INTRODUCTION Behavioural change theories are attempts to explain why behaviours change.

These theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural characteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the application of these theories in the areas of health, education, criminology, energy and international development with the hope that understanding behavioural change will improve the services offered in these areas. 1970s and 1980s Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen's - Theory of Reasoned Action and Ajzen's later modification - Theory of Planned Behaviour Albert Bandura's - Social Cognitive Theory James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente's - Transtheoretical Model.

Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory 1. People can learn by observing others. In our Electric Slide example, the observer watched the models perform the dance in order to learn it. 2. Learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to a behavior. In our dance example, it may take our observer multiple parties at which the Electric Slide is being danced until he joins in or he may never join in. 3. Goal-directed behaviour. In our dance example, the observer is motivated to learn the dance or else he wouldn't be observing it time and time again. 4. Behavior eventually becomes self-regulated. Let's take our dancer for example. Behaviorists would say the best way for him to learn the dance would be through continual reinforcement from other people encouraging him to continue to improve. Social-cognitivists theorists, however, would say that he should observe the models, perfect his own moves, and compare them to the models moves. And then, give himself a pat on the back when he has mastered the entire dance. 5. Reinforcement and punishment have indirect (rather than direct) effects on learning and behaviour. For example, our wannabe dancer may think that if he learns the dance, the audience will clap for him because he has observed this reinforcement while watching the others dance. However, if he does not see clapping or, perhaps, he sees everyone laughing at the other dancers, he may choose to not participate in the dance at all. Different types of models Live models - individuals whose behavior is observable in real life. For example, teachers, peers, and supervisors - these are real people. symbolic model - real or fictional characters that influence an observer's behavior. These types of models could be real or fictional characters portrayed in books, movies, and other media.

Characteristics of an effective model

Competent. People will typically try to imitate behaviors of models who do something well, not poorly. In the classroom, a teacher could either demonstrate correct behavior or choose student models that are at or above the observer's skill level to display these skills correctly.

Must have prestige and power. These are often qualities observers look for. For example, students may look to renowned athletes or world figures for behavioral cues. In the classroom, a teacher might highlight popular actors or sports figures as models for certain behaviors.

Are engaging in gender-appropriate behaviors. Students, especially in lower grades, are more likely to adopt behaviors from models that are engaging in gender-appropriate behaviors. The behaviors being modeled should be relevant to the learner's situation. Students are more likely to learn or adopt new behaviors that they believe will help them in their own circumstances. For example, our dancer may model the Electric Slide because he thinks it will help him earn friends or be popular at the dance. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

The Theory of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) started as the Theory of Reasoned Action in 1980 to predict an individual's intention to engage in a behavior at a specific time and place. The theory was intended to explain all behaviors over which people have the ability to exert self-control. The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation (intention) and ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs - behavioral, normative, and control. The TPB is comprised of six constructs that collectively represent a person's actual control over the behavior. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Attitudes - This refers to the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior of interest. It entails a consideration of the outcomes of performing the behavior. Behavioral intention - This refers to the motivational factors that influence a given behavior where the stronger the intention to perform the behavior, the more likely the behavior will be performed. Subjective norms - This refers to the belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behavior. It relates to a person's beliefs about whether peers and people of importance to the person think he or she should engage in the behavior. Social norms - This refers to the customary codes of behavior in a group or people or larger cultural context. Social norms are considered normative, or standard, in a group of people. Perceived power - This refers to the perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of a behavior. Perceived power contributes to a person's perceived behavioral control over each of those factors. Perceived behavioral control - This refers to a person's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest. Perceived behavioral control varies across situations and actions, which results in a person having varying perceptions of behavioral control depending on the situation. This construct of the theory was added later, and created the shift from the Theory of Reasoned Action to the Theory of Planned Behavior.

The Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change) The Transtheoretical Model (also called the Stages of Change Model), developed by Prochaska and DiClemente in the late 1970s, evolved through studies examining the experiences of smokers who quit on their own with those

requiring further treatment to understand why some people were capable of quitting on their own. It was determined that people quit smoking if they were ready to do so. Thus, the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) focuses on the decision-making of the individual and is a model of intentional change. The TTM operates on the assumption that people do not change behaviors quickly and decisively. Rather, change in behavior, especially habitual behavior, occurs continuously through a cyclical process. The TTM is not a theory but a model; different behavioral theories and constructs can be applied to various stages of the model where they may be most effective. The TTM posits that individuals move through six stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Termination was not part of the original model and is less often used in application of stages of change for health-related behaviors. For each stage of change, different intervention strategies are most effective at moving the person to the next stage of change and subsequently through the model to maintenance, the ideal stage of behavior. 1. Precontemplation - In this stage, people do not intend to take action in the foreseeable future (defined as within the next 6 months). People are often unaware that their behavior is problematic or produces negative consequences. People in this stage often underestimate the pros of changing behavior and place too much emphasis on the cons of changing behavior. Contemplation - In this stage, people are intending to start the healthy behavior in the foreseeable future (defined as within the next 6 months). People recognize that their behavior may be problematic, and a more thoughtful and practical consideration of the pros and cons of changing the behavior takes place, with equal emphasis placed on both. Even with this recognition, people may still feel ambivalent toward changing their behavior. Preparation (Determination) - In this stage, people are ready to take action within the next 30 days. People start to take small steps toward the behavior change, and they believe changing their behavior can lead to a healthier life. Action - In this stage, people have recently changed their behavior (defined as within the last 6 months) and intend to keep moving forward with that behavior change. People may exhibit this by modifying their problem behavior or acquiring new healthy behaviors. Maintenance - In this stage, people have sustained their behavior change for a while (defined as more than 6 months) and intend to maintain the behavior change going forward. People in this stage work to prevent relapse to earlier stages. Termination - In this stage, people have no desire to return to their unhealthy behaviors and are sure they will not relapse. Since this is rarely reached, and people tend to stay in the maintenance stage, this stage is often not considered in health promotion programs.

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To progress through the stages of change, people apply cognitive, affective, and evaluative processes. Ten processes of change have been identified with some processes being more relevant to a specific stage of change than other processes. These processes result in strategies that help people make and maintain change.

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Consciousness Raising - Increasing awareness about the healthy behavior. Dramatic Relief - Emotional arousal about the health behavior, whether positive or negative arousal. Self-Reevaluation - Self reappraisal to realize the healthy behavior is part of who they want to be. Environmental Reevaluation - Social reappraisal to realize how their unhealthy behavior affects others. Social Liberation - Environmental opportunities that exist to show society is supportive of the healthy behavior. 6. Self-Liberation - Commitment to change behavior based on the belief that achievement of the healthy behavior is possible. 7. Helping Relationships - Finding supportive relationships that encourage the desired change. 8. Counter-Conditioning - Substituting healthy behaviors and thoughts for unhealthy behaviors and thoughts. 9. Reinforcement Management - Rewarding the positive behavior and reducing the rewards that come from negative behavior. 10. Stimulus Control - Re-engineering the environment to have reminders and cues that support and encourage the healthy behavior and remove those that encourage the unhealthy behavior.

11. SELF-EFFICACY/TEMPTATIONS 12. The self-efficacy construct, adapted from Banduras self-efficacy theory (12), is frequently used in 13. the Transtheoretical Model, either independently or together with the temptation measure, in order to better describe a behavioral change. The elf-efficacy measure represents the situation-specfic confidence that people have that they can cope with high-risk situations without relapsing to their old, unhealthy or highrisk habit. 14. 15. DECISIONAL BALANCE 16. Decisional balance is a concept originally developed within the conflict model of decision-making by Janis and Mann. According to the model, decision making involves constant and 17. careful weighing of the pros and cons of a new behaviour.