Ade Meyli (Hal 337-364)

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SECTION 7.

10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Example 7-17

Study Period < MACRS Recovery Period A highly specialized piece of OCR equipment has a first cost of $50,000. If this equipment is purchased, it will be used to produce income (through rental) of $20,000 per year for only four years. At the end of year four, the equipment will be sold for a negligible amount. Estimated annual expenses for upkeep are $3,000 during each of the four years. The MACRS (GDS) recovery period for the equipment is seven years, and the firms effective income-tax rate is 40%. (a) If the after-tax MARR is 7% per year, should the equipment be purchased ?

(b) Rework the problem, assuming that the equipment is placed on


standby status such that depreciation is taken over the full MACRS recovery period. Solution (a) (B) End of Year, k (A) BTCF Depreciation Deduction ( C )= (A) (B) (E)=(A)+(D) Taxable Income ATCF (D) = -0.4( C ) Cash flow

For Income Taxes

0 1

-$50,000 -$50,000 $7,145 17,000 12,245 17,000 15,098 8,745 17,000 13,698 3,123a 17,000 0 13,877 11,449 -18,742b 7,497 -5,551 8,255 -3,302 $9,855 13,058 4,755 -$3,942 -1,902

2 3 4 4

7,497

Half year convention applies with disposal in year four

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Remaining BV PW(7%)=$1,026. Because the PW > 0, the equipment should be purchased.

(b) (B) End of Year, k (A) BTCF Depreciation Deduction ( C )= (A) (B) (E)=(A)+(D) Taxable Income ATCF (D) = -0.4( C ) Cash flow

For Income Taxes

0 1

-$50,000 -$50,000 $7,145 17,000 12,245 17,000 15,098 8,745 17,000 13,698 6,245 17,000 0 0 0 0 0 1,786 -2,230 892 892 4,465 4,460 4,465 2,230 1,784 -4,465 1,786 10,755 12,698 -4,465 1,786 -4,460 1,784 -4,302 8,255 -3,302 $9,855 13,058 4,755 -$3,942 -1,902

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8

7,497

0 PW(7%)=$353, So the equipment should be purchased.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

The present worth is $673 higher in Part (a), which equals the PW of deferred depreciation deductions in Part (b). A firm would select the situation in Part (a) if it had a choice. An illustration of determining ATCFs for a somewhat more complex, though realistic, capital investment opportunity is provided in example 7-18.

EXAMPLE 7-18

After-Tax Analysis of an Integrated Circuit Production Line The Ajax Semiconductor Company is attempting to evaluate the

profitability of adding another integrated circuit production line to its present operations. The company would need to purchase two or more acres of land for $275,000 (total). The facility would cost $60,000,000 and have no net MV at the end of five years. The facility could be depreciated, using a GDS recovery period of five years. An increment of working capital would be required, and its estimated amount is $10,000,000. Gross income is expected to increase by $30,000,000 per year for five years, and operating expenses are estimated to be $8,000,000 per year for five years. The firms effective income tax rate is 40%. (a) Set up a table and determine the ATCF for this project. (b) Is the investment worthwhile when the after-tax MARR is 12% per year? Solution (a) The format recommended in figure 7-4 is followed in Table 7-8 to obtain ATCFs in years zero through five. Acquisitions of land, as well as additional working capital, are treated as nondepreciable capital investments whose. TABLE 7-8 After-Tax Analysis of Example 7-18

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

(B) End of Year, k (A) BTCF Depreciation Deduction ( C )= (A) (B) (E)=(A)+(D) Taxable Income ATCF

(D) = -0.4( C ) Cash flow

For Income Taxes

$60,000,00 0 10,000,000 -275,000

$70,275,000

1 22,000,000 2 22,000,000 3 22,000,000 4 5 5 22,000,000 6,912,000 11,520,000 19,200,000 $12,000,000

$10,000,000 18,000,000 2,800,000 20,880,000 10,480,000 17,808,000 15,088,000 15,964,800 18,544,000 14,582,400 -6,912,000b 13,039,800

-$4,000,000 -1,120,000 -4,192,000 -6,035,200

- 7,417,600

22,000,000 10,275,000
a

3,456,000

2,764,800b

MV of working capital and land. Because BV5 of the production facility is $6,912,000 and net MV 5=0, a loss on disposal would be

taken at EOY 5.

MVs at the end of year five are estimated to equal their first costs. (In economic evaluations, it is customary to assume that land and working capital do not inflate in value during the study period because they are nonwasting assets). By using Equation (7-18), we are able to compute ATCF in year three (for example) to be ATCF3 = ($30,000,000 - $8,000,000 - $11,520,000)(1-0.40)+$11,520,000 = $17,808,000.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

(b) The depreciable property in Example 7-18 ($60,000,000) will be edisposed of for $0 at the end of year five, and a loss on disposal of $6,912,000 will be claimed at the end of year five. Only a half-year of depreciation ($3,456,000) can be claimed as a deduction in year five, and the BV is $6,912,900 at the end of year five. Because the selling price (MV) is zero, the loss on disposal equals our BV of $6,912,000. As seen from figure 7-4, a tax credit of 0.40 ($6,912,000) = $2,764,800 is created at the end of year five. The after-tax IRR is obtained from entries in column E of Table 7-8 and is found to be 12.5%. The aftertax PW equals $936,715 at MARR = 12% per year. Based on economic considerations, this integrated circuit production line should be recommended because it appears to be quite attractive. In the example, the after-tax comparison of mutually exclusive alternatives involving only costs is illustrated. Example 7-9 After-Tax Comparison of Purchase versus Leasing Alternatives An engineering consulting firm can purchase a fully configured ComputerAided Design (CAD) workstation for $20,000. It is estimated that the useful life of the workstation is seven years, and its MV in seven years should be $2,000. Operating expenses are eestimated to be $40 per eighthour workday, and maintenance will be performed under contract for $8,000 per year. The MACRS (GDS) property class is five years, and the effective income tax rate is 40%. As an alternative, sufficient computer time can be leased from a service company at an annual cost of $20,000. If the after-tax MARR is 10% per year, how many workdays per year must the workstation be needed in order to justify leasing it ?

Solution This example involves an after-tax evaluation of purchasing depreciable property versus leasing it. We are to determine how much the workstation must be utilized so that the lease option is a good economic choice. A key assumption is that the cost of engineering design time (i.e., operator time) is unaffected by whether the workstation is purchased or leased. Variable operations expenses associated with ownership result from the purchase of

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

supplies, utilities, and so on. Hardware and software maintenance cost is contractually fixed at $8,000 per year. It is further assumed that the maximum number of working days per year is 250. Lease fees are treated as an annual expense, and the consulting firm (the lessee) may not claim depreciation of the equipment to be an additional expense. (The leasing company presumably has included the cost of depreciation in its fee). Determination of ATCF for the lease option is relatively straightforward and is not affected by how much the workstation is utilized : (After-tax expense of the lease)k = -$20,000(1-0.40) = -$12,000; k = 1, ,7. ATCFs for the purchase option involve expenses that are fixed (not a function of equipment utilization) in addition to expenses that vary with equipment usage. If we let X equal the number of working days per year that the equipment is utilized, the variable cost per year of operating the workstation is $40X. The after-tax analysis of the purchase alternative is shown in Table 7-9.

TABLE 7-9 After-Tax Analysis of Purchase Alternative (Example 7-19)

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

(B) End of Year, k (A) BTCF Depreciation Deductiona ( C )= (A) (B) (E)=(A)+(D) Taxable Income ATCF

(D) = -t( C ) Cash flow

For Income Taxes

0 1 2

-$20,000 -40X-8,000 -40X-8,000 $4,000 6,400 $20,000 -$40X-$12,000 3,200 -40X-14,400 2,240 $16X+$4,800 -24X-

-16X+5,760 -16X+4,736 -16X+4,122 -16X+4,122 -16X+3,661

-24X-24X-24X-24X-24X-

3 4 5 6 7 7

-40X8,000 -40X8,000 -40X8,000 -40X8,000 -40X-8,000

3,840 2,304 2,304 1,152 0

-40X-11,840 3,264 -40X-10,304 3,878 -40X-10,304 3,878 -40X-9,152 4,339 -40X-8,000 4,800 2,000 1,200

-16X+3,200

-24X-

2,000

-800

Depreciation deductionk = $20,000 x (GDS recovery rate).

The after-tax annual worth of purchasing the workstation is AW (10%) = -$20,000(A/P,10%,7)-$24X-[$3,200(P/F,10%,1)+... +$4,800(P/F,10%,7)](A/P,10%,7)+$1,200(A/F,10%,7) = -$24X + -$7,511.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

To solve for X, we equate the after-tax annual worth of both alternatives : -$12,000 = -$24X - $7,511. Thuss, X = 187 days per year. Therefore, if firm expects to utilize the CAD workstation in its business more than 187 days per year, the equipment should be leased. The graphic summary of Example 7-19 shown in figure 7-6 provides the rationale for this recommendation. The importance of the workstations estimated utilization, in workdays per year, is now quite apparent.

Figure 7-6
Summary of Example 7-19 -12,000
Lease the Purchase the workstation workstation Point of indifference

7,511

After-Tax Annual Worth, $

125

187

250

Number of Working Days/Year, X

7.11 ECONOMIC VALUE ADDED This section discusses an economic measure for estimating the wealth creation potential of capital investments that is experiencing increased attention and use. The measure, called economic value added (EVA),*can be determined from some of the data available in an after-tax analysis of cash flows generated by a capital investment. Through retroactive analysis of a firms common stock valuation, it has been established that some companies experiences a statistically significant relationship between the EVA metric and the historical value of their common stock. For our

purpose, EVA can also be used to estimate the profit-earning potential of proposed capital investments in engineering projects.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Simply stated, EVA is the difference between the companys adjusted net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) in a particular year and its aftertax cost of capital during that year. Another way to characterize EVA is the spread between the return on the capital and the cost of the capital. trOn a project-by-project basis (i.e., for discrete investments), the EVA metric can be used to gauge the wealth creation opportunity of proposed capital expenditures. We now define annual EVA as. EVAk = (Net Operating Profit After Taxes)k - (Cost of Capital Used to Produce Profit)k = NOPATk i.BVk-1, Where k = an index for the year in question (1kN), i = after-tax MARR based on a firms cost of capital,

* EVA is a registered trademark of stewart & Company, New York City, NY.

See J.L.Dodd and S. Chen, EVA: A New Panacea? B & E Review, July-September

1996, pp 26-28, and W. Freedman, How Do You Add Up? Chemical Week, October 9, 1996, pp. 31-34. S. Tully, The Real Key To Creating Wealth, Fortune, September 30, 1993, p. 38ff.

BVk-1 = beginning-of-year book value, N = the study (analysis) period in years. Figure 7-4 presented earlier can be used to relate EVA amounts to after-tax cash flow (ATCF) amounts for a proposed capital investment. The annual EVA amount for year k can be obtained from Figure 7-4 by (1) algebraically adding the entry in Column C for year k (1kN) to the corresponding entry in Column D to yield NOPAT, and then (2) subtracting the product of the projects after-tax MARR (based on the cost of capital)

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

and its beginning-of-year book value. This calculation is obvious from Equation (7-23). Clearly, accurate BTCF estimates (forecasts) in figure 7-4 are needed for acceptable predictions of annual ATCF estimates (forecasts) in figure 7-4 are needed for acceptable predictions of annual ATCF and EVA amounts. Using the notation on page 328, we find that NOPATk =(1-t)(RkEk-dk) and EVAk = (1-t)(RkEk-dk)-i.BVk-1. The ATCF is defined as follows : When k>0,ATCFk = (1-t)(RkEk-dk)+ dk, and ATCFk = EVAk+i. BVk-1+dk. Equation (7-23) and Figure 7-4 are demonstrated in Example 7-20 to determine the ATCF amounts, after-tax AW, and the EVA amounts related to a capital investment. Example 7-20 Economic Value Added consider the following proposide capital investment in a engineering project and determine its (a) year-by-year ATCF, (b) after-tax AW, and (c) annual equivalent EVA. Proposed capital investment Salvage value (end of year four) Annual expenses per year Gross revenues per year Depreciation method Useful life Effective income tax rate (t) After-tax MARR (i) Solution (a) Year-by-year ATCF amounts are shown in the following table : Taxable EOY 0 BTCF -$84,000 Deprec. Income Income Taxes ATCF -$84,000 = $84,000 =$0 =$30,000 =$70,000 =Straight Line =four years =50% =12% per year

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

1 2 3 4

70,000-30,000 70,000-30,000 70,000-30,000 70,000-30,000

$21,000 21,000 21,000 21,000

$19,000 19,000 19,000 19,000

-$9,500 9,500 9,500 9,500

30,500 30,500 30,500 30,500

(b) The

annual

equivalent

worth

of

the

ATCFs

equals-

$84,000(A/P,12%,4)+$30,500=$2,844. (c) The EVA in year k equals NOPATk (as defined on page 341)-0.12BV k-1 [Equation (7-23)]. The year-by-year EVA amounts and the annual equivalent worth of EVA ($2,844) are shown in the next table. Hence, the after-tax annual worth and the annual equivalent worth of EVA of the project are identical. EOY NOPAT EVA = NOPAT i.BVk-1

1 2 3 4

$19,000-$9,500=$9,500 =$9,500 =$9,500 =$9,500

$9,500-0.12($84,000)=-$580 $9,500-0.12($63,000)=$1,940 $9,500-0.12($42,000)=$4,460 $9,500-0.12($21,000)=$6,980

Annual equivalent EVA = [-$580(P/F,12%,1)+$1,940(P/F,12%)+ $4,460(P/F,12%,3)+$6,980(P/F,12%,4)](A/P,12%,4)=$2,844.

In Example 7-20, it was shown that the after-tax AW (12%) of the proposed engineering project is identical to the annual equivalent EVA at the same interest rate. Therefore, the annual equivalent EVA is simply the annual worth, at the after-tax MARR, of a projects after-tax cash flows. This straightforward relationship is also valid when accelerated depreciation methods (such as MACRS) are used in the analysis of a proposed project. The reader is referred to Problems 7-35, 7-36, and 7-37 at the end of the chapter for EVA exercises.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

7.12 SUMMARY In this chapter, we have presented important aspects of federal legislation relating to depreciation and income taxes. It is essential to understand these topics so that correct after-tax engineering economy evaluations of proposed projects may be conducted. Depreciation and income taxes are also integral parts of subsequent chapters in this book. In this chapter, many concepts regarding current federal income tax laws were described. For example, topics such as taxable income, effective income tax rates, taxation of ordinary income, and gains and losses on disposal of assets were explained. A general format for pulling together and organizing all these apparently diverse subjects was presented in Figure 7-4. This format offers the student or practicing engineer a means of collecting, on one worksheet, information that is required for determining ATCFs and properly evaluating the after-tax financial results of a proposed capital investment. Figure 7-4 was then employed in numerous examples. The students challenge is now to use this worksheet in organizing data presented in problem exercises at the end of this and subsequent chapters and to answer questions regarding the after-tax profitability of the proposed undertaking(s).

7.13 REFERENCES AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY, ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT. Engineering Economy, 3rd ed. (New York: American Telephone and Telegraph Company, 1977). ARTHUR ANDERSEN & Co.Tax Reform 1986: Analysis and Planning, subject File AA3010, Item 27. St. Louis, Mo., 1986. BODIE,Z. and R. C. MERTON, Finance (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000).

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COMMERCE CLEARING HOUSE, INC. Explanation of Tax Reform Act of 1986. Chicago, 1987. HORNGREN, C. T., G. L. SUNDEM and W. O. STRATTON, Introduction to Management accounting, 11th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999). LASSER, J. K. Your Income Tax [New York: Simon & Schuster (see the latest edition)]. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. Tax Guide for Small Business, IRS Publication 334, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually). - Depreciating Property Placed in Service Before 1987, IRS Publication 534, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually). - Sales and Other Dispositions of Assets, IRS Publication 544, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually). - Investment Income and Expenses, IRS Publication 550, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually). - Basis of Assets, IRS Publication 551, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (rcevised annually). - Tax Information on Corporations, IRS Publication 542, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually). - How to Depreciate Property, IRS Publication 946, Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office (revised annually).

PROBLEMS The number each in parentheses refers () to that the expenses such as labor, material, and electricity? (7.2) 7.2. What conditions must a property satisfy to be considered depreciable? (7.2)

follows

problem

section from which the problem is taken. 7-1. How are depreciation deductions different from other production or service

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

7.3. Explain the difference between real and personal property. (7.2) 7.4. Explain the difference between

7-9.

The

Big-Deal

Company

has

purchased new furniture for their offices at a retail price of $100,000. An additional $20,000 has been charged for insurance, shipping, and handling. The company expects to use the furniture for 10 year (useful life = 10 years) and then sell it at a salvage (market) value of $10,000. (7.3, 7.4) Using the 200% (with DB the method above for

tangible and intangible property. (7.2) 7.5. Explain how the cost basis of

depreciable property is determined. (7.2) 7.6 What is the depreciation deduction, using each of the following methods, for the second year for an asset that costs $35,000 and has an estimated MV of $7,000 at the and of its seven-year useful life? Assume its MACRS class life is also seven years. (a) 200% decliningbalance, (b)GDS (MACRS), and (c) ADS (MACRS). (7.3, 7.4) 7-7. Your company has purchased a large new truck-tractor for over-the-road use (asset class 00.26). It has a basic cost of $180,000. With additional options costing $15,000, the cost basis for depreciation purposes is $195,000. Its market value at the end of five years is estimated as $40,000. Assume it will be depreciated under the GDS: (7.4) a. What is the cumulative depreciation through the end of year three ? b. What is the MACRS depreciation in the fourth year ? c. What is the book value at the end of year two ? 7-8. Why would a business elect, under MACRS, to use the ADS rather than the GDS ? (7.4)

depreciation

data),

answer Question a-c. a. What is the depreciation during the seconde year ? b. What is the book value of the asset at the end of the first year ? c. What is the book value of the asset after 10 years ? Using the MACRS method (with the above data), answer Questions d-g. d. What is the recovery period

(property class) of the asset ? e. What is the depreciation of the asset for the first year ? f. What is the book value of the asset at the end of the third year? g. If the asset were to be sold at the end of the fourth year, what would be the depreciation during the fourth year ? 7-10. A company purchased a

machine for $15,000. It paid sales

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

taxes and shipping costs of $1,000 and nonrecurring installation costs amounting to $1,200. At the end of three years, the company had no further use for the machine, so it spent $500 to have the machine dismantled and was able to sell the machine for $1,500. (7.3) a. What is the cost basis for this machine ? b. The company had depreciated the machine on an SL basis, using an estimated useful life of five years and $1,000 SV. By what amount did the depreciation deductions fail to cover the actual depreciation ? 7-11. An asset for drilling was

7-12. An optical scanning machine was purchased for $150,000 in the current tax year (year one). It is to be used for reproducing blueprints of engineering drawings, and its MACRS class life is nine years. The estimated MV of this machine at the end of years is $30,000. (7.4) a. What is the GDS recovery period of the machine ? b. Based on your answer to part (a), what is the depreciation deduction in year four ? c. What is the BV at the beginning of year five ? 7-13. A piece of construction

equipment (asset class 15.0) was purchased by the Jones Construction Company. $300,000. a. Determine depreciation the GDS and for ADS this The cost basis was

purchased and placed in service by a petroleum production company. Its cost basis is $60,000, and it has an estimated MV of $12,000 at the end of an estimated useful life of 14 years. Compute the depreciation amount in the third year and the BV at the end of the fifth year of life by each of these methods : (7.3, 7.4) a. The SL method. b. The 200% DB method with

deduction

property. (7.4) b. Compute the difference in present worth of the two sets of depreciations in (a) if I = 12% per year. (7.5) 7-14. During its current tax year (year that one), had a It a fair pharmaceutical market price an a of company purchased a mixing tank $120,000. $15,000. replaced older, special

swithchover to straight line. c. The GDS. d. The ADS.

smaller mixingtank that had a BV of Because

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promotion was underway, the old tank was used as a trade-in for the new one, and the cash price (including delivery and installation) was set at $99,500. The MACRS class life for the new mixing tank is 9.5 years. (7.4, 7.3) a. Under three ? b. Under the GDS, what is the BV at the end of year four ? c. If 200% DB depreciation to had the GDS, what is in the year

a. How much federal income tax was paid for the tax year ? b. What was the total amount of deductible materials, expenses labor, (e. fuel) g., and

depreciation deductions claimed in the tax year ?

depreciation

deduction

7-17. A firm is considering investing $10 million in equipment that is expected to have a useful life of four years and is expected to reduce (save) the firms labor costs by $4 million per year. Assume the firm pays a 40% income tax rate on its taxable income and uses the straight line depreciation method. (7.9) a. What is the after-tax cash flow from the investment in years one through four ? b. If the firms after-tax hurdle rate is 15% per year, what are the investments PW and IRR ? 7-18. Your company is contemplating the purchase of a large stamping machine. $180,000. The machine With will cost additional

been applied

this problem,

what would be the cumulative depreciation through the end of year four ? 7-15. A special-purpose machine is to be depreciated as a linear function of use (units-of-production method). It costs $25,000 and is expected to produce 100,000 units and then be sold for $5,000. Up to the end of the third year, it had produced 60,000 units, and during the fourth year it produced 10,000 units. What is the depreciation deduction for the fourth year and the BV at the end of the fourth year ? (7.3) 7-16. Consider a firm that had a taxable income of $90,000 in the current tax year, and total gross revenues of $220,000. Based on this information, answer these questions : (7.6, 7.9)

transportation and installation costs of $5,000 and $10,000, the cost basis for depreciation purposes is $195,000. Its MV at the end of five years is estimated as $40,000. For simplicity, assume that this machine is in the three-year MACRS (GDS) property class. The justifications for this machine include $40,000 savings

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

per year in labor and $30,000 per year in reduced materials. The before-tax MARR is 20% per year, and the effective income tax rate is 40%. (7.4, 7.6, 7.9) a. The GDS depreciation in year four is most nearly (i) 0 (ii) $13,350 (iii)$14,450

7-21. Determine the after-tax yield (i. e., IRR on the ATCF) obtained by an individual who purchases a $10,000, 10year, 10% nominal interest rate bond. The following information is given : Interest is paid semi-annually, and the bond was bought after the fifth payment had just been received by the previous owner. The purchase price for the bond was $9,000. All revenues (including capital gains)

(iv) $31,150 (v) $45,400

b. The BV at the end of year two is most nearly (i)$33,000 (ii)$36,000

are taxed at an income rate of 28%. The bond is held to maturity. 7-22. In a chlorine fluxing installation in a large aluminum company, engineers are considering but the longer replacement lived, table of existing plastic pipe fittings with more expensive, copper gives a fittings. The following

(iii)$42,000 (iv) $43,000 (v) $157,000 7-19. If the incremental federal income tax rate is 34% and the incremental state income tax rate is 6%, what is the effective combined income tax rate ( t) ? If state income taxes are 12% of taxable income, what now is the value of t ? (7.7) 7-20. A corporation has estimated that is taxable income will be $57,000 in the current tax year. It has the opportunity to invest in a project that is expected to add $8,000 to this taxable income. How much federal tax will be owed with and without the proposed venture ? (7.7)

comparison of the capital investments, lives, salvage values, etc., of the two mutually exclusive alternatives under consideration :

Plastic

Copper

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Capital Investment Useful (class)life Salvage Value f or Depreciation Purposes Annual Expenses Market Value at End Of Useful life

$5,000 5 years $1,000(=S V5)

$10,000 cost is not depreciated and can be 10 years $5,000 V10)


claimed as an expense during year four. Instead of purchasing the tanks, they can be leased. A contract for up to 20 years of storage tank service can be written with the Rent-All Company. If your firms after-tax MARR is 12% per year, what is the greatest annual amount that you can afford to pay for tank leasing without causing purchasing to be the more economical alternative ? Your firms effective income tax rate is 40%. State any assumptions you make. (7.4, 7.9) 7-24. Two fixtures are being considered

$300 $0

$100 $0

Depreciation amounts are calculated with the SL method. Assume an income-tax rate of 40% and a minimum attractive rate of return after-taxes of 12% per year. Which pipe fitting would you select and why ? Carefully list all assumptions that you make in performing the analysis. (7.9, 7.10) 7-23 Storage tanks to hold a highly corrosive chemical are currently made of material Z26. The capital investment in a tank is $30,000, and its useful life is eight years. Your company manufactures electronic components, and uses the alternative depreciation system (ADS) under MACRS to calculate depreciation deductions for these tanks. The net MV of the tanks at the end of their useful life is zero. When a tank is four years old, it must be relined at a cost of $10,000.This

for a particular job in a manufacturing firm. 24. The effective federal and state income-tax rate is 50%. Depreciation recapture is also taxed at 50%. If the after-tax MARR is 80% per year, which of the two fixtures State any should be recommended? (7.9) important The pertinent data for their comparison are summarized in Table P7-

assumptions you make in your analysis.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

TABLE P7-24 Table for Problem Fixture X Capital Investment Annual operating expenses Useful life Market value Depreciation method $30,000 $30,000 6 years $6,000 SL to zero Book Value over 5 years Fixture Y $40,000 $2,500 8 years $4,000 MACRS (GDS) with 5-year Recovery period

7-25. Liberty Airways is considering an investment The kiosks of $800,000 and in ticket purchasing kiosks at selected airports. (hardware software) have an expected life of four years. Extra ticket sales are expected to be 60,000 per year at a discount price of $40 per ticket. Fixed of costs, the excluding are depreciation equipment,

annual sales dollars. The after-tax MARR is 15% per year, and the company pays income tax at the rate of 34%. Whats the after-tax PW of this proposed investment? Should the investment be made? (7.4, 7.7, 7.9) 7-26. Two alternative machines will

produce the same product, but one is capable of higher-quality work, which can data: be expected The to return are greater relevant revenue. following

$400,000 per year, and variable costs are $24 per ticket. The kiosks will be depreciated over four years, using the straight line method with a zero salvage value. The onetime commitment of working capital is expected to be 1/12 of

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Machine A Capital Investment Life Terminal BV (and MV) Annual receipts Annual expenses $150,000 $138,000 $20,000 12 years $4,000

Machine B $30,000 8 years $0 Market value at $188,000 $170,000 end of useful life Annual revenues less Expenses over useful life GDS recovery Period (years) Useful life (years)

0 5

0 5 +9

7 $30,000

6 $50,000

+7 7 +1 3 -8

$20,000

$40,000

Determine

which

is

the

better 7-28. Alternative Methode I and II are proposed for a security operaton. The following is comparative information:

alternative, assuming repeatability and using SL depreciation, an incometax rate of 40%, and an after-tax minimum attractive rate of return of 10% using the following methods: (7.9) a. Annual worth b. Present Worth Intial investment c. Internal Rate of Return 7-27. A firm must decide between two system designs, S1 and S2, shown in the accompanying table. Their effective income tax rate is 40%, and MACRS (GDS) depreciation is used. If the aftertax desired return on investment is 10% per year, which design should be chosen? State your assumptions. (7.9) Design S1 S2 Useful (ADR) life Terminal market Value expenses Labor Power Rent Maintenances Property taxes And insurances Total annual expenses Capital investment $100,00 $200,00 $14,150 $7,000 $12,000 $250 $1,000 $500 $400 $4,000 $300 $500 $200 $2,000 $10,000 5 years $1,000 $40,000 10 years $5,000

Method I

Method II

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Determine which is the better alternative based on an after-tax annual cost analysis with an effective income-tax of 40% and an after-tax MARR of 12%, assuming the following methods of depreciation: (7.9) a. SL b. MACRS 7-29. Your The firm can purchases machine a

over

eight

years

and

amounts

to

$15,000. An effective income tax rate of 40% is used by the company, and the after-tax MARR equals 15% per year. (7.4, 7.9). a. What is the approximate value of the companys before-tax MARR? b. Determine the GDS depreciation amounts in years one through eight. c. What is the taxable income at the end of year eight that is related to capital investment? d. Set up a table and calculate the ATCF for this machine. e. Should a recommendation be

machine for $12,000 to replace a rented machine. rented costs $4,000 per year. The machine that you are considering would have a useful life of eight years and a $5,000 MV at the end of its useful life. By how much could annual operating expenses increase and still provide a return of 10% per year after taxes? The firm is in the 40% income produced tax bracket, either and revenues are with machine 7-31.

made to purchase the machine? Your company has purchased

identical. Assume that alternate MACRS (ADS) depreciation is utilized to recover the investment in the machine, and that the ADS recovery period is five years. (7.4, 7.9) 7-30. An injection molding machine can be purchased and installed for $90,000. It is in the seven-year GDS property class, and is expected to be kept in service for eight years. It is believed that $10,000 can be obtained when the machine is disposed of at the end of year eight. The net annual value added (i.e., revenues less expenses) that can be attributed to this machine is constant

equipment (for $50,000) that will reduce materials and labor costs by $14,000 each year for N years. After N years, there will be no further need for the machine, and because the machine is specially designed, it will have no MV at any time. However, the IRS has ruled that you must depreciate the equipment on an SL basis with a tax life of five years. If the effective income-tax rate is 40%, what is the minimum number of years your firm must operate the equipment to earn 10% per year after taxes on its investment? (7.9) 7-32. A manufacturing process cav be designed for varying degrees of

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automation. The following is relevant cost information: First Degree Cost Annual Labor Expenses A B C D $10,000 14,000 20,000 30,000 $9,000 7,500 5,000 3,000

Assume,

for

simplicity,

that

the

depreciable property is in the MACRS (GDS) three-year property class. Annual Power and The analysis period is three years. Maintenance Epense $500 800 1,000 1,500 Estimated MV of depreciable property from the project at the end of three years is $280,000. Annual operating and maintenance expenses are $636,000 in the first year, and they increase at the rate of 6% per year (i. e., = 6%) thereafter. (See geometric gradient, Chapter 4.)

Determine which is best by after-tax analysis using an income-tax rate of 40%, an after-tax MARR of 15%, and straight-line depreciation. Assume that each has a life of five years and no BV or MV. Use each of the following methods: (7.9) a. Annual worth b. Present worth c. Internal rate of return 7-33. The following information is for a proposed project that will provide the capacity to produce a specialized product estimated to have a short market (sales) life: Capital investment is $1,000,000.

Federal income tax rate = 34%; state income tax rate = 4%. MARR (after taxes) is 10% per year. Based on an after-tax analysis using the PW method, what minimum amount of equivalent uniform annual revenue is required to justify the project economically? (7.9, 7.10) 7-34. Your company has to obtain some new laser measurement devices for the next six year, and leasing is being considered. You have been directed to performan after-tax study of the leasing approach. The pertinent information for the study is as follows; Lease costs: First year, $80,000; seconde year, $60,000; third through sixth years, $50,000 per year. Assume that a six-year contract has been offered by the lessor that fixes these costs over the six-year period. Other costs (not

(This includes land and working capital). The cost of depreciable property,

which is part of the $1,000,000 total estimated project cost, is $420,000.

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covered in the contract) are $4,000 per year, and the effective income tax rate is 40%. a. Develop the annual ATCFs for the leasing alternative. b. If the MARR after taxes is 8% per year, what is the AW for the leasing alternative? (7.9, 7.10) 7-35. Amt, of Inc. a is considering camera the for the

b. Compute

the

PW

of

the

equipments after-tax cash flows. Is your answer in part (a) the same as your answer in part (b)? 7-36. Refer to example 7-15. Show that present worth of the annual economic value added (EVA) amounts by the new machinery is the same as the PW of the ATCF amounts ($17,208) given in Table 7-6. (7.10, 7.11) 7-37. Rework Example 7-20, using the MACRS depreciation method (assume three-year property class) stead of the SL depreciation method. (7.11) 7-38. The greentree Lumber Company is attempting to evaluate the profitability of adding another cutting line to its present sawmill operations. They would need to purchase 2 more acres of land for $30,000 cost (total). $130,000 The and equipment could be

purchase

digital

maintenance of design specifications by feeding digital pictures directly into an engineering computer-aided workstation design files where can be

superimposed over the digital pictures. Differences between the two images can be noted, and corrections, as appropriate, can then be made by design engineers. (7.12) a. You have been asked by

management to determine the present worth of the economic value added (EVA) of this the capital six = = = equipment, following value at assuming estimates: end of year

would

depreciated over a five-year recovery period with the MACRS method. Gross revenue operating is expected to will increase be by $50,000 per year for five years, and expenses $15,000 annually for five years. It is expected that this cutting line will be closed down after five years. The firms effective income-tax rate is 50%. If the companys after-tax MARR is 5% per year, is this a profitable investment? (7.9) 7-39. Allen International, chemicals. It need Inc. to

investment = $345,000; market $120,000; $120,000; annual annual revenues expenses

$8,000; equipment life = 6 years; effective income tax rate = 50%; and after-tax MARR = 10% per year. MACRS depreciation will be used with a five-year recovery period.

manufactures

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acquire

new

piece

of

production

c. State what the company should do. 7-40. Based on after-tax cash flow analysis, work Example 6-11, using an effective income tax rate (t) of 40%, an after-tax MARR of 20% (1-t) = 12% per year, and MACRS depreciation using a property class of five years. Recall that market values for M1 and M2 are zero at the end of years five and eight, respectively. (7.9, 7.10) 7.41. Mary Gold, the owner of a flower shop, is considering buying a new van for deliveries. She has estimated that the new van would result in a savings of $8,000 per year over the old van. The new van would cost $25,000 and would have a useful life of eight years, at which time it would be sold for $2,500. Mary uses a 20% before-tax MARR, and the van would be depreciated by using MACRS. Should Mary purchase the van on an after-tax basis? Mary uses a 40% income tax rate. (7.10) 7-42. Extended Learning Exercise You have the option to purchase or lease a five-axis horizontal machining center. Any revenues generated from the operation of the machine will be the same whether it is leased or purchased. Considering should you the lease information or given, the purchase

equipment to work on production for a large order that Allen has received. The order is ffor a period of three years, and at the end of that time the machine would be sold. Allen has received two supplier

quotations, both of which will provide the required service. Quotation I has a first cost of $180,000 and an estimated salvage value of $50,000 at the end of three years. Its cost for operation and maintenance is estimated at $28,000 per year. Quotation II has a first cost of $200,000 years. Its and an estimated for salvage and value of $60,000 at the end of three cost operation maintenance is estimated at $17,000 per year. The company pays income tax at rate of 40% on ordinary income and 28% on depreciation will be recovery. The using machine depreciated

MACRS-GDS (asset class 28.0). Allen uses an after-tax MARR of 12% for economic analysis and it plans to accept whichever of these two quotation costs less. (7.10) To perform an after-tax analysis to determine which of these machines should be acquired, you must a. State the study period you are using. b. Show all numbers necessary to support your conclusions.

machine? Conduct after-tax analyses of both options. The effective income tax rate is 40%, the evaluation period is five

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years, and the MARR is 10% per year. NOTES: (1) under the Lease Option, maintenance costs are included in the annual leasing cost. (2) Leasing costs are paid at the beginning of each year and are tax deductible. (3) depreciation deductions cannot be taken on leased equipment. (4) Deposits are not tax deductible, and refunds of deposits are not taxable; however, due to the difference in timing between payment and refund, they must be considered in your analysis. (7.10) Leasing Option Annual leasing cost: $55,000 Deposit (paid at EOY zero, refunded at EOY five); $75,000 Purchasing Option Purchase price: $350,000 capital to be borrowed at i = 8%, equal annual payments (Principal + Interest) for three years Depreciation: three year, MACRS Annual maintenance cost, $20,000 Resale value at EOY five: $150,000 SPREADSHEET EXERCISES 7.43. A bowling alley costs $500,000 and has a useful life of 10 years. Its estimated market value at the end of year 10 is $20,000. that Create a the spreadsheet calculates

SL method, (ii) the 200% DB method, and (iii) the MACRS method (GDS class life = 10 years). For each method, compute the present worth of the depreciation deductions (at EOY 0). The MARR is 10% per year. If a large present worth is desirable, what do you conclude regarding which method is preferred? (7.5) 7-44. Create a spreadsheet to solve Problem 7-17. What would the market value of the equipment have to be (at the end of year 4) for the firm to consider making this investment? (7.9) 7-45. Refer to Example 7-15. The

investment in the machinery was found to be profitable on an after-tax basis. Reanalyze the situation using straightline depreciation instead of MACRS. Use spreadsheet E 7-15 (on the Students CD) as a starting point. (7.10)

FE PRACTICE PROBLEMS A wood products company has decided to purchase new logging equipment for $100,000, with a trade-in of its old equipment. The old equipment has a book value of $10,000 at the time of the trade-in. The new equipment will be kept for 10 years before being sold. Its estimated salvages value at the time is expected information to to be $5,000. Use this 7-46 solve problems

through 7-50.

depreciation for years 1-10 using (i) the

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7-46. The recovery period of the asset, using the GDS guidelines, is (a) 10 years (b) 7 years (d) 3 years

7.51. Air handling equipment that cost $12,000 has a life of eight years with $2,000 salvage value. What is the straight line depreciation amount for each year? (a)$1,500 (c) $1,200 (b) $1,000 (d) $1,250

(c) 5 years

7-47. Using the straight line method, the depreciation on the equipment over its depreciable life period is (a)$10,500 (c) $8,000 (b) $9,500 (d) $7,000

7-52. The air handling equipment just described is to be depreciated, using the MACRS with a GDS recovery period of seven years. The book value of the equipment at the end of (including) year four is most nearly (a)$3,749 (c) $5,000 7-53. A (b) $3,124 (d) $8,251 is considering from the

7-48. Using the straight line method, the book value at the end of the depreciable life is (a)$11,811 (c) $5,000 (b) $10,000 (d) $0

7-49. Using the MACRS (GDS recovery period), the depreciation charge permissible at year 6 is equal to (a)$9,812 (c) $4,912 (b) $6,336 (d) $0

company its

changing

depreciation

MACRS method to the standard straight line (for five years) method on an office computer system having a cost basis of $50,000 and a class life of five years. The expected salvage value of the system is $5,000. What is the difference in the amount of depreciation that would be claimed in year three? (a)$255 (b) $360 (d) $600

7-50. Using the MACRS (GDS recovery period), if the equipment is sold in year five, the book value at the end of year five is equal to a)$29,453 (c) $12,672 (b) $24,541 (d) $6,336

(c) $400 (e) $1,000

7-54. If a companys total effective income tax rate is 40% and its state income tax rate is 20%, what is the companys federal income tax rate?

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(a)20% (c) 35% (e) 52% Your company is

(b) 25% (d) 40%

(e) $70,000 7-57. The present worth of the after-tax saving from the machine, in labor and materials only, (neglecting the first cost, depreciation, and the salvage value) is most nearly (using the after tax MARR) (a)$12,000 (c) $151,000 (e) $193,000 7-58. Suppose for some year the (b) $95,000 (d) $184,000

contemplating

the

purchase of a large stamping machine. The machine will cost $180,000. With additional transportation and installation costs of $5,000 the and cost $10,000, basis for respectively,

depreciation purposesis $195,000. Its market value at the enf of five years is estimated as $40,000. The IRS has assured you that this machine will fall under a three-year MACRS class life category. The justifications for this machine include $40,000 savings per year in labor and $30,000 savings per year in reduced materials. The beforetax MARR is 20% per year, and the effective income tax rate is 40%. Use this information to solve problems 7-55 through 7-61. 7-55. The total before-tax cash flow in year five is most nearly (assuming you sell the machine at the end of year five): (a)$9,000 (c) $70,000 (e) $110,000 7-56. The taxable income for year three is most nearly (a)$5,010 (c) $28,880 (b) $16,450 (d) $41,120 (b) $40,000 (d) $80,000

income is $110,000; the expenses are $65,000; the depreciation is $25,000 and the effective income tax rate = 40%. For this year, the after-tax cash flow is most nearly

(a)-$8900 (c) $13,200 (e) $37,000

(b) $4,700 (d) $29,700

7-59. Assume the stamping machine will now be used for only three years, due to the companys losing several government contracts. The market value at the end of year three is $50,000. What is the income tax owed at the end of year three due to depreciation recapture (capital gain)? (a)$8,444 (c) $21,111 (b) $14,220 (d) $35,550

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(e) $20,000 7-60. Suppose for some year the next taxable income of the company was $300,000. For this year, the corporate income tax of the company was most nearly (a)$60,000 (c) $120,000 (e) $200,000 (b) $80,000 (d) $160,000

7-61. For this situation just describe in problem 7-60, suppose a new project is being considered net that taxable provides income an of additional

$150,000. The project is most nearly (a)$23,000 (c) $42,000 (e) $60,000 (b) $30,000 (d) $45,000

CHAPTER 8
Price Changes and Exchange Rates

When the monetary unit does not have a constant value in exchange for goods and services in the marketplace, and when future price changes are expected to be significant, an undesirable choice among competing alternatives can be made if price change effects are not included in an engineering economy study (before taxes and after taxes). The objectives of this chapter are to (1) introduce a methodology for dealing with price changes caused by inflation and deflation, (2) develop and illustrate proper techniques to account for these effects, and (3) discuss the relationship of these concepts to foreign exchange rates and the analysis of engineering projects in currencies other than the U. S. dollar.

The following topics are discussed in this chapter: The Consumer Price Index and the Producer Price Index Terminology and basic concepts The relationship between actual (current) dollars and real (constant) dollars

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Use of combined (market) interest rates versus real interest rates Foreign exchange rates Case study-electric motors with price changes

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier chapters, we assumed that prices for goods and services in the market-place remain relatively unchanged over extended periods. Unfortunately, this is not generally a realistic assumption. General price inflation, which is defined here as an increase in the average price paid for goods and services bringing about a reduction in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, is a business reality that can affect the economic comparison of alternatives.

The history of price changes shows that price inflation is much more common than general price deflation, which involves a decrease in the average price for goods and services with an increase in the purchasing power of the monetary unit. The concepts and methodology discussed in this chapter, however, apply to any price changes. One measure of price changes in our economy (and an estimate of general price inflation or deflation for the average consumer) is the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The CPI is a composit price index that measures average change in the prices paid for food, shelter, medical care, transportation, apparel, and other selected goods and services used by individuals and families. The average annual rate of CPI inflation was only 2.59%. Another measure of price changes in the economy (and also an estimate of general price inflation or deflation) is the Producer Price Index (PPI). In actuality, a number of different indexes are calculated covering most areas of the U.S. economy. These of the U.S. economy. These indexes are composite measures of average changes in the selling prices of items used in the production of goods and services. Theverage changes in the selling prices of items used in the production of goods and services.

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These dse different indexes are calculated by stage of production [crude materials (e.g., iron ore), intermediate materials (rooled sheet steel), and finished goods (automobiles)], by Standard Industrial Classification (SIC), and by the census product code extension of the SIC areas. Thus, PPI information is available to meet the needs of most engineering economy studies. The CPI and PPI indexes are calculated monthly from survey

information by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the U.S. Department of Labor. These indexes are based on current and historical information and may be used, as appropriate, to represent future economic conditions or for short-term forecasting purposes only. The published annual CPI and PPI end-of-year values can be used to obtain an estimate of general price inflation (or deflation). This is accomplished by computing an annual change rate (%). The annual change rates are calculated as follows:

(CPI or PPI Annual Change Rate,%) k =

(Index) k (Index) k 1 (100%) (Index) k 1

For example, the end-of-year CPI for 2003 was 184.0, and the estimated end-of-year CPI for 2004 is 191.4. The annual change rate for 2004 is then estimated to be

(CPI) 2004 (CPI) 2003 191.4 184.0 (100%) = (100%) = 4.02% (CPI) 2003 184.0
In this chapter, we develop and illustrate proper technique to account for the effects of price changes caused by inflation and deflation. The case study at the conclusion of the chapter illustrates the analysis of alternatives when price changes are expected to occur.

8.2 TERMINOLOGY AND BASIC CONCEPTS


To facilitate the development and discussion of the methodology for including price changes of goods and services in engineering economy studies, we need to define and discuss some terminology and basic concepts. The dollar is used as the monetary unit in this book except when discussing foreign exchange rates.

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1. Actual dollars (A$): The number of dollars associated with a cash flow (or a non-cash-flow amount such as depreciation) as of the time it occurs. For example, people typically anticipate, A$ are referred to as nominal dollars, current inflation or deflation. 2. Real dollars (R$): Dollars expressed in terms of the same purchasing power relative to a particular time. For instance, the future unit price of goods or services that are changing rapidly are often estimated in real dollars (relative to some base year) to provide a consistent means of comparison. Sometimes, R$ are termed constant dollars. 3. General price inflation (or deflation) rate (f) : A measure of the average change in the purchasing power of the dollar during a specified period of time. The general price inflation or deflation rate is defined by a selected, broadly based index of market price changes. In engineering economic analysis, the rate is projected for a future time interval and usually is expressed as an effective annual rate. Many large organizations have their own selected index that reflects the particular business environment in which they operate. 4. Combined (market) interest rate (i c): The money paid for the use of capital, normally expressed as an annual rate (%) that includes a market adjustment for the anticipated general price inflation rate in the economy. Thus, it is a market interest rate and represents the time value change in future actual dollar cash flows that takes into account both the potential real earning power of money and the estimated general price in flation or deflation in the economy. It is sometimes called the nominal interest rate. 5. Real interest rate (ir): The money paid for the use of capital, normally expressed as an annual rate (%) that does not include a market adjustment for the anticipated general price inflation rate in the economy. It represents the time value change in future real-dollar cash flows based only on the potential real earning power of money. It is sometimes called the inflation-free interest rate. 6. In Base time period (b): The reference or base time period to define the constant perchasing power of real dollars. Often, in practice, the dollars, then-current dollars, and inflated dollars, and their relative purchasing power is affected by general price

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

base time period is designated as the time of the engineering economic analysis, or reference time 0 (i.e., b = 0). However, b can be any designated point in time. With an understanding of these definitions, we can delineate and illustrate some useful relationships that are important in engineering economy studies.

8.2.1 The Relationship between Actual Dollars and Real Dollars The relationship between actual dollars (A$) and real dollars (R$) is defined in terms of the general price inflation (or deflation) rate; that is, it is a function of .

Actual dollars as of any period (e.g., a year), k, can be converted into real dollars of constant market purchasing power as of any base period, b, by the relationship

(R$) k = (A$) k

( )

1 k b 1+ f

= (A$) k (P/F, f %, k b),

(8-1)

for a given b value. This relationship between actual dollars and real dollars applies to the unit prices, or costs of fixed amounts of individual goods or services, used to develop (estimate) the individual cash flows related to an engineering project. The designation for a specific type of cash flow, j, would be included as

(R$) k , j = (A$) k , j

( )

1 k b 1+ f

= (A$) k , j (P/F, f %, k b),

(8-2)

for a given b value, where the terms R$k, j are the unit price, or cost for a fixed amount, of goods or services j in period k in real dollars and actual dollars, respectively. Example Real Dollars Purchasing Power of Your Salary

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

8-1

Suppose that your salary is $45,000 in year one, will increase at 4% per year through year four, and is expressed in actual dollars as follows: End of year, k 1 2 3 4 Salary (A$) $45,000 46,800 48,672 50,619

If the general price inflation rate () is expected to average 6% per year, what is the real-dollar equivalent of these actual-dollar salary amounts? Assume that the base time period is year one (b=1). Solution By using Equation (8-2), we see that the real-dollar salary equipments are readily calculated relative to the base time period, b=1: Year 1 2 3 4 Salary (R$, b=1) $45,000(P/F, 6%, 0)=$45,000 46,800(P/F, 6%, 1)=44,151 48,672(P/F, 6%, 2)=43,318 50,619(P/F, 6%, 3)=42,500

In year one (the designated base time period for the analysis), the annual salary in actual dollars remained unchanged when converted to real dollars, This illustration an important point: In the base time period (b), the purchasing power of an actual dollar and a real dollar is the sime; that is, R$b,j = A$b,j. This example also illustrates the results when the actual annual rate of increase in salary (4% in this example) is less than the general price inflation rate (). As you can see, the actual-dollar salary cash flow shows some increase, but a decrease in the real-dollar salary cash flow occurs (and thus a decrease in total market purchasing power).

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This is the situation when people say their salary increases have not kept pace with market inflation.

Example 8-2

Real Dollar Equivalent of Actual After-Tax Cas An engineering project team is analyzing the potential expansion of an existing production facility. Different design alternatives are being considered. The estimated after-cash flow (ATCF) in actual dollars for one alternative is shown in column 2 of Table 8-1. If the general price inflation rate () is estimated to be 5.2% per year during the eight-year analysis period, what is the real dollar

TABLE 8-1 ATCFs for Example 8-2 (1) End-of-year, K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (2) ATCF (A$) -$172,400 -21,000 51,600 53,000 58,200 58,200 58,200 58,200 58,200 (3) (P/F,f%, k-b) =[1/(1.052)k-0] 1.0 0.9506 0.9036 0.8589 0.8165 0.7761 0.7377 0.7013 0.6666 (4) ATCF (R$), b=0 -$172,400 -19,963 46,626 45,522 47,520 45,169 42,934 40,816 38,796

ATCF that is equivalent to the actual dollar ATCF? The base time period is year zero (b=0).

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Solution The application of Equation (8-1) is shown in column 3 of Table 8-1. The ATCF in real dollars shown in column 4 has purchasing power in each year equivalent to the original ATCF in actual dollars (column 2).

8.2.2 The correct Interest Rate to Use in Engineering Economy Studies In general, the interest rate that is appropriate for equivalence calculations in engineering economy studies depends on whether actual-dollar or realdollar cash flow estimates are used: Method If Cash Flows Are In Term of A B Actual dollars (A$) Real dollars (R$) Then the Interest Rate to Use Is Combined (market) interest rate, ic Real interest rate, ir

This table should make intuitive sense as follows: If one is estimating cash flows in terms of actual (inflated) dollars, the combined interest rate (market interest rate with an inflation/deflation component) is used. Similarly, if one is estimating cash flows in terms of real dollars, the real (inflation-free) interest rate is used. Thus, one can make economic analyses in either the actual-or real-dollar domain with equal validity, provided that the appropriate interest rate is used for equivalence calculations.

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

It is important to be consistent in using the correct interest rate for the type of analysis (actual or real dollars) being done. The two mistakes commonly made are as follows: Interest Rate (MARR) ic A$ (Correct) Type of Analysis R$ Mistake 1 Bias is against capital investment ir Mistake 2 Bias is toward capital investment (Correct)

In Mistakes 1, the combined interest rate ( ic), which includes an adjustment for the general price inflation rate (), is used in equivalent worth calculations for cash flows estimated in real dollars. Because real dollars have constant purchasing power expressed in terms of the base time period (b) and do not include the effect of general price inflation, we have an inconsistency. There is tendency to develop future cash flow estimates in terms of dollars with purchasing power at the time of the study (i.e., real dollars with b=0), and then to use the combined interest rate in the analysis [a firms MARR e is normally a combined (market) interest rate]. The result of Mistake 1 is a bias against capital investment. The cash-flow estimates in real dollars for a project are numerically lower than actual-dollar estimates with equivalent purchasing power (assuming that >0). Additionally, the ic value (which is usually greater than the ir value that should be used)further reduces (understates) the equivalent worth of a proposed capital investment. In Mistake 2, the cash-flow estimates are in actual dollars, which include the effect of general price inflation (), but the real interest rate ( ir) is used for equivalent worth calculations. Sinces the real interest rate does not include an adjustment for general price inflation, we again have an inconsistency. The effects of this mistake, in contrast to those in Mistake 1, result in a bias toward capital investment by overstating the equivalent worth of future cash flows. 8.2.3 The relationship among ic, ir, and f

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Equation (8-1) showed that the relationship between an actual-dollar amount and a real-dollar amount of equal purchasing power in period k is a function of the general inflation rate (). It is desirable to do engineering economy studies in terms of either actual dollars or real dollars. Thus, the relationship between the two dollar domains is important, as well as the relationship among ic, ir, and , so that the equivalent worth of a cash flow is equal in the base time period when either an actual or a real-dollar analysis is used. The relationship among these three factors is (derivation not shown)

1 + ic = (1 + f )(1 + ir ); ir = ir + f + ir ( f ); ir = ic f 1+ f

(8 3) (8 4) (8 5)

Thus, the combined (market) interest rate [Equation (8-4)], is the sum of the real interest rate (ir) and the general price inflation rate (), plus the product of those two terms. Also, as shown in Equation (8-5), the real interest rate (ir) can be calculated from the combined interest rate and the general price inflation rate. Similarly, based on Equation (8-5), the IRR of a real-dollar cash flow is related to the IRR of an actual-dollar cash flow (with the same purchasing power each period) as follow: IRR r=(IRRc-)/ (1+).

Example 8-3

More Real Dollar and Actual Dollar Conversions If a company borrowed $100,000 today to be repaid at the end of three years at a combined (market) interest rate of 11%, what is the actual dollar amount owed at the end of three years, the real IRR to the lender, and the real-dollar amount equivalent in purchasing power to the actualdollar amount at the end of third year? Assume that the base or reference period is now (b=0) and that the general price inflation rate () is 5% per year. Solution In three years, the company wiil owe the original $100,000 plus interest that has accumulation, in actual dollars:

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

( A$) 3 = ( A$) 0 ( F / P, ic %,3) = $100,000( F/P,11%,3) = $136,763.


With this payment, the actual internal rate of return, IRR c,to the lender is 11%. Thus, the real rate of return to the lender can be calculated based on Equation (8-5):

IRRr =

0.11 0.05 = 0.05714, or 5.714%. 1.05

The real interest rate in this example is the same as IRR r. Using this value for ir, the real-dollar amount equivalent in purchasing power to the actualdollar amount owed is

( R$) 3 = (A$) 0 ( F / P, i r %,3) = $100,000( F/P,5.714%,3) = $118,140.


This amount can be verified by the following calculation based on Equation (8-1):

( R$) 3 = ( A$) 3 ( P / F , f %,3) = $136,763( P/F,5%,3) = $118,140.

Example 8-4

Equivalence of Real Dollar and Actual Dollar Cash Flows In Example 8-1, your salary was projected to increase at the rate of 4% per year, and the general price inflation rate was expected to be 6% per year. Your resulting estimated salary four the four years in actual and real dollars was as follows:

End of Year, k

Salary (A$)

Salary(R$), b=1

1 2 3 4

$45,000 46,000 48,672 50,619

$45,000 44,151 43,318 42,500

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

What is the present worth of the four-year actual-and real-dollar salary cash flows at the end of year one (base-year) if your personal MARR c is 10% per year (ic)?

Solution (a) Actual-dollar salary cash flow: PW (10%)1 = $45,000 + $46,000( P / F ,10%,1) + $48,672( P / F ,10%,2) + $50,619( P / F ,10%,3) = $165,798. (b) Real-dollar salary cash flow:

ir =

ic f 0.10 0.06 = = 0.03774, or 3.774%; 1+ f 1.06


1

1 PW (3.774%) 1 = $45,000 + $44,151 1.03774


2

1 1 + $43,318 + $42,500 1.03774 1.03774 = $165,798.

Thus, we obtain the same present worth at the end of year one (the base time period) for both the actual-dollar and real-dollar four-year salary cash flows when the appropriate interest rate is used for the equivalence calculations.

8.3 FIXED AND RESPONSIVE ANNUITIES Whenever future cash flows are predetermined by contract, as in the case of a bond or a fixed annuity, these amounts do not respond to general price inflation or deflation. In cases where the future amounts are not predetermined, however, they may respond to general price changes. The degree of response varies from case to case. To illustrate the nature of this situation, let us consider two annuities. The first annuity is fixed

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

(unresponsive to general price inflation) and yields $2,000 per year in actual dollars for 10 years. The second annuity is of the same duration and yields enough future actual dollars to be equivalent to $2,000 per year in real dollars (purchasing power). Assuming a general price inflation rate of 6% per year, pertinent values for the two annuities over a 10-yr period are as shown in Table 8-2. Thus, when the amounts are constant in actual dollars (unresponsive to general price inflation), their equivalent amounts in real dollars decline over the 10-year interval to $1,117 in the final year. When the future cash-flow amounts in actual dollars rise to $3,582 by year 10. TABLE 8-2 Illustration of Fixed and Responsive Annuities with General Price Inflation Rate of per Year Fixed Annuity End of Year k In Actual Dollars In Equivalent Real Dollarsa Responsive Annuity In actual Dollars In Equivalent Real Dollarsa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a

$2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
See Equation (8-1)

$1,887 1,780 1,679 1,584 1,495 1,410 1,330 1,255 1,184 1,117

$2,120 2,247 2,382 2,525 2,676 2,837 3,007 3,188 3,379 3,582

$2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

Included

in

engineering

economy

studies

are

certain

quantities

unresponsive to general price inflation, such as depreciation, or lease fees and interest charges based on an existing contract or loan agreement. For instance, depreciation amounts, once determined, do not increase (with present accounting practice) to keep pace with general price inflation; lease fees and interest charges typically are contractually fixed for a given period of time. Thus, it is important when doing an actual-dollar abalysis to recognize the quantities that are unresponsive to general price inflation, and when doing a real-dollar analysis to convert these A$ quantities to R$ quantities, using Equation (8-2).

If this is not done, not all cash flows will be in the same dollar domain (A$ or R$), and the analysis results will be distorted. Specifically, the equivalent worths of the cash flows for an A$ and an R$ analysis will not be the same in the base year, b, and the A$ IRR and the R$ IRR for the project will not have the proper relationship based on Equation (8-5); that is, IRRr=( IRRc-)/(1+). In example 8-5, we look at a bond (Chapter 5), which is a fixed-income asset, and see how its current value is affected by a period of projected deflation.

Example 8-5

Impact of Deflation on the Current Price of a Bond Suppose that deflation occurs in the U.S. economy and that the CPI (as a measure of ) is efpected to decrease an average of 2% per year for the next five years. A bond with a face (par) value of $10,000 and a life of five years (i.e., it will be redeemed in five years) pays an interest (bond) rate of 5% per year. The interest is paid to the owner of the bond once each year. If an investor expects a real rate of return of 4% per year, what is the maximum amount that should be paid now for this bond? Solution The cash flows over the life of the bond are 0.05 ($10,000)=$500 per year in interest (actual dollars) for years one through five, plus the redemption

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

of $10,000 (the face value of the bond), also in actual dollars, at the end of year five. To determine the current value of this bond (i.e., the maximum amount an investor should pay for it), these cash flows must be discounted to the present, using the combined (market) interest rate. From Equation (8-4), we can compute ic (where =-2% per year) as follows: ic=ir++ ir()=0.04-0.02-0.04(0.02) =0.0192, or 1.92%per year. Therefore, the current market value of the bond is PW=$500(P/A, 1.92%,5)+$10,000(P/F,1.92%,5) =$500(4.7244)+$10,000(0.9093) =$11,455. Ass additional information, if we had made the mistake of discounting the future cash flows over the life of the bond at the bond rate of 5% per year, the current value would have been $10,000, the face value of the bond. Also, in general, if the rate used to discount the future cash flows over the life of a bond is less than the bond rate (the situation in this example), then the current (market) value will be greater than the bonds face value. Therefore, during periods of deflation, owners of bonds (or other types of fixed-income assets) need to monitor their market values closely because a favorable sell situation may occur.

Engineering economy studies that include the effects of price changes caused by inflation or deflation may also include such items as interest charges, depreciation amounts, lease payments, and other contract amounts that are actual dollar cash flows based on past commitments. They are generally unresponsive to further price changes. At the same time, many other types of cash flows (e.g., labor, materials) are responsive to market price changes. In example 8-6, an after-tax analysis is presented that shows the correct handling of these different situations. Example After-Tax Analysis: A Mixture of Fixed and Responsive Cash Flows

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8-6

The cost of some new and more efficient electrical circuit switching equipment is $180,000. It is estimated (in base year dollars, b=0) that the equipment will reduce current net operating expenses by $36,000 per year (for 10 yr) and will have a $30,000 market value at the end of the 10 th year. For simplicity, these cash flows are estimated to increase at the general price inflation rate (=8% per year). Due to new computer control features on the equipment, it will be depreciated under the MACRS (GDS) method, and it is in five-year property class. The effective income tax rate (t) is 38%; the selected analysis period is 10 yr; and the MARR c (after taxes) is ic=15% per year. (a) Based on an actual-dollar after-tax analysis, is this capital investment justified? (b) Develop the ATCF in real dollars. Solution (a) The actual-dollar after-tax economic analysis of the new equipment is shown in Table 8-3 (column 1-7). The capital investment, savings in operating expenses, and market value (in the 10 th year) are estimated in actual dollars (column 1), using the general price inflation rate and Equation (8-1). The maintenance contract amounts for the first three years (column 2) are already in actual dollars. (They are unresponsive to further price change). The algebraic sum of columns 1 and 2 equals the before-tax cash flow (BTCF) in actual dollars (column 3). In column 4,5, and 6, the depreciation and income tax calculation are shown. The depreciation deductions in column 4 are based on the MACRS (GDS) method and, of course, are in actual dollars. The entries in columns 5 and 6 are calculated as discussed in Chapter 7. The effective incomn tax rate (t) is 38% as given. The entries in column 6 are equal to the entries in column 5 multiplied by- t. The algebraic sum of columns 3 and 6 equals the ATCF in actual dollars (column 7). The present worth of the actual-dollar ATCF, using ic=15% per year, is PW (15%)=-$180,000+$36,050(P/F,15%,1)++$40,156(P/F,15%,10) =$33,790.

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Therefore, the project is economically justified. (b). Next, Equation (8-1) is used to calculate the ATCF in real dollars from the entries in column 7. The real-dollar ATCF (column 9) shows the estimated economic consequences of the new equipment in dollars that have the constant purchasing power of the base year. The actual-dollar ATCF (column 7) is in dollars that have the purchasing power of the year in which the cost or saving occurs. The comparative information provided by the results of an economic analysis. Also, as illustrated in this example, the conversion between actual dollars and real dollars can easily be done. The PW of the real-dollar ATCF (column 9), using

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ir=(ic-)/(1+)=(0.15-0.08)/1.08=0.06481, TABLE 8-3 ATCFs Example 8-6 when the General Price Inflation Rate Is 8% per Year
a

(A$)k=$36,000(1.08)k-0=1,, 10. MV10, A$=$30,000(1.08)10=$64,767.

Or 6.48, is PW(6.48%)=-$180,000+$33,379(P/F,6.48%,1)+

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

End of Year

A$ Cash

Contract

BTCF

Depreciation

Taxable

Income ATCF Taxes

R$ ATCF Adjustment

(k)

Flows

(A$)

(A$)

(A$)

Income

(t=0.38)

(A$)

[(1/(1+)]k-b

(R$)

-$180,000 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 $180,000 38,000 a 41,990 45,349 48,978 52,895 57,128 61,697 66,632 71,964 77,720 64,767
b

-$180,000 36,080 39,190 42,549 48,978 -$2,800 -2,800 -2,800 52,895 57,128 61,697 66,632 71,964 77,720 64,767 $36,000 57,600 34,560 20,736 20,736 10,368 $80 -18,410 7,989 28,242 32,159 46,760 61,697 66,632 71,964 77,720 64,767 -$30 +6,996 -3,036 -10,732 -12,220 -17,769 -23,445 -25,320 -27,346 -29,534 -24,611

-$180,000 36,050 46,186 39,513 38,246 40,675 39,359 38,252 41,312 44,618 48,186 40,156

1.0000 33,379 0.9259 39,595 0.8573 31,336 0.7938 28,111 0.7350 27,683 0.6806 24,804 0.6302 22,320 0.5835 22,320 0.5403 22,320 0.5003 22,320 0.4632 18,600 0.4632

+$18,600(P/F,6.48%,10) =$33,790.

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Thuse, the PW (equivalent worth in the base year with b=0 of the realdollar ATCF is the same as the present worth calculated previously for the actual-dollar ATCF.

8.4 SPREADSHEET APPLICATION The following example illustration the use of spreadsheets to convert actual dollars to real dollars, and vice versa.

Example 8-7

Saving to Meet a Retirement Goal Sara B. Good wishes to retire in year 2022 with personal savings of $500,000 (1997 spending power). Assume that the expected inflation rate in the economy will average 3.75% per year during this period. Sara plans to invest in a 7.5% per year savings account, and her salary is expected to increase by 8.0% per year between 1997 and 2022. Assume that Saras 1997 salary was $60,000 and that the

SECTION 7.10 / ILLUSTRATION OF COMPUTATI

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