Gravitational Potential: Particle of Unit Mass M
Gravitational Potential: Particle of Unit Mass M
Lets assume:
A particle of unit mass moving freely A body of mass M
The particle is attracted by M and moves toward it by a small quantity dr. This displacement is the result of work W exerted by the gravitational field generated by M:
dr
r r F = ma
The potential U of mass M is the amount of work necessary to bring the particle from infinity to a given distance r:
W = Fdr = m a dr = a dr M ! W = G 2 dr r
U =* G
dr U + dU U
r g
U ="
Earth, mass ME
Equipotential surfaces
= surfaces on which the potential is constant U = constant, recall that: dU = -g dr
dU = zero on equipotential surfaces g not necessarily constant on equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surfaces
r g r g
r g
r g
The geoid
There is an infinity of equipotential surfaces There is a particular surface on the Earth that is easy to locate: the mean sea level The Geoid = the particular equipotential surface that coincides with the mean sea level This is totally arbitrary. But is makes sense because the oceans are made of water (!): the surface of a fluid in equilibrium must follow an equipotential.
Over the oceans, the geoid is the ocean surface (assuming no currents, waves, etc) Over the continents, the geoid is not the topographic surface (its location can be calculated from gravity measurements) Geoid undulations are caused by the distribution of mass in the Earth
ocean surface
geoid
The Ellipsoid
First evidence that the Earth is round: Erathostene (275-195 B.C.) First hypothesis that the Earths is flattened at the poles: Newton First measurement of the Earths flattening at the poles: Clairaut (1736) and Bouguer (1743) The shape of the Earth can be mathematically represented as an ellipsoid defined by:
Semi-major axis = equatorial radius = a Semi-minor axis = polar radius = c Flattening (the relationship between equatorial and polar radius): f = (a-c)/a Eccentricity: e2 = 2f-f2
This formula assumes an homogeneous Earth: heterogeneities deviations from this formula gravity anomalies
Lets be clear
Geoid = the equipotential surface of the Earths gravity field that best fits (in a least squares sense) the mean sea level
Potential is constant on the geoid Gravity is not constant on the geoid
Reference Ellipsoid = the ellipsoid that best fits the geoid Geoid = the (actual) figure of the Earth Ellipsoid = the (theoretical) shape of the Earth
Geoid anomalies
Geoid anomalies, or undulations = differences, in meters, between the geoid reference ellipsoid (= geoid height):
Excess of mass geoid (ocean surface) goes up (geoid = eqp surface must remain perpendicular to the gravity field direction!) Deficit of mass geoid (ocean surface) goes down
Geoid height
Geoid anomalies
Contribution to gravity of hot rising mantle:
Elevated surface over hot spot => positive anomaly (mass excess due to extra topography) Hot, buoyant (less dense) mantle material => negative anomaly (mass deficit) Positive > negative => overall positive anomaly
Geoid undulations (= heights) for the conterminous United States and surrounding areas (http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID). Geoid heights range from a low of -51.6 meters in the Atlantic (magenta) to a high of -7.2 meters (red) in the Rockies.
H=h+N
h = ellipsoidal height N = geoid height H = orthometric height = height above mean sea level