PROPAGATION OF EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTIES 1 Written by: Dr. John Potts, Dr.

John Devlin Revised by: The Science Learning Center Staff The Propagation of Experimental Uncertainties module is a written script and posttest. The objectives are to: - Assign uncertainties to experimentally measured quantities. - Distinguish between precision and accuracy in measurements. - Distinguish between absolute and relative uncertainty. - Convert uncertainties to absolute or relative uncertainties. - Add and subtract numbers with absolute uncertainties. - Multiply and divide numbers with relative uncertainties. INTRODUCTION Before you begin this learning module you should complete the module on Significant Figures. If you have not already done so you should finish that one first or review the module on the SLC Web site, if your instructor has not assigned it. You should have scratch paper, a calculator, and a pencil handy to work on practice problems. Read the material and work out all the problems on the scratch paper. When you complete the module, obtain a posttest from the Science Learning Center staff and complete it. If you pass the test make sure your name is recorded. If you do not pass the test review the module and retake the test as many times as you need to until you pass it. ASSIGN UNCERTAINTIES TO EXPERIMENTALLY MEASURED QUANTITIES In the laboratory experiments you will be performing you will have to make measurements. The results of these measurements will always be uncertain to some extent. For example, suppose you use a balance to determine that the mass (m) of some chemical constituent used in your experiment is 15.87g. But your "weighing" apparatus is such that the mass could have been almost anywhere from 15.86g to 15.88g. Your best estimate was 15.87g and there was uncertainty of 0.01g. You would then report your result as: m = 15.87g 0.01g Note that the units (grams) apply to both the measurement and the uncertainty. You should assign an uncertainty to every measurement that you make. In the example above, the uncertainty resulted from a limitation in the resolution of the instrument used; you might use a balance with a higher resolution and find m = 15.868g 0.001g. In another experiment you might find that several repetitions of a given measurement give slightly different results. For example, you may measure the time (t) that it takes a ball to fall through a distance of 1 meter. On successive tries you find t = 1.3, 1.4, 1.2,

1.5, 1.4, 1.4, 1.3, and 1.5 seconds. It might then be reasonable to report your result as: t = 1.4 0.1 seconds, since the range form 1.3 to 1.5 seconds encompasses almost all of the experimental readings. There are more sophisticated methods (statistical methods) for handling these data but these are not the subject matter of this learning module. DEFINITION OF PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES Once you have assigned uncertainties to your experimentally measured quantities, you will probably have to combine these quantities in some way in order to determine some derived quantity. For example, you have measured the distance that an object traveled, say, 1.00 0.01 meters and the time during which it moved, say, 2.0 0.1 seconds; now you want to know the average speed of that object (= distance traveled/time elapsed). How will you combine the uncertainties in the two measured quantities in order to find the uncertainty in the speed? As another example, you have measured the length and width of a rectangle (with their associated uncertainties) and now you want to know the area and its uncertainty. The manner in which uncertainties combine to give the resultant uncertainty is calledpropagation of uncertainties. This particular learning module will deal with the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers with uncertainties. In Part II you will learn about the propagation of uncertainties for more complicated for more complicated mathematical operations (namely, exponential, and trigonometric operations). Finally, we caution you that the methods used in these modules are not universal. Different scientists do have different methods for propagating uncertainties depending on the type of data that they have. What can be said with certainty is that the methods taught in this module yield uncertainties that are pessimistic or overestimates of the true (statistical) uncertainties. In your physics courses you will be expected to use the method presented here. TWO PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 1 Uncertainties and errorsBefore we learn the necessary rules governing propagation of uncertainties, note that we have been talking about experimental uncertainties rather than errors. To say that a result A = 10.5 0.5 has an experimental error of 0.5 would imply that a reading of 10.0 or 11.0 would be in error since it does not agree with the "true" value of 10.5. For this reason, we will try to use "uncertainty" rather than error." 2 Precision and accuracyA second word of caution is in order here. We should distinguish between the precision in our measurements and the accuracy in these measurements. Theprecision of a measurement I s a description of the size of the uncertainty relative to the size of the measured quantity. For example, if the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) is measured to within 10 m/s, this would be a measurement of extremely high precision (0.000003%), since [10 /(3 x 108)] x 100% = 0.000003%. If the speed of a car (65 miles per hour = 29m/s) were measured to within 10m/s, the precision would be relatively low (34%), since (10 /29) x 100% = 34%. On the other hand, accuracy refers to the extent to which our measured value agrees with the actual, or known, value. Returning to the first of the examples above. Suppose we measured the speed of light to be: c = (2.5005 0.0002) x 108 m/s. Our measurement

would not be accurate, compared to the known value of 3 x 108 m/sec, even though it is quite precise (.008 %) since (0.0002 /2.5005) x 100% = 0.008%. If however, we measured: c = (2.5 0.8) x 108m/s our measurement would be accurate, albeit of extremely low precision (32%) since (0.8 /2.5) x 100% = 32%. In this learning module, we will be concerned with ways to describe only the precision of experimental results. ABSOLUTE UNCERTAINTY AND RELATIVE UNCERTAINTY As you have seen, we write our experimental results in the general form A D A. Here, D A is the uncertainty, or more specifically the absolute uncertainty, in A. We can also define a relative uncertainty: the relative uncertainty in a number is the absolute uncertainty (D A) divided by the number (A). Number = A Absolute uncertainty = D A Relative Uncertainty = D A/A For example, if we have a velocity v = 4.0 0.2 m/sec, this equation follows the general form A D A. So, D A or 0.2 m/sec is the absolute uncertainty, and D A/A or 0.2/4.0 = 0.05 or 5% is the relative uncertainty. Then we can also write our velocity as v = 4.0 m/s .05 relative uncertainty, or v = 4.0 m/sec 5%. Note that if would not be correct to write v = (4.0 m/sec 0.05) m/sec because the relative uncertainty (0.05) must not have units associated with it. The number appearing after the sign is the absolute uncertainty if is has units associated with it. It is a relative uncertainty if the number has a percent sign or nothing after it. For example: 5.00 g 0.020 0.020 is relative uncertainty 5.00 g 2.0% 2.0% is relative uncertainty 5.00 g 0.10g 0.10 g is absolute uncertainty (5.00 0.10)g 0.10g is absolute uncertainty Run your eye down this list of measurements and decide for each one whether the uncertainty is expressed in relative or absolute form. 3 5.2 g 0.1 g 4 22lbs 5% 5 4.09 cm 0.01 6 (50.0 0.1)ml 7 2.40 g 0.02 8 112.1 mg 2%

9 10 11 12

5 x 10-2 g 0.01 (7 1)cm3 (5.00 0.01) x 102 g 2.7 x 103 m/sec 0.02

Answers CONVERT UNCERTAINTIES TO ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE UNCERTAINTIES The absolute uncertainty (D A) in a number (A) can be obtained from the relative uncertainty D A/A by multiplying (D A/A) by A. For example: Given x = 12.6 ft 14%, find the absolute uncertainty. Solution: we know 14% is a relative uncertainty. X= 12.6 ft 14% A D A/A To find D A, the absolute uncertainty, Multiply: D A = [D A/A] (A) = (0.14)(12.6 ft) = 1.76ft Round to: [round the relative uncertainty to two significant figures because there are only two significant figures in the original uncertainty (1.8ft)] = 0.14 or 14% The relative uncertainty is 0.14 or 14%. Note that the units (ft) cancel out and the relative uncertainty either has no units, or is expressed as a percent. EXAMPLES Work out the following three examples for yourself on your scratch paper. EXAMPLE 1: After a series of measurements a chemist reports that a certain chemical reaction occurs in a time of (1.55 0.21) hours. Find the relative uncertaintyin the time. EXAMPLE 2: The area of a rectangle is 24.2 m2 0.5%. Find the absolute uncertainty in the area. EXAMPLE 3: A scientific journal reports that the density of iron is 7.8g/cm3 0.040. What is a) the percent relative uncertainty and b) the absolute uncertainty in the density? Answers Your answers should agree to the proper number of significant figures. DETAILED SOLUTIONS For each of these, remember that for a number A and absolute uncertainty D A, the

relative uncertainty = D A/A. Example 1: Find the relative uncertainty in (1.55 0.21) hours. Let's call time t, then time = t D t = A D A = (1.55 0.21) hours. So the absolute uncertainty A or D t/t = 0.21hrs/1.55hrs = 0.135. Since 0.21 contains only two significant figures we round 0.135 off to 0.14 (two significant figures). Hence the relative uncertainty is 0.14 or 14%, and we can write our measurement as: 1.55 hours 14% Example 2: Find the absolute uncertainty in 24.2 m2 0.5%. The percent sign always indicates a relative uncertainty. (Remember relative uncertainty is D A/A.) Here A = 24.2 m2 and D A/A = 0.5% or 0.005. To find the absolute uncertainty (D A): Multiply: (D A/A) (A) (0.005)(24.2 m2) = 0.121 m2 Round .121 off to 0.1 m2 since 24.2 m2 is only precise to one decimal place. We can express our area as: 24.2 m2 0.1 m2 Example 3: What is a) the percent relative uncertainty and b)the absolute uncertainty in 7.8 g/cm3 0.040? a) Because the units (g/cm3) are associated with only the first number, 7.8, the second number, 0.040, must be the relative uncertainty. Therefore, the percent relative uncertainty is: 4.0% b) If we call the density d, then d = 7.8 g/cm3. Then the relative uncertainty is D d/d = . 040. To find the absolute uncertainty (D d), multiply (D d/d)(d) =(0.040)(7.8 g/cm3) = 0.312 g/cm3. Therefore, the absolute uncertainty is 0.3 g/cm3. If we look at the answer 7.8 g/cm3 we see it is only precise to the tenth's place, so the uncertainty can only be precise to the tenth's place. When solving a problem never have absolute uncertainties more precise than your answer. In this case we round off to 0.3 g/cm3. We can express our density as: (7.8 0.3) g/cm3 RULES GOVERNING PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES We will give you just two rules that should govern almost all of the uncertainty propagation calculations you should encounter. These will be the rules that govern the addition and multiplication of two numbers. If you recall that subtraction is just a special case of addition [7- 3 = 7 + (-3) = 4], and division is just a special case of multiplication [120/3 = (1/3) X 120 = 40], then you'll agree that these two rules will cover all arithmetic operations. RULE I: when two numbers are added, the uncertainty of each must first be expressed in absolute form. Then, the absolute uncertainty of the sum is the sum of the absolute uncertainties in the two numbers. (A D A) + (B D B) = (A + B) (D A + D B) absolute uncertainties------------------^------^

Numerical example: Add (4 1) ft and (12 2)ft. In this example we have A = 4 ft, D A = 1 ft, B = 12 ft, and D B = 2 ft. So the result is (A + B) (D A + D B) = (4+12) ft (1 + 2) ft = 16 ft 3 ft or (16 3) ft Answer with absolute uncertainty: (16 3) ft We could also express this in terms of a relative uncertainty, by dividing 3 ft/16 ft = 0.187 or 0.2 to one significant figure. Answer = 16 ft 0.2 (If this last sentence confused you, review page 8). RULE II: When two numbers are multiplied, the uncertainty of each must first be expressed in relative form. Then, the relative uncertainty in the product is thesum of the relative uncertainties in the two numbers: [A D A/A] x [B D B/B] = (A x B) [D A/A + D B/B] relative uncertainties--------------------------^-------^ Numerical example: Multiply (4.0 1.0) ft by (12 2)ft. In this example, as in the previous one, A = 4.0 ft, D A = 1 ft, B = 12 ft, and D B = 2 ft. First, convert to relative uncertainties: D A/A = 1.0 ft/4.0 ft = 0.25, and D B/B = 2 ft/12 ft = 1/6 = 0.167 (Do not round off until the end of the problem. Carry at least one extra significant figure). Then the relative uncertainty of the answer is the sum of 0.25 + 0.167 = 0.417. So, (4.0 1.0) ft x (12 2) ft = (4.0 ft 0.25) x (12 ft 0.167) = (4.0 ft x 12 ft) (.25 + 0.167) Answer with relative uncertainty = 48 ft2 0.417 rounded to 48 ft2 0.4 or 48 ft2 40% The relative uncertainty has been rounded off to one significant figure because the relative uncertainty of B is only accurate to one significant figure. The absolute uncertainty of the answer is [D A/A] (A) or (0.417)(48 ft2) = 20 ft2. (20 ft2 is rounded to the ones place since 48 is only precise to the ones place). Therefore, answer with absolute uncertainty = (48 20) ft2 Rule II probably looks more forbidding than it actually is. Stated more simply, it tells us if the first number in a product is uncertain by 10% and the second number is uncertain by 5%, then their product is uncertain by 15%. This rule will be further clarified as you work the examples in this module. For those of you who have seen some statistics before, we should add that these rules give us the maximum possible uncertainty. For example, if we add (5 1) m to (9 3) m, the sum could be as large as 18 or as small as 10. Hence (14 4) m. Chances are, the actual values wouldnt combine in such a way as to give us either 18 or 10, but we allow for this possibility in computing the maximum possible uncertainty. Besides, the rules are simplest in this case. If youre interested in a more precise way of treating the propagation of uncertainties, look up most probable uncertainty (or error) in a statistics book.

IN SUMMARY: 13 For addition or subtraction the numbers must be expressed in terms of absolute uncertainties. The absolute uncertainty of the result is the sum of the individualabsolute uncertainties. 14 For multiplication or division the numbers must be expressed in terms of relative uncertainties. The relative uncertainty of the result is the sum of the individualrelative uncertainties. Propagation of Uncertainty Significance Rules: 15 To determine the significant figures in the principal part of the answer, look at the principal part of the problem and apply the rules for significant figures. 16 To determine the significant figures in the relative uncertainty, look at the relative uncertainty in the problem. Example: (10.3 g 0.2) / (7.7 cm 0.1) = 1.3 g/cm 0.3 17 The number of decimal places in the absolute uncertainty is the same as the number of decimal places in the principal part of the answer. Example: (6.90 0.2) ft + (11.3 0.4) ft = (18.2 0.6) ft DETAILED EXAMPLES Work out the following four examples on your scratch paper. Be sure to express your answers within the proper units, and to the correct number of significant figures. You may express then in either absolute or relative form. EXAMPLE 4: Add (54 2) seconds and (83 3) seconds. EXAMPLE 5: What is the difference between (952 6) meters and (554 10) meters? EXAMPLE 6: Multiply (2.7 .3) yards by (4.5 .5) yards. EXAMPLE 7: Find the ratio of (6.0 0.2) g to (47.3 1.0) cm3 Answers REMEMBER!!! To determine the significant figures in the relative uncertainty, look at the relative uncertainty in the problem. In absolute uncertainty, the number of decimal places is the same as the number of decimal places in the principal part of the answer. DETAILED SOLUTIONS In the case of addition we add the absolute uncertainties to obtain the absolute uncertainty of the result: (54 2) seconds (83 3) seconds

(137 5) seconds To convert to relative uncertainty, remember: 137 sec 5 sec A DA Relative uncertainty = D A/A. Here, D A/A = 5 sec/137sec = 0.036 Round to 0.04 or 4% since the uncertainties in the problem, 2 sec and 3 sec, only have one significant figure. For subtraction we also add the absolute uncertainties: (952 6) meters -(554 10) meters (398 16) meters Since 398 is precise to the ones place, 16 is the correct way to express the absolute uncertainty. To find the relative uncertainty, divide D A/A = 16 meters/398 meters = 0.040 Round to 0.04 or 4%, so the answer can also be expressed as: 398 meters 0.04 OR 398 meters 4% The relative uncertainty has one significant figure since 6 meters only has one. Youre asked to multiply (2.7 0.3) yards x (4.5 0.5) yards. The uncertainties 0.3 yards and 0.5 yards are absolute uncertainties. In order to perform multiplication and/or division we need to express our numbers in terms of relative uncertainties: (2.7 0.3) yards = 2.7 yards 0.3/2.7 = 2.7 yards 0.11 (4.5 0.5) yards = 4.5 yards 0.5/4.5 = 4.5 yards 0.11 Then, (2.7 0.3) yards x (4.5 0.5) yards = (2.7 yards 0.11) x (4.5 yards 0.11) = (2.7 yards x 4.5 yards) (0.11 + 0.11) = 12.15 yards2 0.22 Round to: 12 yards2 0.2 or 12 yards2 20% Note that 12.15 was rounded to 12 since 4.5 and 2.7. Both contain only two significant figures. Also 0.22 was rounded to 0.2 because there is only on significant figure in the uncertainties 0.3 and 0.5. To express the answer in terms of absolute uncertainty: (12.15 yards2) x (0.22) = 2.673 yards2 rounded to: 3 yards2 Answer: 12 yards2 3 yards2 We need to divide (6.0 0.2)g by (47.3 1.0)cm3. Again, the uncertainties 0.2g and 1.0cm3 are absolute uncertainties. Expressing our numbers in terms of relativeuncertainty, we have (6.0 0.2) g = 6.0 g 0.033 (47.3 1.0) cm3 = 47.3 cm3 0.0211 Then, (6.0 0.2) g / (47.3 1.0) cm3 = 6.0 g 0.033 / 47.3 cm3 0.0211 = 0.127 g/cm3 0.0541 As with multiplication, the division operation amounts to adding the relative uncertainty. Answer = 0.13 g/cm3 0.05 (2 SF & 1 SF)

The relative uncertainty was originally 0.0541, but we round this to 0.05 because the individual relative uncertainties are only precise to one significant figure. To express this in terms of absolute uncertainty, remember relative uncertainty = D A/A and absolute uncertainty = A, and A = [D A/A](A). Here D A/A = 0.0541 and A = 0.127 g/cm3 before rounding. So [D A/A](A) = (0.0541)(0.127 g/cm3) = 0.00687 Answer = (0.127 0.00687) g/cm3 rounded to (0.13 0.01) g/cm3 FURTHER EXAMPLES The remainder of this module provides you with more examples of the propagation of uncertainties. Solve each of the examples on your scratch paper and record your results. Then check with the correct answers provided. For your own benefit dont cheat as you will only be cheating yourself. Learn from your mistakes; discover the source of your errors. If you need additional help ask one of the Science Learning Center Personnel. Example 8: Find the relative and absolute uncertainty of: x = (0.072 0.003) cm/sec. Example 9: Find the absolute uncertainty in: t = 1.42 sec. 5% SOLUTIONS Example 8: Find the relative and absolute uncertainty of: x = (0.072 0.003) cm/sec By definition the absolute uncertainty is 0.003 cm/sec The relative uncertainty is D A/A or: 0.003/0.072 = 3/72 = 0.042 Round to 0.04 or 4% Answer: Relative uncertainty = 0.04 or 4% Absolute uncertainty = 0.003 cm/sec Note that the relative uncertainty has no units. Example 9: Find the absolute uncertainty in: t = 1.42 sec 5% Since the relative uncertainty is 5%, we take 5% of 1.42 to get .071 for the absolute uncertainty. (Round to one sig. fig.) Answer: 0.07 sec Stated another way, we know A = 1.42 sec and D A/A = 0.05 Therefore the absolute uncertainty D A = [D A/A](A) = (1.42)(0.05) = 0.07 sec. Express the answers to problem 10-12 in terms of relative and absolute uncertainties. Example 10: (49 3) g + (35 2) g Example 11: (1.83 0.24) lbs - (0.65 0.18) lbs Example 12: (0.72 0.05) mm - (0.64 0.05) mm

SOLUTIONS Example 10: (49 3) g + (35 2) g (84 5) g Here we are adding two numbers together so we simply add the absolute uncertainties to obtain the absolute uncertainty in the sum. Answer: (84 5) g To find relative uncertainty we know A = 84 and D A = 5, So D A/A = 5/84 = 0.0595; round to 0.06 or 6% Answer: 84 6% Note: It is only necessary to report a result in one of the two forms above. We are showing you both for instructional purposes. Example 11: (1.83 0.24) lbs - (0.65 0.18) lbs (1.18 0.42) lbs The rule for subtracting two numbers is the same as that for adding two numbers, i.e. we add the absolute uncertainties to obtain the absolute uncertainty in the difference. Answer: (1.18 0.42) lbs The relative uncertainty is D A/A or 0.42/1.18 = 0.3559 or 36% Answer: 1.18 lbs 36% Example 12: (0.72 0.05) mm - (0.64 0.05) mm (0.08 0.10) mm The sum of the two absolute uncertainties is 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.10 So, Answer: (0.08 0.10)mm The relative uncertainty is D A/A = 0.10/0.08 = 1.25. Round to 1 or 100% since 0.05mm has only one significant figure. Answer: 0.08 mm 100% This may appear a bit strange, having an uncertainty greater than the number itself. But thats what our two input values tell us: the first number (0.72) can be as large as 0.77 and the second (0.64) can be as small as 0.59, so the difference can be as large as 0.18. Using the other extreme values, we find a difference as small as -0.02. Express the product in #13 and #14 in terms of relative and absolute uncertainties. Example 13: 43.2 in 2.6 in x 3.0 Example 14: (17.5 2.5) cm x (3.2 0.8) cm SOLUTIONS Example 13:

43.2 in 2.6 in x 3.0 The product of 43.2 in x 3.0 = 129.6, rounded to 130 in, or 1.3 x 102 in. For multiplication of two numbers we must deal with relative uncertainties. The relative uncertainty in the first number is 0.060 (or 6.0%) since D A/A = 2.6/43.2 = 0.0602. There is no uncertainty in the second number, so the relative uncertainty in the product is 0.0602, rounded to 0.060 or 6.0%. Answer: 130 in 6.0% or 1.3 x 102 in 6.0% To find the absolute uncertainty in the product, convert the relative uncertainty 0.0602 to absolute as shown on page 8. (do not round off until the end). D A/A(A) = D A or (0.0602)(129.6) = 7.80 in. Answer: 129.6 in 7.80 in, rounded to 130 in 10 in, or (1.3 .1) x 102 in. Example 14: (17.5 2.5) cm x (3.2 0.8) cm The product of 17.5 cm x 3.2 cm = 56 cm2 Since we are multiplying, we must work with relative uncertainties. 2.5 and 0.8 are absolute uncertainties. Convert both to relative. cm /17.5 cm = 0.1429 0.8 cm / 3.2 cm = 0.25 So the relative uncertainty in the product is 0.1429 + 0.25 = 0.3929; round to one significant figure or 0.4 = 40% We can express this also as absolute uncertainty: (56 cm2) (0.3929) = 22.0024 cm2 Answer: 56 cm2 22 cm2 (both precise to the ones place) OR 56 cm2 40% (56 with 2 significant figures, 40% with one) Express your answers to problems 15 and 16 in terms of relative and absolute uncertainties. Example 15: (1.25 0.06) x 10-2 m x (3.0171 0.0006) x 10-3 m Example 16: Try to do this one in your head: (1.02 0.02) x 10-16 yd x (5.0 0.1) yd SOLUTIONS Example 15: (1.25 0.06) x 10-2 x (3.0171 0.0006) x 10-3 (1.25 x 10-2 m) x (3.0171 x 10-3 m) = 3.771 x 10-5 m2 rounded to 3.77 x 10-5 m2 The relative uncertainty in the first number is: 0.06 m /1.25 m = 0.048 Now without doing the calculation, we can see that the uncertainty in the second number will be insignificant by comparison to the first one so we can safely call it zero (Dont waste time on insignificant details. See NOTE below if you doubt this). Answer: (3.77 x 10-5) m2 5% (0.048 was rounded to 0.05 or 5%)

To express as absolute uncertainty: (3.771 m2 x 10-5) (0.048) = 0.181 x 10-5 m2 round to 0.18 x 10-5 m2 Answer: 3.77 x 10-5 m2 0.18 x 10-5 m2 OR (3.77 0.18) x 10-5 m2 NOTE: If you had included the uncertainty of 0.0006 x 10-5 m, you would have obtained an absolute uncertainty of 0.182 x 10-5 m2. When rounded to 2 significant figures you would still have (3.77 0.18) x 10-5 m2. The small difference wasnt worth the trouble. Example 16: (1.02 0.02) x 10-16 yd x (5.0 0.1) yd The product is simple: 5.0 x 1.02 = 5.1 x 10-16 (2 sig. Fig.) The first number is uncertain by 2 parts in 102, 0.02 yd/1.02 yd = 2/102 = 0.0196 The second number is uncertain to 0.02. When multiplying, we add relative uncertainties: 0.02 + 0.0196 = 0.0396, rounded to 0.04 (one sig. fig.) Answer: (5.1 x 10-16 yd2) 4% To express as absolute uncertainty: Answer: (5.1 0.2) x 10-16 yd2 (0.202 yd2 was rounded to 0.2 yd2 since 5.1 yd2 is only precise to one decimal place.) Express the quotients in examples 17 and 18 in terms of relative uncertainties. Example 17: (3.05 0.05) cm2 (2.00 0.02) cm Example 18: (2.00 0.10) ft-1 = 1/(2.00 ft 0.10 ft) = SOLUTIONS Example 17: (3.05 0.05) cm2 (2.00 0.02) cm After dividing 3.05 cm2 by 2.00 cm, we have 1.53 cm. For division, we apply the same rules as the multiplication, i.e. we add the relative uncertainties. In the numerator the relative uncertainty is: 0.05/3.05 = 0.0164 In the denominator the relative uncertainty is: 0.02/2.00 = 0.01 or 1% The relative uncertainty in the quotient is: 0.0164 + 0.01 = 0.0264 round to 0.03 (one sig. fig.) The uncertainty 0.03 can have only one significant figure since the absolute uncertainties 0.05 and 0.02 cm only have one. Answer: 3.05 cm2/2.00 cm 0.03 = 1.53 cm 0.03 or 3% Example 18: (2.00 0.10) ft-1 = 1/(2.00 ft 0.10 ft) = The numerator is a pure number (no uncertainty) while the divisor is uncertain by 1 part

in 20. The relative uncertainty in the divisor is: 0.10/2.00 = 1.0/20.0 or 0.050 or 5.0% (2 sig. figs.) The quotient of 1/(2.00 ft) to the necessary 3 significant figures is 0.500 ft-1 so the answer in terms of relative uncertainty is: 0.500 ft-1 5.0% (The one in the numerator does not limit the significant figures since it is not a measurement, but an exact number.) To find absolute uncertainty, 5.0% of 0.500 ft-1 = (0.050)(0.500) = 0.025 ft-1 Answer: 0.500 ft-1 0.025 ft-1 Express the solutions to examples #19 and # 20 in terms of relative and absolute uncertainties. Example 19: (1.75 0.10) x 10-6 mg (1.40 0.10) x 10-2 L Example 20: (1.50 m 0.03 m)2 = SOLUTIONS Example 19: (1.75 0.10) x 10-6 mg (1.40 0.10) x 10-2 L 1.75 x 10-6 mg 1.40 x 10-2 L = 1.25 x 10-4 mg/L Now convert to relative uncertainties: 0.10/1.75 = 0.05714 and 0.10/1.40 = 0.07143 Add 0.0571 + 0.0714 = 0.1285 or 12.85% So the relative uncertainty in the quotient is 12.85%. Round this to 13% since the significant figures in the uncertainty must not exceed the number of significant figures in the original uncertainties. Answer: 1.25 x 10-4 mg/liter 13% To find the absolute uncertainty: (1.25 x 10-4 mg/liter)(0.1285) = 0.1606 x 10-4 mg/liter We round this to 0.16 x 10-4 mg/liter since the uncertainty cannot be more precise than 1.25 x 10-4 mg/liter. Answer: (1.25 0.16) x 10-4 mg/liter Example 20: (1.50 m 0.03 m)2 = This is just another case of multiplication since we could equally well write (1.50 m 0.03)2 as: (1.50 0.03) m x (1.50 0.03) m We need to work with relative uncertainties since we are multiplying. 0.03 m is an absolute uncertainty. To convert, divide: 0.03 m/1.50 m = 0.02 or 2% So the relative uncertainty in the product is: 0.02 +0.02+ =0.04 or 4% The product is simply 1.50 m squared.

Therefore the answer in terms of relative uncertainty is: (1.50 m)2 4% = 2.25 m2 4% To express in terms of absolute uncertainty multiply: (.04)(2.25 m2) = 0.09 m2 Answer: (2.25 0.09) m2 Solve the following two word problems, and express your answers either in terms of relative or absolute uncertainties. Problem 1: A square plot of land measures (1.50 0.030) miles on each side. What is the area of this plot? Problem 2: Suppose we dissolve (10.2 0.1) grams of NaCl salt in (1.8 0.1) liters of water. What will be the NaCl concentration (g/L) in the solution, assuming that all of the salt goes into solution? SOLUTIONS Problem 1: A square plot of land measures (1.50 0.030) miles on each side. What is the area of this plot? Area = (side)2 = (1.50 mi 0.03 mi)2 Following the procedures in Example 20, we know that this equals (1.50 mi 2%)2 = (1.50 mi)2 4% Answer: 2.25 mi2 4% or 2.25 sq. mi. 4% Converting to absolute uncertainty: (2.25 0.09) sq.mi. Problem 2: Suppose we dissolve (10.2 0.1) grams of NaCl salt in (1.8 0.1) liters of water. What will be the NaCl concentration (g/L) in the solution, assuming that all of the salt goes into solution? Concentration = (10.2 0.1) grams / (1.8 0.1) liters The relative uncertainties are: 0.1 g/10.2 g = 0.0098 and 0.1 L / 1.8 L = 0.0556 So the relative uncertainty in the concentration is: 0.0098 + 0.0556 = 0.0654; round to 0.07 or 7% The quotient 10.2 g / 1.8 L = 5.67 g/L; round to 5.7 g/L So answer: 5.7 g/L 7% To express as absolute uncertainty, (0.0654)(5.67 g/L) = 0.3708; round to 0.4 Answer: (5.7 0.4) g/L You are now finished with this module. Obtain a posttest from the Science Learning Center personnel and complete it. Good Luck!!!