SCIENCE (PHYSICS) NOTES

BY YOUR DEAR SCHOOLMATE CHUA WEI WEN, 3N1/4N1/5N1 (2008-2010) PEI HWA SECONDARY SCHOOL

Vernier Calipers - It is an instrument used to measure small lengths of up to 0.1 mm (0.01 cm). - Use to measure the thickness, diameter, or width of an object.

CHAPTER 1
Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements
The SI Units - The SI unit is a refinement of the metric system. - It stands for Systme International dUnits (French). - The SI units contain seven base quantities. - We only learn the first five SI units. Base Quantity Base Unit Symbol Mass kilogram kg Length metre m Time second s Electric current ampere A Temperature kelvin K Amount of substance mole mol Luminous intensity candela cd - In order to convert the units to smaller or larger units, prefixes are added. Name Prefix Symbol Factor Trillionth picoP 10 12 Billionth nanon 10 9 Millionth micro 10 6 Thousandth millim 10 3 Hundredth centic 10 2 Tenth decid 10 1 Tens decada 10 1 Hundreds hectoh 10 2 Thousands kilok 10 3 Millions megaM 10 6 Billions gigaG 10 9 Trillions teraT 1012 Measurement of Length Instruments to Measure Different Lengths Instrument Length to be Smallest units of Measured measurements Measuring tape Several metres 0.1 cm (1 mm) Metre ruler cm to m 0.1 cm (1 mm) Vernier Calipers mm to cm 0.01 cm (0.1mm) Micrometer Less than 1 mm 0.001 cm to about 2 cm (0.01mm) Preventing Parallax Error - Parallax error is due to incorrect positioning of your eye when you take measurements. - To prevent the parallax error, your eye must be perpendicular to the scale.

Reading the Vernier Calipers

1 Read the main scale marking before the zero marking vernier caliper. It shows 17 mm. 2 Find the vernier scale marking which is in line with the main scale marking. This shows 0.9 mm. So the reading of the vernier caliper is 17.9 mm. Checking for Zero Error on Vernier Caliper - In order to obtain accurate readings, you would need to check for zero error. - The jaws must be closed completely with no objects. - When the jaws are fully closed, check the alignment of the main scale zero marking and the vernier scale zero marking. - If both markings form a straight line, there is no zero error. Positive Zero Error - If the zero marking of the vernier scale is to the right of the main scale, it is a positive zero error. - In this diagram, the zero error is +0.3 mm. - If an observed reading is 26.7 mm, then the corrected reading is 26.7 mm (+0.3 mm), which is 26.4 mm. Negative Zero Error - If the zero marking of the vernier scale is to the left of the main scale, it is a negative zero error. - In this diagram, the zero error is 0.2 mm. - If the observed reading is 26.7 mm, then the corrected reading is 26.7 (0.2 mm), which is 26.9 mm.

Name: _________________________ Index No: _______ Class: _________ Year: __________

Micrometer Screw Gauge - It is used to measure small units of length such as the thickness of sheets of paper. - It has two scales, namely Main scale on the sleeve which has markings of 0.5 mm each. Circular scale on the thimble which has markings of 0.01 mm each. There are 50 markings on the thimble.

A Simple Pendulum - The pendulum consists of a pendulum bob tied to one end of a thread. The other end of the thread is secured to a fixed point.

- When the thimble makes one complete turn, the spindle moves 0.5 mm on the main scale. - Thus, each division on the thimble is 0.01 mm. Reading the Micrometer Screw Gauge 1 Read the marking on the sleeve just before the thimble. It shows 8.5 mm. 2 Find the circular scale marking which is in line with the main scale. This shows 0.10 mm. Hence, the final reading is 8.5 mm + 0.10 mm = 8.60 mm Checking for Zero Error - To check for zero error, the spindle and the anvil must be close fully without any object between them. - If there is no zero error, the horizontal line on the sleeve should form a straight line with the zero marking on the thimble. No zero error Positive Zero Error - If the zero marking of the thimble is below the horizontal line on the sleeve, there is a positive zero error. - In this diagram, the zero error is +0.03mm. - If an observed reading is 4.21 mm has a zero error of +0.03 mm, then the corrected reading is 4.21 (+0.03 mm), which is 4.18 mm. Negative Zero Error - If the zero marking on the thimble is above the horizontal line on the sleeve, there is a negative zero error. - In this diagram, the zero error is 0.02mm. - If an observed reading is 4.21 mm has a zero error of 0.02 mm, then the corrected reading is 4.21 (0.02 mm), which is 4.23 mm. Measuring Time Measurement of a Short Interval of Time - To measure small time intervals, a stopwatch or stopclock is used. There are two types of stopwatches: - A digital stopwatch has accuracy of up to 0.01 s. - An analogue stopwatch has accuracy of up to 0.01 s.

- The bob of the pendulum swing: AOBOA - It makes one complete oscillation. - The time taken for one complete oscillation is known as period or periodic time. - The longer the string, the slower it swings. Ticker-tape timer - It consists of a metal arm that vibrates rapidly when the current is switch off. - The arm vibrates at 50 times per second and prints out a series of dots on paper tape. - The space between the dots represents a time interval of 0.02 seconds. - It can measure both time and distance, it can be used to measure speed.

CHAPTER 2
Kinematics
Speed and Velocity - Speed is a measure of how fast an object moves. - Speed is defined as the distance moved per unit time. Average Speed - The total distance travelled divided by the total time taken. The SI unit is metre per second (m/s). Velocity - It is the speed with direction of motion. The SI unit is metre per second (m/s), which is the same as speed. Acceleration - Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity. The SI unit is m/s.

or - Acceleration can be positive and negative. - Negative acceleration is known as deceleration or retardation.

Graphical Representation of Motions Distance-Time Graphs Object at Rest

Object Moving with Non-Uniform Acceleration - The speed of the objects changes over time at different rates. - The acceleration of the objects can be calculated by the gradient at that instant. - The acceleration is not constant.

- Remains at 0 m overtime. - Remains at same - The speed of the object is position after moving to a 0 m/s. new location over time. - Object at rest. - The object is also at rest. Object Moving at Constant Speed - This distance of the object increases or decreases uniformly with time.

A - Object moving at nonuniform (increasing) acceleration. B - Object moving at nonuniform (increasing) deceleration.

C - Object moving at nonuniform (decreasing) acceleration. D Object moving at nonuniform (decreasing) deceleration.

Object Moving at Non-Uniform Speed - Curve A represents an increasing non-uniform speed. The slope of the curve is increasing. - Curve B represents a decreasing non-uniform speed. The slope of the graph is decreasing. Speed-Time Graph Object at Rest - The speed of the object remains 0 m/s over time. - The acceleration of the object is the gradient of the graph. - Acceleration is 0 m/s Object Moving at Uniform Speed - The speed of the object remains the same over time. - The acceleration of the object is the gradient of the line is equal to 0 m/s. Object Moving with Uniform Acceleration - The speed of the object increases or decreases at a constant rate over time. Acceleration of Free Fall, g All objects with free fall have a constant acceleration of 9.81 m/s.

CHAPTER 3
Dynamics
What is a Force? - A force is a push or a pull. - A force can start a stationary object moving; stop a moving object; change the speed of a moving object; change the direction of a motion of a moving object; and change the shape, and size of an object. Type of Forces

What are the Forces? - The resultant force is calculated by this formula: where F is the resultant force acting on the object (N), a is the acceleration of the object (m/s), m is the mass of the object (kg) Finding the Resultant Force If the object is pull by two forces in the same direction, add them up. Resultant force = 8 + 3 = 11 N (to the right)

Object moving at uniform Object moving at uniform acceleration. deceleration.

Dear Classmates, friends and students, It took me 5 days to complete these notes. I put in my best effort on creating this notes. I hope that these notes will help you and equip you the necessary skills for the N-Level Science (Physics) examinations. And I hope you like my cartoons. Should there be any problem or error in these notes, please do not hesitate inform me. Best of luck to your examinations. Chua Wei Wen (3N1/4N1/5N1) (2008 2010)