Palynology

Palynology is the study of plant pollen, spores and certain microscopic plankton organisms (collectively termed palynomorphs) in both living and fossil form. Botanists use living pollen and spores (actuopalynology) in the study of plant relationships and evolution, while geologists (palynologists) may use fossil pollen and spores (paleopalynology) to study past environments, stratigraphy (the analysis of strata or layered rock) historical geology and paleontology.

Pollen grain of Morning Glory (Ipomoea sp.) The oil industry is credited with demonstrating the usefulness of palynomorphs in the study of stratigraphic sequences of rocks and the potential for oil and gas exploration. Because palynomorphs are resistant to decomposition and are produced in great abundance, their recovery from rocks and sediments via special and careful chemical treatments is possible and provides scientists with information needed to describe plant life of past ages. By describing the sequence of selected palynomorphs through the rock layers of Earth, stratigraphers (scientists who study the rock layers of the earth) are able to correlate rocks of the same age and may therefore locate and correlate layers that contain oil or natural gas. Palynomorphs recovered from the gut or intestinal tract of early humans, and those associated with artifacts (pots, tools, or other cultural objects) found at their grave sites have been used to understand the diets and hunting practices of these early people. For instance, the pollen and spores found in the feces recovered from the mummies of humans living seven thousand years ago, allowed scientists to describe the changes in diets through several generations of native people in northern Chile.

Melissopalynology is the study of pollen in honey, with the purpose of identifying the source plants used by bees in the production of honey. This is important to honey producers because honey produced by pollen and nectar from certain plants as mesquite, buckwheat, tupelo or citrus trees demand a higher price on the market than that produced by other plant sources. Some plants may produce nectar and pollen that is harmful to human health. A careful monitoring of the pollen types found in honey may identify these toxic sources and the honey produced may be kept out of the commercial market. Palynology is a useful tool in many applications, including a survey of atmospheric pollen and spore production and dispersal (aerobiology), in the study of human allergies, the archaeological excavation of shipwrecks, and detailed analysis of animal diets. Entomopalynology is the study of pollen found on the body or in the gut of insects. It is useful for determining insect feeding and migratory habits, especially as it involves economically important insects (as the boll weevil, or earwigs). Forensic palynology, or the use of pollen analysis in the solving of crimes, is used by Crime Scene Investigators around the world.

Applications of Palynology
There are a few geological fields in which palynology can be applied to, here are the major fields:

Geochronology Biostratigraphy Paleoecology Quaternary Palynology

Geochronology - dating of rocks. Palynoflora are used to date rocks. Palynomorphs

are great indicators of narrow time ranges because of the rapid evolution of the samples. Because they are present in rocks that don't usually have fossils, the microscopic fossils are used as a time range instead of waiting for complicated lab results.

Biostratigraphy - correlation of rock sections. This aspect of palynology is the

most important economically. Proper indentification of indicative palynomorphs could lead to the discovery of oil, coal, and gas deposits. In fact, fossilized pollen was first discovered in a coal thin section. Because pollen and spores have the tendency of being

dragged along with migrating petroleum through pourous rocks - they are good indicators that petroleum isn't too far away. The small sizes of palynomorphs are ideal for drill core samples. The colouration and type of palynomorph represents the thermal maturity and hydrocarbon potential of the area.

fluctuation in their surroundings, they are highly indicative of the environment in which they are deposited. The advantage of palynomorphs over other fossils is their widespread distribution; they can be found in either terrestrial, freshwater, saltwater, and estuary sources of sedimentary rocks.

Paleoecology - past environments. Because palynomorphs are sensitive to any minor

Quaternary deals more with more recent environmental and climate change. This field of study uses quantitive analysis and precise dating for correlating stratigraphic sequences and reconstructing rats of environmental change. Studies show that the most influenced environmental changes have occurred since the appearance of humans. Non-geological uses - archeaological palynology, forensic palynology.

Quaternary palynology - Although very similar to the purposes of paleoecology,

Vertebrates
Vertebrates are a well-known group of animals that includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. The defining characteristic of vertebrates is their backbone, an anatomical feature that first appeared in the fossil record about 500 million years ago, during the Ordovician period. In this article, we'll look at the various groups of vertebrates in the order in which they evolved to create a picture of how vertebrate evolution unfolded to the present day.

How have vertebrates evolved?

When scientists describe vertebrate evolution, they most often frame it as a transition from water to land. Once on land, the vertebrates are described as evolving to occupy diverse habitats and live very active lifestyles. What are some of the adaptations that made these transitions possible?

Jaws: The earliest vertebrates in evolutionary history are the fish. The earliest fish had
no jaws they sucked and rasped flesh of their prey rather than biting it. These fish include hagfish and lampreys. Fish that arose later, including the sharks and the bony fish, have jaws. Jaws represent a much more efficient and effective mode of capturing, feeding on, and swallowing prey.

Lungs and limbs: In order for vertebrates to succeed on land, they had to be able to
breathe and move around. These adaptations are first seen in a primitive group of fish, of which a living example exists the lungfish. Although they take in oxygen primarily through gills, they also have lungs. Their fleshy fins are supported by bone, and they can walk around in their habitats. The amphibians are thought to have evolved from fish like this. As their name implies amphibian comes from the Greek word amphibious, meaning double life the adaptations of amphibians truly reflect mixed habitats.

Watertight skin and eggs: To live exclusively on land requires the ability to avoid
water loss. The next adaptations in vertebrate evolution included skin that acts as a watertight barrier. Evolving from amphibians, the reptiles are the first vertebrate group to show this adaptation. Reptiles also have what is called an amniote egg. Amniote eggs contain their own water supply and are surrounded by a leathery or hard shell. Birds, which are known to have evolved from reptiles, also have amniote eggs. Their feathers are actually modified scales.

Endothermy: Birds and mammals possess an adaptation known as endothermy (endo =

internal; therm = temperature). This is what we typically call warm-bloodedness.. This occurs as body temperature is regulated internally using heat supplied by the burning of food for fuel. Endothermy permits a degree of independence from environmental conditions. With this adaptation, birds and mammals have further evolved to possess diverse ways of feeding, avoiding predators, finding suitable habitats, and reproducing.In the video, Dr. Douglas Zook noted an important idea. Often, people think of vertebrate evolution as being ladder-like, where earlier forms are replaced and improved upon by more modern forms. This isnt how vertebrate evolution occurred. From common ancestors, each group branched into their own successful lineages. The most primitive living fish is

just as successful in an evolutionary sense as the most recently evolved mammal the human being.