that the submarine has made great strides ahead except in the particular features of submerged speed and radius of ac-
DEVELOPMENT OF TRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE
17
y.
I?
@H
i8
tion submerged. As regards these, the writer is firmlyconvinced that a limit has been reached with the present dual power system for propulsion. For, with the dual
power system, either the submerged speed and radius of action must be sacrificed to gain an increase in surface radius and speed or vice versa. With the development in size of the submarine much higher powered engines must be installed to overcome the necessarily increased speed The high power engines of the internal comresistances. bustion type demand heavier construction than do the smaller engines, and as the percentage of weight allotted to the power plant in a submarine remains constant with the displacement, the other functions keeping the same balance, it is easily seen that the engines in this case must absorb a greater proportion of this percentage and the motors and batteries a lesser proportion, consequently detracting from the submerged radius and speed. The real limit of the radius of action of a submarine at the present time is the endurance or the physical ability
of the
crew to stand prolonged hardships.
For, although
conditions are
yet afford
its
crew
now much improved, a submarine does not many hotel accommodations. It will
be necessary to better these conditions before any greatly
extended cruises can be made with any certain degree of

safety.
There
is
also a great deal of
room
for
improvement
made in the sea-worthiness of the submarine. The United States Navy has continued in building the Holland boat, which is known now as the Electric Boat, the company having reorganized several years ago under the name of the Electric Boat Co. Since 191 1, the Navy Department has also adopted the Lake boat of which there are now three in the service and several under conto be
DEVELOI>MENT OF ]'RESENT-DAY SUBMARINE
'
19
20
struction.

This
Navy
has also one of the Italian Laurenti
type boats which was built by the

Co.
Cramp Ship
Building
Both the Lake and the Laurenti boats are known as the G class and have practically the same distinguishing
features.
England, in 1903, purchased the right to build the Holland type of boat from the Electric Boat Co., and have continued to use this type with various slight modifications
from the
in size.
it
original
form and with a continual development
The
superstructure has been increased in size as
has been in the United States Navy, and in some of the
boats water ballast tanks have been added under the superstructure in order to obtain an increased reserve bouy-
ancy.
Great secrecy
It
is
maintained over the designs of

little is
the British, however, and really very
known about
of 1200
them.
laid
is
claimed by some that the
class of boats
down
in 19 14
have a submerged displacement
tons with a speed of 18 knots on the surface and 12 knots
under water.
In France there seems to have been no
to
strict
adherence
any one type of boat, nor rational advancement and steady development in any one direction. Development over there indeed seems to have been of a very erratic nature. They have not seemed to have decided on any one type, building extensively both submarines proper and
submersibles; one year tending to increase materially the
displacement of these
craft,
and the next year dropping
back
to the building of smaller boats.
In fact they seem to be wiUing to try anything once,
and
as a consequence, France has probably spent

in
more
money
submarine development than any other nation,
but because of the lack of systematic progress in the
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESEXT-DAY SUBMARIXE
21
22
field

has secured
less
efficient
results
than any other
nation.
Germany did not

until rather late,
take up the development of submarines

of this nation,
but characteristic
field,
having
once decided to go into the
a sufficient
sum
of
money
was at once appropriated to meet the expenses and the
Krupps were given the commission to undertake the problem of development. The Germans have also tried out the d'Quevilley type, a French product, but with what success is not known however, as the French had experimented for some years with this type and had gained no apparent success it is doubtful that the Germans have done anything more. The essential feature of the d'Quevilley boat is the single unit power system, using the steam enThe steam for submerged propulsion is generated gine. by means of a soda boiler; the principle of the system being to utilize heat in the form of steam generated by a slaking
;
process as
principle
this
is
demonstrated in the slaking of lime.
This
is
not new however, having been tried out in

J.
country in 1885 by Prof.
H. L. Tuck on
late,
his sub-
marine boat Peacemaker. Going into the field comparatively

did, she
as
was enabled
to profit to a considerable extent
Germany by
the experiences of the other countries.
The boats U-9
to [7-7(5,
which have taken such a promioff
nent part in the submarine activities
the English Coast,

of
have an extreme length

1 2
of 142 feet, a
moulded breadth
feet 4 inches and a
tion of 9 feet 8
mean draught in the surface condiinches. They have a submerged displace-
ment
of
235 tons.
about 300 tons and a surface displacement of These vessels are all of the submersible double-
hull type of construction with a cigar
shaped inner hull
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE
\i
'x
A\'^
iM
'M;.'
\*
tv
VI
^
'i
24
capable of resisting hydrostatic pressure clue to a depth

of 165 feet.
The watertight
sections, the
hull is formed of nine circular welded amidship three of which are cylindrical and
the others fore and aft are slightly conical.

is
Each
section
divided
by bulkheads
into a watertight compartment.
The bow
sories
two torpedo tubes and accesand can carry altogether three torpedoes; the next section is occupied by the crew and storeroom for batteries, and contains also a galley and lavatory accommodasection contains
tions.
The amidship
sections contain the inner ballast

all
tanks and steering and

gear.
other navigating and operating

contains
internal
The engine room

is
combustion
engines of the Diesel type and electric motors, and the last
watertight section
tric
reserved for another battery of elec-
accumulators.
all
Between the deck platform and the

is
inner hull
the kerosene fuel tanks are fitted.
The
propelling power for surface navigation
derived
from two two-cycle heavy-oil engines aggregating 600 B .H.P. driving two reversible screws. Two electric motors developing 320 H.P. are used for propulsion when the boat The engine room auxiliaries comprise is submerged. two main and one auxiliary motor driven bilge pumps, two hand pumps, air compressors and other accessories. Particular attention has
been given to equipping with various
and safety appliances and air purifj'ing The surface speed is 12 knots and the submerged devices. speed is 8.6 knots. At an economic speed of 10 knots, the radius of action on the surface is 1200 miles and at 6 knots submerged the radius is claimed to be 60 miles. Looking back we can see that up to the time of Holland, what development there had been was of a very erratic
means
of salvage
DEVELOPMENT OF PRESENT-DAY SUBMARINE

nature and of no practical value.
25
From
this
time on there
and practical demonstration, until in 1900 the submarine was brought up to a point of being of some practical use for naval purposes, and since then under service conditions and requirements it has reached a stage of development where its military values have been amply demonstrated and assured in actual service of war.
was a period
of a great deal of experimentation
CHAPTER
III
CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

In a service submarine it is essential that it be capable keeping to the sea and making headway in an}' kind of weather. This is at once evident for a submarine intended to go to sea. There is at the present time a tendency to divide submarines into two classes, namely, coast defense submarines and sea-going submarines. However, it is obvious that to be of any military value, even in the
of
smaller craft intended for coast defense work,

essential that
it
it is
just as
of a
be able to venture outside the

it is
mouth
protected harbor in stormy weather as

larger sea-going boats, for
it is
for one of the
at such a time that an inlikeh' to

it is
vading
fleet of the
enemy
is
most
make an
attack.
In connection with sea-worthiness

of weather,
just as necessary
that the submarine be absolutely controllable in an}- kind
both when upon the surface and when running

it is
submerged, and
obvious that
stabilit}- is a
necessarv
it
factor in obtaining both of these characteristics, as

also evident that safet}is
is
to a great extent
dependent upon
the presence of
of a
all
these qualities.
As
the tactical \-alue
submarine torpedo boat as an offensive instrument of naval warfare depends entirel\' upon its aliilit\" to go upon long and extended cruises far from an}- friendly base, and
unattenrled,
is
the sujuen-ie importance of these qualities
appareiit.
In spite of
controllability
much
is
that lias been said to the contrar}-,

(|uality
2b
wofully lacking
in
service
CIlAkACTia-tlS'riCS
AM)
kl':(KilKI';,Ml':N'l'S
jy
I'Virwanl iloik of Subniariiu- {',[.

full spc'l'll
Diivini^ inlo a swi'll at
28

time. Under water it has been some extent by a general adaptation of fore
boats, at the present
effected to
and
aft hydroplanes,
which tend within certain Hmits
to
control the boat in a vertical plane on a nearly even keel.
This method
is
margin
is
of safety,
however still accompanied by a very small and is objectionable on the score that it
sluggish in action.
Reliability of engines
and power plant
is
a very impor-
tant and
necessary adjunct to the sea- worthiness, for

fail
should the power plant of a vessel of this character

while at sea, especially in heavy weather,
it
would un-
doubtedly be attended with very disastrous results for
but
little
provision can be
to gain steerage
made for way because of
the spreading of canvas
the lack of the neces-
sary stabiHty in a submarine boat for this manner of propulsion.
The power plant should
therefore be as simple
as
is
possible in construction in order to enable temporary
repairs to be
made
at sea,
when any
difficulty does arise,
with the limited means which

Spares for
all
may
be found on board.
the parts which would be difficult to repair
must be carried in stowage. The installation of the plant must be made with these contingencies in view, and must
be carried out in such a
repairs in
way
as to leave the
machinery
of these
accessible in every part so as to enable the
making
an expeditious manner.
also a requisite of
Speed
is
prime importance, for upon
this characteristic
depends the submarine's ability to make
a successful attack as well as to get safely
away
again.
Although the torpedo has been developed so that now it has an effective range of 10,000 yards at a speed of 27 knots and a maximum speed of 43 knots at a range of 1000 yards, the range from which a submarine attack can be
CHARACTERISTICS AND REOUIRE^FENTS
29
30

certainty of scoring a hit
is
made with any

1
well within
500 yards and probably not more than 800 yards.
Many
submarine experts take the stand that the submarine should be designed essentially as a surface boat, but one
of the
having the abiUty to navigate under water, and, therefore that the matter of submerged speed is of secondary importance.
This assumption
is
far
from the truth and has been
conclusively shown to be so by the results of the German submarine attacks in the present European conflict, for the only successful attacks have been those made upon
ships of slow speed or
eight knots an hour.
when
cruising at
While a submarine
from
this craft, its
from seven to will probably

it
never be able to attain the speed of a destroyer,
should
be able to protect
itself
arch enemy, by
of action
superior maneuvering ability
and quickness
when
submerged.
required speed would therefore be, for

least that of
submerged running, at
surface
the normal cruising
speed of the battleship, say sixteen knots an hour, and for
work a probable speed

it
of
knots an hour to allow

auxiliary
to travel
from eighteen to twenty with the fleet as an
and component part. To submerge quickly, by that I mean to change from the normal surface running condition to the totally submerged condition, is extremely important, not only to get out of sight before being seen by an approaching ship, for should an enemy's ship catch sight of a submarine it would immediately take warning and run away, but to afford
protection to
itself.
It
is
quite probable that a destroyer
normal speed and not smoking heavily will sight a submarine as soon if not before it is itself sighted, on account of the much more elevated station of
cruising along at a
the lookout and consequent increased range of vision.
31
C-i Coming
t;i
the Surface after a
Submerged Run
idHNI
U.
S. S.
T. B.
C-i flaking a Dive
32
great speed the destroyer could cover the intervening
distance in from six to eight minutes or at least could

to make an effective attack by gunupon the submarine with disastrous results to it, unless it had first been able to effect cover under water. The complete change from light to submerged condition should therefore be effected in from two to three minutes.
approach near enough
fire
The
the
effectiveness of a
submarine attack depends for

load and
fire
most part upon
its ability to
it
several tor-
pedoes in quick succession, for

position for firing.
takes considerable
man-
euvering greatly handicapped by lack of speed to get into
This
is
occasioned by the fixed posi-
tion of the torpedo tubes as an integral part of the hull,
and means that the axis of the submarine must be brought Having once attained this posito train upon the target. tion, a target and especially one of high speed will remain
in the
zone of
fire for
only a very short period of time.
submarine must therefore

efficiently
The be equipped with armament
designed and capable of quick operation in
order to take the greatest possible advantage of these few

seconds.
The
real necessity of this
may
be better understood by
working, and
the uninitiated after taking into consideration the great
disadvantages under which the submarine

the really small chance that
successful hit.
is
is
afforded her of
making a
of judging
The
periscope, the eye of the submarine
when under
water, affords a very poor
means
is
the distance or range of the object to be attacked, and
although the eye-piece of the periscope
graduated with
cross-hairs to better enable this calculation to be
made, the
base line for which, these graduations are provided must
remain more or
less
indeterminate and consequently the
CHARACTERISTICS AND REOUIREMEXTS
By Courtesy Lake Torpedo
Boat Co.
Living quarters aboard Lake Submarine "Sig" and class built for Russia. These boats of only about 200 tons displacement aiford much better living accommodations than do anj' of our larger modern boats where e\'ery bit of weight and space available has been given up to increase speed
and radius
of action
34

Next, the speed
the target
resulting calculations not very accurate.

of
must be arrived at and the necessary
observations and calculations
made
to determine this.
With the
hand for performing this feat, the correct solution resolves more upon the experience and good judgment of the observer than upon anything else. Having found the range and the speed of the vessel to be
limited
at
means
attacked,
it is
now
necessary to direct the submarine along
a course which will intersect that of the vessel at the exact

point where she will be at the end of the interval of time
it
will take the torpedo to
make
the run from the position
of the
submarine to
is
this point.
A very slight miscalculaall
tion in either, the distance, the speed, or the direction in
which the ship
traveling will preclude
chances of
making a
hit unless the range is
very short.
certainly of
Habitability in a submarine, while probably not of so

great importance in a coast defense boat,
is
extreme importance in a cruiser type submarine.

it
Upon
depends the ability
of the of
for
any protracted length
submarine to keep to the sea time. A submarine may be
designed with sufficient space for fuel and stores to last

for
many
days, but she can
accommodate only a limited
number
of
men, the physical endurance of
whom
is
the
true gauge for the radius of action of the vessel.
It is
true that in times of great nervous stress, such as in time

of war,
men seem
for almost
to be able to undergo extreme hardships unbeHevable lengths of time, but there is, under
these conditions, the ever present danger of
some weaker
member
crew breaking down and in a moment of abstraction doing something inadvertently to endanger
of the
the ship and

the
all
on board.
men
in time of war,
This great nerve strain upon when they are called upon to
35
36

is
exert an incessant and exacting vigil,

ing,
intensely exhaust-
tion
and unless they can be relieved for periods of relaxaand sound rest, they must soon reach a state of
interesting article has been written
Press,
collapse.
An
by the Associated
and published from an interview obtained with
Lieutenant Hersing who
commanded
the
German U-î
during her long cruise from the North Sea to Constantinople,
a voyage of about 2400 miles.
This article accurately
describes the effect of long cruises
Captain-Lieutenant Hansing in has also described

it
command
upon the personnel. of the U-16

on the nerves."
as "fearfully trying
He
"The atmosphere becomes fearful, an overpowering sleepiness often attacks new men, and one realso says,
quires the utmost will
power
to
remain awake.
first
have
had men who
did not eat for the
three days out,
because they did not want to lose that time from sleep."
Upon some
for the
vessels sleeping quarters
have been provided

use of this space
crew in the superstructure.

is
The
however restricted to times of peace or when in port, for in war time at sea, with a possibility of having to submerge at any instant, it would hardly be The best that has been effected so far for acpracticable. commodations is a number of thin mattresses thrown down on the tank tops in the battery and torpedo compartments upon which the men may snatch what rest they can. The
for the purpose
contractors for submarines are required to furnish berths

or folding cots for the officers
but the limited amount

in
of
and hammocks for the crew, space on board makes it almost
impossible for these to be used, especially
when
cruising
war
is
trim, for then the forward torpedo
which
usually used as the officers'
compartment, quarters, must be kept

clear of all unnecessary paraphernalia to allow
37
is
and quick handhng and loading of the dampness and wet caused by the sweating
steel hull
unhampered the torpedoes. Nor

of the
conducive to a great deal of comfort at the best.
This feature has been overcome to some extent by sheathing the living quarters wherever possible with cork slabs,
but
is still
if
one to cause extreme discomfort and even

it
ill
health
time.
exposed to
for very protracted periods at a
CHAPTER
IV
types of submarines
Submarines and Submersibles
The
nate
broad term submarine
is
used generally to desig-
all vessels
capable of navigating totally submerged.
But
two
strictly
speaking these vessels are considered to be of
distinct types:
submarines proper, and submersibles.
The
early Holland boats
and many
of the
French boats
were of the former type.

in the surface condition
They were
distinctive in that
hull,
they were designed with a spindle shaped
and when
of the hull
had a very small part
emerging above the surface of the water with a consequently small percentage of reserve buoyanc)-, about six
per cent in fact.
The submersible was designed with

of hull,
a ship-shape form
fundamentally to increase the amount of reserve

in the surface condition
bouyancy
of
and
to afford a greater
free-board for the purpose of increasing the sea-worthiness the boat.
The Lake boat with
its
large watertight
superstructure,
and the Itahan Laurenti and the German
Krupp
reserve
types, both of the latter of double hull construction,
and have a buoyancy of from thirty to forty per cent of the total submerged displacement. These distinctions are not now so strongly drawn however, as none of the modern boats are of the strictly sub38
are examples of the submersible type of boat
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
39
40
marine type; both types in fact have been modified
the
submarines by increasing the amount of reserve buoyancy
and by enlarging the superstructures; and the submersby decreasing to some extent the size of the superstructures and the excessive amount of reserve buoyancy, so that now the best practice seems to be to provide a reserve buoyancy of from about twenty to thirty per cent for both types. A great deal of contention has been made by the adheribles
ents to one or the other
'of
these forms as to the inherent

of each, so it
advantages and disadvantages

to discuss
from an impersonal point
of
might be well view the relative
values of each.
The
question of stability seems to be the main point of
contention between the two.
Along
this line it is quite
evident that the ship form of hull of the submersible will have a greater longitudinal stability when on the surface due to its metacentric height, which in this case is similar
to
an ordinary
ship, the center of gravity being

of the relatively
above the
high posi-
center of
buoyancy on account
tion of the centers of gravity of the hull
and the machinery
weights.
The
surface stability then, in this case depend-
ing upon the inertia of the water plane areas and form,
results in a short rolling period.
of the
In the single hull construction of circular cross section submarine proper, it will be immediately seen that
is
the position of the center of gravity of the hull
well below
the axis and the machinery weights can be kept lower.
In
this case the position of the
metacenter coincides with
that of the center of buoyancy, due to the circular form of

cross section,
this relation is
and with the non-watertight superstructure always constant no matter what angle of
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
41
Pltoto-Copyrif^hl, Inlernalioniil
Film Scrvirr
U.S. Submarine G-4, Laurenti Type, Note Large
Deck Surface and Ship-
Shape Form of Hull Construction
42
heel
is

taken.
Then with G.M.
less
than in the ship form
of hull type
but with E.G. which
in the circular hull corre-
sponds to G.M. positive, the rolling period is lengthened and a peculiar steadiness takes place. This is evidenced
when by a
It
in a
heavy sea by an almost
entire lack of rolling
and
peculiar flanking motion which seems to shift the
ship bodily to one side.
would seem then, that although the ship form
of hull
does have a greater metacentric height then upon the sur-
concerned it would be a matter of personal taste whether one preferred the heavy
face, as far as sea-worthiness is
rolling of the
one or the steadiness of the other accomshift.
panied by the peculiar lateral

It
might be of interest here to state that the G class of boats of our Navy, which are of the submersible type, have been known to roll as much as 76 degrees on each beam when in a heavy sea. Nothing like this has ever been experienced in a submarine proper of circular cross section. While the G-1-2, and-j, strictly speaking, have hulls
of circular cross section, the extra large watertight super-
structures with which these boats are fitted give
a
to
marked degree the same

behave practically
in
them to and cause them the same manner as the strictly

characteristics
ship-shaped hull type of boat.

class of boats, however,
lar case cited
In
all
fairness
to
this
it must be stated that the particuabove took place in a very heavy storm.
The
vessel while rolling heavily shipped water in her water-
tight superstructure accidentally,
which occasioned the

In
of
extreme angle she took.
The
stability
submerged
is
quite a different matter.
this condition the position of the center of
buoyancy
the single hull construction
is
raised
and the center
of
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
43
Plloio-Copyright, International Film Service
British
Submarine H-20
Built l5y the Fore River Ship Building Co., and similar to the U.S.
Navy
class.
Note
circular hull
44

emerged volume, and the other by the added weight
taken into the tanks in the lower portion of the
Therefore, E.G. becomes greater and the stability
gravity lowered, one by the increase of displacement due

to the
of ballast
hull.
is
consequently increased.
Now
in the double hull ship
form
of construction, it
is
evident that in trimming, the position of the center of
buoyancy must be
pend upon form
raised
and the center
of gravity lowered,
because the stability of the vessel under water cannot deor inertia, but
must rather depend upon
the principle analogous to that of the suspension of a
weight from a supporting element, therefore C.G. must

pass and take a position below C.B.
The double
hull or
shape cannot be consuf&ciently strong to withstand much pressure, structed so must be filled with water when submerged as is the
its
wide superstructure owing to
open superstructure
of the
submarine.
This fact brings
the C.B. of the submersible back to practically the

position of C.B. in the single hull type,
same
but the position of
C.G.
is
much
higher in the double hull boat owing to the
relatively high position of the center of gravity of its hull
weights due to the large superstructure.
G.B. then, and
consequently the stability,
is less
in this type
when
sub-
merged than
construction.
in the
single hull or
submarine
t}'pe of
has both types of boats, each reduced to the same total displacement submerged for
To
illustrate the foregoing a set of stability curves

i,
been prepared. Figure

fair
for
comparison.
In
summing up
it
may be
is
well to point out here the rela-
tive tactical values effected
by these
rival types.
The
ship form boat
evidently better suited to high
Plate
I.
Chart showing stability curves for Surface and Submerged conditions
To face page 44
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
45
46

much
greater wetted surface in comparison with
surface speeds on account of the high free-board, but owing

to its
the single hull boat
when submerged,,
it
cannot
make
of
as
great speed under water with the
same outlay
power
as this other type because of the greatly increased skin

friction.
With the
single hull boat a
very high surface speed
will
probably be unattainable because of the relatively greater

ratio of displacement
as
on the surface to the available power compared with the double hull construction, and beitself
is
cause of the lack of longitudinal stability of this condition.
The choice of selection then, would resolve much upon a question as to whether one type
as to
not so
of greater
inherent stability than the other, but upon the decision
whether the surface or the submerged speed
is
to
be
considered as of greater tactical value from a military

standpoint.
The Diving Boat
versus
the Submerging Boat

is
A
real
is
further distinction of types which
perhaps more
is signified by what and the submerging t}'pe. These types are interrelated to submarines and submersibles and are the crucial distinctive features of performance between the two. The diving boats were controlled by horizontal rudders at the stern and got under water by incUning the a.xis of
than in the previous classification

as the diving type
known
the boat and diving.
The submerging
boats, often called the
boats, are forced under water bodily
planes situated equally distant fore

of
"even keel" by means of hydroand aft of the center
buoyancy
of the boat.
By
inchning these planes the
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
47
^^
m.
48
thrust of the water exerts an upward or downward pull upon them, according to the direction of the inclination and tends to move the boat bodily up or down with the
axis of the vessel
remaining practically horizontal, or in
other words, to cause a vertical movement.
The "even
aft,
keel" boat
is
also fitted
with the usual diving rudders

for the
but here they are used not

to counteract vessel
purpose of diving but
any tendency
of the planes to
throw the
from an even keel condition.
are
called
For this reason they trimming rudders by the advocates of this
system.
However, with the development of dimensions it was found to be impractical to submerge the vessels of the diving type
by means
of the stern
rudders alone, and these
boats were also fitted with forward diving rudders.

distinction as a real difference of operation then
exists to
The
no longer
any marked degree between the two.
I say real difference of operation
when
to
be more cor-
rect I should say difference of performance, as I
mean
be-
havior of the vessel
itself
while submerging rather than

actual operation
is
mechanical operation.
The
performed
on the one hand by setting the forward diving rudders to a certain inclination and by constant operation of the stern
diving rudders, while on the other hand the "even keel"
boats are
managed by constant operation
of the
hydro-
planes in addition to the stern diving rudders.
The contention between
the advocates of the two types

of
seems to have been upon the subject
which method
of
submerging was the most compatible with safety.
The handhng
to
this
of the early boats of the diving
type seems
have been attended with some fair degree of safety, but was because those boats were small, relatively quick
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
49
5o
of action,

and possessed but very slow speeds. In the it was found
it
longer boats intended for the diving type
that to get these boats under water with even a small per-
centage of reserve buoyancy,

turning
that
necessitated so great a
moment by means
of the stern diving rudders,
when once
the boat was gotten under
way
it
was very
apt to lose control of her and end in disaster. The forward diving rudders were then put into use to meet this contingency and to neutralize the effects of the plunging. The still greater amount of reserve buoyancy which is carried under by the "even keel" boat, it is easily demonstrable, demands the hydroplane method of submergence.
These broad planes, together with the
effect of the trim-
ming rudders
performing
at least.
aft to aid in preserving a horizontal equiHb-
rium, tend to give in some degree a greater safety in

the
operation of
submerging, theoretically
In the diving type then the method of submergence has

finally resolved into
an inclined movement part way between a dive and a vertically oblique movement, and in the "even keel" boat the submergence may be said to be
in
an entirely oblique
direction.
It
is
quite evident thereit
fore, that to
obtain this latter motion
must be
at the
expense of a great amount of power and in a necessarily

sluggish manner, for the vessel
is
being forced in a direction
that projects
its
greatest area to the contrary thrust of
must of necessity detract from the submerged speed. To overcome this in the slightest degree means that the vessel must be inclined by the head one or two degrees, and thereby presenting the broad expanse
the water, which
of the superstructure
deck to aid in acting as a submerging
plane.
The
increased safety factor of this type over the
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
diving type
is
51
real, for it is
therefore
more apparent than
highly probable that with this broad plane presented to

the thrust of the water to aid in overcoming the
upward
moment
of the reserve
buoyancy, and, with the smaller

in the submersible, the hazard
it is
stability lever
arm inherent
is
of loss of control
almost as great as
in the diving
Figure
2.
Diving Boat
boat, unless the submergence of the
"even keel" boat be
kept within certain small limits of inclination and speed.

Neither of these types however, will ever lend themselves
to a greatly increased speed under water over that
now
attained, without the possibility of utter loss of control,
attended with more or
less dire results.
The opposing
sults
factors
and
forces
and the attending
re-
may be more
2 is
clearly understood
2
by
referring to the
diagrams in Figures
In Figure
and
3.
shown diagrammatically the hull of a diving boat in a position to change trim and with the angle of The forces present inclination of six degrees by the head. and at work are: the reserve buoyancy B, acting upwards;
the vertical
moment W,
of the
weight of the vessel acting
52
about the center of buoyancy, tending to right the boat and acting downwards the force T, of the water impinging
;
against the inclined rudders to overbalance the righting
moment
the
W and the upward pull of the reserve buoyancy;

pull of the
downward
bow induced by
the thrust of
the water against the top of the hull forward of a swinging
drawn through the center of buoyancy, tending to upset the boat; and similar forces acting upon the hull
line
aft of the swinging line tending to keep the boat in equilibrium by balancing the forces upon the hull forward of
the swinging line
the remaining force

existing
is
the propelling
force of the vessel acting in the direction of the axis of
the ship but unable to effect that direction.
From
the relation
between
the contending
forces, it is seen that
by
vigilance
and
careful balancing of
to govern
the opposing forces, the
moment T can be made
the trim of the vessel within certain limits, and the result-
ant thrust of the forces acting upon the hull brought to

balance the upward pull of the reserve buoyancy, the
vessel pursuing a course determined
by
the resultant of
all
the forces.
By
observation of the diagram
it
will
be seen that the

point progres-
swinging line cuts the
line of the hull at a
sively aft of the center of
buoyancy
as the angle of inclina-
tion increases, thereby projecting a greater area forward
and a
also
lesser area aft to the thrust of the water,
with a
It
will
constantly
increasing
overbalancing
moment.
be seen that unless kept within very small limits of
inclination this
moment
will
overcome any possible

consequent
right-
ing
moment
is
of
the rudders, with a
loss of
control and subsequent disaster.

It
because of this fact that
it is
found impossible to
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
submerge larger
S3
vessels of this type without the use of

;
forward diving rudders
the increased value of the
upward
necessi-
moment
speed,
of the reserve
buoyancy
to be
overcome
tated a greater angle of inclination accompanied
by greater
and the
larger surface of the hulls
when presented
Figure
3.
"Even Keel" Boat
at this angle
and speed brought about such materially

thrusts that,
increased
downward
by
when once
started on
her plunge, there was small chance of being able to catch

the vessel again
the diving rudders aft.
still
speeds the thrusts would be

inclination
greater
With increased and the angle of

less,
must be made proportionately
therefore
affecting the tactical value of the boat.
cally the
In the "even keel" boat the forces at work are practisame as shown by Figure 3. The better control
is
in this type
brought about by being able to submerge

the
by adjusting
hydroplanes.
Theoretically,
as
the
planes are of the same area and symmetrically disposed
buoyancy, the moments of the planes being therefore equal, the "even keel" boat should be able to submerge with the axis of the boat parallel with the
around the center
of
54

Practically, however, that portion
of
surface of the water.

of the vessel
above the center
buoyancy
offers
a consid-
erably greater projected area to the thrust of the water
than that portion of the huU below, and results in an unbalanced moment which must be overcome by the trimming rudders aft, and the boat must be trimmed to a This type then, because slight inclination by the head.
of the broader
and better
resisting
form of plane afforded

as far as the factor of
by the
is
big flat superstructure deck, unless proper vigilance
exercised, is very httle

is
removed
safety
concerned from the so-called diving type.
effects of this
broad
flat
superstructure are even
The more
accentuated by an increase of speed. To overcome these inherent tendencies to lose control

at a critical speed, a
method was devised and
tried out
on
a small submarine on the Pacific Coast a few years ago.
This method
is
illustrated
of control
The system
by Figure 4. was essentially that
of a diving
boat, but involves a radical departure from the present

practice in that
of the. boat,
it
placed the propellers at or near the
bow
and the diving rudders at or near the stern, both being equally distant from the center of buoyancy. The claim for this system was that the boat is positively controlled at all times, either when on the surface or when running submerged, and in both a horizontal and a vertical When in motion the action of the vessel is indeplane. pendent of the metacentric height, and is submerged by inclining the diving rudders and plunging. The vessel may be plunged with a large percentage of reverse buoyancy which in this type tends to add to the controllability and not to detract from it as in the others. It was believed
that the concurrent celerity of action with absolute free-
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
55
S6

the consequent loss of
dom from danger by "rooting" and

control
would be found
to be of great military advantage.
The theory of contending forces was reasoned as follows: The forward position of the propellers being the center
of the applied force causes the direction of the force or the
movement
of the vessel to
be always along the
line of its
Figure
4.
Forward Propulsion
axis,
and
is
the
all
common
pivotal point about which the
moments for arm between
the forces are at work.
The long
and the
turning
lever
posi-
this position of the propellers
tion of the rudders affords the
maximum
moment
all
which can be obtained and insures positive control at

times.
This
is
evidenced by the fact that the thrust of

of the hull,
the water
at
upon the upper portion

of inclination,
no matter
of
what angle
always acts when diving to
depress the stern, in opposition to the

the rudders, and
is
upward thrust
never threatening to upset the whole

it
balance, but on the contrary

therefore
tends to right the boat and
make
for increased controllability.

it will
By
referring to Figure 4
be seen that the upward

is
force of the reserve
buoyancy
in this case a
upward about P; the thrust 5
is
moment moment downward
TYPES OF SUBMARINES
about P; and the thrust
the rudders
is
57
of the
impinging water against
a controllable upward force balancing the
moment
hull.
of the thrust of the
water against the top of the
The
force
tends to pull the vessel always along
and the righting moment becomes an important safety factor because it acts as do all the forces about the point P. Higher speeds were believed to be possible in all conditions because there could be no loss of control due to increased speed, wave formation, or any tendency of the water to pile up on the bow, for any increased resistance due to greater speed must always tend to straighten the vessel out on her course instead of causing her to "root."
the line of
its axis,
in this case
This
is
because the thrusts acting in opposite direction to
the propelling force, act always behind and
away from
applied.
the
point at which the force producing motion
is
what material effect this position of the propellers might have upon their efficiency. Placed in this position the wheels would be working upon a solid column of water undisturbed by the passage of the vessel, and must therefore unquestionably exert a stronger pull
There
is
a question
or propulsive force.
However, the
efficiency gained in this
manner
is
over-
come
to a greater or lesser degree
by the
force of the
column
and impinging against the hull. This result it is thought would not be as detrimental as would at first appear, however, on account of the manner ^wide apart and tending in which the propellers are placed to deliver the greater part of these water columns away from the hull. In any event whatever loss in efficiency which might occur should be more than compensated for by the gain in safety and tactical value.
of water leaving the wheels
CHAPTER V
design of the submarine torpedo boat
General Factors
In laying down the design for a new submarine boat, considering the term in its broadest aspect as covering
all vessels
capable of navigation
when completely
sub-
merged, the constructor must consider the problem as a vessel of a certain displacement, and impose upon himself
certain arbitrary conditions to be
met which may be more

which case a solution
in
or less conflicting in character, in
must be reached by compromise, keeping

relative values in order to attain
efficient craft as
mind
certain
an
all
around
tactically,
compared
to
some recognized standard by a
of ideals.
The
the
selection of type then, should be governed
careful weighing of its inherent characteristics as effecting
main objective
of the desired results to
be attained.
a relatively
The submersible
to
lends
itself essentially to
great surface stability, high surface speeds, and possibly
an extended cruising radius and comfort

it
of the
crew
while at sea; while on the other hand
has less stability
when submerged and

tion
offers greater resistance in this condi-
due to
its
increased wetted surface and form of super-
The submarine form cannot adapt itself to high surface speeds on account of the danger of "rooting" but
structure than does the submarine proper.
proper by reason of
its
S8
DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT
59
Photo-Copyriihl lutcntatioiHjl Film Service

:
Submarines K-S and K-6 Trimmed Light and Showing Clearly the Lines Forward Di\-ing Rudders Shown Folded Back Against the of the Hull.
Superstructure
6o
is

essentially the
form
for
under-water navigation, having
greater stability in that condition
and
offering less resist-
ance to propulsion than the submersible.
Summing
up, the question of type then resolves
itself
into the question of whether a
maximum
to
surface or sub-
merged speed is sought. At present it has become the tendency

of the
adopt the
lines
torpedo boat to
make
for less surface resistance
and
increased speed.
This has necessitated a double hull
construction, the outer hull having the torpedo boat lines
and the inner

struction has
hull being of circular cross section to resist
the pressure of submersion.
The speed gained
in this conto be very

it justifies
however been shown in practice inconsiderable and it is questionable whether

the necessary extra expense of construction.
As submabe gained
This
rines can never attain the speed of which a torpedo boat

is
capable
is it
probable that better results

of the single hull
may
by a compromise
would the same time
struction.
form by
effecting a de-
sign having a full entrance
and a long
fine
run.
afford the least possible resistance

all
and
retain at
the advantages of the single hull con-
As
the displacement calculations are similar to those of

all
ordinary ships and are familiar to

tice of
engaged
in the prac-
naval architecture or marine engineering they will
not be gone into here.
Stability
It
is
important with respect to the stabihty of the vessel
that the center of gravity of the hull weights be kept as
low as possible.
it is
The
significance of this
is
may be seen when
considered that this factor
about thirty-five per cent

of the total
6i
weight of the ship.
To
attain this object the

will
superstructure
must be
as hght as
good practice
permit
and
all
weights above deck must be kept as small as pos-
sible.
The
shell plating
should be
made
heavier at the
keel to give stiffness against "hogging"
and be tapered
down
to the required thickness at the top of the hull for
resistance against the pressure of submersion.
Great care should be exercised in the distribution of

weights, for, unlike a surface vessel, with a comparatively
small reserve buoyancy present and especially in a submerged condition when the buoyancy is practically destroyed, the submarine
is
suspended
like a
balance scale
and must be
balancing
as
in equilibrium in a horizontal position. The moments about this point must be gained as far possible by the distribution of all machinery, equipment
and
fixed articles, because the displacement hmitations
allow only a relatively small
amount
in weight of
of
permalittle
nent ballast to be
All machinery
as
utilized,
which can be
but
assistance in effecting the trim.
and battery weights must be kept as low possible and as is consistent with good practice and
completed
accessibility, for the center of gravity of the
by their positions, and the laws of submarine navigation demand that the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy be kept as far apart as possible.
ship can be
affected
much
Ballast System
general principle applicable to
all
submarines
is
the
destruction of reserve buoyancy to submerge,
on additional weight in the form of ballast system, whether in one tank centrally located or comprised of fore and aft tanks, is designed to nearly
by taking water ballast. The
main
62

the reserve buoyancy, usually
neutralize the effect of
about from twenty to thirty per cent of the total displacement. This main ballast system is designed to be kept
completely
filled
when submerged
in order that the con-
tained large bodies of water

aft
may
not surge forward and
and
is
so destroy the trim of the vessel.
The main ballast
tank
supplemented by
fore and aft trim tanks and an
and compensating tank. The forward and aft trim tanks must have sufficient capacity to overcome any change in moments due to a disarrangement or movement of the weights on board, and to bring the vessel back to an even keel by the transfer of water from one tank to the other. The auxiliary ballast tank must be large enough to completely overcome the reserve buoyancy and to compensate for the variations of consumable stores and weights on board, and in addition to
auxiliary adjusting
compensate
flotation.
for the difference in density of the
water of
small adjusting tank
is
sometimes provided
bouyancy of the vessel by taking in or blowing out a few pounds of water. To maintain trim when submerged it is essential that
for the purpose of delicately adjusting the
the center of gravity of the auxiliary ballast tanks should

coincide longitudinally with the center of gravity of the
emerged volume of the vessel and this coincidence must remain throughout the process of submergence. Otherwise serious alterations of trim in a fore and aft direction will take place with probably disastrous results.
Apportionment or Weights
No
hard and fast rule can be laid down for guidance in This of course
first place,
the matter of apportionment of weights.
depends, in the
upon what
particular tactical
63
e
X:
64
feature
is

most sought, and
is
a matter of judgment and

If a
experience of the constructor.
high surface speed
is
sought this
may
be gained at a
sacrifice of
submerged
speed or reserve buoyancy, or perhaps by a reduction in
weight of fuel storage and consequent reduction in radius

of action.
The weight
of the hull is practically
constant
with the displacement, and the apportionment of the other

weights
may
constructor.
be varied to meet the ends and fancies of the However, a correct balance of surface to
submerged speed and attendant radii of action, and at the same time have either efhcient, can only be attained by doing away with the dual power system. This may be more strongly pointed out by considering for the moment the present tendency to materially increase the size of submarines, having in view the desire to increase the speed and the radius of action for surface
The increase in displacement of course at once demands proportionately increased engine power. The power necessary to gain a comparative speed may be arrived at by using Froude's law of comparison; for instance, taking a vessel of a displacement of 400 tons and engine power of 600 B.H.P. which drives her at a 14 knot speed at full power. To find the power necessary to drive a ship of 800 tons having otherwise the same characteristics of contour, appendages, et cetera, the ratio of power would
work.
be,
P=
'
^=
1340
This does not mean that the two ships would have the
same speed, but that
their speeds
would be corresponding

speeds.
65
The corresponding speed

ratio,
of the
new
ship would
be in the
F=
/4ooy
VSoo/
^\ =
1
iS-7 knots
The percentage
which
it
of the total
weight of the submarine

is
may
be allotted to the power plant

is
constant with
the displacement and
may
usually about 33 per cent. Now be seen that to gain this greater speed we have
doubled the displacement and consequently the weight
power plant, but the horse power is more than doubled, therefore requiring a greater proportion of
available for the
this available
weight for
oil
engines than
is
given in the
less
smaller boat.
This of course leaves a correspondingly
proportion of the total available weight for electrical equip-
ment, and consequently a reduction of speed and cruising

radius
when
in a
submerged condition.
Effect of Form upon Resistance
by by the ratio of length to the diameter. In 1906 Mr. Mason S. Chace conducted a series of experiments in the model basin at Washington, D. C, with a number of models built on a scale of i inch to i foot, some of them 12 feet long. The result of these experiments
is
The
resistance of the ship
greatly affected both
the form of hull and
showed that
for the speed length ratio of
1^ =
.8
the re-
sistance curves are fair, but at a speed of
-j= =
the curve
shows a marked
hump followed by a hollow, and at a speed
66

~/= =
of
1-25 the resistance runs

of the question.
up
so rapidly as to
put
Submerged, the resistance curves are free of humps, but are much higher than those for the floating condition all the way up to a speed of
such speeds out
7= =
1.3
when they are nearly coincident. The resistance

for a speed length ratio of
...
yj =
submerged
i. is
approxi-
mately 1. 1 5 times the resistance of the surface condition. In the past it has been common practice to limit the beam length ratio to about one to ten, but the results of these
experiments show conclusively that to attain the higher
speeds for which
we
are at present striving, with an ecoit will
nomical outlay of power,

this ratio to
be necessary to increase
one to twelve, or even greater.
This depar-
ture
would
also tend to give greater steadiness in a sea
way.
Constructively this greater
beam
length ratio need
not cause any worriment. It will be found a very simple matter to add the necessary longitudinal stiffness by strengthening the keel and longitudinals, and it is probable that quite a saving in the hull weights may be made, due to the decrease in diameter. The metracentric height and stabihty could also be increased by a better distribution of
weights.
still
further increase in stability
in resistance can be effected
and some decrease by carrying the fullest part

is,
of the ship well forward of the midship section, that
in
other words, giving
it
a heavy fore-body with a full en-
trance and a long fine run.
This design would of course
carry forward the center of buoyancy.

of this
The advantage
upon the
controllability
when submerged and under
67
way may be realized by considering the greater rudder moment gained and a correspondingly less upsetting moment caused by the
to
force of the water impinging against

It will obviously then help
the top of the hull forward.
its
overcome the inherent tendency of the boat to dive at critical speed. The flow of water to the propellers would also be much more free and the influence of the wake
be sensibly decreased.
Speed and Power Estimation

In estimating the speed and power required for the propulsion of a proposed design the three factors entering into the propulsive efiEiciency are:
propeller efficiency,
sive efficiency
is
the engine efficiency, the
and the
hull efficiency.
The propulor
the ratio between the E.H.P.

all
tow
rope horse power, including the resistance due to

dages,
appen-
and the I.H.P. taken at the cylinders of the engine, and generally averages about 50 per cent of the I.H.P. In actual practice however this value ranges from 42 per cent to 62 per cent, and it becomes necessary to fix this coefficient with some degree of precision in order to obtain any very accurate results. This may be done by assigning to each factor which enters into the composition of the propulsive efficiency a value which experience or experiment has shown to be what might be expected in a new problem. The engine efficiency may vary from 75 to 90 per cent according to the type and characteristics of the engine selected and the efficiency may be assumed for the
calculations according to past experience with a similar
type of engine, or the guaranteed efficiency of the engine

builders
may
be taken.
to drive the bare hull through
The E.H.P. necessary
68

is
by the aid of an experimental model in a towing basin. The method of reasoning and the determination of resistances by this means is carried out in the following manner. Suppose we have a paraffin model 12 feet long constructed on a scale of I inch to i foot and it is desired to find the E.H.P. for the full sized vessel at a speed of 16 knots. We must first find the corresponding speed at which the model must be pulled to give the corresponding tow rope resistance. The corresponding speed of the model is found by the ratio,
the water at a certain speed
best obtained
Vm=
144
=1-333 knots.
is
When towed
found
to
at this speed the resistance
measured and
feet,
be 4.9435 pounds.
surface of the vessel
is
The wetted
3700 square
is
^
therefore the wetted surface of the model
3700 X Sm =
144'
12^
=25.7 square
J.
leet.
The
friction factor
i)
and the exponent given

are
in Froude's
Tables (see Table
/=. 00908
and
n = 1.94
Therefore the frictional resistance
.00908
25.7
is
.333^-^-^
= .4075
lbs.
The
friction factor
and exponent
for the full sized vessel
taken from Table
2 is
/=.oc9io
and
11
1.825

Therefore the total frictional resistance equals
69
.0091X3700X16^-^^^ = 82960
lbs.
and the
frictional
E.H.P. equals
.00307X82960 = 255 E.H.P./
By
subtracting the frictional resistance of the model

resistance,
from the tow rope

ance equal
we have
lbs.
the residual resist-
4.9435 -.4075 =4.536
The corresponding
i2^=
residual resistance of the ship equals
536X244!
^^838
lbs.
and at 16 knots the E.H.P. required

residual resistance equals
to
overcome the
.00307X16X7838 = 385 E.H.P.
The
total
E.H.P.
will
then be
255+385=640
for the bare hull alone.
The
resistance due to the appen-
dages must be added to this to
make up
the total E.H.P.
The
hull
appendage resistance
may
be roughly taken to
be about 10 per cent of the hull resistance and
may
be
assumed
this is
to
vary directly as the ratio

strictly correct
B
ttttj
and while
probably not
any
error
which might
occur will be on the right side and will result in a slightly

higher estimation of the resistance than actually exists.
The range
experiments
of
is
this
value as determined by numerous

to
found
be from
5 to
20 per cent.
Should
the model be towed with any of the appendages the per-
centage resistance due to these appendages should be

subtracted from the total appendage resistance and the
70

test.
remainder added to the E.H.P. given by the model
Assuming
.84,
for the
proposed design a beam-length ratio of
take 8.5 per cent as the appendage resistance and the
total
E.H.P. becomes
640 X. 085 +640 = 695 E.H.P.
The
hull efiSciency or the thrust deduction factor as it
is called, is the
next factor to be considered in computing This factor
is evidenced by shown when towing a model with no propellors behind and when towing the same model at the same speed with propellors of the same proportion to the ship's screw as the model is to the ship working
the propulsive efficiency.
the difference in resistance
behind at a rotary speed such as to give a thrust equal to

the resistance of the model.
behind the resistance
is
With the propellers working found to be increased a definite

is
amount, termed thrust deducton, and

suction influence of the propellers the
ship.
caused by the
after part of
far
upon the
extends
This
suction
influence
enough
forward of the screws to cause a marked diminution of the

pressure against the after part of the ship thereby causing
a virtual increase in resistance.
The
propellers
must
therefore exert a thrust equal to this resistance.
*This thrust deduction factor has been determined by numerous experiments and is found to vary directly with the value of the block coefficient of a model having a standard set of lines, and varies from i with a block coefficient of .5, to 1.6 with B.C. = .9. The curve from 1 1 7 the value
.
of the thrust deduction factor corresponding to a block coefficient of .69,

*
is
found to be
flat all
the
way up
to 1.6
The Dyson Method.

U.
S.
See "Design of Screw Propellers"
by Capt.
C.
W. Dyson,
N.

the
71
thrust deduction factor

.9.
corresponding to a block
coefficient of
To
find the thrust deduction for a pro-
posed design which departs in form from the standard set of Hnes it is necessary to find the slip block coefficient
corresponding to the block coefficient of the standard
form.
The
slip
block coefficient of the
new
design
may be
assumed to equal the standard block
coefficient times the
standard midship section coefficient divided by the actual M.S. coefficient and is the B.C. to be used in determining
the thrust deduction and the propeller calculations.
The
total
E.H.P. then becomes E.H.P.XC, and the

E.H.P.
I.H.P.
X C.
is
P.C.
P.C., the propulsive coefficient,
propeller computation.
tions it
is
determined by the
necessary to
To make the propeller computaknow the allowable tip speed and

T.S.
this is calculated
by the formula,
= TrD.R.
minute and the diameter
the
number
first
of revolutions per
having
tations for the proposed design.
been selected and being within the proper limiIt has been found by ex-
periment upon various model screws that the P.A. -hD.A.

ratio, to
obtain the best performance, varies accordingly

is
with the T.S., and the P.C.

to a great extent
also
found
to
be dependent
upon
this ratio. of the propellers

is
In making the selection
we
are con-
fronted with a problem of which there
no exact solution. It must be borne in mind that we have two distinct conditions under which to operate, namely, when on the surface and when submerged. The resistance submerged is greatly
increased over that for the surface condition because of
72
the increased volume of displacement and wetted surface.
This means that the indicated thrust per square inch of

disc area
is
increased and consequently the slip
is
made
to
much
greater.
To overcome
this it
would be necessary
increase the area of the blade in order to obtain a greater
projected area otherwise a greater projected area must be
obtained by altering the pitch and turning the screw up

to a greater
number
of revolutions to get the speed.
Changeable pitch propellers of the size used on submarines have never been found to give satisfaction and in fact are usually less efficient in both conditions than a single fixed propeller would be. We are forced then to
decide which condition, whether the surface or submerged,
we wish
to favor.
The
fit
best
method
is
to select a
com-
promise propeller to
conditions.
as nearly as possible
the two
may be done by designing separately a propeller meet each condition and then effecting a compromise between them by taking an intermediate pitch for the final propeller. It will always be found to be good policy to allow an excess of area to favor the deficient side. The
This
to
final
adjustment of the blades should not be made until
after a
number
of trials.
A further
consideration to be taken in designing the pro-
pellers, is the
wide difference in the speed-power curves of
the internal combustion engines, the motors and the characteristic
E.H.P. curve for various speeds.

is
The R.P.M.
power curve of the reciprocating engine
high in point of
power at low speeds and is very nearly a straight line, while the E.H.P. curve is low in point of power at low speeds and comparatively higher at high speeds than the engine. The corresponding speed-load curve of the motors must
73
be nigher in point of revolutions than the engines in order

to n\ake
up
for the loss of the increased slip

is
submerged.
The
reciprocating engine
is
generating more power at low

is
speeds than
absorbed by the propellers; this
due to
to
the translation of straight line motion into rotary motion.
Therefore
it
would seem that the best practice would be
design the motor with correspondingly lower speeds for
equal power than the engine in the range below half load
and with higher speeds than the engine

half load.
in the range
above
On Chart
II are
shown
typical speed-power curves for
internal combustion engines,
motors and E.H.P.

computations are
The
existing relations are tlearly defined.
The formulae
Speed in
Pitch
to be used in the
feet per min.
SX
101.33
revolutions
PX R =
5X
1
101.3^
S = Speed
in knots per hour.
C=
thrust deduction factor for standard B.C. cor-
responding to design.
P.C.i= propulsive
to P.A.-^
coefficient
standard corresponding
D.A.
Estimated I.E. P. for speed 5 = I.E. P.
= C -^-p^
'
'-
E.H.P.
^ Diameter of propeller = \/ -^ ^ ^ V P.XR.X I.T.i

'-
P.C.
actual propulsive coefficient =
P-C.i
^^^-
P.
T.S. XD.X I.T.i
916.7x0
I.T.i= indicated thrust per square inch of disc area.
74
TYPIC/IL
SPEED
FOK SUBM^K/flE Of 3^0T0NS.
/l/iD
POWER
CU/?V5
SCALE
Of'
Sf>EEDS /M KNOTS
Plate II. Speed
and Power Curves
75
SMceT*z
76

R. = revolutions =
T.S.
f;
, = pitch
.
^ r =
.
P.XR.XTD.
TjT-^
of propellers
P.T.p
propulsive thrust per square inch of projected

area corresponding to
P.A.^ D.A.
for
E.T.p=
effective
thrust for standard B.C.
P. A.
D.A.
Apparent
Pitch
I.T.i
slip
= /
s.
= "fr^
P.T.p
p
P
=
101.335. XE.T.p XttD.
y^ ^ pj,^
=
/.r.
indicated thrust per square inch of disc area
- X
4
I.T.p
Z>.2
144
indicated thrust per square inch of projected area
_ ~
LI\
P.A.
^
xZ).2
P.T.p= I.T.pX P.C.i
I.T.=
total indicated thrust

I. H. P.- (Est)
on one screw equals
X P-XR.
thrust
33000
^
P.C.i
P.T.= propulsive
S.T.
, ,
= I.T.X
speed thrust = ^
I.H.P. ^rx:
33000
S.X
101.33
P.C.i
/.
E.T.=
LJ\ ^
S.T.
effective thrust
= S.T.X
E.T.
S.
X
P.
101.33
^ PJ^ ^ IT. X P.C, =

S.T.
R.
X P.d
J.

r i.i
rr
.^
77
UAper square inch disc area
I-H-P-
132000 X j^
E.T.p effective thrust in pounds per square inch on projected area

'
E.H.P.
0.
^y
101.33
X 33000 a m X F.A.
^y
r>
^^
in.
The reader is here referred to the work of Captain C. W. Dyson, U.S.N, entitled, Screw Propellers and Estimation of Power for Propulsion of Ships, which is a complete and comprehensive treatise upon the estimation of power and
the design of screw propellors.
of computing the power for propulsion by Froude's Laws of Comparison. This method offers a very simple and expedient way of solving the probleni
Another method
is
when
the actual performances of a geometrically similar
vessel are
known.
The
I.
rules governing this
method
of
computation are:
Corresponding Speeds
5 5i=
:
VI VZ^= S=
:
Si\
Displacements
D:Di
78
5.

Variations of Power with Speed
P:Pi=S^:
This
Si'
may
be assumed to be correct for occasions where

is
the difference of speed
small but at very high speeds the
exponent
6.
may
go as high as 4 or greater.
Variation of Power with Displacement for small
changes in draught
P Pi= D" Di
: :
for large ships of
moderate speeds,
and,
P Pi= D' Di
:
for ships of high speed.
method of computing the resistance when no is at hand is called the independent method. By this method the total resistance is divided into two parts, the surface or frictional resistance, and the residual or wave making resistance. The formula for the calculation of the frictional resistthird
other data
ance
is
Rf= f.S.V in which V is the speed in knots, 5 is the wetted surface in
square
feet,
/ and n are the quantities deduced from Froude's experiments and found in any standard work, Table 2. The wave making resistance is found by the formula
J^w =
Y
where
D
V L
is is is
displacement in tons,
the speed in knots per hour,
the length in feet on the L.W.L. a value ranging from .35 for fine ships; .40 for
6 is

moderately
fine, .45 for ships
.5
79
broad in proportion
to length
but with
fine lines,
for freighters.
Table
Stirface-Friction Constants for Paraffin
Models in Fresh Water
Exponent
Length
Ft.
n=
1.94
8o

E.H.P.= 0.00307
/.5.D.''+'
b.DiV^\
The wetted
surface
S= CVD. X
L. where
equals surface excluding rudder, bossings, etc. equals displacement.

equals length immersed.
D
L C
equals constant given in Table 3 corresponding to
the ratio of
beam
draught ^ as given by Taylor.

:
"p
Table
III
Constants for Wetted Surface
Given by Taylor
B-H

It
is
8i
evident that the
first
to be attained in the propulsive
and most essential condition system is absolute relia-
Courtesy Lake Torpedo Boat Co.
Cross-section through engines
bility.
consequences.
design of
breakdown at sea may signify very disastrous Each and every factor entering into the the machinery must be subordinated to this one.
82

Having firmly established the importance
of reHability,
the next factors in importance are accessibility and simplicity of construction.
For
if all
parts of the mechanisms
are open
and easy
to get at for proper inspection
there will be less danger of a

critical
breakdown at sea
itself
and care at some
time.
Simplicity will lend
to facility of of repairs
inspection as well as to expedite the
making
when
a breakdown or a mishap does occur.

is
In the
in-
terest of simplicity it
the author's belief that large
reversible engines of the Diesel type should be abandoned.
By
doing this a great deal of complicated mechanism and
a number of valves will be done

certainly possible to design
away with and much

It
of
is
the undesiderata of this type of engine eliminated.
and construct a
suitable revers-
ing clutch that will have greater assurity of action and less
danger of failure than has the reversing gear of the Diesel

engine.
will
more complete discussion
of
these matters
be taken up in another chapter.
Habitability
At
dog's
cal
its best,
life.
service
on a submarine at sea
is
almost a
It has
endurance of
been pointed out before that the physithe crew is one of the chief factors limit-
ing the radius of action of a vessel, therefore every possible
means should be introduced to add to their comfort and contentment. The quarters must necessarily remain cramped in space, but suitable berthing accommodations may be had for the full complement as well as dry lockers for storing their clothing and personal belongings. Wide superstructure decks, in order that the members of the crew may stretch their legs in fair weather and get a breath of
fresh air will also
do
much
to extend a feeling of well being.
8,3
4*-
C'
:5
tij
1-
'-^
.5
ii
a^
84

living quarters
must be sheathed in cork or other dampness and moisture, and adequate means provided for properly heating and drying the interior. Unless this is accomplished the effect on the personnel living for days in cramped wet quarters and a
insulation against
The
soggy atmosphere, even
if
this
were
all,
may
be imagined.
The question of heating is vividly apparent to anyone who has made a winter cruise at sea on a vessel not supplied with heat. plied with heat at
Many
all.
of the earlier
boats were not sup-
have been provided to some extent, but these have been found to
late electric heaters
Of
consume such
late boats
large quantities of electrical energy
from
is being abandoned. In the steam heaters and coils are being installed. When the combustion engines are running it is quite possible to use the jacket water or heat from the exhaust
the batteries that their use
gas to perform this object.
Properly prepared and well cooked food

essential factor for the comfort
is
another very
of the crew.
and health
In the early boats the only food afforded the crew was cold
and canned food and
coffee
heated over an
oil
stove.
In
the latest boats, however, an electric stove has been pro-
vided with four or five heating plates, an oven and a coffee

urn.
fireless
cooker and a hot water reservoir are also
box is provided large enough to carry several days' supply of fresh meats and perishables, and
added and an
ice
especially built lockers
are installed for keeping other
foods in dry condition.
When
the
members
of the crew
know
that they can turn in after a disagreeable watch,
secure hot well cooked food and a dry comfortable place to

sleep, the general feeling of
contentment
of all
is
bound
to
be
much
better.
In fact the absolute efficiency of the
DESIGN OF THK SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT
85
86

is
personnel and therefore the boat,
at once raised.
for the
The
more comforts that can be provided
men
the longer
they will be able to undergo the remaining hardships.
Radius of Action
The proper balance of all stores and supplies must be determined upon when designing a vessel for a certain desired radius of action. The lack of this care or thought
in
making up the design
is
evident in nearly every one of
our submarines
now
in commission.
Some
of the boats
have a maximum fuel tank capacity for a cruise of 4,500 miles and not enough lubricating oil to last 1,000 miles. In others a fresh water supply for only two or three days could be carried. Thus is seen the importance of properly
balancing each item.
Storage for provisions should be
to last one
made
to carry
enough
and one-half times the

be found imprac-
maximum
tical to
cruising radius.
On
boats of the larger type,

it will
intended for making long cruises,
carry a sufficient fresh water supply, so a small
distilling
apparatus
will
have to be
for
installed.
The
required radius of action of the boat will of course
depend upon the purpose

large cruiser type
it
which she
is
intended.
In a
this
should be at least thirty days and per-
haps more, because the purpose of that type for

foreign coast, which for us in every case
country would be to make an offensive attack upon a

distance
away from any base
of
must be a long supplies. The seagoing
submarine must be capable

miles to
of traveling 1,500 to 2,000
make an
attack,
and
of remaining for a time in
foreign waters without having to
depend upon the aid
of
a tender or other vessel and,
if
necessary, to return
home
from
without
aid.
She
will of course replenish her stores
DESIGN OF TFE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT
87
88

if in their company and opportunity must not be necessary to put another vessel the trouble and disadvantage of refilling tanks, etc.,
a tender or cruiser
affords,
but
it
to
when the moment is not strictly opportune. The radius of action submerged should be
In
this respect it is
sufficient to
enable a successful under-water attack and a safe retreat.
my
to
belief that to
cover a distance of
is
thirty or thirty-five miles in
two hours
of a greater mili-
tary advantage than

hours.
be able to cover fifty miles in seven
Air storage capacity should be supplied to enable enough

air to be carried to supply the crew for seventytwo hours with fresh air for breathing purposes when the vessel is at rest under water.
compressed
Navigation
The problem
in recent years
of navigation has
been greatly simplified
by
the advent of the gyroscopic compass.
Before this valuable addition to the equipment of a submarine, navigation was more or
less
a combination of dead
reckoning and luck, by reason of the fact that the ordinary
magnetic compass could not be

whatever.
The
hull being of
any extent magnetic material and there

relied
upon
to
always being present large
electrical currents, fluctuating
and under various conditions, brought about variations and deviations of the magnetic needle which one would not realize until he has experienced them personally. The character of these deviations made it impossible to compensate and correct for with any degree of accuracy. Attempts were made to overcome these difficulties by mounting the compass in a composition helmet outside the hull, and fitting with a reflector to cast the image down

fieîicoê
89
BIT'O^M fV^M. SVtMtf*
fiOLeiNS Bf/ifoe
Midship Section, Electric Boat Co. Type
go
in the

liull
in order
that the
helmsman might read

eompass card was
it.
Some
of the periseopes
were
fitted
with small eompasses

re-
at the lop so tliat the
image
of the
tleeted to the lower half of the e}'epiece of the instrument,
these were however too small
;ind sluggish to
be relied
Cour/csy Ekxlrk Boat Co.
Steering Station in Central Control

fan and ducts
Compartment. Shows ventilating and N'ahe manifolds
upon.
All this has been

it
done away with now, and with

is
the gyroscopic comj)ass

fraction of a degree.
possible to set a course to a
Surface navigation has been

vifling a large bridge rigged
made much
easier
h\ pro-
on the top of the conning

small low jilatform
tower and
It
is
fitted
with suitable co\er and weather cloths.

llie
a great imj)r()\'emenl o\-er

fitted, barelv'
formerly
affording
out of reach of a washing sea and
practicall}'
no [iroteclion
from
the
weather.
91
y
u
2
cq
92

are only portable affairs however
They
This
and must be
built
so as to be quickly stowed
is
when
getting ready to submerge.
accomplished in some cases by hinging
down and
by
storing
fastening to the conning tower fair-water, and
the stanchions and rails in recesses provided in the fair-
water for
late.
this purpose.
The conning tower
too has been greatly improved of
From
a mere protrusion outside of the hull large
enough for a man to squeeze into it has been increased to a good sized chamber fitted with a steering station and all interior communications and signals.
Steering stations are provided in the central control
compartment within the

tower.
hull, in the
conning tower, and
connections for a portable one on top of the conning
In addition to the gyroscope master compass,
standard repeating compasses are fitted to each steer-
The steering gear should comprise both power and hand gear, and should be designed so that when worked by power the hand gear will always be in
ing
station.
operation and ready for instant use.
Mechanical rudposi-
der indicators should also be fitted at each station so

that the
helmsman may
stress
see at
any instant the exact
tion of the rudder.
Too much
formance
to attack
cannot be laid upon the tactical per-
of the vessel, for
upon
this feature will
depend
greatly the effectiveness of the ship to get into a position
and even more so will it depend upon this quality safety from attack by a destroyer. Hampered by the lack of speed it must be able to out-maneuver any adversary, and in case of an attacking destroyer be able to play tag well enough to enable the submarine to launch
for its
own
a torpedo at her.
The
tactical
diameter should not exceed

four lengths of the boat.
93
This
is
a quahty wofuUy lack-
ing in submarines at the present time.
The only method

this
of accomplishing this has
been by
placing the propellers at the forward end of the boat.
By
means
it
has been found possible to turn the boat
about in
possible
less
than three lengths.
Submerged
it is
the only
way
of steering the vessel in a horizontal plane
without broaching or performing the evolutions of a

spiral.
Under water navigation

are
is
carried
on by the aid
of the
gyroscopic compass and the periscopes.
now always
required in order that
Two periscopes there may be two
lookouts
lookout in the conning tower.

at
of
when submerged and when running awash a third The advantage of this is once apparent. The eyepieces or image reflecting ends
both periscopes are within the hull in the central operat-
ing compartment.
injurious
They must be
are produced
so installed that
no
full
vibrations
when
traveling
speed submerged.
as to be
Formerly they were constructed so
tion of
drawn down into the hull for a considerable portheir length when submerged but this was of no
their
advantage for
to remain
purpose
is
to allow the hull of the boat
submerged as deep as possible while the object glass of the periscope is above the surface the method has now been abandoned. The first periscope about which there is anything known was invented in France in 1854 by Marie Davy, but it was about fifty years before they began to take any practical shape. The earlier periscopes were frail and leaky, and became cloudy with moisture of condensation within a short while, making them useless. The image became inverted when looking to the rear, and they were alto;
94

The modern
periscopes are
gether very unsatisfactory.
constructed so that they
may
be revolved in any direction

in addition they
and the image remain always erect, and are fitted with a movable pointer on a
of the boat.
fixed dial
which
indicates the bearing of the object with respect to the axis
Ordinarily the periscopes are used without
the aid of magnifying glasses in order that the image
may
appear at
its
true distance, but monocular

fitted so as to
and binocular
magnifying eyepieces are

clearly distinguishable.
be quickly brought
into operation that the object
may be picked up and made
Various means for range finding have been fitted to the

periscopes.
One method
is
to project telemeter scales
or cross-hairs into the eyepiece of the instrument, grad-
uated vertically and horizontally in hundredths. If an object of known dimension under observation measured
five gradations in the eyepiece its distance
would be one
hundred times the corresponding
real
by
five.
Several variations of this

all
dimension divided system are in use, but
open to the same objection, that the dimensions must be assumed and that even if a good guess is made the object may present a projected view to the observer instead of a broadside view and this considerably shortens the true length. Another method of which there are also variations is the double-picture micrometer arrangement, in which two pictures of the same
they are
of the object
object cut each other in the lens.
The two
pictures
may
be shifted with reference to one another, until the tops of

the masts of a ship under observation in one picture are
level
shift
with the water
line in the other,
measured
to determine the distance.

it
and the angle of This method

has to deal with
too, is only
roughly approximate for
95
the measurement of a very small angle and an assumed
dimension for a base
line.
So far however, variations of
these two systems are the best
means
at our disposal.
The
periscopes should have a field of vision of as near
45 as possible, compatible with proper illumination
when
and
showing objects at
their true distances.
All lenses
prisms must be free from imperfections and from spherical
and chromatic aberration. The magnetic eyepieces should have a power of about 4, and a field as near 15 as possible.
The
binocular type should be preferred owin^ to the lesser

it
degree of eye strain
affords,
and
soft
rubber guards
should be
It
is
fitted.
essential that these instruments be designed so as

all
and prisms to be accessible for cleaning. Arrangements must also be made for circulating dry air through each instrument and for hermetically sealing them
to allow
lenses
after drying.
Signalling and Interior Communication
The advance
in signalling devices
and
interior
comFor
munications has kept pace with the rapid improvement
made
in other lines of
.equipment for submarines.

vessel, signalling
surface navigation they consist of practically the
methods used on any other

and by
It
is
being done
same by
wireless communications, sirens, flag

wireless,
and shape
in the day,
sound and
light signals at night.
Port-
able search-lights are also fitted on the bridge.
only within the last five years however, that any

of signalling
means
all
under water has been perfected.
Now
boats are fitted with submarine bells and receiving
and sending apparatus. It has been found that sound waves are transmitted under water nearly four times as
96
about 4700 feet per second. The principle submarine signalling device is to produce sound waves under water by means of a sending apparatus on the one hand, and to detect these waves by means of a
fast as in air, or
of the
receiving apparatus on the other.
Submarine bell and sounding mechanism
Submarine sound receiving apparatus fixed to side of hull
ting
The sound waves affect up vibrations which
the receiving apparatus

are
by
set-
transmitted by a micro-
phone and wires to an ordinary telephone receiver in the hands of the listener. It is quite possible with this set
of instruments to detect the presence of a ship
when
still
some distance away. The distance and direction of the ship picked up can be judged fairly closely by the intensity of the vibrations set up in the microphone. It only
needs the addition of an accurate direction indicator to
which case the submarine though blind under water will be pretty well equipped to meet a submarine adversary.
reach perfection;
in

Some rery
interesting experiments,
it is
97
understood,
have recently been conducted by an officer, upon improved methods of radio rigging, the object being
to enable the wireless to be used while the hull of the boat
submerged and to keep it free from short circuiting. be a big improvement, for it is now necessary to break all electrical connections and close a watertight joint before going under water, and this means that no wireless messages may be received or sent until opportunity affords time enough upon the surface for a man to come on deck, replace the rigging, and make an electrical conis still
This
will
nection.
The
has
old
method
of bell pulls for engine
room
signals
now been
replaced bj- rehable electrically operated
These are in connection with a large warnwhen the gong strikes the operator has only to look at the indicator and read the order to be executed. Other interior commimications are afforded by
indicators.
ing gong so that
sight signals
and voice tubes or telephones.
Armamext
The armament of the submarine boat consists of from one to four torpedo tubes, usually located in the bow; some of the larger vessels have tubes in the stern and under
the superstructure deck also, and as
as can be conveniently carried.
many
spare torpedoes
The arrangement
is.
of the tubes
and
their outer doors
should be such that thej" are

so that
entire!}-
independent,
that
any one tube may be loaded and fired without interfering with the loading and firing of any other. Owing to the fixed position of the tubes with reference to the
huU of the boat,
it is
necessary- to
aim the torpedo
bj' point-
98

This
dis-
ing the boat at the object to be hred upon.
advantage means that the target

the zone of
fire
if
moving
It
will
remain in
but a very short time.
is
evident then
that to attain the greatest degree of effectiveness the tubes
must be capable of loading and firing without interference, and at short intervals. Tubes placed under the superstructure and mounted so as to be revolvable and capable of train on either broadside, would be distinctly valuable, in that they would greatly prolong the interval in which a ship would be in the zone of fire, and they would permit the submarine to fire from any position. This feature would be of inestimable value in the case of an attacking
destroyer, enabling the submarine to effectually repel such
attack.
The main
is
objections to this system however are
that the tubes once fired are inaccessible for reloading, and that the torpedo
fired immediately.
subject to injury
by wetting
unless
Firing was at first done by the old lanyard method, and by a man stationed at the tube when he received the order from the commanding officer at the lookout. At present the firing is controlled by the officer himself at the periscope, who fires the torpedo by means of air equipment, when the boat is on the target, the operation of the tube doors being effected by the crew stationed at the tubes, who send back word when all is ready.
Endeavors are now being made to effect an electrical of firing, equipped so as to provide automatic indicators for showing which tubes are ready, and providsystem
ing a quick firing interval.
Much improvement
has yet to be
handling the torpedoes;
in bringing
loading them within the hull; in
in methods of them on board and overhauling them; and
made
DESIGN OF THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BO/VT
99
loo

them and loading them
no provisions at
all
in handling
into the tubes.
In the
earlier vessels
were m-ade for getting
them on board, and they had either be to taken to pieces to get them within the hull or had to be sucked in through the tubes. A great deal of time was thus spent in getting them on board. All the late boats are provided with specially constructed hatches and light portable deck
cranes to handle them, but the getting a torpedo on board
is still
far
from being a speedy operation.

firing stations at the periscopes are pro-
The torpedo
vided with torpedo directors.

necessary data
target,
These instruments solve

of
mechanically the problem of angles for firing when the

is
known
and speed of equation in the making of computations. The personal equation however is not eliminated from the determination of the necessary data, speed and course of target and disSmall discrepancies in making these observations tance. lead to very wide errors, even with use of the director,
unless the distance
is
speed, course and distance torpedo and eliminate the personal
relatively short.
The armament should also comprise a specially designed quick firing rifle mounted in the superstructure in such a manner as to be quickly brought into position for firing and as quickly put back in a watertight storage space when
forced to submerge quickly.
This gun would

craft.
offer
means
tively.
of repelling light
unarmed speed
It could
also be used against aeroplanes or dirigibles quite effec-
Many of the modern boats are equipped with such
guns.
loi
102

Safety
Under the head
of safety
come many
factors
which are
interdependent upon other conditions of requirements;

are characteristic of such,
design.
These matters must be
and are inherent with type and left to the best judgment
for
and
to
what experience has taught the constructor
their solution.
Primarily the hull of the vessel must be designed to
stand an extreme water pressure to which the vessel
may
The
be subjected, allowing an ample factor of safety.
normal depth of submergence for all tactical purposes will never be below fifty feet, but provision must be made to insure against the collapse of the hull in case some unavoidable accident should cause this depth to be greatly exceeded. It is not practical however to design the hull
with sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of water
of for
whatever depth in which the boat
may
to
be navigating,
long cruises
coast.
now
the submarine
is
called
upon
to
make
and in deep waters hundreds She may however be expected

and
it
of miles
from the
spend the greater part
of her time operating along the coast
from some base
may
be possible to take
this
depth as the basis of
design.
Most
of the boats of the present time are designed to
withstand pressure due to a two hundred foot head of
water using a safety factor of two.

basis of design
This
is
a reasonable
to
and although the boat may be expected
operate a good part of her time in waters

it
much
is
deeper
gives the crew a chance to retain control of the vessel
or perhaps leave her before the point of collapse
reached.
At any
rate should
it
be impossible to regain control within
103
I04
this dejith
THE SUBMARINE T(;RPEDO BOAT

is it
hardly possible that a wider margin of safety
would afford any better ehance.

It has
been found by experiment and by testing to des-
truction full sized sections of a submarine that the resist-

Where
105
P=
collapsing pressure,
C= R=
826.845 constant derived from experiment,

required section modulus.
as a safe allowable collaps-
Hence assuming 200 pounds

ing pressure and
12 feet as the diameter of the boat, sub-
stituting the values, the formula reads,
R=
200
12
826.845
section. 2.0^ ^^ the required ^
...
Neglecting the extra thickness due to the shell plating

this
modulus
calls for
a section
and
will resist collapse against a
From
the same tests
it
12.8 pounds angle head of 454 feet. was determined that the elastic
5X 3X
was the limiting stress of the plating against permanent set, and that the thickness should be For the increased directly as the diameter of the boat.
limit of the metal
thickness of shell plating the following formula has been
deduced:
T=
Where
PX
diameter in inches
2XE
collapsing pressure,
P= T=
thickness of the plate,

elastic limit
E=
30,000.
Substituting values as before
we have
T=
200 X
12X
12
2X
.48 inches, thickness of plate.
30,000
Safety in surface navigation

increased
may
still
be materially
by
altering the
form
of the superstructure for-
ward
so as to give greater free-board
and by effecting some-
io6

flaring
what the
bow Hnes
of a speed boat.
These features
will materially aid in
overcoming the inherent tendency

the critical speed.
if it is
of the vessel to dive
when approaching
A
sired
greater reserve
buoyancy may be acquired
de-
by
fitting the
scuppers with shutters or valves to
make
The
the sides of the superstructure watertight
when on
the surface.
and the fuel tank systems should be fitted with both pumping connections and connections for quick emptying by means of blowing with compressed air. The pumping system should comprise both motor driven pumps and hand pumps, all to be capable of pumping against the
ballast
maximum
depth of submergence.
The
air
system should
comprise a high pressure
air storage reservoir, for storing
up sufficient air for torpedoes, ventilation and blowing, and a set of reducing valves for bringing the pressure down from the storage pressure to that of a low pressure system for use in blowing and other operations. Positive depth gauges must be fitted for telling the depth of submergence by registering the pressure of the outside water. These should be large so as to be easily read and must be of extreme sensitiveness. Automatic means for controlling the depth of submergence should also be installed arranged in such a
way
as to
blow the tanks
if
the desired depth
is
by any chance
exceeded or by altering the angle of the hydroplane or

diving rudder in order to bring the vessel back to the
desired depth.
The conning tower should be constructed

capable of operation as an
of the
air lock to assist
so as to be
the
members
crew to escape from the vessel if it should be found Oxygen helmets should also be provided for necessary.
107
io8
this use,

and
suitable storage space provided for
them
in
a convenient location.
Efficient ventilation
must be provided
for the battery
tanks so as to prevent an accumulation of any explosive

gases.
This system must be separate from the ventilation
system of the living spaces.
An
explosive gas detecting
device should be installed in these places and in the engine
room and
so situated as to be easily inspected.
The
in-
terior of the
boat should be divided into a number of water-
tight compartments, thus localizing any accidents which might happen. The division of the boat by bulkheads will also aid in the ventilation and give greater comfort to the crew when on long voyages by shutting out from the living quarters the sickening fumes of the oil engine. The early boats were not so divided but it is common practice to do so now. A big additional factor of safety is added by fitting drop keels. These are cast iron keels filled with lead, attached
to the keel of the vessel.
By
the simple throwing of a
lever they are arranged so as to be instantly released
and
thereby casting off some five or ten tons dead weight, which
should under almost any conditions bring the vessel to
the top at once.
A position marker buoy should be attached

structure in a
to the super-
manner that
It
is
it
can be released instantly
necessity arises.
attached to the ship by a long line
normally wound on a
to the surface.
reel
In
this
is
way
which unwinds as the buoy floats if anything happens to the
vessel so that she
unable to come to the surface her
position
is
shown by the buoy.
The buoy should

It is
also
contain telephone connection with the boat so that com-
munication
may
be had with the surface.
an added
109
feature to have a whistle or signal device included in order

to attract attention to the buoy.
Finally, external air connections
on the
hull should be
had and located
so as to be easily accessible for a diver to
attach thereto an air hose from the surface.

Suitably strengthened holes fore and aft in the superstructure for attaching hoisting slings,
and towing shackles

In fact
at the
bow
or the equivalent should be provided.

it is
in a vessel of this type
absolutely essential that every
means be taken
to prevent accident,
and adequate means
provided to save both the crew and the vessel in case

accident does happen.
CHAPTER
The
first
VI
THE POWER PLANT

operable means of motive power installed in a
submarine was the steam engine, but this was later abandoned, and it has been considered that no practical solution of the problem of power was reached until the .advent
of the internal
combustion engine.
It
is
true that the
present stage of development of

started from the adoption of this
the
submarine boat
for propelling
means
power.
pose.
Strange as
is
it
may seem
then, the tendency at

this pur-
the present time
to return to
steam power for
There are good and suf&cient reasons for this tendency however, which will be discussed at some length
later on.
was the first of the internal combusand these are installed on the A, B, C, D, and three of the G class boats of our Navy. Owing to the high state of perfection and reliability that this type of engine has reached in the last few years, the engines installed on these boats with the exception of G-1 and G-3 have given very satisfactory service. In reference to the engine trouble of G-1 and G-2, this has been due to faulty installation and design of foundations rather than to any primary difficulty or fault of the engines themselves. In view of the more recent development and improved efficiency, this type of engine could be expected to give even greater satisfaction and service at the present
gasoline engine
tion engines to be adopted,
The
TITF,
POWER PLANT
112
time.

The
gasoline engine afforded a relatively light com-
pact form of prime mover, and was structurally simple and
were easily understood and quickly remedied, and in fact, today it has become so generally well known that almost any young boy can maneasy of repair.
Its ailments
age one.
The gas engine however, had

:
its
drawbacks and
these were
the cost of operation due to the high price of
gasoline; danger of fire
and danger
gases.
of
and explosion from gasoline vapor, asphyxiation by escaping carbon-dioxide

these objections
is real,
The
first of
but the others,

is
in so far as they can be easily
remedied and eliminated,

In fact there
cannot rightly be considered
so.
no serious
accident of record due primarily to these causes.

it
GasoHne
still
must be admitted
it,
is
a great "searcher," but
it
should be possible to construct tanks sufficiently tight to
any event, by means of a proper system of ventilation the probabilities of any such mishaps are at
hold
and
in
once eliminated.
For these reasons however,

of the Diesel type.
in all of the later boats the
gasoline engine has been superseded
by heavy
oil
engines
The main
is
reason for this change, and

of the great
there can be no other,

of fuel
on account
economy
consumption
fuel,
of the Diesel engine.

oil
This engine
burns a cheap
almost any low grade

a pound of
it.
which can be
This
is
vaporized, and will develop one brake-horse-power per
hour on from
.55 to .63 of
fuel.
of
course a great feature in favor of
Some
of the engine
dealers guarantee a fuel consumption as low as .45 of a
pound of fuel per B.H.P. per hour, but I do not know of any case where this economy has been attained under
actual service conditions.
Theoretically the Diesel engine
is
extremely simple, but
THE POWER PLANT

in actual practice
113
and construction it is exceedingly far from being so. The theory of the Diesel principle is that on the first down stroke of the piston the cylinder is filled with fresh air, which is then compressed by the following up stroke of the piston to a pressure of about 500 pounds
:
per square inch.
This compression of the

1,000 F.
air
raises its
temperature to about
fuel oil
At
the
instant
the
piston reaches the top dead center a small quantity of

is
injected along with a fresh quantity of air under
a pressure of about 900 pounds per square inch.

of the
This
is
injection takes place usually through a period of one-tenth
downward
stroke of the piston.
The
fuel
which
broken up into a fine spray by the pressure of the air entering with it, immediately it comes in contact with the hot
air
within the cyUnder starts up combustion due to the

air being much higher than The combustion continues
all of
temperature of the contained

the flash point of the
oil.
through part of the stroke, supposedly until
the
oil
has been completely burned, and expansion takes place

during the remainder of the stroke on account of the expansive force of the pressure and temperature of the gas-
During the first part of have the combustion proceed at a rate which will cause the volume of the gas to increase in the same ratio as the volume of the cyUnder during this combustion so as to keep the pressure constant until the fuel is completely consumed. At the end of the stroke the
eous products of combustion.
the stroke the aim
is
to
exhaust valves are opened and the burnt gases are pushed
out by the next up stroke of the piston.
The foregoing statements apply more

stroke cycle
is
particularly to
the four stroke cycle Diesel, but the principle of the two
essentially the same.
The
chief difference
114
Section through air compressor
Plate III.
Sections through 2-Cycle Nurnberg Engine
TEE POWER PLAXT
lis
Section through working cylinder
Plate III.
Sections thromTh i-Cyde
Xumberg Engine
ii6
between them being that in the two stroke cycle engine the exhaust of the burnt gases and the intake of the charge of fresh air take place at practically the same time when the
piston
is
near the bottom of the stroke.
In some designs
the scavenging air
is admitted at the top of the cylinder through valves in the cylinder head and so blows the burnt
the exhaust ports at the bottom of the Those parts are uncovered by the piston as it nears the bottom dead center. Other designs do away with all valves but the air starting and fuel injection valves in the cylinder heads. In this case the scavenging air enters through ports in the side of the cylinder, which are uncovered by the piston shortly after the exhaust ports situated on the opposite side of the cylinder. With the two stroke cycle, then, the valve gear is much simplified and a great deal of very exasperating valve trouble is done away with, but on the other hand the scavenging air for this type must be injected under pressure, usually about nine pounds, which necessitates the addition of a low pressure air compressor and greatly complicates the mechanism of the machine. The economy of the two
gas
down and out
cylinders.
stroke cycle
cycle.
is
also
much
lower than in the four stroke
to
The primary cause of the serious be met with in the Diesel engine
which are generated
temperature
reached
together
in
difficulties
is
which are
the excessive temcylinders,
peratures
its
the
pres-
maximum
This high
sure
in
being about 3,000 F.
temperature
cylinder
with
the
high
the
imposes
two
distinct
conditions
which must be met by the designer in calculating the stress upon the walls. These conditions apply also to the cylinder heads and pistons. It is quite conceivable that
THE rOWER PLANT
117
rsfj
ii8
a
thick

cylintler
exposed
to
high temperature and to be actually stressed more
high inside jjressure as well
will
than a tliinner one. It
is
also a
known
fact that cast iron
2 Slriikc
Cycle Soulhwark-Marris
1 )ic--(--l
Type
I'",n!,'iiu'
appreciajjly changes
its
form and dimensions when subtle\-elops a
mitted to continuous high temperatures and

state of high internal compression as
it
tends to expand.
This tension
is
too une\enly distributed throughout the
metal on account of the cooler outer surface, thus accentuating the delrimenlal effects upon the metal. The
answer
to this dillicull\-
seems therefore
to be
one of metal-
THE I'OWER I'LANT

lurgy.
119
A new
of
metal must be developed, one having

tensile
still
])roi)crlics
greater
strength,
little
distortion
from excessive heat, and
be no heavier than iron,
before the Diesel engine can be successfully adapted to
the needs of a submarine boat.

I
do not mean
it
to
decry the Diesel engine as a type,
for
has proven to be an ideal form of prime mover in

in
stationary practice and has met with considerable success
ordinary marine practice, but in both of these

conditions encountered
are
as
cases
the
dissimilar
to
those encountered in a submarine as can be.

ideal submarine engine must be a high speed powmachine of comparatively light weight, simple and accessible in construction, and above all reliable. The proper solution of the Diesel engine for rcliabihty and
erful
The
accessibility
will
i)ermit
its
neither
high si>eed
nor light
its
weight to enter into

siderably lowered.
characteristics,
unless
ex-
tremely high pressures and temiXM-atures are

It
is
first
con-
quite possible that this might
be elTected to some
quality which
extent, but there seems to be
no conis
certed effort in this direction.

is
Simplicity however,
highly improbable will ever be reached
in this tyjie of engine
on account
of its
numerous trouble-
some
auxiliaries.
In the
and the
class boats light four stroke cycle
Diesel engines were installed, but Iku'c never given satisfaction.
Primarily the cause of the trouble with the
engines of the
tion.
boats
to
is
the inadequacy of their construc-
Attempting
keep the weight of these engines
down
The
to within certain limitations, the)' were constructed
of built-up sections of plates

result of this
and angles riveted together.
manner
of construction
might well have
I20

they have simply shaken to /pieces and
been foreseen;
set
up new
difficulties
which serve
to accentuate the in-
herent troubles of the Diesel principle.

boats were fitted with
gines.
All the later
medium weight two

boats, however,
stroke cycle en-
Both the
H and K
have had
difficulties
their
share of engine trouble as well.
The main
with
cool-
these engines seem to be in properly lubricating
and
ing the pistons, and considerable trouble has occurred in
the
way
of seized pistons in the
and cracked
cylinders.
It is
hoped that
will
newer boats many

then,
is
of these difficulties
be overcome.
all this
In view of
not the present

of war, the
reliability of
the gasoline engine to be greatly preferred to the

of the Diesel engine?
economy
purpose for which these boats are constructed, it seems to me that efficiency is the required object to be attained no matter
In time
what the
cost.
If the gasoline
engine be attended with
other risks, are the dire possibilities of these risks any

greater than the unreliability of the Diesel engine?
fair
comparison
of the
two types
of engines
may
be had
by considering
of the last to
for the
moment
the
class of boats,
some
be fitted with the gas engine, and the perof the later boats.
formance
of
any
The ever
readiness
and general efficiency of the D boats is to be favorably compared with any of the larger and newer boats in our own or any foreign navy. Much comment has been made of late upon the generally considered
remarkable performance of the German

of
submarines in the present war, and

successful results
the
apparently
shown by the Krupp and the German
M.A.N.
Diesel engines with which
many
of these boats
are equipped.
As a matter
of fact these engines
cannot be
THE rOWER m.ANT
121
122

way
superior or
considered to be in any
the
M.A.N.
Diesel built
by the
New
more reliable than London Ship and
Engine Building Co., and the Sulzer Diesel engine built by the Busch Bros. Co., and in use on our own boats. Previous to the outbreak of war all of these boats were, as a matter of course, thoroughly overhauled and put in first class condition and maintained ready for instant use.
cesses.
This fact alone accounts for their early suc-
been reported on good authority that the continued activity of the German submarines is accomIt has
plished
by working them
In
this
in
relays,
a certain number
doing duty while the others are being overhauled at
which is said to last from ten days to a fortnight, a boat is given a thorough overhauling and is therefore ready for work when her turn comes to put to sea again. It must also be noted that those submarines which were heard from most frequently in the early part of the campaign were the older and smaller type of boats and equipped with
their bases.
cruise,
way, after each
gasoline engines.
Motors and Storage Batteries

At
the present time
all
submarines are propelled under

energy
cells.
water by
has been
controls.
electric induction motors, the electrical
being supplied from accumulator
Big advancement
made
in the design of electrical
submarine
installation,
especially
in
equipment the methods

have
for of
The
gines,
present motors
are
ruggedly built,
their
armatures mounted upon the main shafting of the en-
and are well insulated.

current,
They
are of the interpolar,
direct
ventilated type,
capable of running in
TllK I'OWKR in.ANT

cilluT
ilirccliiiii
123
and under
\arial)lc Kiad
without adjust-
ment
of tlu' bruslu'S.
potential difference of about 70
\'olts is
allowed at the
lieUl
terminals to pro\'ide for speed
re_!;uhitioii
when
runnini; as a nu)tor antl for adjustment
Main Motors,
Subiuariiu'
(\
1.
Main engines
motors
in
hacl^l;ôun^l,
forward of
of
\ollagi's
\\
hen
rimning as
geiu'rator.
They
are
often run al
an oxerload of as nuich as
ninet_\-
per cent
without injurious heating.
The
'I'liese
first
controls to be used were jihiin knife switches.
are
now
in
all
enclosed
to
eliminate
the danger of
sparking, and
starters
for
some cases oil baths the main motors are of
are pro\'ided.
The
This
the contactor type
master drum control with interlocking features.
124
type
is

advantageous
in that it permits the location of
the control to be
had
in the
most convenient
its
it
place.
Its
only drawback
is
the complexity of
construction, but
with the high voltage

absolute necessity.
now handled
has become an
breakers of the
Automatic
circuit
latest type are provided in all feeder circuits
and wherever
necessary.
Storage Batteries
Although the efficiency of the motor has been greatly advanced the problem of the storage battery still remains one of much dissatisfaction and it is quite improbable that the inherent defects of it will ever be overcome. There are two distincts types of storage batteries in
general use at the present time; the
first is
known
as the
lead battery and the second as the Edison battery.
The
lead battery
is
the only type that has been used

I understand
aboard submarines up to the present time.

however, that there
is
now one
if
not more of the boats

cells.
having the old batteries replaced by Edison
The
lead batteries, as their
names would imply, have
active plates of lead material using sulphuric acid of a
density of about 1.23 as an electrolyte.
There are several methods of manufacturing the lead plates, the three forms best known being the Plante plate, the Pasted plate, and the Ironclad plate, the latter being a particular form of the Pasted plate. The Plante plate is manufactured with the lead made into a fine grid which is cast, grooved, or spun in such a
way
as to afford a large superficial area for the electro-
chemical action to take place upon.
The
grid
is
then
subjected to this electro-chemical process which reduces
THE POWER PLANT
125
^^^^^^^'^
126

and
to
the exposed lead surface to peroxide of lead for the positive plates,
The Pasted
plate
spongy lead for the negative plates. is manufactured by pressing a pasty
composition of lead and a small percentage of antimony

into the annular spaces of a structural frame formed
of network.
up
The
plates are then subjected to an electro-
chemical process as before, reducing the plates to peroxide

of lead for the positive plates,
and
to
spongy lead
for the
negative plates.
The Ironclad plates are formed into positive plates They consist of metal frames supporting hardrubber tubes set side by side. The active material is formed by running antimony lead rods full length in the
only.
center of the rubber tubes which are perforated, and
otherwise
filling in
the tubes with red lead.
It
is
then
reduced electro-chemically into peroxide of lead for positive plates.
In the batteries of the submarines, the Plante positive

plate
is
used in combination with the Pasted negative

is
plate, or else the Ironclad plate
used with the Pasted
negative plate, these combinations seeming to give the
most
satisfactory results.
The Edison
storage battery uses nickel oxide as the
active material for the positive plates,
and iron oxide as
the active material for the negative plates.

lyte used
is
The
electro-
caustic soda.
The
positive plates are
made
of a steel frame supporting perforated steel tubes which contain a quantity of nickel hydrates for forming the active material. The negative plates are made up of two perforated steel sheets forming pockets between
up
them
in
which
is
contained iron oxide for the active
material.
THE POWER PLANT
127
In addition to the enormous amount of weight, in round numbers about 60 tons, and the valuable space which it occupies the lead battery is objectionable upon
the score of
its
inherent dangerousness.
There
is
the
ever present danger of explosive gases collecting with

the contingent result of battery
sions,
the only
leave the ship
fires and terrific explomeans of fighting which seems to be to and let them reek their havoc. There is
also the continual danger
from the generation of chlorine

is
gas which
is
deadly poison, and which

if
liable
to be to the
generated at any time

batteries,
salt
water finds
its
way
and
lastly,
the danger to the hull itself from
leaking or the slopping over of the sulphuric acid from
the
cells.
The
acid immediately attacks the steel plates
of the battery tank,
and unless the
installation has
been
is
made
in such a
way
is
as to afford perfect inspection fre-
quently, which
not the general case and in fact
almost impossible because of space limitation, the metal

is
soon eaten through by the chemical action of the acid.
The advocates
for the
Edison battery are claiming for

all
is
this type the entire elimination of
these
bad features
of the lead battery.
This however
not true, for the
fires and exand in fact generates hydrogen gas, both when charging and discharging, more freely than does the lead battery, and it is due to this gas that most battery troubles and accidents are had. It is free from the deadly fumes of chlorine gas and trouble
Edison battery
plosions as
is
is
quite as liable to battery
the lead battery,
with leaking acid.
On
about
the other
hand the lead battery has an average

cell,
discharge voltage at the three hour rate of discharge of

1.83
volts per
whereas the Edison battery
128

i.i to
has at the three hour rate of discharge of but from

1.2 volts
per
cell.
This would
of
mean then
cells
that with the

to be
Edison battery the number
would have
increased about sixty per cent, to get the same voltage,
over the lead battery and would require considerably
more
floor space.
The weight
factor.
of the
Edison battery
is
also
much
higher
than that of the lead battery, and
this is
In view
is less
of this fact then,
an all important and that the Edison

efficient as the lead
battery
battery,
than 72 per cent as
would seem that to install new equipment that requires more weight and space than that which is already installed, and which therefore must necessarily detract from the efi&ciency of other factors now obtained, would be far removed from the ideals that we are trying to gain in submarine development, because it would in this case be making a sacrifice of other factors without bettering
it
the condition or increasing the efficiency of the factor for
which
all
these sacrifices are made.

is
The
cost of the Edison battery
much more than
the
lead battery but
on
this score the life of the
Edison bat-
tery greatly exceeds that of the other, so the price
may
be conceded to be in favor of the Edison
if
anything.
The present
difficulties
reversion to the steam engine as a

is
means
for surface propulsion
brought about by the inherent
oil engine of large powers and because now the steam engine has reached a state of efficiency and reliability found in no other form of prime
found in the heavy
mover.
As
far as
economy
of high pressure
is concerned, by combining the use steam with a high degree of superheat
and using high mean referred pressure,
it is
quite pos-
THE Ô^VER PLANT

sible
1^0
secure an
by using an improved form of oil burning boiler to economy as low as .7 to .S of a pound of fuel
This
is
per B.H.P. per hour.

Diesel
but
little in
excess of the the
engine
consumption,
and
b}'
using
steam
occ B.H.r. luîun
nb.irine Engine.
Tv.o 4 Lvlinder engine;
arranged tandem
engine the attendant impro\"ement in conditions would be
steam plant for the same would be much less. The mean effective pressure is higher in the steam unit and its cylinders are subjected to but little more than one-fourth of the extreme pressure and not to one-fourth of the extreme temperature of the Diesel unit. The steam unit is also the
manifold.
The
^\eight for the
power
of Diesel plant
more simple and the more easih" accessible of the two. The ideal form of power plant for the submarine, as
may
be easily understood,
is
one that
is
capable of operin
ation both
when on
the surface and
when
the sub-
merged condition, that is. in other words, a single unit which will do awa}- with the present dual system. The problem then is to hnd some method b}" which the prime
130

to be
mover
furnish the power for submerged
used for surface propulsion can be made to work as well, thus doing
its
away with
the present storage battery system and
inherent dangers and limitations.
The problem has been attacked by many in the last few years, notably among them an Italian engineer by
the
name
of del Proposto,
and a Spanish engineer named

is
d'Quevilley.
The
sition,
del Proposto proposition
essentially
an
air
propo-
using the internal combustion engine to propel the

air
boat and to drive an

tanks
compressor for storing up
air in
when on
the surface.
In the submerged condition

is
the mechanical energy of the stored air
used back
through the compressor and through

for the propelling power.
all
or part of the
cylinders of the internal combustion engine, as air motors

It
is
understood that del Pro-
posto built a boat and had his system installed.

little is
But and it is believed that the performance of the equipment did not come up His troubles would evidently be to his expectations.
known
of the results obtained
mechanical
difficulties resulting in inefficiency.

is
The
d'Quevilley proposition
that of a soda-boiler,
steam generated from a process of slaking caustic soda. When the vessel is about to submerge, the exhaust steam from the engines is turned into this sodaboiler, producing a secondary steam caused by the action of the soda in absorbing the water vapor. The heat evolved by this action forms a secondary steam which is used through the engines and the cycle continues. This
using the
process goes on until the caustic soda has
rated,
when
the vessel
must return
to the surface
become satuand the
soda reconcentrated.
THE POWER PLANT
131
boat of
this
type has been built in France and the

it is
process has also been tried out in Germany, but
not beheved that any great success was obtained on the

trials.
The
principle of this system

this
is
old,
J.
having
first
been tried out in
country by Prof.
H. L. Tuck
of
San Francisco
I believe 1885.
in
submarine boat Peacemaker, in The boat was built by the Submarine

his
Motor Co. of New York, and tried out up the Hudson River before a United States Naval Board. The same principle has since been laid before the Navy Department by a Chilian inventor, and it has upon by several European engineers.
also
been worked
Another system of propulsion has lately been perfected under patents held by the L. A. Submarine Boat Co. of California, now the Neff System of Submarine Propulsion, which provides means for utilizing the same power unit both when on the surface and when submerged. This system which has been developed by the author, contemplates the use of the main engines to accomplish this result, and it is claimed that any form of prime mover
be used with satisfactory results. A boat with the system installed has been built and put through trials
may
under inspection by a Naval Board and the results were
By means of the equipment both greatly increased submerged speed and increased radius of action submerged were shown. The military advantages of these two factors would appear to be of prime importance.
found to be satisfactory in every way.
At present it is rather much of a question to say what new turn the power plant for a submarine will take. It is
highly probable though, that
tained
it
if
the Diesel engine
is
re-
will be of the non-reversible type, of heavier
13

induction
construction, and will drive generators for supplying current

to
motors connected
to
the
propeller
shafts.
This would permit of a greater speed range and
would eliminate starting and reversing troubles, as well
THE POWER PLANT

Or perhaps
if
133
will find the solu-
we
revert to steam
we
tion in the turbine either directly coupled to the propeller shafts or arranged in turbo-generator sets.
This
means would
certainly
surely materially decrease the weight of the
plants on account of the great rotary speed, and most
would add
to the reliability of the unit as a whole.
CHAPTER
It
VII
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
is by no means an easy matter to undertake to forewhat the future development of the submarine will bring about. We may draw certain conclusions from the past performance and development of these vessels and by careful consideration of the many inherent difficulties found in their characteristics arrive at a safe and sane conservative deduction. It is assuredly no reason, howtell
ever, that because a certain

of
performance
it is
is
improbable
mechanical accomplishment today,
impossible of
ultimate accomplishment.
We
of this age of achieve-
ment
keep
should, before
this in
making any rash statements, always
mind.
In the past ten years alone the submarine has steadily advanced in size to four times what it was then, the surface speeds have been doubled, the radius of action on the surface enlarged in even greater proportion, and the military equipment and features immensely improved. Already from being little steel tanks so completely filled with machinery and appurtenances that the few members of the crew could scarcely crawl around in them, and even had there been room they would scarcely have
dared to
move
for fear of disturbing the equilibrium of
the boat and upsetting her, the submarine has

large comparatively
become a
which a crew conof two officers and from twenty sisting to thirty men can Great as has already been the live for days at a time.
craft in
134
roomy
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
135
i'
1,
136

by no means yet reached the
of its
progress, the submarine has
hmit
will
development.
Beyond question of any doubt immediate improvement be made in the directions of increased surface speed, radius of action on the surface, and in the size of the submarine itself. The future will unquestionably bring
forth a submarine capable of operating freely at great
distances from her base, and will combine to a certain
extent the qualities of a surface cruiser and those of the
under-water
craft.
There are at the present time a number of large submarines of the sea-going type, ranging from 1200 to 1500 tons displacement submerged, under construction in various foreign countries, and one in this country. The dimensions of these boats far exceed anything that may have
been dreamed of a few years ago. The Schley, being built at the Fore River Ship Building Co. for the United States
Navy,
surface
is
of
about 1200 tons displacement when totally

for the
submerged, has a designed speed of 21 knots for the
and 12 knots
submerged condition, and
will re-
contain some 3700 engine brake horse power.

sults at the trials of these
The
will
monster submarines
be
awaited with no
little
interest
and
it is
certain that their
performances
At the what the

of
much food for thought. present time there is much being written about immediate future is going to evolve, and many
will furnish us
with
writers are speculating wildly about sea-going submarines
4000 and 5000 tons displacement. The curious fact about these writers however, is that none of them may
claim to have any experience in the construction of sub-
marine boats or even any practical knowledge in the theories of naval engineering. Increasing the size of the
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
137
submarine to these extreme proportions would not necessarily give an added efficiency to these craft, for there is a proper balance of all the miHtary factors entering into What if any advantage it which must be maintained.
would accrue from

of serious doubt.
this
extreme departure
has also
is
a question
Much
been said about sub-
marines of torpedo boat speed, and while this is a quality which is highly desirable from a military point of view,
it is
one that
is
impossible of accomplishment, for the
destroyer has even
now
a speed of thirty to thirty-five
knots and has not the limitations of weights imposed upon

that the submarine must necessarily have. Although the submarine is well out of the experimental stage at the present time, there remain a great many disconcerting problems to be solved before anything Hke perfection is reached. It is greatly to be feared that to jump from the gradual development in size which has so far been exercised to boats of 2000 tons or more displaceit
ment will only serve to accentuate the present inherent and unsolved difficulties. The proper solution of these
things will eventually be found, but a rational system of
development must be followed in order to
effect this end.
Many
cruise of
of
our boats are
now
capable of
making a
about 4500 miles. It would seem that very little increase would be needed in this factor for some time to come at any rate. More than this we need speed and especially submerged speed. Lacking in this respect,
the effectiveness of the submarine as an offensive instru-
ment
of warfare has
been prominently brought out in the
present European war.
Without
it
the submarine
must
remain a passive means

invisibility
of defense,
depending upon her
and the chance that an enemy may, unaware
138

approach within effective range of her
of her location,
torpedoes, or she
may
under cover
of darkness take
position along the well established routes of trade

lie
up a and
submerged to await and prey upon the enemies' merchant vessels. Neither of these tactics, however, can effect in any serious way the outcome of the naval
there
maneuvers.
To be
able to assume
its rightful
place in warfare, the
water speed.
submarine must therefore materially increase its underTo do this we are brought face to face
with the complex problem, of the power plant.
With the
present installation of Diesel engines for surface work
and electric motors and storage batteries for submerged work it is out of the question, for to materially increase the power for under-water propulsion would mean that we must so materially decrease the power for surface running, or else the radius of action, and that we would be unable to get anywhere to make use of the improved
under-water condition.
On
the other hand,
we
are
now
with a
this
fair surface
speed enabled to get within but a cer-
tain distance of a battleship
when we must
cast aside
advantage and take cover under water both to protect ourselves from gunfire and to keep from being seen.
In
this condition the
submarine has only about three-
quarters of her surface speed, considerably less than the
normal cruising speed of a battleship, and therefore, unless the submarine be visited with the good luck that the battleship be steaming towards her, the distance between them becomes wider instead of less.
That the
solution of this problem
is
a vital point
is
at
once apparent.
have been propounded in the past and are being worked out in an endeavor to
Many means
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
139
I40

The
solution obviously
secure the desired results.
means
the doing
away with
the dual power system, and will

all
probably evolve into an
internal combustion engine or
steam engine plant.

that
It for
may
be confidently expected
some such means

will
remedying the present short-
comings
be speedily put into general practice.
With
the advent of such a system, surface speeds of twenty
knots and submerged speeds of sixteen to eighteen knots
would be
feasible.
The
objection has been raised

trail of
by some that such

it
system must leave a
bubbles behind
as does a
Photo-copyright,
Underwood
aiid
Underwood
of Air
Wake
of
Torpedo Showing Trail
Bubbles
torpedo and that the position of the submarine would

therefore be disclosed to the battleship.
This has not
been found to be the case however, and in fact with the submarine running at a normal cruising depth no disturbance of any great amount takes place upon the surface.
Granting for the
moment
that a submarine did
leave a
trail of
wake
like the torpedo, it is well
known
that the
a torpedo
may
be followed from the bridge of a
any chop on at and this is easy range for torpedo fire. It is also much more difficult to detect this disturbance of the torpedo when coming towards the ship from an unknown quarter. Even though the submarine were discovered when at a
battleship only for about 800 yards with
all,
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
highly improbable,
to six
141
is
distance of say 3000 yards from a battleship, which

it
minutes to
would take the battleship from four get under full speed from a cruising speed
of twelve knots,
and therefore with an increase

still
in under-
water speed of the submarine the chances of making a

successful hit are
very good.
The
this
present difficulties to be
met with
all.
in a system of
kind are those inherent in the Diesel engine, which
so far has given
no
satisfaction at
Much
improvestill
ment
however has already been

this direction.
made and much may
be looked for in
Very slow speed engines
of this type driving high speed electric generators through
the intermediate agency of mechanical reduction gearing
may
do much to solve
to be looked for in
There the further development

this
problem.
is
also
much
steam
quite
of the
,
boiler construction of the oil burning type.
It
is
within reason that this
may
be made to compete strongly

it
is
with the Diesel engine in point of economy and

certainly
more
reliable.
The
use of high speed turbines

offers
with electric reduction gear also

solution of the
a very promising
power problem.
Altogether the submarine
may
be expected to become
Further
the rapid handling
a very effective weapon in the near future.
improvements
in the
armament and
be looked
for.
of the torpedoes
may
Mine
laying appar-
atus, cable cutting devices,
and small
caliber
guns are
even now provided.
What
will
effect the indubitable future of the
submarine
has of late
have upon the design
of the battleship
become a much mooted

respect with those
battleship
is
question.
I cannot agree in this
who
take the stand that the day of the

the contrary I believe that the
over.
On
142
battleship
must always remain the Queen of the Seas, and must be the deciding factor in any naval engagement. Without it there can be no bombardment of an enemy's coast nor any convoying of transports or landing of an invading army on foreign soil. If we are ever forced into war we most certainly want to win. To win a war it is absolutely necessary to carry the campaign into the enemy's country and to stop him there. If on the other hand the enemy succeeds in gaining a foothold in this country, we may hold him back indefinitely but cannot make him quit, unless we in the meantime have gained a more strategic hold upon his own soil. To be forced to fight upon our own soil means that no matter whether we are really defeated or whether we gain a partial victory by being able to hold back the
enemy
until
he
is
tired out,
we
are actually the losers in
point of comparative suffering and damage inflicted. It is quite probable, however, that the battleship as
I do not think form of added armor below the waterTo do this would only mean that more line as do some. powerful torpedoes would be made which would have greater rupturing effect upon the heavier armor than it does even now. On the contrary, perhaps the battleship will lighten somewhat the armor she already carries and
she
now
stands will be greatly modified.
this will take the
be constructed with a greater number of divisional bulk-
heads backed up by
localize
air pressure
chambers in order
I
to
the
effects
of
explosions.
believe
that her
greatest change will be an increase in speed.
Superior
speed has always been and must ever continue to be her

only protection against the submarine.
CHAPTER
TiiKRE as yet seems
VIII
MEANS OF DEFENSE AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK

to haA-e lêen
no really practieablc
means devised
for defense against the offensive operation
of the submarine.
Practieallv invisible as
it is
and having
/iit:riLili,:iuil
Film
S,r-.i,r
Submerged
run willi p.'riscopcs exposed.
XiUl- distuidiaiuc
and wake
eaiised b\' passage ol periset>iK' throu.i^h the water
the impenetral)ility of the water for
its
proteetion,
it
is
immune from
eounter attaek.
it
Perhaps the most serious
casualty which
is
possible to inflict
upon
its
it
would be
the chance hitting and destruction of
periscopes
when
temporarily exposeil abo^'e the surface.
This
of
course
woukl mean that the submarine must remain submerged hors de combat until nightfall, or else take the conse143
144
quence of exposing above the surface her conning tower
and more vulnerable hull. There has been a great deal said about the
chance
plished.
is
possibility
of shooting off the periscopes of the submarine.
This
in reality very small,
and would be more luck

it
than good marksmanship were
successfully accom-
When
is
the small
moving
target that the peri-
scope offers
considered this can be at once realized.
The
tube, of a neutral gray tint difficult in itself to disis
from three to four inches in diameter, is its length and only this just long enough much for very short intervals of time Even at the close to check the course and the range. range of 500 yards it is an almost impossible target, and when the range greatly exceeds this it becomes well nigh It is to be doubted that any effectiveness invisible. could be had even with the use of shrapnel. Ever since the submarine has been accepted as a possible instrument of warfare, some means has been sought to successfully cope with her. In England especially, much thought and study has been given to various devices for meeting this contingency. In the face of her seeming inability to quell the German submarine raids in the present conflict, it would seem that all this theorizing had been very unfruitful. Probably had England given as much study to the submarine itself as to the means for
tinguish,
of
exposed only two or three feet of
defense against
the situation.
it
she would be better able to cope with
Obviously the destroyer becomes the natural adversary
submarine boat. With her great speed and superior maneuvering ability it is within the compass of the desof the
troyer to keep on the
trail of
the submarine and run her

down when
bearings.
145
she chances to expose her periscopes to take
The
destroyer
is
however vulnerable
to the
torpedo, and
of the
it is
only the slothful maneuvering qualities
submarine when under water that prevents the
certain success of counter attack

of the theories of attack
on her part. Almost all upon the submarine have been
based upon the superior performance of the destroyer

for their successful execution.
One
of the pet theories
is
that a mine or
bomb
exploded
in the water within the vicini'ty of the submarine will
transmit such pressure through the Water as to cause the

hull of the submarine to collapse.
To
illustrate the conis
sequences of this action, the instance
always cited
of
the killing of fish by the concussion caused
dynamite under water.
defense was to be carried out
The execution of by fitting the
by exploding this means of

destroyers
with outriggers to which torpedoes were attached to the

outer ends.
The
torpedoes were to be fired
time fuse device or by electrical detonators.
by either a The out-
rigger or spar held the torpedo a considerable distance
away from
to be.
the destroyer and was to be lowered into the
water and fired over where the submarine was supposed
Experiments with
English
this
method were
carried out
by the
results
Navy by
exploding torpedoes in the water close

It
to floating casks.
was claimed by them that the
proved conclusively that a torpedo having a moderate weight of explosive charge would, if exploded within
70 or 80 feet of a submarine, cause very disastrous results. Later on the French, induced by these experiments as
reported, placed a
number
of live sheep in a
submarine
boat and discharged a torpedo containing about a hundred
146

of gun-cotton at a distance of
pounds from it.
about 150 feet
The
results
showed no
ill
effects to either the
sheep or the boat.
Had
a heavier charge been exploded
and at a closer distance the results might possibly have shown more serious effects. Probably a more feasible plan is to tow by means of the destroyer a mine to be exploded by an electrical
This plan is objectionable however, because found to be quite difficult to locate the position of a towed mine over a submarine, especially if the submarine be continuing any but a straight course. The mine when towed also tends to rise and skim along the surface, and if exploded on top of the water, even though it were directly over the submarine, it would do little if any
detonator.
it is
damage
to her
third
submerged at a normal cruising depth. method proposed for active defense against the
is
submarine
that two destroyers be sent out abreast
pulling a drag between them with the intention of fouling the conning tower or periscopes of the submarine and
upsetting her.
Destroyers operating under this condition
would however be placed at a very great disadvantage. In fact they would be virtually pulling a sea anchor, and it is certain that the destroyers in this case must be distinctly at the mercy of the submarine instead of being any particular menace to her. A drag of any sort must necessarily alter considerably the speed of a destroyer as well as to put her at a great inconvenience and extreme disadvantage when maneuvering. A method which is known to have been adopted by
the English destroyers against the
in the
German submarines
war, was to
North Sea during the early part of the present fill the bottoms of the hulls of the destroyers

to run
147
with a couple of feet of solid concrete and then attempt

the submarines. At first the Engmeet with some success by this method. By keeping a strict watch for the periscopes to appear and immediately running them down, they succeeded in sinkor
lish destroyers did
down
ram
ing a small
number
of the
German submarines.
stop to this however,
The Germans soon put a

imitation
periscopes
to
adrift in the proximity of the British fleet a
by setting number of
which were attached contact
mines.
of these
The destroyers after running down two or three masked mines with more or less disastrous results
up as a bad job. The most practicable means for active defense, I believe, lies in a complement of several high speed launches. These small boats should have a speed of thirty knots or more and should have as little draught as is compatible
to themselves soon gave it
with a
fair
degree of sea-worthiness, in order to
make
them practically immune from torpedo attack. They would be equipped with a special quick firing rifle of small caliber and powerful search-lights. Their duties would be essentially those of a patrol or picket boat.
Being practically immune from under- water attack they would scour the sea night and day for a chance shot at an
appearing conning tower or
pensive
little
hull.
Enough
of these inex-
boats would quite effectively clear a sub-
marine
trade.
blockade
and prevent submarine
raids
upon
merchant
vessels plying in the well established routes of

to the surface sooner
The submarine must come
or later to get a fresh supply of air

of charging her storage batteries,
and for the purpose and must remain upon
the surface
this
some
little
time to do
so.
The time
if
for doing
would
naturally be at night, but
there are
enough
148

it
of these small patrols in the vicinity
would not be long
before one of
them picked her up

of the patrols,
in the search-light.
The presence
each patrol being assigned
to cover a certain area,
would keep the submarines under
water except for very short intervals, and so long as they can be prevented from coming up long enough to charge
their storage batteries they
can remain in foreign waters
only within the scope of their submerged radius of action,
and
this is
very limited.
The submarine attack would
therefore be limited to quick raids which are no great
commerce, and cannot in any sense constitute The ambuscade of or the lying in wait for vessels would be quite effectively stopped, and it is only in this respect that the Germans have demonstrated any ability to prey upon commercial shipping. The above means of defense would of course be limited to the prevention of blockades, it would not be practicable for fleet maneuvers on the high seas.
menace
to
a blockade.
Of
late
much
has been said of the aeroplane as a means

Its value in this respect can-
of fighting the submarine.
not be very great.

it,
In fact the chief attribute accorded
ability to detect the presence of the
submarine from
various times
its
high vantage point, has been disproved by last winter's

in
maneuvers
the Southern waters.
At
during the maneuvers, aeroplanes were sent aloft to try

to locate the positions of the submarines but with no success.
dropping bombs upon the submarine from an aeroplane cannot be conceded as having any real
of
The theory
all.
value at
Admitting
calculation of elevation
consideration of
for the moment, that by careful and speed of the aeroplane, and gravity and effect of atmospheric con-

ditions
149
upon the
projectile, a
bomb
could be dropped so
as to strike the water directly o\'er a submarine, the force

of its
impact with the water must explode the bomb
Flwto-ccipyrishl. International
Film Semicc
for repelling attack
Submarine gun elevated
by Aero-plane
practically
upon the surface and do no damage whatever
to the submarine.
The
is,
probabilit}- of dropping a
bomb
with such accuracy
moreover, very remote.
Nor can
much
air.
better results be expected from gunfire from the
Unless
the
projectile
was
fired
almost vertically
downward, the
cause
foot.
it
would had penetrated the surface a Even were the submarine upon the surface, the
force of the impact with the water
it
to ricochet before
ISO
aeroplane would offer an easier target to gunfire from the
submarine than the submarine would in turn afford the

aeroplane.
Another theory of using a contact mine suspended from an aeroplane by a wire is equally impractical. In fact the vibrations of wire and the resistance of the mine to passage through the air would set up such extreme
gyrations as to
make
all.
it
almost impossible to strike any
definite object at
The
passive defense of bays and port entries
may
be
successfully maintained in a
of course
number
of
ways.
Primarily
by mines arranged in rows and entrance of the bay or harbor;

of
across the
mouth
it
although
is
has
recently been demonstrated that the submarine
capable
both passing safely under the mines and of cutting them adrift from their moorings as well as to explode them by counter mining. Various means for entanglements have also been suggested; such as stretching heavy fishnets at intervals, and in some cases by fastening small charges of guncotton to the nets, arranged with batteries and circuit
closers so that they are exploded
entangled in the net.

cork floats
in place.
if a submarine becomes Another scheme is to stretch spans
of cable across the channel, supported at intervals
and weighted down at the ends

then,
it
to
by hold them
After
all
may
be truthfully said that as yet we
have been able to devise no adequate means of defense against the submarine. Some means have been suggested for defense of coast or harbor, but at sea so far the only means of defense seems to be in the superior speed of the
surface craft.

quite possible but highly improbable, as
craft.
151
That the submarine may wage war against submarine

is it entails
the
almost certain destruction of both

as yet been able to devise
No man
has
any means
for penetrating the
murky depths
it is this
of the sea as far as vision is concerned,
and
utter blindness under water that prohibits con-
flict of
submarine versus submarine. Men have clashed before in utter blackness, however, and it may be that
when put
to
desperate undertaking, some young dare-
devil will stake his
own
life
and those
of his
crew upon
the wheel of chance and tempt the fates with this
new
kind of warfare.
If this sort of conflict is ever resorted to, it will
prob-
ably resolve
itself
into a jockeying for position
on the
part of the opposing commanders, with the purpose of
each to get his opponent broadside exposed to a headon

attack by himself and to ram.
of the torpedo
The opportunity
for use
would this weapon would probably be reserved Friend might be distinguished from for bigger game. foe by sound signals. This would of course betray the position of the submarine to its opponent as well, but sound signalling would undoubtedly be resorted to at intervals at any rate as a decoy to draw on the opponent;
be practically nil under these cir-
cumstances and
it
naturally being the policy of the

is
commander
sounded.
to
change
his position immediately a signal
At
the best this

sort
unsatisfactory
mode of of game
fighting
of
blind-man's-buff,
must remain an and
would not be generally undertaken at the present time. Future inventions for delicate and accurate direction indicators
to be used in
conjunction with magnetic or
vibratory submarine sound receivers are quite possible
152

if
and
effected
would do much
to further this
new
long
sort
of warfare.
The Fessenden
oscillator goes a
way
indi-
towards this accomplishment even now, and

cation of
is
an
what might be expected
in
the future along
these lines.
CHAPTER IX
TACTICAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE SUBMARINE
Submarine
warfare, like
all
other naval fighting, reoffensive operations.
solves itself into defensive
and
of
submarine consist and the prevention of an enemy's fleet from bombarding seaports and from landing an invading army anywhere along the coast. The effectiveness of the weapon in this respect is a well demonstrated fact, but to sucessfuUy carry out a prodefensive
The
operations
the
chiefly of the protection of harbors
gram
of
protection
by
its
means,
it
is
evident
that
with the extensive coast lines this country has, we must

provide a considerable number of coast defense submarines
for the purpose.
These boats should be distributed

it is
in
groups of
six or eight at
various bases along the coast
and more particularly at points where
considered
essential for strategic reasons to concentrate defense.
These groups accompanied by mobile tenders should

be located particularly at the strategic points as follows: On the East Coast at Eastport, Me., Portsmouth, N.H.,
Provincetown, Mass.,
Woods
Hole, Mass., Newport, R.I.,
New
York, N.Y., Delaware Breakwater, Norfolk, Va.,
Charleston, S.C.,
Key West,
Fla., Pensacola, Fla.,
Gal-
veston, Texas, and at the eastern entrance to the
Panama
Canal. On the West Coast at some port in Alaska, Port Townsend, Wash., Columbia- River, Ore., San Francisco, Cal. (2 groups), Santa Barbara, Cal., San Pedro, Cal.,
153
154

Cal.,
San Diego,
Canal.
and at the west entrance
to the
Panama
Also there should be a group stationed at the

Islands, a group at
Hawaiian
a total
Guam, and
at least three
groups among the Philippine Islands.
number
offensive
of
This would call for some two hundred submarines of the

involves
coast defense type.
The
of the
all
action or attack to destroy,

difl&cult,
problems new and more
and here the province
submarine is to destroy the fleets of the enemy and vessels with which it attempts to carry on military
operations; to
ports,
make
raids
upon the enemy's shipping and
an effectual blockade at all his and to constitute a supplemental arm to the battle fleet upon the high seas. The ability to perform these functions calls for a somewhat different type of boat from the coast defense submarine, inasmuch as it must have a greater cruising radius, be more sea-worthy, and have a much higher surface speed to enable it to accompany without in any
to carry out
and
principal harbors;
way
hindering the evolutions of the
fleet.
In the present European conflict the activities of the submarine have for the most part been restrained to what might be styled merely naval raids. There have
however been several occasions in which they have taken no little part in the actual tactical evolutions of the opposing fleets. It was decidedly the presence of the German submarines which caused Vice-Admiral Beatty to
discontinue the pursuit of the
Seydlitz, Doerflinger
German
battle cruisers
and Moltkc in the second fight of the was a running fight in which the heavily punished German battle cruisers escaped by leading the British ships into a group of submarines, the mere sight
North
Sea.
It

which caused the Enghsh Achniral and seek safety for his own fleet.
of
i :):)
to quit the pursuit
On
another occasion a British submarine
is
given the
credit for disabhng the
German
ship Moltke in the Russian
British Sulmiarines E-4. E-o
and D-5
action in the Guh" of Riga, placing that vessel at the
mercy
of the
Russian
fleet
and deciding the
victor}-.
The English submarines were
successfully
employed
as a barrier of protection strewn across the
Channel during
the transportation of troops to the shores of Belgium and
France.
Since then these submarines have been inces-
santly employed on the enemy's coast and in Heligoland Bight,
obtaining and supphdng the English

the enemy's patrols.
fleet
com-
manders with information regarding the composition and
movements
of
While engaged in
156
this

work they have
British
successfully outwitted well-executed
anti-submarine tactics by torpedo craft and gunfire.
E-9 succeeded in torpedoing and sinking German cruiser Eela in Heligoland Bight and escaping from a pursuing flotilla of German destroyers;
The
the light
on another occasion she successfully torpedoed the German destroyer S-126 off the mouth of the Ems River while running at high speed. There is also Httle doubt that it is the menace of the submarines which caused the
British
main fleet to maintain its base remote from the and at the same time it is unquestionably due to the presence of the British submarines employed in these waters and off the German ports that the immobility
North
Sea,
of the
German
earliest
battle fleet
is
in a great part responsible.
The
success of the
German submarines was

Within two weeks
in destroying the
the sinking of the British cruiser Pathfinder while patrol-
Hng the North Sea

after this the
at slow speed.
German U-9 succeeded

all
Hague, Aboukir and Cressy

each other
off
within a few minutes of
the
Hook
of Holland.
made
of
just after
daybreak when the

all
The attack was U-9 found herself

within
i
confronted with these three cruisers
,000 }-ards
each other and steaming along at about 7 knots an hour. Next, the Hawke was caught in the North Sea and the Formidable was sunk while cruising at slow speed
and engaged in bombarding the Belgian coast. English gunboat Niger was sunk, while at anchor, open roadstead of Deal.
The
in the
The
success of the Germans,
it
has been asserted, in
the attacks upon the

Fallada,
Theseus and the Russian cruiser

of a neutral flag. It
was
effected
by the use
was
reported in each case that a merchant or fishing vessel
157
IS8
flying the
Dutch ensign was used as a decoy, enabling German submarine to come up and discharge a torpedo at the cruiser when she was practically at rest. On
the the other hand, in their attacks
ping, the
upon the general
ship-
waters so
German submarines, unsuspected of being in far away from their bases, were enabled to take
up positions where previous reports indicated that the enemy's ships would be found, and arriving there, would come to an "awash" condition and wait for the ships of the enemy to appear, and then submerging would lie in wait for the ship to approach within effective torpedo range, or else would direct their courses so as to cross that of the enemy. This method of attack will probably continue to be one of the main attributes of the offensive submarine in as
much
as it
is
one wherein the inherent qualities of this
type of boat are particularly well suited.
The part which
the submarine will play in the actual tactical evolutions,
however, will continue to grow and become of prime

importance.
with,
The submarine
will
then have to be reckoned

the
and
safely, for the control of the seas
jeopardized
capital ship.
by unnecessarily
risking
must not be loss of any
In the Dardanelles, the German V-51 after making a

2400 mile cruise from a base on the Belgian coast succeeded
Triumph and the Majestic. The French Leon Gambetta and the Italian Guiseppe Garibaldi were sunk by Austrian submarines in the Mediterranean.
in sinking the
cruiser
The
British
E-11 and
E-IJ/.
have also met with consid-
erable success in the Dardanelles.

inside through 5 rows of
The E-] 1
She
after passing
mines sunk the Turkish Messoualso chased a supply
diyeh in the Sea of
Marmoro.
159
ship and torpedoed her alongside a pier at Rodosto, and
even entered the harbor of Constantinople sinking a transport alongside the arsenal.
The
E-lJj. also
accounted for
a Turkish gunboat in her passage into the Sea of
Marmoro.
Inside she sank a transport on April 29, a gunboat on

3,
May
and a large transport loaded with troops on May 10, and chased a small supply ship aground on May 13. The submarine has thus through its enterprise effectively hampered the operations of the capital ships, if nothing
more.
Defensive Operations
The
simple.
tactics of the
submarine for harbor defense are

outside of the harbor entrance are
The waters
divided into zones so situated with respect to each other

that they will effectually cover
bor.
all
approaches to the harflotilla
Each
is
of the boats comprising the submarine
which
the
will
to defend this particular port will be assigned
flotilla
commander
to one of these zones.
by The boat
then take her position in the center of the zone assigned
and at such a distance from the port as to prevent the enemy from ever coming within range of gunfire. Trimming to the " awash" condition and with radio up the submarine will here come to anchor and proceed to keep a sharp lookout for the enemy. Outside of this Hne of defense, the destroyers or other scouts in touch with the movements of the enemy will keep the submarines apprised of his position and probable course by means of the radio. To facilitate the sending of warning signals, the sea within a radius of 150 miles
to her
will
be further divided into districts blocked
off into
small
squares designated
by numerals, and the points
of the
com-
pass given short code words to designate the course pur-
i6o

The warning would then
consist
sued by the enemy.
simply of the number designating the position of the enemy
and a code word giving his course. Having received warning of the approach, the submarines will rig down the radio, pull up anchor, and make ready to submerge immediately that smoke is discerned on
the horizon.
After the
enemy has appeared

is
the sub-
marines
will
remain stationary long enough to ascertain

following.
the speed, course, and formation he
The
submarine nearest then starts out to meet him, exposing her periscope only just enough from time to time to enable her to correct her course. Once within easy torpedo range, she will continue to push in as close as possible with periscope continuously exposed just above the water and begin
flotilla will close in
The other boats of the behind the leader and direct their attack to other parts of the formation previously agreed upon.
to
open
fire
with her torpedoes.
signals of
For fear of disclosing their position to the enemy, no any kind can be exchanged between the boats
Therefore very explicit
of the flotilla after submerging.
instructions must be given the captains of each boat be-
up his position in the zone. These instrucmust cover the general tactics to be pursued for every possible formation of the enemy and for his direction of approach. Each captain will carry out these instructions independent of each other, and must run the possible risk
fore taking
tions
of collision until within easy range of the objectives.
Once
within this range, however, the submarine signalling bells
may
be kept constantly ringing to apprise each of the others' location and to prevent further danger of colhsion.
From
this point, too,
warnings and instructions

to another.
may
be
communicated from one boat

Only a part
i6i
of the boats comprising the flotilla should
take part in the actual assault;
the remaining boats to

still effec-
take up advanced positions in the zones so as to

tively cover the approaches to the harbor.
After having fired
all of
her torpedoes, the submarine

if
should continue the attack by ramming
possible.
All
her means of attack having been exhausted, the submarine
must then return under water to her tender for a fresh supply of tordepoes and to have her batteries recharged.
If
she has not a sufficient residuum of current
left in
her
make the return trip under water, she may rest on the bottom until nightfall, when she may come to the surface and proceed back to her base under her internal combustion engines and charging her storage batteries on the way. Four or five submarines with a total of sixteen or twenty
batteries to
torpedoes fired as a
first
load should,
when attacking in
this
do for six or seven ships at least. would be inflicted to cause the enemy to Enough damage turn from his present purpose at any rate.
to
manner, be able
With
the usual four
bow
tube arrangement and by using
the eighteen inch gyroscopic controlled torpedo, the most

effective
system
of firing to
be pursued would be to
to fire the other two,
fire
two torpedoes straight ahead, and

off either
one
bow by
adjusting the gyroscope to cause the tor-
pedo
to take a course a certain
number
of degrees
straight course pursued,
sufficient to
from the compensate for a

it is
probable error in the estimation of the range, speed and

course of the target.
Under these conditions
almost
certain to land one of the torpedoes in its mark.
An error of one knot in estimating the speed of the target

will cause a difference in position of
one hundred and one
62

every minute elapsed between the instant of firing
it
feet for
the torpedo and the instant at which

the objective.
crosses the
path
of
The radius of
At
this
the circle of visibility with the
periscope exposed three feet above the surface of the water

is
4000 yards.
range
it
would take about
five
and
a half minutes for the torpedo to reach the target, and

therefore even were
still
all
the calculations correct,
it
would
for a
be highly improbable that a successful hit be made,
for in so long
an interval
of time it
would be possible
ship to both considerably alter her speed and her course.
The speed
of the target
may
measuring the angles

intervals of time
of her
be solved mechanically by image in the periscope, with
by the submarine, at certain and by plotting these points on a specially constructed scale. This method would be only approximate however, as it depends for its accuracy upon the definite range of the target. At long ranges this error might
respect to the course held
be considerable.
At 1000 yard range
the conditions are

hit.
much more
favorable for a successful
In this case the time
elapsed between the discharge of the torpedo and the

instant of
is
its
interception with the course of the objective
about one minute. mation of the speed

all
An
error of
two knots in the

still
esti-
of a 600-foot ship would, providing

offer favorable
other calculations were perfect,

hit.
chance of a
therefore
Other errors might creep in however, and

fire until
it is
well not to disclose the position of the sub-
marine by opening
yards of the quarry.
within about eight hundred
This might be considered easy range

still
and
in
any event there would
be opportunity to send
first
another torpedo from a practicable range should the
one miss.
163
In the following diagrams are shown the effectiveness of

the torpedo at different ranges, the limit angle for effective
firing from easy range, and the effect of errors in the mation of the speed and the course of the enemy.
esti-
Effectiveness of torpedo
fire
from various ranges
a = calculated position of ship
@ 4000 yd. torpedo interval

" "
3000 " 2000 " " " " " 1000 " 4000 yd. torpedo interval by change of course ai =actual position of ship " " " " " " " " 3000 " " " " bi= H ?> ' " " " " 2000 ci = " " " " " 1000 di =
" " " "
b =
"
= d =
c
"
" "
"
For night work the submarines remain on the surface and pursue tactics similar to those of the surface torpedo
been satisfactorily demonstrated in many maneuvers at night that it is extremely dif&cult to make
craft.
It has
164

full
out the low hull of the submarine even when in the

glare of a search-light;
in contact
and by submerging when coming

is a very easy matter to get enemy's scouts and pickets. it
with them,
line of the
through the
4^00
Diagram showing
limit angle of effective submarine attack

of battleship is 18 knots, of
When: Speed
Speed
and
submarine
is
8 knots
In
this respect the tactical capability of the
submarine
has a direct bearing upon the strategy of the blockade.
The
usual formation for a blockade
is
for the battle fleet
daytime about twenty-five miles off shore at the entrance to the blockaded port with scouts and pickets disposed at intervals shoreward. With the
to take a position in
165
Fig.
A
course
Fig
B
enemy's
Diagram showing
effect of error in estimating the direction of the
A. Error 20, B.S. 2400 yds. off. No shot. " " 1600 " " 10, Poor chance. B. " " " Good shot. 0, 800 " O. " 10, Sub. comes up ahead of B.S. and has to come about. TurnC. ing circle not less than 500 yds. B.S. sights Sub. and changes course. When Sub. has completed turn, B.S. is at Q, (See small Fig. B), 1400 yds. off. Shot improbable. D. Error 20, Sub. comes up ahead and 700 yds. beyond B.S. No shot.
66
oncoming darkness of night the battle fleet draws off to some distance farther seaward, say what would be an eight hour steaming distance for a destroyer making the round
trip, to
prevent the possibility of being attacked by des-
troyers which might find their way through the line of It has however, been found to be very difi&cult for pickets. the destroyers to find the darkened ships of the battle fleet at night even when their general position is known. The submarines would therefore, after eluding the enemy's pickets, pass out and take a general position around that of the daytime position of the enemy's battle fleet, sub-
merge there and wait for its return at daybreak.
The
tactics for the coast defense
work
of the
submarine
are essentially the
same
as for harbor defense except that
the operations are performed on a broader basis.
Having received word that the enemy
is
approaching
the coast, the submarines will proceed at their highest
speed in column and "awash" with the purpose of intercepting his course.
tinguish the
The submarines will be able to dissmoke and masts of the hostile fleet long before
they themselves can be seen.

of the
Upon
sighting the masts
enemy
the submarines will remain
upon the surface

and proceed
long enough to determine his course and speed, and then

the entire group will immediately submerge
in a fan
shaped formation in his general direction.

to be maintained
The speed
tions to be followed
and the general instrucwould be given out by the flotilla
commander
before submerging.
The substance
of the
of these
instructions should be such as to enable the submarines

to reach a position on either
bow
enemy's column
before being discovered, and thus subject

fire
him
to a crosshis part.
and prevent any concerted maneuver on
TACTICAL
E\"OLl TURN'S
OF THE SUBMARINE
'li
1O7
rrl
K'/?"^.
!/.>.
îî^^^
68

occasional exposure
The approach would be with only an

of the periscopes until within
torpedo range,
when
the
attack should be continued with periscopes exposed just
enough
to
keep a constant bearing on the enemy and
all
speed possible maintained until within easy firing distance.
Each submarine having

will
fired its first salvo of torpedoes,
submerge, reload as quickly as possible and return
After exhausting every means of doing the to the attack. enemy damage, they withdraw submerged to their base
or
lie
in wait
under water as before until
nightfall.
Offensive Operations
The
offensive operations of the
submarine
will
devolve
almost entirely upon the large sea-going type of boat.
These operations may be distinctly classified under namely, the maintenance of blockades, the prosecution of naval raids, and participation in the actual
three heads;
tactical evolutions of the battle fleet.
In the
the
first
instance, a group of submarines
would be
stationed outside the entrance to the principal ports of
enemy and would
patrol
its
waters to effectually preIt
vent the exit or the entrance of any ship.
would
also
be within the province of the submarine to drag for or otherwise destroy any mines with which the entrance of
the harbor might be strewn, and having once cleared the
channel, to proceed inside the harbor and destroy what-
ever war vessels or shipping was found there.
To maintain the blockade for any length of ..me it would be necessary to have stationed at some known location and within easy steaming distance, a tender or other
supply ship, in order that the submarines could work in
relays
a part of
them always being on duty while the
169
lyo

The
monotonous
routine,
others were receiving fresh supplies from the tender.
constant
vigil,
and the nervous
strain of blockade duty, together with the extreme hard-
ships
to
for
the submarine in this role would be forced
spend the greater part of the time under water
would
exhaust the crew when on this duty probably quicker than would any of the other roles of the submarine. Therefore it would be well to change crews every time the boat was forced to go to the tender for supplies. It would be an easy matter to train an extra crew for each boat, and not at all a difficult matter to find room for them on board
the tender.
In the role of the raider the submarine would proceed

to sea in the surface condition.
Her purpose would be
to
discover
sition
all
the information regarding the enemy's dispo-
and composition that she could and to prey upon any ship of the enemy she could find. The commanding officer would be given instructions to proceed to sea for a certain length of time and to keep within a certain general locality. Her operations would be independent of any other craft, and would combine to a certain extent those of a surface cruiser with those of the under-
water
craft.
Catching sight of smoke or a mast on the horizon, she would immediately submerge and strike a course so as to
upon drawing into range the vessel was found to belong to the enemy, and engaged in carrying on military operations, the submarine would
intercept the vessel seen.
If
proceed with attack as described for the coast defense

boats.
In conjunction with the activities of the battle

the problem of maneuvering the submarines
fleet,
must be solved
TACTICAL FA'OLUTIOXS OF THE SUBMARINE
171
172
by the commander-in-chief. The strategy involved will be to dispose of them in such a manner as to enable the subsequent evolutions of the fleet to draw the enemy up
to within range of their position.
The
tactics of the
submarine after contact with the
hostile fleet will be practically the
defense work.
It will be the chief
same as for the coast duty of the flotilla up

to the individ-
commander to get all of his boats enemy at the same time. After this
ful
into contact with the

it is
ual captains of the several boats to carry out the success-
maneuvering
of their
own
vessels.
dis-
In the cruising formation the submarines would be
fleet. Immediately the enemy was sighted they would be trimmed to the "awash" condition and ready for instant use. The commander-in-chief of the fleet having decided upon his plan of action, would then order the submarines submerged and send them off in a certain direction and endeavor to draw the enemy
posed on either flank of the
across their zone of
fire
by
his evolutions
with the
fleet;
or he
sions,
may
decide to divide his submarines into two divi-
sending them out in different directions, and enfleet
deavor to entice the hostile

them.
between the cross
fire
from
The duty
fire
of the
submarines would be to get into easy

at the
range of the hostile fleet as quickly as possible and open
on them.
But
way
their
interfere with the
same time they must not in any movements of the capital ships of
own fleet. The ensuing
evolutions of the battle fleet will depend
upon the comparative speed, rifle range, and strength of the enemy, and must be carried out with due cognizance of a possible danger of being drawn into torpedo range
173
from submarines which might be accompanying the enemy. Should the enemy be accompanied by submarines the advantage will manifestly be upon the side possessing the submarines having the greater under-water
speed.
CHAPTER X
THE TORPEDO
After
torpedo
all is
said
and done about the submarine boat,
the fact remains that without the

it
modern automobile
becomes valueless as an instrument of warfare. In 1864 Captain Lupuis of the Austrian Navy conceived the idea of a new form of destructive engine to be used in naval warfare. The proposed weapon was a very crude affair resembling a small surface boat in shape, which was to be driven by a propeller turned by clock work from within and guided by means of ropes from the shore. The fore part of the little boat was to carry a heavy charge of gunpowder which was to be exploded by a trigger device operated by a contact spar fitted to the bow. When the spar struck the side of a ship the impact would pull the trigger and explode the charge. The only bit of importance attached to this device however, is that in its conception Captain Lupuis consulted Mr. Robert Whitehead, an English civil engineer residing in Fiume, Austria, about some of the mechanical problems involved. The idea brought to Mr. Whitehead in this way without a doubt was the first occasion that he had ever given thought to such a device. His imagination was set to work though, and after about two years he built his first torpedo, which was made of boiler plate, carried eighteen pounds of gun-cotton and had a speed of six knots for a very short distance. It was the forerunner of
174
TlIF,
HMîrKDO
17,1
176

its
the present automobile torpedo, with

five
speed of thirty-
knots and
its
4000 yard range.
There are several makes of torpedoes on the market at the present time, all of them having practically the same characteristics and construction. The torpedo itself is divided into sections. The forward one contains the explosive charge and the firing pin. When the head of the torpedo strikes a ship or any other rigid object the firing
pin or plunger
is
driven against a percussion cap containing
fulminate of mercury and situated in the center of the

bursting charge.
The
explosion of this cap detonates the
high explosive contained in the chamber with sufficient

force to rupture the plating of
any battleship and

is
in all
probability to cause her magazines to explode.
In order
that no accident might occur the firing pin
normally held
away from
the percussion cap

is
by
a spring
and a lock device

with pitched
the
restraining
consisting of a collar which
fixed to the pin outside the

is
nose of the torpedo.

blades which cause
it
This collar
to revolve
fitted
when passing through

pin from
its
water and thus releases the

course.
firing
action after running twenty-five or thirty yards
upon
its
firing the above described loaded war head by a collapsible dummy head. This dummy head has the same weight and appearance of the war head
For practice
is
substituted
collapses on strikno explosive. The section immediately abaft the head is the air flask, which is charged with air compressed to about 2200 pounds per square inch. The mechanical energy con-
but
is
made
of thin soft
metal so that
it
ing and thus proves a hit.
It contains
tained in the compressed air serves to drive the torpedo.
The tank
will
hold enough air to drive the torpedo 4000
THE TORPEDO
177
i2
o u
50
O
M
5>
S
CS
""
o
PL,
fc C
H M M
CO 4.
1:5
^
CS
aj
+J
J^
>
tS
bo
(D
bo
-@
178
yards at a speed of 28 knots or 2000 yards at a speed of 38

knots.
this
Next abaft the air flask chamber is contained
is
the immersion chamber.
In
the very delicate apparatus for

It
is
controlling the depth of the torpedo.
an ingenious
combination of a hydrostatic piston and a pendulum

weight in mechanical connection with a horizontal rudder
at the tail end.
The operation
is
of the
pendulum and the
piston working together
such as to counteract a too vio-
lent action of either acting individually.
By
this
mech-
anism
if
the torpedo gets below
its
adjusted depth, sea
pressure acting
push in, which immediately brings the nose

this
upon the hydrostatic piston causes it to throwing the rudder to a "hard up" position
of the torpedo up;
but
to in
upward movement of the nose causes the pendulum swing aft, and the moment of its weight acts directly opposition to the hydrostatic piston and neutralizes
to the extent that the torpedo assumes a gentle
rise;
its effect
and not too abrupt
otherwise
it
would probably
jump out
tion
is
of the water.
The
control in a
downward
direc-
effected in the
same manner but with the operations
The depth of the immersion of the torpedo is by a tension nut acting on a coil spring attached to a hydrostatic piston. The tension caused by this nut is carefully calibrated by experiment so that to change the
reversed.
adjusted
adjustment for depth

of the
is
it is
only necessary to turn the nut
until it intercepts one of the graduations.
The operation
rudder
itself is
controlled
in turn controlled
by a steering engine which by a valve actuated by the hydrocontained in the next section abaft
static piston.
The
driving engine
is
the immersion chamber.
Formerly the Whitehead
tor-
THE TORPEDO
pedoes were
engines,
fitted
179
with small three cylinder single acting

believed now, that since the BHss-
the cylinders being arranged about the crank

It
is
shaft radially.
Leavitt people of this country have adopted the turbo-
Pholo-copyriglil, International
Film Service
Spent torpedo coming to the surface
motor -for propulsion, the Whitehead people have done

too.
The engine both types are similarly connected

air flask
so
is
connected to the
by piping
two valves. One of these is opened by a wrench before the torpedo

launching tube ready to be
fired.
which are placed a shut-off valve which is

in
is
placed in the
is
The
other
an auto-
matic valve which
is
torpedo leaves the tube.

in the tube
is
opened by a tripping device as the A lever from the valve project-
ing above the torpedo, by striking against the projection

is
thrown back and the valve opened.

This
is
There
resist-
a further lever however,
which must be thrown down

actuated by the
before the engine can start.
i8o

left
ance of the water after the torpedo has

preventing the racing of the engine.
the tube, thus
In the early torpedoes, in fact until quite recently,

steering in a horizontal plane
was
effected, or rather the
torpedo was kept on a horizontal course, solely by the ac-
This was tandem at the tail, the after one being keyed to the engine shaft and the forward one being keyed to a loose sleeve fitted on the shaft and driven in an opposite direction by means of a set of bevel gearing. The necessity of having two propellers working
tion of oppositely revolving propeller blades.
effected
by two
propellers placed
in opposite directions arises

of a propeller to
throw
itself
from the thrust or tendency away from the direction in
which
it is
revolving.
Fixed vanes or guides were also
provided at the stern.
These were not however to steer
the torpedo but rather to effect a steadiness, and tend to
keep the torpedo on a straight course. In actual practice though it was found that no matter how carefully the torpedo had been tested and balanced it would behave in a very erratic manner when fired.
Instances have been
known when
the torpedo would run

left
a certain distance and then swerve to the right or
or
perhaps dive to the bottom.
In fact the writer has seen
them perform a complete erang and hitting the side

fired.
circle,
of the ship
coming back like a boomfrom which they were

for this objectionable
No
of
practicable
remedy was found
feature until the advent of the gyroscope.
Now by means
an ingenious device known as the Obry gear, acting in conjunction with rudders placed at the stern, the torpedo
steered in a horizontal plane just as
is
is
a ship.
By
the
use of the
Obry gear
the torpedo can
now be
held true to
THE TORPEDO
a course, the direction in which
it is first
i8i
aimed from the

cer-
launching tube, or the gear can be so adjusted that the tor-
pedo can be
fired in
one direction and after running a
tain distance the gyroscopic influence of the gear acting
on the rudders
will cause it to take
up and continue an
entirely different course.
This can be better understood by a short description

of the gyroscope. which
is
the essential part of the

is
Obry
gear.
The
principle of the gyroscope
that a flywheel
which is spinning with a high momentum

plane and to resist any effort to turn
it
in a certain plane
has a very strong tendency to continue spinning in that

into another plane.
is
The
actuating force of the gyroscopic flywheel
given
by
the tension of a very strong coil spring, or as in some of the most recent designs
by a small
electric
motor.
The
axis of the gyroscopic wheel being once placed in a fore,
and aft direction in the torpedo and the spinning set up, no matter how it turns to right or left the spinning gyroscope, by its inherent directive force, built up of a composition of centrifugal force and gravity, will cause the torpedo If we wish to send the to turn back to its original course. torpedo in a direction different from the direction of the
launching tube, the gyroscope
the direction in which
it is
is
turned into the plane of
desired the torpedo shall run
and the spinning of the flywheel started. The action of the gyroscope upon the steering rudders is then such as to cause the torpedo to be swung into the desired direction
and held
there.
The importance of this latter method is shown by the method of attack of a destroyer, the tubes of which are In making a situated on the main deck well amidships. head-on attack these tubes are swung diagonally across
i82
tlie

beam of
the ship so as to discharge off either bow.
first
The
gyroscopes are
started to spin in a direction in the

fired.
plane of the target and the torpedoes
The
directive
force of the gyroscope acting on the steering rudders brings
the course of the torpedo back into the direction of the

target after a short run.
It will easily be seen that
by
this
off
system of angular
each
firing,
torpedoes fired simultaneously

the
bow
will cover a considerable front of
enemy
and will therefore afford better chances of making a hit. Another device of some importance which has lately been fitted causes a valve to open after the torpedo has run a certain distance, flooding the after compartment and causing the torpedo to sink. This is done so that if a loaded torpedo has been fired and failed to hit its mark and explode it will not be left floating, a menace to friend as
well as to foe.
All the latest torpedoes are equipped with
means
of
it
heating the compressed air stored in the flask before

reaches the engine.
The heater
is
is
situated in the air

is
passage between the reservoir and the engine and

matically lighted as the torpedo
discharged.
autoheat-
The
ing of the air greatly increases the efficiency of the torpedo

as
anyone who
is
familiar with compressed air
phenomena
will
understand.
By
its
means both the
effective range
and the speed

mented.
of the torpedo
have been materially aug-
The new
Leavitt
21" hot air torpedo manufactured

in
by the
Bliss-
Company
Brooklyn has an
effective range of
speed of 43 knots per hour, and will carry about 500 pounds of high explosive. So we
see that
10,000 yards and a
maximum
from a machine
of a doubtful
800 yard range and
a speed of 8 or 10 knots the torpedo has become a weapon
THE TORPEDO
a.
183
\
\
\^
V
\
/A
Mcîco/es posr/jon a/)^

\
of c^/:Sc/>ofge of Yof-peefoej.
C
of
/f>c//cer/ks
/oas/îon ofj</ caorse
les/-foyer.
'^ /ncf/ca/es
7*0
\
of'
Xt7e T/me ffiy/// toA'e /-he /a*f>e</oes
pos//on 0/ B.S.
\
\
ret/c-h fyef:
\T.S.O.
Diagram showing course
of torpedoes set for angle firing in
head-on
attack
84
of
fruition in this particular field
most formidable accuracy and destruction. The latest is the Davis armor piercing
torpedo.
The
salient feature of this
new torpedo
is
that
instead of just the ordinary explosive charge in the head

it
contains also
what
is
in reality a
gun barrel loaded with
an explosive
projectile.
Upon
striking a ship, the contact
Torpedo with lance-head
fixed for cutting through nets
fires this
gun as well as the bursting charge and discharges

it
the projectile right into the bowels of the ship where
in
turn explodes.
The
cost of the present i8" torpedo
is
about $5,000, and
of the big
new ones about
Naval Torpedo Station at

fecting a
is
The United States Newport, R.I. is at work per$7,500.
new torpedo
it is
of long range
and high speed which
said to exceed in these respects anything yet attained. rate
At any
quite certain that the torpedo has reached
a state of perfection in this country equal to any torpedo
found aboard.
And in
case of necessity, with the Govern-
ment shops
at
Newport which
are undergoing extensive
enlargements, and the shops of private concerns,
we
are
quite well equipped to turn out torpedoes in large quantities,
even though
it
does take considerable time for their
manufacture.
CHAPTER XI
TENDERS AND SALVAGE SHIPS
Until the
marines.
last
few years very
little
attention has been
paid to the requirements for adequate tenders for the sub-
In fact until very recently

all
this
Government has
and not
requisitioned for this service
the old monitors and other
obsolete craft which were only makeshifts at best

at
all
suited for this purpose.
It
is
only within the last
year that a ship, the Fulton, especially designed for this

service has been launched.
There are now however two
other mother-ships for submarines of the same type under

construction.
The
function of the mother-ship
is
to provide a
mobile
base, one for each group of submarines, with all

for properly caring for her charges.
equipment
She must accompany them on all expeditions and be ready to stand by and give assistance should anything go wrong.
Her equipment
and
consists of suitable large air compressors

flasks
electric generators for charging the air
and
storage batteries respectively of the submarines, and she

facility for making any necessary repairs machinery and equipment of the submarines for which occasion might arise. She furnishes living and messing quarters for the crews
must have every

to the
of the submarines, except
when the submarines

fuel,
are actually
en voyage, and also carries extra

i8s
spare parts for the
machinery, and spare torpedoes, the very limited amount
i86
of space

on board the submarines themselves preventing
the stowage of these articles there.
France, Italy and
Germany
All are
all
fitted for this purpose.
have vessels especially more or less equipped with
extravagant devices of various kinds for the purpose of
Int.
Film Service Co.
type of
German tender and
fuel ship being used as a base for
submarines
in the present
war
carrying out salvage operations as well, should any of the
submarines meet with serious accident causing her to sink and be unable to rise again by her own efforts. Indeed in France the Schneider Works went so far as to construct a number of vessels to be employed solely in These "kangaroo " vessels were transporting submarines.
so constructed that several of the
bow
plates could be
removed and the submarine
floated into a circular tank
built into the hold of the vessel.
After the
bow
plates
were replaced the water was pumped out
of the tank,
187
i88

was
leaving the submarine high and dry, and the vessel
ready to go on her way.
The
original purpose of the design
was
to build a vessel in
which submarines built in France
could be transported over seas to foreign countries for
which they were

selves.
built,
and
in cases
where the
trip
would
be too perilous or long for the submarines to
make themcomvessel
The Fiat San Giorgio Co.

which
is
in Italy, not long ago
pleted a model tender and salvage ship combined, and

in reality a dry
is
dock vessel as
well.
The
in question
a good sized craft having a normal displace-
ment
of
about three thousand tons, and has twin screws
each being driven by a Diesel engine developing about

fifteen
hundred brake horse power.
She
is
capable of a
sustained
maximum
speed of fourteen knots per hour,

of ten knots per
and at an economical cruising speed
hour
has sufl&cient fuel tank capacity to give her a cruising radius of four thousand miles.
This
new
craft
is
at once a supply ship, a repair ship, a
dry dock, a salvage ship, and also provides adequate berthing and messing quarters for all the crews of the submarines
comprising her particular
flotilla.
She
is
capable of lifting
if at any time it becomes necessary, and transporting the injured vessel into port or to some beach where necessary repairs can be made. This vessel is well equipped with every means for supplying her charges with compressed air and for charging their storage batteries, and carries on board enough reserve accumulator cells to completely outfit two submarines in a few hours time. There is a well equipped machine shop and foundry on board with every facility for making all
one of the submarines from great depths
TENDERS AND SAL\'AGE SHIPS
189
French submarine, Lauboeu type, making ready to enter " Kangaroo " ship
igo
ordinary repairs, and in addition to this she carries in

storage a supply of extra parts and iittings for each boat
She also carries a considerable supply of fuel oil for the submarines and thirty-six spare torpedoes. Besides quarters for a complement of 131 men and ample
of her flotilla.
ÊNTHAnCC CAlSÔn
Type
of Italian
"Mother" and drydock

submarines
ship for salvage
and repair
of
accommodations
there
is
for all the crews
provided a
from the submarines commodious and extremely well
equipped sick bay.
The testing and dry dock feature of the ship is attained by having a cylindrical steel caison constructed within the outer hull of ordinary ship form. The cylindrical section
has an overall length of two hundred and ten feet and a
diameter of twenty-three feet which
afifords sufficient
space
for conveniently docking and repairing a submersible one
hundred and ninety feet long. The submarine is floated dock through a movable caison fitted to the after end of the cylindrical section. The ship at this point is built with two extended sterns or pontoons with the caison lock entrance between, or in other words like a catamaran. This way of constructing the entrance to the dock permits the forward end of the cylinder to be permanently sealed
into the
and therefore enables the

form.
struction
vessel to retain the ordinary
bow
In fact she retains the ordinary ship form of con-
way
aft to the entrance caison.

For salvage work there are
2000 tons of dead weight.
fitted
191
several powerful
cranes and windlasses perfectly capable of lifting 1500 to
There are also supplied two and all the necessary diving apparatus and equipment for wrecking work.
specially designed diving boats,
The tender is further provided with a rather formidable armament comprising a number of six inch quick firing
rifles
and torpedo
tubes,
and
is
quite capable of repelling
the attacks from any of the ordinary light craft.
Any
of
the submarines which are temporarily out of commission

are thus afforded excellent protection under her wings.
submarine tender
of this sort
is
well
named
the mother-
ship.
CHAPTER
XII
LIST OF ACCIDENTS
During the development of the submarine boat there have occurred from time to time a number of serious accidents in which the submarine has taken its toll of human life just as have most other new scientific developments.
The
greater
number
of these casualties
took place in
the early years of experimentation and were due for the
most part to faulty design and indeed to the lack of engineering knowledge on the part of those concerned. When it is remembered that men from almost every walk of life, doctors, farmers, shoemakers, and even priests, have at
one time or another been seized with the idea that they
alone have conceived the
it
is
acme
of
submarine invention,
to
be wondered at that there were not even more
fatalities.
Since the period of systematic and sane development
was taken up by practical engineers and naval men, there have been relatively very few serious accidents. The accidents which have occurred since that time have been more or less unavoidable in character and have been due to many different causes. Following is a list of the more serious accidents which have befallen submarines in the service of the navies of
began,
it
when
the world.
1864.
Confederate submarine Iluiilcy. Operated by steam engines and unable to submerge, was swamped at 4 different times by seas entering open hatch and crews lost. Was raised after each
192
LIST OF ACCIDENTS
193
accident and again put in commission. Finally destroyed by explosion of own torpedo while ramming and sinking the Housatonic. All on board lost. Total loss of life on this boat 32. Russian submarine wrecked on the coast of 1887. Nordenfeldt III. Denmark. Boat unseaworthy and lacked stability. Triton, French diving submarine, loss of control while plunging 1901. and struck bottom causing considerable damage. Saved by release
of drop-keel.
1902.
tric spark.
Fulton, United States, explosion of battery gases ignited 4 injured.
by
elec-
A-1, English, explosion of gases caused 1903. injured.

1903.
by sparking motor.
Narval, French submersible, col'ision with tug boat due to a misty periscope. Saved by double hull construction. Silure, French submersible, collision and severely damaged, but 1903. saved by release of drop-keel and able to reach shore before foundering.
A-1, British, sunk by collision with steamer. Caused by faulty 1904. periscope. 13 lives lost. Porpoise, United States, leaky main ballast valves caused boat 1904.
to sink in 125 feet of water.
Raised after a few hours, no serious
damage done.
Shark, United States, same cause, sank to depth of 40 feet but immediately brought back to the surface before she had reached the bottom. Delphine, Russian submarine, trimmed too low in the water with 1904. the hatches open, swells from passing steamer entered sinking her with all on board. 23 lives lost. A-6, British, boat filled with gasoline vapors when filling tanks 1905. through carelessness of open vents, electric spark from switch caused ignition and explosion. 4 killed and 7 injured. A-8, British, suddenly plunged while running upon the surface 1905. and filled through open hatch. Caused by lack of longitudinal
1904.
stability
and exceeding the
critical speed.
15 lives lost.
by water entering open hatch of conning tower. Sunk to the bottom and became buried in Imprisoned crew sticky mud, making it very difficult to raise her. answered divers signals 32 hours after boat sunk. 15 lives lost. Anguille, French, explosion from unknown cause when no one 1905. was on board. Damaged vessel's machinery. Gymnote, French submarine, explosion of battery gases. 2 1905.
1905.
Farjadet, French submarine, foundered
injured.
1905. 1906.
A-4,
British,
sank through water entering through open ventilafirst
tor.
All saved.
unknown
Lutin, French submarine, sank stern All on board lost, 14. cause.
while maneuvering,
194
igog.
Foca, Italian, explosion of gas caused by sparking of motors. 13 lives lost. Kambala, Russian, sank. 20 lives lost. Collision with battle1909.
ship.
C-11, British, collision at night. 13 lives lost. 1909. igio. No. 6, Japan, sank through water entering by leaky main valve. All on board lost, 14. 1911. U-3, German, sank. 27 men on board, all but 3 escaped through torpedo tubes. Ventilator left open. AS, British, lack of stability, boat swamped. 14 lives lost. 1912.
Collision.
Vendemaire, French, sank. .\11 on board lost, 24. Ran down 191 2. while emerging. B-^, British, sank. 15 lives lost. Collision at night. 1912. F-1, United States, washed ashore in severe storm at Watson1912. ville, California, considerable damage to hull and interior of boat by leaking acid from the batteries. Caused by insufficient and faulty
moorings.
1913.
1913.
lives lost.
1914. 1915.
3 killed. Ran into by lighter and sunk. No one lost. C-14, English. A-7, British, lack of stability and reserve bouyancy when ex.\U lost.
E-5, British, battery explosion.
ceeding critical speed caused boat to plunge.
F-4, United states, sunk in 400 feet of water while maneuvering. Cause unknown but it is believed that the entire crew was incapacitated immediately accident occurred inasmuch as no signals were sent out nor position marker buoy released. Probable cause battery explosion. It was days before the boat was located and will be very difficult to raise on account of the great depth at which she The first serious accident in the United States Navy. 22 lies.
lives lost.
CHAPTER
Like the submarine torpedo
XIII
SUBMARINE MINES
boat, the conception of the
submarine mine dates back a great
many
years.
The
tion
first
recorded use of this sort of engine of destruc-
was
in 1585 at the Siege of
Antwerp, when floating
mines of a kind were used quite successfully against the Spaniards. These so-called mines were in reahty small boats carrying heavy loads of gun-powder which was covered over with pieces of timber and weighted
down with
good sized chunks of iron and rock. After lighting a slow burning fuse leading to the powder charge, these small vessels were set adrift in the current so as to be borne down upon the fleet of the enemy. When the fuse had burned down to the powder the explosion would occur scattering the pieces of rock and iron in all directions. The real ancestor of the modern submarine mine was
however, evolved by David Bushnell, the father of the submarine boat. BushneU's mine consisted of a keglike
container
filled
with gun-powder and discharged by an
ingenious arrangement of a flint-lock actuated

clock mechanism.
by
the release of
by a time The clockwork was set in operation a pin when the mine was set free and the
explosion occurred thereafter at a definite time accordingly

as the
mechanism had been adjusted.
Fulton was the next to take up mines and he carried out a great deal of experimental work with them in this
country and abroad.
Several years later Samuel Colt,
19s
196

This latter development was
another American, evolved a means of exploding mines
under water by
defense work.
electricity.
the forerunner of our present system of mining for coast
submarine mine was first demonstrated in the Civil War when they were used extensively by the Confederates. As the Southerners had hardly any Navy, the Union gunboats were constantly ascending
The
effectiveness of the
their rivers
and
inflicting considerable
damage.
To put
a stop to this the Southerners began to mine their streams
and harbors with kegs and beer barrels filled with gunpowder and by so doing succeeded in destroying many Northern ships. Mines were again used in the Franco-Prussian War by Germany, who made good use of them in protecting her coasts. England had also used them in the Crimean War
but with little significant success. In spite of what had been accomplished with mines European naval experts, however, refused to place much
confidence in
subject.
them and were but
little
interested in the
In fact at the time of the Russo-Japanese War,
England and other countries had about decided to cut them out entirely from their defense equipment. The Russo-Japanese War, however, changed naval opinion on the subject. During its many engagements the real value of the submarine mine was substantially proven. Up to this time mines had been used almost entirely for the protection of harbors and points of strategic value, but now for the first time they were used in the open
sea for offensive v/arfare.
It
was by the use
of
mines that the Japanese were

fleet
enabled to enfeeble and so demoralize the Russian
SUBMARINE MINES
that any concentrated
fleet
197
action was prevented.
The
contingent result of this strategy was practically the annihilation of the Russian fleet.
battle fleet, dropping mines over the stern as she proceeded. The battle fleet would then make a turn and maneuver so as to bring the opposing fleet onto the mine field and to destruction.
The plan of attack was to have the wake of the formation of the
a mine-layer follow in
The Russians were not slow

ever,
in learning their lesson,

of tactics,
how-
and soon adopted the same kind
succeeding
way. There are three types of mines in use at the present time first, ground mines, which are usually of large dimensions and very heavy. These are laid directly upon the bottom and are used in such places where strong currents would prohibit the use of the ordinary anchored mines; second, anchored mines, which are attached by a cable to a weight on the bottom and held to float at a depth where they will be struck and exploded by passing ships; third, floating mines, which are dropped overboard and float upon the surface until they are run upon by some ship and exploded. The simplest form of mine is the contact mine. It consists of an iron casing which is connected by cable to an anchor weight, the latter being sufficiently heavy to hold it in place. The casing in which the explosive charge is carried is provided with one or more projecting arms or levers which act as triggers. If one of these triggers is
struck
in destroying ten of the Japanese ships in this
by a passing
vessel, it is driven in against the perit
cussion cap causing

charge.
roll
to explode
and
fire
the bursting
Mines having only one
firing
pin are designed to
when struck by
a passing ship until the projecting
1 98

is
lever
brought into contact with the bottom of the ship.
All floating mines are of the simple contact type.
STfilHER
/6HT
Simple contact mine
For harbor defense work this simplest form of contact mine is however as dangerous to friend as to foe, and
therefore electrically fired detonators in
many
different
forms are almost universally used at the present time.
The
electro-contact
mine
is
constructed on
the
same
general principles as the simple contact mine, except that
the firing pin
when driven
in
by a passing
ship, instead of
SUBMARINE MINES
exploding a percussion cap,
199
closes an electric circuit. There is however another break in the electric circuit which must be closed before the mine can be exploded; this
is
effected
by leading
an electric cable down through the anchor and

thence to a shore station
is
~y>"B
where the
circuit
broken by a switch.
switch
is
Unless this
closed the
mine cannot
be
if
fired. In this way no ships of the enemy
are in the vicinity the
switch at the shore station can be left
open
Diagram showing depth
regulation of
and
out
all
friendly ship-
ping can pass in and
contact mines
with absolute
safety.
tro-contact
Another form of elecmine has

firing
When the mine is dropped overboard, the drop-weight sinks first, as in figure on the left, and causes the drum of the anchorweight cable to unwind until the dropweight reaches the bottom, as in central figure. This causes the drum to stop unwinding, and the anchor-weight then pulls the mine below the surface, the depth of the drop-weight cable length, as in the figure on the right.
the
mechanism
the
and the bursting charge

in separate cases;
contact buoy containing the firing
held a few feet below the surproper by cable. The mine mine face and connected to the itself, which is several feet below the buoy, is anchored as before, and is in electrical connection with a shore station. There are to this type of mine two distinct and separate circuits a signal circuit leading from the contact
mechanism
is
200

firing circuit leading to the
buoy, and a
cuit
mine itself.
When
cir-
the firing pin of the contact

is
buoy
is
struck the signal
closed causing a bell to ring or a
the shore station.
lamp to light at To discharge the mine the observer at
the keyboard of the shore station has then only to close the switch in the firing circuit of the mine which corre-
sponds to the signal given.
Where
mines are
the depth of the water
is
too great or the current
too swift to
make practicable the use of these mines ground resorted to. The ground mines are very heavy
amount depending upon

placed.
and contain exceedingly heavy charges of explosive, the the depth at which they are
A method commonly employed in firing ground mines is

have two shore stations in electrical connection with the mine and a break in the circuit at each station. These two breaks must be closed simultaneously in order to
to
explode the mine.
To
effect the
is
simultaneous closing of
constructed so as to
the breaks, each station

a
provided with a telescope

is
mounted upon a swivel base which

practically
constitute
selective
switch.
The switch
tele-
points of the base are arranged to close the break in that

circuit leading to the particular
mine upon which the
scope
is
directly bearing at that instant.
To
explode
a mine the observers at each shore station have therefore
only to keep their telescopes bearing upon the approaching
and when the ship is directly over any mine each telescope sighting upon it will have simultaneously closed the breaks and the firing circuit completed. Should a ship not pass directly over a mine the two breaks cannot be closed at the same time thus preventing the useless exploship
sion of a valuable mine.
SUBMARINE MINES
The
201
explosives most commonly used in submarine mines wet and dry gun-cotton, dynamite, and explosive gelatine compositions. These are superior to gun-powder because they are not affected by moisture, when a leak in the casing would cause gun-powder to become useless, and because they have from six to eight times the expansive force of gun-powder. Many new higher explosives have recently been perfected for this use however, which are said to greatly exceed in destructive force anything which has been known heretofore. It is claim.ed for some of the new explosives that a mine loaded with a charge of five hundred pounds would have enough bursting force to rupture the bottom plates of a modern battleship if exploded within a radius of one hundred feet, provided it was properly immersed. Even where the explosion of the mine fails to blow a hole
are
in the ship's bottom, the shock of the explosion serious
may cause
damage by putting out of commission delicately adjusted machinery and electrical equipment. The tremendous concussion may also cause the detonation of the
high explosives stored in the magazines of the ship, causing
her complete destruction.
B/iLL/) 5T
I\'-\0\C\>< \\R\S\
<l><l>-<>
MOTORS
<.
ENGINE R.OOM
\>^fJf^'^^'^9''A
CReiw's OUARTER.S
<OffJC/?S\,}^^,o '>OFFiCE/?5
TORPEDO R]pOM
=D:4)CI>#^^^^H hn^^^
B/9LL./9Sr
PLATE
IV.
PLAN AND PROFILE OF 600-TON LAURENTI SUBMARINE
B/9LL/}5T
dXH
OTOR5
<,
CIEXH
NGINE R.OOM feod@5)P5lf
OPERATJNGN 3T/)T/OA/S
-TV
cS^^^c >oFFiCE/?5
TORPEDO R OOM
BALUAtST
PLATE
IV.
PLAN AND PROFILE OF 600-TON LAURENTI SUBMARINE
'J"-'l-T ^
TT~~~
II
VC
1^
1_^
-rnoaenn
PLATE
V.
PLAN AND PROFILE OF 800-TON GERMAN SUBMARINE
PLATE
V.
PLAN AND PROFILE OF
8cx5-TON
GERMAN SUBMARINE
PLATE
VI.
PROFILE OF 830-TON ELECTRIC BOAT TYPE SUBMARINE
APPENDIX
LIST OF SUBMARINES IN
Table
I.
THE PRINCIPAL NAVIES

States Submakines
United
No.
204
APPENDIX
The German building program contemplated 72 submarines by 1917 and has been reported on good authority that all of these boats were laid down in 1914 soon after the outbreak of the war. The dimensions of these boats are reported as length 214 ft.; beam 20 ft.; surface displacement 750 metric tons, submerged, 900 tons; speed on the surface 20 knots and 10 knots submerged; B. H. P. engines 4000, and radius of action on the surface 5000 miles.
it
Austria
Built
to July
i,
19 14
Tons 1686
"
Building
537
Table
III.
Allies'
I,
Submarines
To July
British
1Q14
INDEX
Blockade, effect of submarines upon
the strategy
Accessibility of
of,
164
of
machinery and en192
Blockade,
rine,
maintenance
subma-
gines, necessity for, 28
168
,
Accidents,
list of,
Boiler (soda)
22
method
of propulsion,
Accommodations for berthing, 36 Action, Radius of, 18, 86,, 137 Adder, U. S. submarine boat, 16 Advantage of destroyer over submarine, 30 Aeroplane versus submarine, 148
Air connections required for safety,
106, 109
Bombs, use
I4S
of,
against submarines,
Bonaparte, Napoleon, and Fulton, 3 Booms, use of, for harbor protection,
150
Bridge, navigating, 90
British submarine development, 20 British submarine of the
Angle
fire
method
of torpedo attack,
class,
20
161, 181
British submarine operations in the

of weights, 62
Apportionment
Dardanelles, r58
British submarine operations in the
Armament, 97
Arrangement of torpedo tubes, 97 Attack, submarine tactics for, 158 Attack upon submarine by destroyer, 30, 144
North Sea, 154 Buoy, position marker, 108 Buoyancy, position of, center
of,
44
of,
Buoyancy
see
reserve,
percentage
Automobile torpedo,
torpedo
38
Bushnell, David,
,
i,
B
Balance of chief factors, proper, 137
Ballast system, 61
195
of,
lack of appreciation
Turtle, I
Base strategy, 153

Battery ventilation, 108
Batteries, storage, 124
Calculations for propellers, 73 Calculations for strength of huU,
Battleship,
efifect
of
submarine upon
of,
104
design of the, 141
Campaign
12
effect
in the Dardanelles, sub-
Bauer, tribulations
marine, 158
Beam-length
sistance, 6s
ratio,
upon
re-
Campaign
in the
North Sea, subof,
marine, 154
Bliss-Leavitt
Torpedo Co.,
179, 182
Center of buoyancy, position

203
44
2o6
Center of gravity, position
16
of, 40,
INDEX
44
"Davids,"
the,
Chief characteristics of the Adder,
Davy, Marie, 93 Deck tubes, 97

Defense
against
of,
Chief characteristics of the Chief

characteristics
of
M-i,
the
16
the
submarine,
sub-
means
Defense,
142
of coast, 166 of harbor, 158 of
marine torpedo boat, 15

Chief characteristics of the U-g, 22
Circle of visibiUty, radius of, 162
Defense,
mode mode
Defensive
operations
the
sub-
Circular hull type of boat, 38

Civil
Civil
marine, 158
War, use of the submarine in, 4 War, use of the submarine mine in, 196
Del Proposto system of propulsion,

130
Coast defense operations, 166

Colt, Samuel, 195 Communications, interior, 95 Compass, gyroscopic master, 90
Depth Depth
Design,
control of contact mine, 199 control of submarine, 106

effect
of
submarine,
on
battleship, 141
Design of the submarine

,
Compass
88
variations effected
by huU,
armament, 97 apportionment of weights, 63

ballast system, 61
effect of
Compromise
S8
in design, necessity of,
form upon resistance,
Conning tower, 92-106

Contact mines, 197 depth control, 199 Control, automatic depth, 106
,
6S
,
frame resistance formula, 104

habitability, 34, 82
navigation, 88
Control by use of forward propellers,
54
factors
propulsive system, 18, 28, 65, 80, no, 130, 140

, ,
Control,
and
margin
of
radius of action, 18, 86, 137

safety, 102
safety in the different types, 51
Cork sheathing in
living quarters,
signalling
and
interior
com-
37 Cost of the automobile torpedo, 184

Course, effect of error in estimation
of, 16s Cruising radius, real limit
munication, 95 speed and power curves, 74,
75
,
speed and power estimation,

stability,
of,
18
67
,
Curves,
typical
speed and power,
60
showing
difference
between en-
gines and motors, 75
D
Dardanelles,
in the, 158
Destroyer versus the submarine, 30, 144 Determination of E, H. P. in the
submarine operations
model basin, 68 Development, beginning of systematic,
IS
INDEX
Development,
,
207
on the strategy
of, 28,
future, 134
Effect of submarine
of blockade, 164
in England, 20
in France, 20
in
Effective torpedo range, limit
Germany, 22 Deviation of the compass

,
162
erratic,
Efficiency, tactical, 138
88
E. H. P., determination
tactical, 92
of,
of,
68
Diameter,
Electric
Boat
Co., 18
Diesel engine, theory

,
112
Electro-contact mines, ig8
diflSculties in design,
116
Engines, Diesel, 112

,
German
types, 120
four cycle and two cycle, 115
Difi&culties in rapidly increasing sub-
gasoHne,
no
of, 75
marines over their present
size,
137
speed and power curves
Diving type, characteristics formance of, 46

,
of per-
steam, 128
EngUsh submarine activities,

51
154, 158
equilibrium forces
of,
Entanglements for harbor defense,

150 Equilibrium of diving boats, 51 Equilibrium of "Even Keel" boats,
S3
impracticability of large boats
of the, 48
Double hull type of construction, 22 d'QueviUey system of propulsion,

130
Estimation of power, by comparison,

for submarines, 147
Dragging
77
,
Drop keels, 108 Dual system of power

limitations of the, 18
plant,
the
by independent method, 78 by model basin testing, 67
Even
Dyson, Captain C. W., on propeller

design, 77
keel submergence, 46, 53 Evolutions, tactical, of the submarine,
153
Eagle, attack
ship, 2
on the
British flag-
class, British,
20
Fenian Ram, Holland's, 6

Fiab, San Giorgio Co., 188
Firing, angle
Edison nickel-iron storage battery,

126
Effect
of
method
of, 161,
181
beam-length ratio upon

error
Firing, necessity for rapid, 32, 98 Firing,
resistance, 65
system of torpedo,
32, 97
Effect
of
in
estimation
of
Floating mines, 196
range, 162 Effect of error in the estimation of
Form Form
of huU, effect
on
resistance, 65
of superstructure, 105
speed and course of enemy, 163

Effect of form
Formulas, propeller, 75
upon
resistance, 65
Forward
propellers, effect of, 54, 93

in.
Effect of submarine on battleship

design, 141
France, submarine development
208
INDEX
Hull, single, 40
Franco-Prussian War, use of mines,

196
Hydroplanes,
28,
46
Froude's laws of comparison, 64, 77 Fuel siiips, 186

Fulton, Robert,
3,
195
Impracticability of large boats of
Fulton's Nautilus, 4
Future development, 134
the diving type, 48 Independent method of estimation

of power, 78
Installation of machinery, 2^
Gas
engines,
no
German submarine development, 22 German submarine operations, 156,

Gravity, center
of, 40,
Interior communication, 95 Interview of Capt. Hersing on 2400
mile cruise to the Dardanelles, 36

Invisibility of the submarine, 143
44
Ironclad plates, 126
Ground mines, 200

Gyroscope, the, 181
K
fire,
Gyroscopic control of torpedo

180
Keel, drop, 108

,
Gyroscopic master compass, 90, 92
Krupp
even, 46, 53 Diesel type engines, 120
H
Habitability, 34, 82
Krupp, German submarine develop-
ment by,
of,
22
Hansing, Lieut., statement
36
Harbor defense tactics, 158 Harbor entanglements and booms,

ISO
Hersing, Lieut., interview with, 36
Lake, Simon, inventor, 14
Lake
t5TDe,
18
L. A. Submarine Boat Co., type, 131
HoUand, John
P.,
Large type submarine, 136 Lauboeuf type, 12

Laurenti
tx-pe,
Holland, the, 8
20
Holland type submarines in England, io

in
Law, Froude's, 64, 77 Lead accumulator cells, 124

Lee, Corporal Ezra,
United States, 18
Holland's Fenian
Ram, 6
Ilousatonic, sinking of the, 6
Hovgaard, Lieut., 10
Hull, calculations for strength of, 104
,
Lc Morse, 8 Le Plongeiir, 6 Limit of eflfectixe torpedo range,

of propulsion, iS
List of accidents, 192
:?S
Limitations of present dual system
circular type, 38
double, 22, 44
efficiency of, 70
List of requirements of U. S. N., 15
resistance, 69
Loading gear
of,
for torpedoes, 97
ship-shape form
38
Lupius, Capt., 174
INDEX
209
M
Maintenance
ade, 168
of
O
Obry
gear, 180
submarine block-
Operations of the
of trim, 62
fensive,
,
submarine,
de-
Maintenance
158
Means
of defense against the sub-
offensive, 168
marine, 143 Metacentric height, 42
Operations of mine layer, 197
Method
160
of
advance during attack,

Peacemaker, the, 22
32
characteris-
Method of torpedo fire, M-i, U. S. submarine,

tics of,
Pasted plate, 126

Periscope, the, 12, 32, 93 , vulnerability of the, 144
Pitt,
16
Mines, in Civil War, 196 in Franco-Prussian War, ig6

,
William, 4 Plante plate, 124
in Russo-Japanese War, 196 Mines, submarine., contact, 197

, ,
Plongeur, Le, 6
Position marker buoy, 108 Power, estimation of, 67, 78
ground, 200
electro-contact, 198
Power
of
,
plant, 78,
no
and
reliability of,
method
use
of,
of
employment
installation
floating mines, 196

,
28
,
against the submarine.
of,
Kmitations of present system 18
Mine-layer, operations
of,
197
to,
percentage of weight allotted

65
single unit
Model
basin, experiments for resist-
ance, 65, 68
system
of,
140
design
Morse, Le, 8
Propellers, advantage of forward, 93

,
Motors,
of,
electric, 122
of,
Capt. C.
77
W. Dyson on
Motors, typical speed-power curve

7S
computation and formulas, 73

selection of, 71
N
Nanal,
the, 12
Proper balance of all factors, 137 Proposto system of propulsion, del,

130
Propulsive system, 18, 28, 65, 80,
Nautilus, the, 4 Navigation, 88

,
submerged, 93
surface, 90
no, 130, 140 Pumping for ballast and

tems, 106
in
fuel sys-
Nordenfelt's submarines, 10
North Sea, submarine operations

the, 154
Q
Quarters, for men, 34, 36, 82, 84 food facilities, 84
,
2IO
Quarters, heating, 84
d'Quevilley
22,
INDEX
system of propulsion,
for,
Speed and power estimation, 67 Speed boats as submarine catchers,

147 Speed, effect of error in estimation of, 162
130
Quick submergence, necessity
30
R
Radius of action, 18, 86, 137 Radius of circle of visibility, 162 Raider, submarine in role of, 170 Range, effective, 28, 162
,
importance of, 28 Speed of automobile torpedo, 176

,
Stability, 26, 40, 42, 60, 62
Steam engine,
Steering
6, 10,
no, 128
of
Steering stations, 92
eflfect
of error in estimation of,
mechanism
8,
automobile
162
torpedo, 180
finding,
Range
94
to length, effect of, 65
Storage batteries,
122
Ratio of
beam
Strategic bases, 153
Relative stability of different types,
Strategy of the blockade, 164
40 Rehabihty of power plant, 28 Requirements, Ust of U. S. N., 15 Reserve buoyancy, 38

Resistance,
effect
Strength of hull, 102
Submarine, definition of, 58 Submarine blockade, 168 Submarine characteristics and

quirements, 26
re-
of
beam-length
ratio on, 65
form on, 65 Rule for wetted surface, 80 Russo-Japanese War, the use of mines and their importance in, 196
,
effect of
Submarine in battle, 172 Submarine in the role of

170
raider,
Submarine operations
danelles, 158
in the
Dar-
Submarine operations in the North

Sea,
154
Safety factors, 102
Salvage ships, i85

Schley, the U. S. submarine, 136
Sea-going type of submarine, 136

Sea-worthiness, 26
Selection of propellers, 71 Selection of type, 58
Ship-shape form of hull, 38

Single
Submarine signal system, 95 Submarine size increase, 134, 137 Submarine tenders, 185 Submarines and submersibles, 38 Submarines in the Civil \\'ar, 4 Submarines versus aeroplanes, 148 Submarines versus submarines, 151 Submergence, depth, 102
,
Signaling devices, 95 unit system of propulsion,
diving type, 46
even
keel, 46, 53
140
Sleeping quarters, 36
Submerged na\-igation, 93 Submerged speed and radius

action, 18
of
Soda
22,
boiler
system of propulsion,
130
Submergence, necessity for rapid, 30
INDEX
Submerging, equiKbrium factors
S3
of,
211
Submerging type versus the diving

type, 46
Torpedo tubes, 97 Torpedo rake, 140 Trim, maintenance of, 16 Tuck, Prof. J. H. L., 22, 131
Types, double huU,
,
Superstructure, form
of,
105
22,
44
d'Que viUey
22
Tactical diameter, 92 Tactical efficiency, 138
Electric Boat Co., 18 Lake Torpedo Boat Co., 18
Laurenti, 20
Sea-going, 136
Tactical evolutions, 153 Tactical value, 26
Tactics of the sea-going submarine,
Submersible, 38, 42, 58 Submarines proper, 38, 40,
168
Taylor,
42,58
Admiral D. W., rule
for
U
U-g, chief characteristics
of,
wetted surface, 80
Tenders, submarine, 185
22
Thrust deduction factor, 70 Torpedo, automobile, 8, 161, 174
U-si, exploit of the German, 36 Unsolved difficulties in design of

large type, 137
air flask, 1 76
air heaters, 182
Use
of
mines and bombs against the
angle
fire,
182
submarine, 145
automatic sinking device con182

Bliss-Lea vitt, 179
cost of, 184
V
Van
88
Ventilation of storage batteries, 108
Visibility circle of, 162
,
trol,
Drebbel, Dr. Cornelius,
Variations of the magnetic compass,
Davis, 184
engine, 178
government factory at New184 hydrostatic piston, 178 immersion chamber, 178

I.,
port, R.
,
of air bubbles, 140

of periscope as a target,
144
Obry
gear, 180
W
Wake
of Torpedo, 140
steering
mechanism, 180
140
wake
of,
Warhead
Weight Weight
warhead, 176 Torpedo, deck tubes, 97 Torpedo, methods for fixing, 32, 161,
,
of the torpedo, 176 Weight, EfEect on design, 61 of storage batteries, 127

of
power plant, 65
of,
181
Weights, apportionment
62
Torpedo, gear for loading and handling,
Wetted surface formula, 80

Whitehead, Robt., 174
Wireless, 97
97
Torpedo range, 28
D.

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The Submarine Torpedo Boat Its Characteristics & Modern Development Allen Hoar 1916

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THE SUBMARINE TORPEDO BOAT

AND MODERN DEVELOPMENT

NEW YORK VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

THE 'PLIMPTON 'PRESS NORWOOD'MASS'U'S-'

naval engineer, who, while not

The author has

technical language in so far as possible, brought to the

prominence by the successful

Captain Koenig, her commander, has stated

that in all she

miles of this trip under the surface.

boats are practically identical with our

a well blockaded port and traversed waters abounding

at this time to obtain

as to the real dimensions of this vessel.

and from 1000

4000 tons in displacement.

doubt, however, from what reliable

information can be had, that this vessel

in the early part of 1914, the principal characteristics of

size if stripped of all

and 10 knots submerged, would

afford a net cargo ton-

about 75 to 100 tons.

tration of the possibiKties for

uses of the submarine

successful performance of the Deutschland

not confuse her as being in the class of the submarine

a logical development of a tried type and not the prod-

uct of momentary hysteria.

Previous to the successful

course not impracticable in

build a subof cargo,

marine capable of transporting a hmited

the reported dimensions of this craft, about 450 feet in

length and 40 feet in beam,

interesting to note that

effectiveness of the small speedy-

surface craft as a defense against the submarine.

of these light craft

the conditions set forth in the chapter on

more moral than

physical, since the deck of one of these Httle craft affords

a very poor gun platform from which to shoot with accu-

Early History and Development.

Development of the Present -Day Submarine

Types OF Submarines (Submarines and Submersiblesj

Design of the Submarine Torpedo Boat (General

The Power Plant

of Defense Against Submarine Attack

Tactical Evolutions of the Submarine.

The Argonaut Jr The Argonaut First

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

entering the Golden Gate, California

Crew's quarters, Electric Boat

Submarine K-6 Midship section, Electric Boat

Steering station, E. B. type

57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

Visible disturbance of periscope