Unit-5-Digital Sensors and Semiconductor Sensors

UNIT-V DIGITAL SENSORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE SENSORS
Prepared By M.Sujith, Sr.Assistant Professor/EEE, IFET College of Engineering, Villupuram
IFETCE/ M.E(A.E)/M.SUJITH/I YEAR/I SEM/AP 7006/PPT /VER 1.0
Digital sensors Position encoders, variable frequency sensors quartz digital thermometer, vibrating wire strain gages , vibrating cylinder sensors, saw sensors, digital flow meters, Sensors based on semiconductor junctions Thermometers based on semiconductor junctions, magneto diodes and magneto transistors, photodiodes and phototransistors, Sensors based on MOSFET transistors Charge-coupled sensors types of CCD imaging sensors , ultrasonic-based sensors , fiber-optic sensors
Digital Sensors
The first yields a digital version of the measurand. This group includes position encoders. The second group relies on some physical oscillatory phenomenon that is later sensed by a conventional modulating or generating sensor. Sensors in this group are sometimes designated as self-resonant, variable-frequency, or quasi-digital sensors, and they require an electronic circuit (a digital counter) in order to yield the desired digital output signal. The third group of digital sensors use modulating sensors included in variable electronic oscillators.
Position Encoders
Principle of linear and rotary incremental position encoders
Incremental Position Encoders

An incremental position encoder consists of a linear rule or a low-inertia disk driven by the part whose position is to be determined. That element includes two types of regions or sectors having a property that differentiates them, and these regions are arranged in a repetitive pattern Sensing that property by a fixed head or reading device yields a definite output change when there is an increment in position equal to twice the pitch p. A disk with diameter d gives m
This sensing method is simple and economic but has some shortcomings. First, the information about the position is lost whenever power fails, or just after switch-on, and also under strong interference. Second, in order to obtain a digital output compatible with input -output peripherals in a computer, an up- down counter is necessary. Third, they do not detect the movement direction unless additional elements are added to those in Figure
Different sensors for magnetic incremental position encoders. (a) Coil and magnet
Different sensors for magnetic incremental position encoders -Toroidal core.
Silver-in-glass technology for contacting incremental position encoder
Incremental optical encoder. (a) With opaque and transparent sectors. (b) With reflective and nonreflective sectors.
When opaque and transparent regions - chromium on glass, slotted metal, and so forth (Figure a) are used, the emitter and the receiver must be placed on each side of the moving element. In contrast, when relying on reflective and non reflective zones- for example, polished steel with an engraved surface (Figure b) - the emitter and the detector must be on the same side of the coding element. Glass disks are more stable, rigid, hard, and at than metal disks, but are less resistant to vibration and shock
where Vp is the amplitude of the output voltage, N is the number of steps (pitches) in one turn, and is the current shaft angle, which can be calculated from
Variable frequency sensors Variable frequency sensors

Sensors based on a resonant physical phenomenon yield an output frequency that depends on a measurand affecting the oscillation frequency. They require a frequency-counter in order to measure either the frequency or the oscillation period based on an accurate and stable clock. The choice of method depends on the desired resolution and also on the available time for the measurement Sensors use either harmonic oscillators or relaxation oscillators. Harmonic oscillators store energy that changes from one form of storage to another, for example from kinetic energy in a moving mass to potential energy in a stressed spring. In relaxation oscillators there is a single energy storage form, and the stored energy is periodically dissipated through some reset mechanism
(a) High-frequency equivalent circuit for a piezoelectric material such as quartz with metal electrodes deposited on two faces. (b) The reactance of a quartz crystal varies with the operating frequency near resonance.
Digital Quartz Thermometers

The values for the elements in the equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal depend on the temperature, and therefore the oscillation frequency displays a thermal drift. If precision-cut quartz crystals are used, the relationship between temperature and frequency is very stable and repeatable. Then, from the measurement of the oscillation frequency we can infer the temperature of the element. The general equation is
where T0 is an arbitrary reference temperature (usually 250 C), and f0, a, b, and c depend on the cutting orientation
Simplified diagram for a quartz digital thermometer
Some temperature probes using this principle include the electronic circuitry to output a pulse frequency signal enabling remote sensing with low interference susceptibility as compared to systems with analog voltage output. Oscillator frequencies range from about 256 kHz to 28 MHz with temperature coefficients (a) from 19 x 10-6 / 0 C to 90 x 10 -6 / 0C. Low-mass probes can be applied to infrared radiation intensity measurement.
SAW Sensors
A perturbation produces waves on the surface of a liquid, as we all know from our experience on ponds. Similar waves also travel in the surface of a solid. A method to produce a surface perturbation, certainly less convulsive than earthquakes, is to place two interleaved metallic electrodes (e.g., aluminum) on the surface of a piezoelectric material as shown in Figure. For a distance d between electrodes, a voltage of frequency f applied to the electrodes produces a surface deformation that propagates in both directions as a surface wave with velocity v, depending on the material, provided that v =2 fd. A similar electrode pair yields an alternating output voltage when the deformation wave arrives at it. The velocity v for the surface wave depends on the deformation state for the surface and also on the temperature because they both influence the density and elastic properties for the material, in addition to altering the distance between electrodes. This is the principle for the use of these devices in sensors according to a direct action on the surface or on a particular coating.
Oscillator based on a surface acoustic wave device used as a delay line

The preferred piezoelectric materials for SAW sensors are quartz and LiNdO3. Interference from temperature or other quantities is cancelled by placing another electrode pair nearby in a region where the measurand does not produce any stress but the interfering quantity does. This yields a reference oscillator whose frequency depends on the interfering quantity in the same way as the measuring oscillator. SAW sensors are applied to measure temperature, force, torque, pressure, acceleration, and gas concentration by mass adsorption (chemosensors) . Gas flow has been measured by detecting its cooling eect on a SAW delay line oscillator.
Vibrating Wire Strain Gages

According to the lower transverse oscillation frequency for a vibrating taut string or wire of length l is where F is the mechanical force applied to it and m is the longitudinal mass density (mass/length).
If the position of one of the ends changes because it is mounted on a movable support, then the oscillation period is directly proportional to the displacement. If a force is applied, the resulting oscillation frequency is directly proportional.
Vibrating wire gage. The transverse vibration is excited by a current pulse applied to the coil, which then is used to detect the vibration frequency
For strain measurement, equation yields
where E is Young's modulus and A is the wire's cross section.
The oscillation frequency is measured with a variable reluctance sensor and is in the audible range. Hence it is also called an acoustic gage. Usually a self-oscillating system is arranged where the detected signal is amplified and fed back to an electromagnetic driver. Some units use the driver alternately as the detector .In order for the oscillation frequency to be independent of the driver electric characteristics, the quality factor for the mechanical resonator must be at least 1000 or higher This principle can sense any physical quantity resulting in a change in l, F, or m. A common application is strain or tension measurement . In contrast with resistive strain gages, vibrating-wire strain gages can detect non plane deformation. In addition, they are insensitive to resistance changes in connecting Wiresfor example, those due to temperature. Temperature interferes because it affects the sensing wire length l. In order to compensate for temperature, we can measure the change in resistance of the driving coil wire, as in RTDs
Vibrating strips are a variation on this same measurement principle. Their lower natural longitudinal oscillation frequency is
where l is the length, E is Young's modulus, and is the density. Vibrating strips are used for dust deposition measurement of exhaust gases and also to measure viscosity
Vibrating Cylinder Sensors

If instead of a vibrating wire or strip we use a thin (75 m)-walled cylinder with a closed end, the oscillation frequency depends on the dimensions and material for the cylinder and on any mass vibrating together with its walls. By using an electromagnetic driver as in the previous case in order to keep the system oscillating, it is possible to measure the difference in pressure between both cylinder sides because it results in mechanical stresses in its walls. We can also apply this system to gas density measurement because the gas near the walls vibrates when the walls do. For corrosive liquids it is better to use a glass or ceramic cylinder and a piezoelectric driver, thus avoiding corrosive-prone elements in electromagnetic drivers.
Vibrating tube method to measure liquid density
It consists of two parallel conduits through which the liquid flows; the two tubes are clamped at their ends and coupled to the main conduit by a flexible joint. Because the volume is known and the oscillation frequency for both conduits, which behave as a tuning fork, depends on the mass, the frequency depends on the density in the form
where f0 is the conduit oscillation frequency when there is no liquid, and r0 is a constant that depends on system geometry. The output frequency can be measured, for example, with a PLL whose voltagecontrolled oscillator (VCO)drives the vibrating tube
Digital Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding Flow meters The detection of oscillations in a flowing fluid allows us to obtain a variable frequency signal, which depends on fluid velocity. Those oscillations can be natural or forced. The method of forced oscillations is mostly used for gases. It consists of placing inside the pipe a grooved conduit so that the out coming flow is helical and has its maximal velocity (and minimal pressure according to Bernoullis theorem) at a point that shifts back and forth. The frequency at which this low-pressure point passes by a fixed detector is proportional to fluid velocity, and therefore to volumetric flow. Fluctuations associated with the shifting point are sensed by a piezoelectric pressure sensor or a thermistor (for temperature changes). Signal frequency ranges from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz.
A blunt object inside a fluid stream produces downstream vortices whose frequency is proportional to flow velocity
For liquids it is more common to place inside the conduit a blunt (non aerodynamic) object (vortex shedder), which is nonaligned with the flow lines .This also works for gas and steam. When the fluid layer in contact with the object separates from it, Karman vortices are shed from the object, the same as a flag pole creates vortices in the blowing wind, which wave the flag. Those vortices are usually detected by ultrasound whose intensity undergoes a variable attenuation, and also by temperature fluctuations or by the drag force on the blunt object. Shaping the blunt object with a particular profile yields a frequency for the vortices proportional to the average flow velocity
Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters A common type of mass flow meter relies on the Coriolis effect on a Ushaped flow tube (Figure ) vibrated at its natural frequency (about 80 Hz) by an electromagnetic device located at the bend of the tube . As the liquid flows into the tube, the Coriolis force it experiences because of the vertical movements of the tube has opposite sign to that experienced when it leaves the tube because according to opposite velocities yield opposite forces. That is, when the liquid enters the tube, it resists being moved upward (or downward) and reacts by pushing down (respectively, up); when the fluid leaves the tube after having been forced upward (or downward), it resists having its vertical movement decreased and pushes up (respectively, down). The result is a tube twisting whose amplitude is proportional to the liquid mass flow rate.
(a) Coriolis flow meter based on a vibrating U tube. (b) When the tube moves upward, the fluid exerts a downward force at the inlet and an upward force at the outlet that results in (c) a tube twist
SENSORS BASED ON SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS
Thermometers Based on Semiconductor Junctions

The forward characteristic for a diode is temperature-dependent (about -2 mV/ 0C for silicon diodes), which is usually considered a shortcoming. However, we can use that dependence to measure temperature or any other quantity related to a change in temperature . But this dependence is nonlinear and not repetitive enough for accurate measurements. It is therefore better to use the temperature dependence of the base-emitter voltage VBE of a transistor supplied with a constant collector current According to the Ebers-Moll model, the collector current for an ideal transistor is
Thermometer based on the temperature coefficient of the base emitter junction of a diode-connected transistor
Magnetodiodes and Magnetotransistor

I-Vcharacteristics for a diode change in a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of travel of charge carriers because the Lorentz force deviates those carriers from their trajectories. If a diode is designed so that the carriers are deviated to a high recombination region, then the I-V characteristic of the resulting Magneto diode depends on the magnetic field intensity. The sensitivity to the magnetic field increases when recombination characteristics for the high and low recombination regions differ substantially. This sensitivity is about ten times higher than that of a silicon Halleffect device. However, magnetodiodes need unconventional IC processes that are expensive
This same principle can be applied to magneto transistor design, but another structure is preferred, which consists of a base, an emitter, and two collectors . When no magnetic field is present, both collector currents are equal. When a magnetic field is applied, one collector current increases and the other decreases. The difference between them is a measure of the applied field intensity.
Photodiodes
Figure shows the structure for a photodiode. Because non depleted p and n regions are conductive, any applied voltage is applied to the depletion region, where it creates an electric field. Any incident radiation absorbed produces electron-hole pairs, which accumulate in the p and n regions because of the electric field, thus resulting in a voltage (photovoltaic effect). In order to collect the output current, charges have to migrate to the diode surface, which slows the response time. This results in a higher recombination probability, which reduces the responsivity (sensitivity).
Figure shows the response of a photodiode to a square pulse of radiation. When there is no polarization (0 V), the response is slow because of the slow charge migration toward the surface. But when a small inverse voltage is applied (5 V), charges generated in the depletion region are quickly ollected and are responsible for the fast initial response. Charges produced outside the depletion region migrate very slowly and are responsible for the slow part of the response. For a larger applied voltage (30 V) the depletion region extends to the entire device depth, which results in a single fast rising edge.
Speed of response for a photodiode as a function of reverse bias voltage amplitude
Photodiode equivalent circuit. ip is the signal current; iD is the leakage current (dark current); in is the total noise current spectral density; Rp is the dynamic resistance; Cp is diode capacitance; Rs is the series resistance; RL is the load resistance If we neglect the noise current in Figure the output voltage is
The current sources are
Figure (a) Amplifier for a reverse-biased photodiode. (b) Adding a matched dummy photodiode and a matched resistor reduces the eect of leakage currents.
Phototransistors
A phototransistor is an integrated combination of photodiode and np-n transistor where the optical radiation illuminates the base
where ip and iD, and b is the current gain for the transistor in the common emitter configuration (from 100 to 1000). This gain is not constant but depends on the current and therefore on the illumination level. This lack of linearity and also their lower bandwidth as compared to photodiodes (due to the large basecollector capacitance) makes them less suitable for measurement. Phototransistors, however, suit switching applications because of their current gain.
Photoelectric sensing modes: (a) opposed, (b) reflex, and (c) proximity
Photoelectric sensing uses a light source (LED or incandescent Lamp for color applications) and a photoelectric sensor phototransistor- that responds to a change in the intensity of the light falling upon it. Applications requiring high sensitivity to visible light use photoconductors. Applications requiring a very fast response or a linear response over a broad range of irradiance use photodiodes. The emitted light is modulated by turning the LED on and of at several kilohertz. The amplifier following the phototransistor is, tuned to the modulation frequency so that interfering light signals-that is, those not pulsing at the same frequency- are rejected. Intense ambient light, however, may saturate the detector.
Charge-Coupled and CMOS Image Sensors

If in Figure a positive step voltage is applied to a gate electrode while adjacent electrodes remain at a lower voltage, a potential-energy well is set up into the p substrate, and charge (electrons) is stored under that electrode. If now one of the adjacent electrodes is biased with a voltage higher than that of the previous electrode, a deeper potential well is established and the stored charge travels to it along the surface of the silicon to seek the lowest potential. By clocking electrode voltages, we can thus move, in a given direction, the charge initially stored. However, thermal electron-hole pairs are being continuously
Fundamentals of a charge coupled device (CCD). Clock signals transfer electrons accumulated in a potential well.
In a CCD image sensor, light from the object illuminates a CCD, either from the electrode or from the substrate side, and electronhole pairs are created in the silicon by the photoelectric effect. (Silicon is sensitive to photons with wavelengths from 300 nm to 1100 nm.) By applying the appropriate clock signals, potential wells are created that collect the photon-generated minority carriers for a time called the optical integration time, while majority carriers are swept into the substrate. The collected charge packets are shifted down the CCD register and converted into voltage or current at the output terminal. The amount of charge accumulated in each well is a linear function of the illumination intensity and the exposure (or integration) time. The output signal charge is a stepped dc voltage that will linearly vary from a thermally generated background level (noise) at zero illumination (dark condition) to a maximum at saturation under bright illumination.
(a) Passive photodiode in a CMOS image sensor. (b) Active pixel sensors (APSs) buffer the photodiode with a transistor
Active-pixel sensors (APSs) include an amplifier in each pixel. In active photodiodes there is a source-follower transistor that provides current to charge and discharge the bus capacitance quickly. This permits an increased bus length, hence a larger array size. They also include a reset transistor that controls integration time, hence providing electronic shutter control, and a row-select transistor to coordinate pixel reading. These additional transistors reduce the fill factor and increase FPN because their thresholds are difficult to match. To counter the low fill factor, some CMOS sensors use a microlens for each pixel, but this increases cost because microlens deposition is not a standard CMOS process.
FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS
Fiber optics are thin transparent strands of glass or plastic that are enclosed by material of a lower index of refraction .n2 < n1. and that transmit light throughout their length by internal reflections (Figure). Plastic or stainless steel flexible coating around the fiber supplies mechanical protection. By the law of refraction, a light ray impinging at the fiber entrance is refracted so that the refracted ray lies in the same plane defined by the incident ray and the normal of the front surface but on the other side of both the surface and the normal.
Incident rays inside the acceptance angle for a fiber optic .n1 > n2. are totally reflected and guided to the output. Incident rays outside that angle are lost into the cladding.
When the refracted ray reaches the core-cladding boundary, it refracts again. But if the incidence angle is such that sin c > n2/n1, the sine of the angle of the ray refracted into the cladding should be larger than 1, which is impossible. Therefore, the ray reflects back into the core with a reflected angle equal to the incidence angle, so the same happens when reaching the boundary again and the ray is guided along the fiber
Extrinsic fiber-optics sensors based on intensity modulation because of (a) light transmission and (b) light reflection (from a diaphragm).
Level sensor based on light coupling through a liquid dielectric
ULTRASONIC-BASED SENSORS
Ultrasound is a mechanical radiation with a frequency above the human hearing range (about 20 kHz). As for any radiation, when ultrasound strikes an object, part is reflected, part is transmitted, and part is absorbed .In addition, when the radiation source moves relative to the reflector, there is a shift in received frequency (Doppler effect). All these properties of radiation object interaction have been applied to the measurement of several physical quantities using ultrasound.
A plane wave (intensity Ii) with normal incidence on a boundary is partially Reflected (Ir ) and partially transmitted (It )
The velocity for the perturbation to propagate from one point to another, or wave velocity, depends on the medium but not on the frequency. For gases and liquids, that velocity is given by
where Km is the bulk modulus of elasticity and is the density. Because both parameters change with temperature, c is also temperature-dependent For a solid, the velocity of longitudinal waves is
Ultrasonic level sensors determine the distance from the transducer to an impedance discontinuity by measuring the elapsed time between the emission and reception of a signal burst.
Transit time sensors yield highly linear and accurate outputs when measuring distance. Long-range sensors are required for level monitoring in large tanks or bins. Accurate distance measurement is required for position and filllevel control applications, thickness measurement, and ultrasound imaging. Instant cameras use low-cost echo ranging. Nondestructive testing also relies on sound reflections from impedance discontinuities. For liquid or solid level measurement, the transducer is usually placed above the tank and transmits a cone-shaped beam pattern
If transducers interchange their functions or if another transducer pair is used, then
An alternative method based on the same principle uses a singaround circuit where the transmitter emits a pulse when an associated receiver detects the radiation pulse previously transmitted. By using two transmitter-receiver pairs, one transmitting in the same direction as the flow and another one transmitting in the opposite direction, or by using a pair of reciprocal transducers, the difference in pulse repetition frequency is

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UNIT-V DIGITAL SENSORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE SENSORS

Prepared By M.Sujith, Sr.Assistant Professor/EEE, IFET College of Engineering, Villupuram

IFETCE/ M.E(A.E)/M.SUJITH/I YEAR/I SEM/AP 7006/PPT /VER 1.0

IFETCE/ M.E(A.E)/M.SUJITH/I YEAR/I SEM/AP 7006/PPT /VER 1.0

Principle of linear and rotary incremental position encoders

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Incremental Position Encoders

Different sensors for magnetic incremental position encoders -Toroidal core.

Silver-in-glass technology for contacting incremental position encoder

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Variable frequency sensors Variable frequency sensors

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Digital Quartz Thermometers

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Simplified diagram for a quartz digital thermometer

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Oscillator based on a surface acoustic wave device used as a delay line

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Vibrating Wire Strain Gages

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For strain measurement, equation yields

where E is Young's modulus and A is the wire's cross section.

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Vibrating Cylinder Sensors

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Vibrating tube method to measure liquid density

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SENSORS BASED ON SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS

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Thermometers Based on Semiconductor Junctions

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Magnetodiodes and Magnetotransistor

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Speed of response for a photodiode as a function of reverse bias voltage amplitude

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The current sources are

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Charge-Coupled and CMOS Image Sensors

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