FOURIER TRANSFORM SIGNAL PROCESSING

Edited by Salih Mohammed Salih

Fourier Transform Signal Processing Edited by Salih Mohammed Salih Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Vana Persen Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published April, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected] Fourier Transform Signal Processing, Edited by Salih Mohammed Salih p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0453-7

Contents
Preface IX Part 1 Chapter 1 DFT and FFT Applications 1 Interpolation Algorithms of DFT for Parameters Estimation of Sinusoidal and Damped Sinusoidal Signals 3 Krzysztof Duda A Proposed Model-Based Adaptive System for DFT Coefficients Estimation Using SIMULINK 33 Omar Mustaf FFT-Based Efficient Algorithms for Time Delay Estimation 55 Renbiao Wu, Wenyi Wang and Qiongqiong Jia Channel Identification for OFDM Communication System in Frequency Domain 81 Lianming Sun Fast Fourier Transform Processors: Implementing FFT and IFFT Cores for OFDM Communication Systems 111 A. Corts, I. Vlez, M. Turrillas and J. F. Sevillano FPGA Implementation of Inverse Fast Fourier Transform in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Systems 135 Somayeh Mohammady, Nasri Sulaiman, Roslina M. Sidek, Pooria Varahram, and M. Nizar Hamidon Fault Diagnosis of Induction Motors Based on FFT 157 Castelli Marcelo, Juan Pablo Fossatti and Jos Ignacio Terra

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

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Contents

Part 2 Chapter 8

Time, Frequency and Phase Estimation 183 Non-Parametric Estimation of the Periodic Signal Parameters in the Frequency Domain 185 Duan Agre A Reformulative Retouch on the Fourier Transform Unprincipled Uncertainty Principle 211 Csaba Szntay, Jr. Aspects of Using Chirp Excitation for Estimation of Bioimpedance Spectrum 237 Toivo Paavle, Mart Min and Toomas Parve Simple Signals for System Identification 257 Paul Annus, Raul Land, Mart Min and Jaan Ojarand Image Processing 277 Invariant Nonlinear Correlations via Fourier Transform 279 ngel Coronel-Beltrn and Josu lvarez-Borrego Pattern Recognition of Digital Images by One-Dimensional Signatures 299 Selene Solorza, Josu lvarez-Borrego and Gildardo Chaparro-Magallanez Vectorial Signatures for Pattern Recognition 317 Jess Ramn Lerma-Aragn and Josu lvarez-Borrego Multidimensional Features Extraction Methods in Frequency Domain 337 Jesus Olivares-Mercado, Gualberto Aguilar-Torres, Karina Toscano-Medina, Gabriel Sanchez-Perez, Mariko Nakano-Miyatake and Hector Perez-Meana

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Part 3 Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Preface
This book focuses on the Fourier transform applications in signal processing techniques. The field of signal processing has seen explosive growth during the past decades, as phenomenal advances both in research and application have been made. During the preparation of this book, we found that almost all the textbooks on signal processing have a section devoted to the Fourier transform theory. Most of those describe some formulas and algorithms, but one can easily be lost in seemingly incomprehensible mathematics. The basic idea behind all those horrible looking formulas is rather simple, even fascinating: it is possible to form any function as a summation of a series of sine and cosine terms of increasing frequency. In other words, any space or time varying data can be transformed into a different domain called the frequency space. A fellow called Joseph Fourier first came up with the idea in the 19th century, and it was proven to be useful in various applications, mainly in signal processing. As far as we can tell, Gauss was the first to propose the techniques that we now call the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for calculating the coefficients in a trigonometric expansion of an asteroid's orbit in 1805. However, it was the seminal paper by Cooley and Tukey in 1965 that caught the attention of the science and engineering community and, in a way, founded the discipline of Digital Signal Processing (DSP). While the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) transform can be applied to any complex valued series, in practice for large series it can take considerable time to compute, the time taken being proportional to the square of the number on points in the series. It is hard to overemphasis the importance of the DFT, convolution, and fast algorithms. The FFT may be the most important numerical algorithm in science, engineering, and applied mathematics. New theoretical results still are appearing, advances in computers and hardware continually restate the basic questions, and new applications open new areas for research. It is hoped that this book will provide the background, references and incentive to encourage further research and results in this area as well as provide tools for practical applications. One of the attractive features of this book is the inclusion of extensive simple, but practical, examples that expose the reader to real-life signal processing problems, which has been made possible by the use of computers in solving practical design problems. The aim of this book is to expand the analysis of many topics related to Fourier transform. It includes three sections:

Preface

The first section deals with DFT and FFT algorithms and their applications. It consists of seven chapters. The first two chapters are related to the DFT: Interpolation of DFT, and DFT coefficients estimation, while the last five chapters are related to the FFT applications: FFT-based efficient algorithms for time delay estimation, channel identification for OFDM communication system, implementing FFT and IFFT cores for OFDM communication systems, FPGA implementation of IFFT in OFDM systems, fault diagnosis of induction motors based on FFT. The chapters of the second section discuss some advanced methods used in Fourier transform analysis which are related to the time, frequency, and phase estimation. This section consists of four chapters, the chapters are related to: estimation of the periodic signal parameters in the frequency domain, the uncertainty principles in the Fourier transform, the chirp excitation for estimation of bioimpedance spectrum, and the identification of systems via simple signals. The third section includes the Fourier transform applications in image processing techniques. This section consists of four chapters, the chapters are concerns to: the invariant correlation using a nonlinear filter, the pattern recognition of digital images by one-dimensional signatures, the vectorial signatures for pattern recognition, and the multidimensional features extraction methods in frequency domain. Finally, we would like to thank all the authors who have participated in this book for their valuable contribution. Also we would like to thank all the reviewers for their valuable notes. While there is no doubt that this book may have omitted some significant findings in the Fourier transform field, we hope the information included will be useful for Electrical Engineers, Communication Engineers, Signal Processing Engineers and the Mathematicians, in addition to the academic researchers working in this field.

Salih Mohammed Salih College of Engineering University of Anbar Iraq

13
Pattern Recognition of Digital Images by One-Dimensional Signatures
Josu lvarez-Borrego2 and
2CICESE, 1UABC, Facultad de Ciencias Divisin de Fsica Aplicada, Departamento de ptica Mxico

Selene Solorza1, Gildardo Chaparro-Magallanez2

1. Introduction
Since the computers evolution in the middle of last century, pattern recognition of digital images based on correlations has been applied in science as well as technology areas. Their applications are broad and variety(Gonzalez & Woods, 2002). The techniques developed are used to identify micro-objects, for example the inclusion of virus bodies, bacteria, chromosomes, etc. (lvarez-Borrego & Castro-Longoria, 2003; lvarez-Borrego et al., 2002; lvarez-Borrego & Solorza, 2010; Bueno et al., 2011; Forero-Vargas et al., 2003; Pech-Pacheco & lvarez-Borrego, 1998; Zavala & lvarez-Borrego, 1997). The analysis of those samples requires experience and moreover, the samples analyzed frequently contain material with different fragmentation degrees and this can lead to confusion and loss of information. There are other works in which the pattern recognition are based on probabilistic methodologies; here the objects are represented by their statistical characteristic features (Fergus et al., 2003; Holub et al., 2005). These are used to face identication and image restoration (Alon et al., 2009; Kong et al., 2010a;b; Ponce et al., 2006); ngerprints classication (Jain & Feng, 2011; Komarinski et al., 2005; Moses et al., 2009 ). Also, these works are useful to classify or count micro-objects, where the object variation, background, scale, illumination, etc., are taking into account (Arandjelovic & Zisserman, 2010; Barinova et al., 2010; Lempitsky & Zisserman, 2010). Recently, digital systems invariant correlation to position, rotation and scale are utilized in the pattern recognition eld (lvarez-Borrego & Solorza, 2010; Coronel-Beltrn & lvarez-Borrego, 2010; Lerma-Aragn & lvarez-Borrego, 2009a;b; Solorza & lvarez-Borrego, 2010). Such invariants are made of by the Fourier and Fourier-Mellin transforms in conjunction with non linear lters (k-law lter). The non linear lters have advantages compared with the classical lters (POF, BAPOF, VanderLugt, CHF) due to their great capacity to discriminate objects, the maximum value of the correlation peak is well localized, and the output plane is less noisy (Guerrero-Moreno & lvarez-Borrego, 2009). At the same decade, different contributions have been proposed to identify the target when different kinds of noise were presented in the input scene, one of the techniques that had a very good performance is the adaptive synthetic discriminant functions (ASDF) (Gonzlez-Fraga et al., 2006) also used in an optical system (Daz-Ramrez et al., 2006).

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There are many works about digital systems invariant to position, rotation and scale but they have a big computational cost. The composite non linear lters like ASDF lters can be used for obtain a digital invariant correlation to rotation, but they must have the information of all angles of rotation of the object to be recognized. In order to have a new correlation digital system invariant to position, rotation and scale with low computational cost, in this work a new methodology based on one-dimensional signatures of the images is presented. Other important aspect in the study of digital system is the information leak. Then, the objective is neglect only the irrelevant information when the mask applies. Hence, we used binary rings masks associated to the image. The mask is constructed based on the real part of the Fourier transform of a given image, therefore each image will have one unique binary rings mask, called adaptive mask, in this form the information leak is avoided because the frequencies ltered are not the same always (Solorza & lvarez-Borrego, 2010). This chapter presents three digital systems based on the Fourier plane, adaptive binary rings masks, one-dimensional signatures and non linear correlations. Section 2 presents the methodology to obtain the adaptive binary rings mask of the image, the technique to associate the signature at each image and the non linear correlation used in the classication. Also, a position and rotation invariance digital system is presented and tested in the classication of ngerprints digital images. This section shows that the modulus of the Fourier transform of the image is the natural and easier manner to achieve the invariance translation in the digital system; taking advantage of the translation invariant property of the Fourier transform. Also, presents how the rotational invariance is obtained by the binary rings masks lters. In section 3, a digital system invariance to position, rotation and scale is built and used to classify image of Arial font type which are shifted, scaled and rotated. Here, the scale transform (which is a particular case of the Mellin transform) is introduced and utilized for the scale recognition. Section 4, gives an alternative method to get scale invariance using composite lters. Finally, concluding remarks are presented.

2. The digital system

An important aspect in the study of digital systems is the information leak. In this work, the frequencies are ltered using binary rings masks and the objective is neglect only the irrelevant information when the mask applies. Therefore, it is proposed a methodology to build a mask associated to the image, in this form, the information leak is avoided because the frequencies ltered are not the same always. Next, the procedure to construct a binary rings mask of the image chosen is explained.
2.1 Binary rings mask of the image

The mask associated of a given image, named I , is built by taking the real part of its 2 D-fast Fourier transform ( FFT ), given by f ( x, y) = Re( FFT ( I ( x, y))), (1)

is 2 D-mapping by min1x,y417 { f ( x, y)}

where ( x, y) represent a pixel of the image. For example, Fig. 1(b) shows the real part of the fast Fourier transform (Eq. (1)) of the 417 417 gray-scale image in Fig. 1(a). This 3 D-graph max1x,y417 { f ( x, y)} 0 1 , shown in Fig. 1(c).

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Fig. 1. Binary rings mask construction example. The asterisk means the point to point multiplication of both images.

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Next, this result is ltered by the binary disk of 417 pixels diameter presented in Fig. 1(d). Based on the result of this operation, we obtain 180 proles of 417 pixel length that passes for the (209, 209) pixel, center of the image (separated by a = 1 deg, sampling of this way the entire circle). The next step is to compute the addition of the intensity values in each prole and after that select the prole whose sum has the maximum value, it is called the maximum intensity prole. Fig. 1(e), displays the prole of zeroth degrees (blue-line) and the maximum intensity prole in red-line ( = 174 degrees). Fig. 1(f) shows the graph of the maximum intensity prole in the cartesian plane, where x = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 417 represents the points (r cos , r sin ), 209 r 209 and = 174. Notice the symmetry of the graph in the x = 209 axis, which will be preserved in the one-variable binary function Z (x) = 1, f (x) > 0, 0, otherwise. (2)

The graph of the Z function is plotted in Fig. 1(g), for clarity and due to the symmetry of the Z function, we only plot the points 209 x 300. Next, taking x = 209 as the rotation axis, the graph of Z is rotated 180 degrees to obtain concentric cylinders of height one, different widths and centered in (209, 209). Finally, mapping those cylinders in two dimensions we built the binary rings mask associated to the image. The mask for the ngerprint digital images given in Fig. 1(a) is shown in Fig. 1(h). Each ngerprint digital image used in this work (Fig. 2) has its own binary rings mask Fig. 3. Notice how the mask changes with the images, so they are called adaptive mask. The next step in the construction of the digital system is build a signature for the image.

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Fig. 2. Fingerprints digital images. The images was downloaded from Biometrics Ideal Test web page (biometrics.idealtest.org).
2.2 The signature of the image

The aim of this work is identify a specic target (the object to be recognized) no matter the position or the angle of rotation presented on the plane. For example, using the ngerprint image in Fig. 4(a), the invariance to position is obtained using the modulus of the frequency content of the image, | FFT ( I )| (Fig. 4(b)). Next, the mask (Fig. 4(c)) is applied in the Fourier plane for sampling the frequencies pattern of the object (Fig. 4(d)). Finally, the different modulus values of the Fourier transform for each ring is summed and then assigned to the

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Fig. 3. Binary masks associated at images in Fig. 2. corresponding ring index to obtain the signature of the image (Fig. 4(e)). Here, the rings are numbered from the center to outside of the circles. In the target images data base we have twenty image without rotation (Fig. 2), thus we calculated twenty different binary rings masks (Fig. 3). Each mask will be applied at Fig. 4(b) to obtain twenty different signatures, which are shown in Fig. 5(a) in black-dashed curves. Because of the use of different rings masks the length of the signatures are different, hence zeros are added at the end of those signatures shorter than the length of the larger signature to match the size of all of them. Finally, taking the average of those twenty signatures the average signature of the image is displayed as the red-curve in Fig. 5(a). This procedure has the advantage that more information is incorporated in the average signature because of the relevant information ltered by the twenty different masks used instead of the information obtained from one mask only. When the image is changed, it is expected that the average signature changes. But, because of the uses of the adaptive rings masks associated to the target images data base, the hypothesis is that when the image presents a rotation, the average signature will be similar to the average signature of the non-rotated image, hence the digital system will has the capability to identify rotated objects. Fig. 5(b) shows the average signature of the Fig. 2(a) without rotation (called a0 ) and with a rotation angle of 10 degrees (a10 ), also the average signature of Fig. 2(b) is presented (b0 ). As it is expected the form of the average signatures a0 and a10 are very similar when the signature has high values, not being the case for the average signature of b0 . Notice that the construction of the signature is related to the adaptive binary rings masks, hence if the images resolution changes the masks also change, this could be a problem for the digital system that should be take into account, however this topic is beyond this work and hereafter we assume that the images have the same resolution

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Fig. 4. Signature of a given ngerprint. Only for visualization purposes the (b) and (d) gures are shown in log scale. The asterisk means the point to point multiplication of both images. always. Once the average signatures can be assigned at each image, the next step is the classication.
2.3 The non linear correlation

The average signature of the problem image (PI) is compared with the average signature of the target (T) to recognize or not the target using the non linear correlation, CNL , CNL (PI, T) = PI T = FFT 1

| FFT (PI)|k eiPI | FFT (T)|k eiT ,

(3)

where means correlation, i = 1, PI and T are the phases of the fast Fourier transform of the problem image and the target, respectively, 0 < k < 1 is the non linear coefcient factor (Solorza & lvarez-Borrego, 2010). Fig. 6(a) shows the result of Eq. (3) with k = 0.1 using Fig. 2(a) as the target (its average signature is given in Fig. 5(b) as a0 ), and the problem

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(a) Average signature associated to the ngerprint in Fig 4a.

(b) Some average signature examples.

Fig. 5. Average signatures. images taken were Fig. 2(a) without rotation (autocorrelation), its rotated ten degrees image (average signature a10 ), and the Fig. 2(b) (average signature b0 ). If the maximum value of the magnitude for the correlations (plotted as dots, Fig. 6(b)) are signicant, that is similar to the autocorrelation maximum value, hence the PI contains the target, otherwise has a ngerprint different to the target.

(a) Fig. 2(a) was chosen as target.

(b) Amplication around the center.

Fig. 6. The non linear correlation vector examples.

2.4 The position and rotation invariance digital system applied to the ngerprint data base

The position and rotational invariance non linear correlation digital method described in the algorithm in Fig. 7 (steps explained in above sections) was applied to the twenty 417 417 gray-scale ngerprint digital images (Fig. 2). Each image was rotated 15 degrees, one by one, hence in the problem images data base we worked with 620 images, moreover the saw tooth

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effect (noise) is incorporated into the problem. Therefore, the digital system is more robust in the pattern recognition. Each image in Fig. 2 was selected as target, thus the target data base has twenty image only and the corresponding average signature was constructed. Those twenty average signatures were correlated with the 620 average signatures of the rotated images using k = 0.1 in Eq. (3). The maximum value of the magnitude for the corresponding correlation was assigned to the image. The results were box plotting by the mean correlation with two standard errors ( 2SE) and outliers. It is impossible to show the box plot developed for each target used; hence, to exemplify we choose Fig. 2(a), (b) , (c) and (d) as targets. The mean of the maximum of the magnitude for the non linear correlation values are shown in Fig. 8. In the horizontal-axis are setting the letters corresponding to the images in Fig. 2. The vertical-axis represents the mean of the maximum values without normalize the magnitude of the non linear correlation for the images of each ngerprints and their corresponding rotated images.

The digital system has a condence level of 95.4% according with the statistical analysis, when the target is the ngerprint in Fig. 2(f). Moreover, when the other images are chosen as target the system gives a condence level of 100%. Therefore, the digital system in Fig. 7 shows an excellent performance in the identication of ngerprints images.

Fig. 7. Position and rotation invariant non linear correlation digital system algorithm. The asterisk means the point to point multiplication of both images.

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Fig. 8. Box plot examples for some ngerprint images.

3. The position, rotation and scale invariance methodology

In some analysis of real image is so important to consider the scale invariance. In order to analyze this case, images of Fig. 9 were used (hence, the target data base has ve image). They are black and white image of 257 257 white contours of Arial font type. We choose this font type and these image because of their similarity between some of them. Each image were scaled 5%, one by one. Hence, we have eleven image for each letter obtaining a total of 55 images. Each of those 55 images were rotated 360 degrees, degree by degree, so we worked with 19, 800 in the problem images data base to test the methodology. Fig. 9(f) shows a 257 257 images with the B letters contour rotated 315 degrees and incremented 5% from its original size (Fig. 9(a)). To introduce the scale invariance in the methodology described in Fig. 7, the average signatures for the target and the problem image (PI) are computed similar of those in Fig. 7(f) and Fig. 7(j). The difference in this procedure is that the binary rings mask of the problem image (Fig. 10(c)) is also computed and the signature obtained from this mask, Fig. 10(g), contributes to build the average signature for the target too, Fig. 10(h). Figure 10(i) shows an example of the average signature when B letter is used like a target. Analogously, to obtain

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Fig. 9. 257 257 black and white images with Arial font type letter contours. the average signature for the PI in Fig. 10(c) the same procedure is following but instead of the | FFT | of the target the | FFT | of the PI is used and the same six binary rings mask are utilized to construct the corresponding average signature. Therefore, when the PI changes the average signature of the target changes too, because the associated mask is different. However, the adaptive mask of the target and the PI are utilized in the construction of their corresponding

Fig. 10. Position, rotation and scale invariant average signature.

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average signature, hence, when the PI is a rotated image of the target the same frequencies are ltered, so the average signature of both image are similar not being the case when the target and the PI have different letters. Fig. 11 shows the digital system algorithm modied to incorporate scale invariance in the algorithm of Fig. 7. Once we have the average signature for the target (Fig. 11(g)) and PI (Fig. 11(l)), in order to determine if the PI is the rotated and/or scaled target or another image, the scale transform for the average signature of the target, named DT (c) (Fig. 11(h)) and the problem image, DPI (c) (Fig. 11(m)), are obtained by the scale transform function (De Sena & Rocchesso, 2004) 1 s(t)e(ic1/2) ln t dt, (4) Ds ( c ) = 2 0 where s(t) represents the average signature of the image. Then, the | DPI (c)| (Fig. 11(i)) is compared with the | DT (c)| (Fig. 11(n)) to recognize or not the target using the non linear correlation Eq. (3) with k = 0.3. Finally, if the maximum value for the magnitude of the correlation is signicant the PI contains the target, otherwise has a different image of the target. The statistical analysis using 2SE and outliers gives that the digital system has a condence level of 95.4% when the targets are the image of B and D and a 100% when the targets are E, F and X, (Fig. 12). Hence, the digital system invariant to position, rotation and scale shows an excellent performance.

4. Composite lters for scale invariance

One alternative method to get scale invariance is the use of training images to generate composite lter with Fourier transform too. This methodology have information of the target in different sizes. Fig. 13 shows the procedure to train the composite lter that will be used in the digital system invariance to rotation, scale and position. Once it is established the number of training images, for example I1 , I2 , . . . , In (Fig. 13(a)), the modulus of the fast Fourier transform of each image is calculated, that is | FFT ( I1 )|, | FFT ( I2 )|, . . . , | FFT ( In )| (Fig. 13(c)). Then, the sum of all those modulus is done to generate a new composite Fourier plane (Fig. 13(d)), which has more information than that obtained using only one image. Mathematically, this new Fourier plane is expressed as fc =

k =1

| FFT ( Ik )|.

(5)

The Fourier plane obtained by f c (Fig. 13(e)) can substitute the modulus plane that is presented in the procedure shown in Fig. 4(b). Then, using the binary rings mask the one-dimensional signature for a given target image is obtained. The composite lter was applied to the 256 256 gray-scale diatoms images shows in Fig. 14. The diatoms are a class of microscopic unicellular algae, are photosynthetic organisms that live in sea water being a quite important part in the food chain. Each image in Fig. 14 was scaled in the range of 90% to 107% (one by one) and all those image were rotated 360 degrees (every 45 degrees). Hence, we have processed 528 images in this example.

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Fig. 11. Position, rotation and scale invariant non linear correlation digital system algorithm. For example, Fig. 15(a) is chosen as the target. Then, its Fourier plane was made of training images using Eq. (5), shown in Fig. 15(b). Then, the corresponding binary rings mask is applied to it (Fig. 15(c)) to obtain the signature of the target (Fig. 15(d)). Analogously, the problem image is selected (Fig. 15(e)), the | FFT ( PI )| is calculated (Fig. 15(f)). The respective binary rings mask is applied (Fig. 15(g)) to construct the signature corresponding to the PI (Fig. 15(h)). Once it is obtained the signatures, the non linear correlation in Eq. (3) with k = 0.1 is applied (Fig. 15(i)). If the maximum value of the magnitude for the correlation of the problem image is signicant, that is similar to the autocorrelation maximum value of the target, hence the PI contains the target, otherwise has a image different to the target (Fig. 15(j)). In Fig. 16 is shown the box plot results when Fig. 14(a) is taken as target. As expected the correlations for the Fig. 14(a) are more separate from the rest, showing the digital system

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Fig. 12. Box plot analysis of images in Fig. 9. has a good performance to discriminate between other images that do not correspond to this diatom. In general if we compares these techniques with other methodologies, we can afrm that these algorithms are robust and they have low computational cost. The algorithms were programming in Matlab 7.1, in a MacBook Pro 3.1 with a Intel Core 2 Duo processor of 2.4 GHz, memory of 2 GB 667 MHz DDR2 SDRAM, L2 Cache of 4 MB and 800 MHz of Bus Speed. The time machine for the correlation per image were around 0.25 seconds. (lvarez-Borrego & Solorza, 2010; Solorza & lvarez-Borrego, 2010)

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Fig. 13. Procedure to train a composite lter.

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Fig. 14. Examples of diatoms.

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Fig. 15. Non linear correlation between signatures.

Fig. 16. Box plot example for diatom images in Fig. 14.

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5. Conclusion
In this chapter was presented a simple and efcient non linear correlation digital systems invariant to position and rotation and other two digital systems that incorporate the scale invariance. Taking advantage of the translation property for the Fourier transform of a function the invariance to position was achieved. The relevant information of the images is captured in the average signatures via the adaptive mask, helping us on the discrimination between rotated objects. Moreover, the masks were constructed based on the given image; hence, the mask is adapted to problem avoiding in this form the information leak. Here is presented two forms to obtain the scale invariant. The rst form uses the scale transform applied to the average signature of the images. The second is based on the Fourier plane to built a composite lters. Because the signatures of the images are vectors, the computational time cost was reduced considerably compared to those systems that use bi-dimensional signatures (matrices). One of the advantages of these kinds of methodologies is that an entire process can be repeated over and over in the same way without mistakes. In the particular examples presented in this chapter, the three digital systems present an excellent performance, a condence level of 95.4% or greater. The digital system in Fig. 7 identied ngerprints images rotated 15 degrees. The algorithm in Fig. 11 classied contour letters which are translated, rotated and scaled. The composite lters with training images (Fig. 15) recognize the positional shifted, rotated and scaled diatoms images. The biggest advantage of these methodologies are the simplicity in their construction.

6. Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by CONACyT with grant No. 102007 and PROMEP. The authors thank to Professors De Sena A. and Rocchesso D. by the Matlab routines to calculate the one-dimensional scale transform.

7. References
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