INTRODUCTION

George Polya (1887 1985)

George Polya was a master of problem solving, and his effect on other teachers has been extraordinary. His most popular book, How to Solve It, has sold over a million copies. As is the case with many great books, Polya had been turned down by three publishers before finding one to publish the English version in the United States. It has also been translated into 17 languages. I remember reading this book as a high school student and thinking What a great writer Mr. Polya is, how clearly he presents his topic: Problem Solving. His approach has had a lasting impression on the way I teach; I treasure the opportunity of giving other students the joy of discovery and the thrill and satisfaction of solving a problem.

Polyas gift was in describing the methods used in solving problems. But he went further; to show teachers how problem solving could be taught and learned. He authored four books on this topic:

How to Solve It Mathematical Discovery Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, volume 1 Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, volume 2

Some quotes by Polya: Solving problems is a practical art, like swimming, or skiing, or playing the piano: You can learn it only by imitation and practice. If you wish to learn swimming you have to go into the water and if you wish to become a problem solver you have to solve problems.

Teaching is not a science; it is an art. If teaching were a science there would be a best way of teaching and everyone would have to teach like that. Since teaching is not a science, there is great latitude and much possibility for personal differences. let me tell you what my idea of teaching is. Perhaps the first point, which is widely accepted, is that teaching must be active, or rather active learning . . . the main point in mathematics teaching is to develop the tactics of problem solving. A Great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.

How to Solve It
This is the summary of the ideas in George Polya's book "How to solve it" - they can be described as: SEE, PLAN, DO, CHECK.

Understand the Problem - (SEE)

1. Carefully read the problem. 2. Decide what you are trying to do. 3. Identify the important data.

Devise a plan - (PLAN)

1. Gather together all available information. 2. Consider some possible actions: 3. look for a pattern; 4. draw a sketch; 5. make an organised list; 6. simplify the problem; 7. quess and check; 8. make a table; 9. write a number sentence; 10. act out the problem; 11. identify a sub-task; and 12. check the validity of given information.

Carry out the plan - (DO)

1. Implement a particular plan of attack. 2. Revise and modify the plan as needed. 3. Create a new plan if necessary.

Check the answer - (CHECK)

1. Ensure you have used all the important information. 2. Decide whether or not the answer makes sense. 3. Check that all of the given conditions of the problem are met by the answer. 4. Put your answer in a complete sentence.

WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

A mathematical problem, like any problem in life, is defined as a problem because it causes us much difficulty in attaining a solution. If the solution, or even the procedure for solving it, is obvious to you then it is no longer a problem but just an exercise. Much of our classroom mathematics is composed of repetitive exercises. ( This teaching method does have a useful purpose but it should not be all that mathematics is about. ) A question is a problem if the procedure or method of solution is not immediately known to you but requires you to apply creativity and previous knowledge in new and unfamiliar situations. In a problem, you are not aware of any algorithm that will guarantee a solution. "To have a problem means to search consciously for some action appropriate to attain some clearly conceived but not immediately attainable aim. To solve a problem means to find such an action." (George Polya)

Algorithms vs. Heuristics

Algorithms are special methods specifically designed for solving a certain type of question. We have all learnt algorithms for specific situations, such as, the FOIL method for multiplication of binomials. This method has been developed for that specific situation. Heuristics are general suggestions that may be applicable to all types of questions. They contain a series of tasks, each containing a series of decisions, that are loosely combined to form a model which can assist in problem solving. The set of heuristics below is based on the work of Krulik & Rudnick (1989).

Strategies
Here is the list of common strategies that can be used in solving the problems:

draw a diagram

look for a pattern

Simplify: solve a simplified problem

solve for critical or extreme cases

make an organized list or table

Estimation: guess and check

work backwards

use logical reasoning

write equations or ratios

PROBLEM SOLVING

Attachment
George Polya, Master Problem Solver a Model for All Math Teachers
by BILL LOMBARD on 27 OCTOBER, 2009

George Polya

George Polya was a master of problem solving, and his effect on other teachers has been extraordinary. His most popular book, How to Solve It, has sold over a million copies. As is the case with many great books, Polya had been turned down by three publishers before finding one to publish the English version in the United States. It has also been translated into 17 languages. I remember reading this book as a high school student and thinking What a great writer Mr. Polya is, how clearly he presents his topic: Problem Solving. His approach has had a lasting impression on the way I teach; I treasure the opportunity of giving other students the joy of discovery and the thrill and satisfaction of solving a problem.

How to Solve It

Polyas gift was in describing the methods used in solving problems. But he went further; to show teachers how problem solving could be taught and learned. He authored four books on this topic:

How to Solve It Mathematical Discovery Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, volume 1 Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, volume 2 Some quotes by Polya:

Solving problems is a practical art, like swimming, or skiing, or playing the piano: You can learn it only by imitation and practice. If you wish to learn swimming you have to go into the water and if you wish to become a problem solver you have to solve problems. Teaching is not a science; it is an art. If teaching were a science there would be a best way of teaching and everyone would have to teach like that. Since teaching is not a science, there is great latitude and much possibility for personal differences. let me tell you what my idea of teaching is. Perhaps the first point, which is widely accepted, is that teaching must be active, or rather active learning . . . the main point in mathematics teaching is to develop the tactics of problem solving. A Great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.

What is routine problem solving?

From the curricular point of view, routine problem solving involves using at least one of the four arithmetic operations and/or ratio to solve problems that are practical in nature. Routine problem solving concerns to a large degree the kind of problem solving that serves a socially useful function that has immediate and future payoff. Children typically do routine problem solving as early as age 5 or 6. They combine and separate things such as toys in the course of their normal activities. Adults are regularly called upon to do simple and complex routine problem solving. Here is an example. A sales promotion in a store advertises a jacket regularly priced at $125.98 but now selling for 20% off the regular price. The store also waives the tax. You have $100 in your pocket (or $100 left in your charge account). Do you have enough money to buy the jacket? As adults, and as children, we normally want to solve certain kinds of problems (such as the one above) in a way that reflects an Aha, I know what is going on here and this is what I need to do to figure out the answer. reaction to the problem. We do not want to guess and check or think backwards or make use of similar strategies. Invariably, solving such problems involves using at least one of the four arithmetic operations (and/or ratio). Being good at doing arithmetic (e. g. adding two numbers: mentally, by pencil and paper, with manipulatives, by punching numbers in a calculator) does not guarantee success at solving routine problems. The critical matter is knowing what arithmetic to do in the first place. Actually doing the arithmetic is secondary to the matter. A mathematics researcher interviewed children about how they solve routine problems. One boy reported his method as follows: If there were two numbers and they were both big, he subtracted. If there was one large and one small number, he divided. If it did not come out even, he multiplied . The other interesting aspect of all of this is that the child had done quite well at solving

routine problems throughout his school career. What does this say about teaching practice? What does this say about assessing what children understand? Is the case of the boy an isolated incident or is it the norm? Unfortunately, research tells us that it is likely the norm. Not enough students and adults are good at solving routine problems. Research also tells us that in order for students to be good at routine problem solving they need to learn the meanings of the arithmetic operations (and the concept of ratio) well and in ways that are based on real and familiar experiences. While there are only four arithmetic operations, there are more than four distinct meanings that can be attached to the operations. For example, division has only one meaning: splitting up into equal groups. Subtraction, on the other hand, has at least two meanings: taking away something away from one set or comparing two sets Once students understand the meaning of an arithmetic operation they have a powerful conceptual tool to apply to solving routine problems. The primary strategy becomes deciding on what arithmetic operation to use. That decision cannot be made in the manner done by the boy of the research anecdote. The decision should be made on the basis of IDENTIFYING WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE PROBLEM. This approach requires understanding the meanings of the arithmetic operations. The research evidence suggests that good routine problem solvers have a repertoire of automatic symbol-based and context-based responses to problem situations. They do not rely on manipulating concrete materials, nor on using strategies such as 'guess and check' or think backwards. Rather, they rely on representing what is going on in a problem by selecting from a limited set of mathematical templates or models Solving routine problems should at some point involve solving complex problems. Complexity can be achieved through multi-step problems (making use of more

than one arithmetic operation) or through Fermi problems. It is advisable to do both. Fermi problems are special problems that are characterized by the need to estimate something and the need to obtain relevant data. They typically involve the application of the meaning of at least one arithmetic operation and sometimes something else (e. g. how to calculate the area of a triangle). Here is an example of a Fermi problem: About how many cars are there in Manitoba? Solving this Fermi problem about the cars would involve matters like obtaining/estimating data about the population of Manitoba that might own a car and making use of the groups of meaning of multiplication. It could involve more matters. That would depend on the degree of sophistication of insight into the problem. In general, solving Fermi problems involves estimating where the exact value is often unknown, and perhaps it is even unknowable. While the estimate may be considerably in error, the important matter is on describing how the estimate was obtained. That requires students to justify their reasoning in terms of the meanings of arithmetic operations and in terms of the relevance of the data they collected/estimated.

What is non-routine problem solving?

Non-routine problem solving serves a different purpose than routine problem solving. While routine problem solving concerns solving problems that are useful for daily living (in the present or in the future), non-routine problem solving concerns that only indirectly. Non-routine problem solving is mostly concerned with developing students mathematical reasoning power and fostering the understanding that mathematics is a creative endeavour. From the point of view of students, non-routine problem solving can be challenging and interesting. From the point of view of planning classroom instruction, teachers can use nonroutine problem solving to introduce ideas (EXPLORATORY stage of teaching); to deepen and extend understandings of algorithms, skills, and concepts (MAINTENANCE stage of teaching); and to motivate and challenge students (EXPLORATORY and MAINTENANCE stages of teaching). There are other uses as well. Having students do non-routine problem solving can encourage the move from specific to general thinking; in other words, encourage the ability to think in more abstract ways. From the point of view of students growing to adulthood, that ability is becoming more important in todays technological, complex, and demanding world. Non-routine problem solving can be seen as evoking an I tried this and I tried that, and eureka, I finally figured it out. reaction. That involves a search for heuristics (strategies seeking to discover). There is no convenient model or solution path that is readily available to apply to solving a problem. That is in sharp contrast to routine problem solving where there are readily identifiable models (the meanings of the arithmetic operations and the associated templates) to apply to problem situations. The following is an example of a problem that concerns non-routine problem solving.

Consider what happens when 35 is multiplied by 41. The result is 1435. Notice that all four digits of the two multipliers reappear in the product of 1435 (but they are rearranged). One could call numbers such as 35 and 41 as pairs of stubborn numbers because their digits reappear in the product when the two numbers are multiplied together. Find as many pairs of 2-digit stubborn numbers as you can. There are 6 pairs in all (not including 35 & 41). Solving problems like the one above normally requires a search for a strategy that seeks to discover a solution (a heuristic). There are many strategies that can be used for solving unfamiliar or unusual problems. The strategies suggested below are teachable to the extent that teachers can encourage and help students to identify, to understand, and to use them. However, non-routine problem solving cannot be approached in an automatized way as can routine problem solving. To say that another way, we cannot find nice, tidy methods of solution for all problems. Inevitably, we will be confronted with a situation that evokes the response; I haven't got much of a clue how to do this; let me see what I can try. The list below does not contain strategies like: read the question carefully, draw a diagram, or make a table. Those kinds of strategies are not the essence of what it takes to be successful at non-routine problem solving. They are only preliminary steps that help in getting organized. The hard part still remains - to actually solve the problem - and that takes more powerful strategies than drawing a diagram, reading the question carefully, or making a table. The following list of strategies is appropriate for Early and Middle Years students in that the strategies involve ways of thinking that are likely to be comfortable for these students.

Look for a pattern Guess and check Make and solve a simpler problem. Work backwards.

Act it out/make a model. Break up the problem into smaller ones and try to solve these first.

It is important that students share how they solved problems so that their classmates are exposed to a variety of strategies as well as the idea that there may be more than one way to reach a solution. It is unwise to force students to use one particular strategy for two important reasons. First, often more than one strategy can be applied to solving a problem. Second, the goal is for students to search for and apply useful strategies, not to train students to make use of a particular strategy. Finally, non-routine problem solving should not be reserved for special students such as those who finish the regular work early. All students should participate in and be encouraged to succeed at non-routine problem solving. All students can benefit from the kinds of thinking that is involved in non-routine problem solving.

Comparing routine and non-routine problem solving

To make clearer the distinction between routine and non-routine problem solving, consider the following two problems.

Problem 1

My mom gave me 35 cents. My father gave me 45 cents. My grandmother gave me 85 cents. How many cents do I have now? Problem 2

Place the numbers 1 to 9, one in each circle so that the sum of the four numbers along any of the three sides of the triangle is 20. There are 9 circles and 9 numbers to place in the circles. Each circle must have a different number in it.

Notice that addition is required for both problems.

In problem 1, you need to figure out that you need to add. Understanding addition as modeling a put together action helps you realize that. In problem 2, you are told to add by the word sum. Understanding addition as modeling a put together action does not help you with solving problem 2.

Being good at arithmetic might help you a bit, but the matter really concerns a search for strategies to apply to the problem. Guess and check is a useful strategy to begin with.

Bibliography
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2. http://www.qerhs.k12.nf.ca/projects/math-problems/intro.html

3. http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/lieber/courses/materials/Polya_Father_of_P roblemSolving.pdf

4. http://ion.uwinnipeg.ca/~jameis/New%20Pages/EYR25.html