Smart Structures and Materials

SMART STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS
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SMART SYSTEMS/ STRUCTURES

Definition of Smart Systems/ Structures
The definition of smart structures was a topic of controversy from the late 1970s to
the late 1980s. In order to arrive at a consensus for major terminology, a special
workshop was organised by the US Army Research Office in 1988, in which
sensors, actuators, control mechanism and timely response were recognised
as the four qualifying features of any smart system or structure (Rogers, 1988). In
this workshop, following definition of smart systems/ structures was formally
adopted (Ahmad, 1988).

A system or material which has built-in or intrinsic sensor(s), actuator(s) and
control mechanism(s) whereby it is capable of sensing a stimulus, responding to it
in a predetermined manner and extent, in a short/ appropriate time, and reverting
to its original state as soon as the stimulus is removed

According to Vardan and Vardan (2000), smart system refers to a device which can
sense changes in its environment and can make an optimal response by changing its
material properties, geometry, mechanical or electromagnetic response. Both the
sensor and the actuator functions with their appropriate feedback must be properly
integrated. It should also be noted that if the response is too slow or too fast, the
system could lose its application or could be dangerous (Takagi, 1990).

Previously, the words intelligent, adaptive and organic were also used to
characterize smart systems and materials. For example, Crawley and de Luis (1987)
defined intelligent structures as the structures possessing highly distributed
actuators, sensors and processing networks. Similarly, Professor H. H. Robertshaw

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preferred the term organic (Rogers, 1988) which suggests similarity to biological
processes. The human arm, for example, is like a variable stiffness actuator with a
control law (intelligence). However, many participants at the US Army Research
Office Workshop (e.g. Rogers et al., 1988) sought to differentiate the terms
intelligent, adaptive and organic from the term smart by highlighting their
subtle differences with the term smart. The term intelligence, for example, is
associated with abstract thought and learning, and till date has not been
implemented in any form of adaptive and sensing material or structure. However,
still many researchers use the terms smart and intelligent almost interchangeably
(e.g. In the U.S.-Japan Workshop: Takagi, 1990; Rogers, 1990), though adaptive
and organic have become less popular.

The idea of smart or intelligent structures has been adopted from nature, where
all the living organisms possess stimulus-response capabilities (Rogers, 1990). The
aim of the ongoing research in the field of smart systems/ structures is to enable
such a structure or system mimic living organisms, which possess a system of
distributed sensory neurons running all over the body, enabling the brain to monitor
the condition of the various body parts. However, the smart systems are much
inferior to the living beings since their level of intelligence is much primitive.
In conjunction with smart or intelligent structures, Rogers (1990) defined following
additional terms, which are meant to classify the smart structures further, based on
the level of sophistication. The relationship between these structure types is clearly
explained in Fig. 1

(a) Sensory Structures: These structures possess sensors that enable the
determination or monitoring of system states/ characteristics.
(b) Adaptive Structures: These structures possess actuators that enable the
alteration of system states or characteristics in a controlled manner.
(c) Controlled Structures: These result from the intersection of the sensory and
the adaptive structures. These possess both sensors and actuators integrated in
feedback architecture for the purpose of controlling the system states or
characteristics.

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(d) Active Structures: These structures possess both sensors and actuators that are
highly integrated into the structure and exhibit structural functionality in
addition to control functionality.
(e) Intelligent Structures: These structures are basically active structures
possessing highly integrated control logic and electronics that provides the
cognitive element of a distributed or hierarchic control architecture.

It may be noted that the sensor-actuator-controller combination can be realised
either at the macroscopic (structure) level or microscopic (material) level.
Accordingly, we have smart structures and materials respectively. The concept of
smart materials is introduced in the following section.

Smart Materials
Smart materials are new generation materials surpassing the conventional structural
and functional materials. These materials possess adaptive capabilities to external
stimuli, such as loads or environment, with inherent intelligence. In the US Army
Research Office Workshop, Rogers et al. (1988) defined smart materials as
materials, which possess the ability to change their physical properties in a specific
manner in response to specific stimulus input. The stimuli could be pressure,
temperature, electric and magnetic fields, chemicals or nuclear radiation. The
associated changeable physical properties could be shape, stiffness, viscosity or
A
B
C
D
E
A: Sensory structures; B: Adaptive structures; C: Controlled structures;
D: Active structures; E: Intelligent structures.
Fig. 1 Classification of smart structures (Rogers, 1990).

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damping. This kind of smartness is generally programmed by material
composition, special processing, introduction of defects or by modifying the micro-
structure, so as to adapt to the various levels of stimuli in a controlled fashion. Like
smart structures, the terms smart and intelligent are used interchangeably for
smart materials. Takagi (1990) defined intelligent materials as the materials which
respond to environmental changes at the most optimum conditions and manifest
their own functions according to the environment. The feedback functions within
the material are combined with properties and functions of the materials.

Optical fibres, piezo-electric polymers and ceramics, electro-rheological (ER)
fluids, magneto-strictive materials and shape memory alloys (SMAs) are some of
the smart materials. Fig. 2 shows the associated stimulus and response of
common smart materials. Because of their special ability to respond to stimuli, they
are finding numerous applications in the field of sensors and actuators. A very
detailed description of smart materials is covered by Gandhi and Thompson (1992).

Active and Passive Smart Materials
Smart materials can be either active or passive. Fairweather (1998) defined active
smart materials as those materials which possess the capacity to modify their
geometric or material properties under the application of electric, thermal or
magnetic fields, thereby acquiring an inherent capacity to transduce energy.
Piezoelectric materials, SMAs, ER fluids and magneto-strictive materials are active
smart materials. Being active, they can be used as force transducers and actuators.
For example, the SMA has large recovery force, of the order of 700 MPa (10
5
psi)
(Kumar, 1991), which can be utilized for actuation. Similarly piezoelectric
materials, which convert electric energy into mechanical force, are also active.

The smart materials, which are not active, are called passive smart materials.
Although smart, these lack the inherent capability to transduce energy. Fibre optic
material is a good example of a passive smart material. Such materials can act as
sensors but not as actuators or transducers.

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Applications of Piezoelectric Materials
Since this thesis is primarily concerned with piezoelectric materials, some typical
applications of these materials are briefly described here. Traditionally,
piezoelectric materials have been well-known for their use in accelerometers, strain
sensors (Sirohi and Chopra, 2000b), emitters and receptors of stress waves
(Giurgiutiu et al., 2000; Boller, 2002), distributed vibration sensors (Choi and
Chang, 1996; Kawiecki, 1998), actuators (Sirohi and Chopra, 2000a) and pressure
transducers (Zhu, 2003). However, since the last decade, the piezoelectric materials,
their derivative devices and structures have been increasingly employed in turbo-
machinery actuators, vibration dampers and active vibration control of stationary/
moving structures (e.g. helicopter blades, Chopra, 2000). They have been shown to
be very promising in active structural control of lab-sized structures and machines
(e.g. Manning et al., 2000; Song et al., 2002). Structural control of large structures
has also been attempted (e.g. Kamada et al., 1997). Other new applications include
underwater acoustic absorption, robotics, precision positioning and smart skins for
submarines (Kumar, 1991). Skin-like tactile sensors utilizing piezoelectric effect for
Fig. 2 Common smart materials and associated stimulus-response.
Electric field
Change in viscosity
(Internal damping)
Heat Original Memorized Shape
Magnetic field
Mechanical Strain
Optical Fibre
Temperature, pressure,
mechanical strain
Change in Opto-
Electronic signals
(1) Stress
(1) Electric Charge
(2) Electric field (2) Mechanical strain
Piezoelectric
Material
Shape Memory
Alloy
Electro-rheological
Fluid
Magneto-strictive
material

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sensing temperatures and pressures have been reported (Rogers, 1990). Very
recently, the piezoelectric materials have been employed to produce micro and nano
scale systems and wireless inter digital transducers (IDT) using advanced embedded
system technologies, which are set to find numerous applications in micro-
electronics, bio-medical and SHM (Varadan, 2002; Lynch et al., 2003b). Recent
research is also exploring the development of versatile piezo-fibres, which can be
integrated with composite structures for actuation and SHM (Boller, 2002).

The most striking application of the piezoelectric materials in SHM has been in the
form of EMI technique. This is the main focus of the present thesis and details will
be covered in the subsequent sections.

Smart Materials: Future Applications
Seasoned researchers often share visionary ideas about the future of smart materials
in conferences and seminars. According to Prof. Rogers (Rogers, 1990), following
advancements could be possible in the field of smart materials and structures.
Materials which can restrain the propagation of cracks by automatically
producing compressive stresses around them (Damage arrest).
Materials, which can discriminate whether the loading is static or shock and can
generate a large force against shock stresses (Shock absorbers).
Materials possessing self-repairing capabilities, which can heal damages in due
course of time (Self-healing materials).
Materials which are usable up to ultra-high temperatures (such as those
encountered by space shuttles when they re-enter the earths atmosphere from
outer space), by suitably changing composition through transformation (thermal
mitigation).

Takagi (1990) similarly projected the development of more functional and higher
grade materials with recognition, discrimination, adjustability, self-diagnostics and
self-learning capabilities.

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PIEZOELECTRICITY AND PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
The word piezo is derived from a Greek word meaning pressure. The phenomenon
of piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Paul-Jacques Curie. It
occurs in non-centro symmetric crystals, such as quartz (SiO
2
), Lithium Niobate
(LiNbO
3
), PZT [Pb(Zr
1-x
Ti
x
)O
3
)] and PLZT [(Pb
1-x
La
x
)(Zr
1-y
Ti
y
)O
3
)], in which
electric dipoles (and hence surface charges) are generated when the crystals are
loaded with mechanical deformations. The same crystals also exhibit the converse
effect; that is, they undergo mechanical deformations when subjected to electric
fields.

In centro-symmetric crystals, the act of deformation does not induce any dipole
moment, as shown in Fig. 3. However, in non-centro symmetric crystals, this

leads to a net dipole moment, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Similarly, the act of applying
an electric field induces mechanical strains in the non-centro symmetric crystals.
= 0 = 0
Fig. 3 Centro-symmetric crystals: the act of stretching does not cause any
dipole moment ( = Dipole moment).
Fig. 4 Noncentro-symmetric crystals: the act of stretching causes dipole moment in
the crystal ( = Dipole moment).
= 0
0

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Constitutive Relations
The constitutive relations for piezoelectric materials, under small field condition are
(IEEE standard, 1987)
m
d
im j
T
ij i
T d E D + = (1)
m
E
km j
c
jk k
T s E d S + = (1)
Eq. (1) represents the so called direct effect (that is stress induced electrical charge)
whereas Eq. (2) represents the converse effect (that is electric field induced
mechanical strain). Sensor applications are based on the direct effect, and actuator
applications are based on the converse effect. When the sensor is exposed to a
stress field, it generates proportional charge in response, which can be measured.
On the other hand, the actuator is bonded to the structure and an external field is
applied to it, which results in an induced strain field. In more general terms, Eqs.
(2.1) and (2.2) can be rewritten in the tensor form as (Sirohi and Chopra, 2000b)
T
E
s d
d
S
D
E c
d T
(3)
where [D] (3x1) (C/m
2
) is the electric displacement vector, [S] (3x3) the second
order strain tensor, [E] (3x1) (V/m) the applied external electric field vector and [T]
(3x3) (N/m
2
) the stress tensor. Accordingly, [
T
] (F/m) is the second order
dielelectric permittivity tensor under constant stress, [d
d
] (C/N) and [d
c
] (m/V) the
third order piezoelectric strain coefficient tensors, and [
E
s ] (m
2
/N) the fourth order
elastic compliance tensor under constant electric field.

Taking advantage of the symmetry of the stress and the strain tensors, these can be
reduced from a second order (3x3) tensor form to equivalent vector forms, (6x1) in
size. Thus,
T
S S S S S S S ] , , , , , [ ] [
12 31 23 33 22 11
= and similarly,
T
T T T T T T T ] , , , , , [ ] [
12 31 23 33 22 11
= . Accordingly, the piezoelectric strain coefficients
can be reduced to second order tensors (from third order tensors), as [d
d
] (3x6) and
[d
c
] (6x3). The superscripts d and c indicate the direct and the converse effects
respectively. Similarly, the fourth order elastic compliance tensor [
E
s ] can be

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reduced to (6x6) second order tensor. The superscripts T and E indicate that the
parameter has been measured at constant stress (free mechanical boundary) and
constant electric field (short-circuited) respectively. A bar above any parameter
signifies that it is complex in nature (i.e. measured under dynamic conditions). The
piezoelectric strain coefficient
c
jk
d defines mechanical strain per unit electric field
under constant (zero) mechanical stress and
d
im
d defines electric displacement per
unit stress under constant (zero) electric field. In practice, the two coefficients are
numerically equal. In
c
jk
d or
d
im
d , the first subscript denotes the direction of the
electric field and second the direction of the associated mechanical strain. For
example, the term d
31
signifies that the electric field is applied in the direction 3
and the strain is measured in direction 1.

If static electric field is applied under the boundary condition that the crystal is free
to deform, no mechanical stresses will develop. Similarly, if the stress is applied
under the condition that the electrodes are short-circuited, no electric field (or
surface charges) will develop. For a sheet of piezoelectric material, as shown in Fig.
5, the poling direction is usually along the thickness and is denoted as 3-axis. The 1-
axis and 2-axis are in the plane of the sheet.

The matrix [d
c
] depends on crystal structure. For example, it is different for PZT
and quartz, as given by (Zhu, 2003)
=
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
15
24
33
32
31
d
d
d
d
d
d
c
(PZT) ,
0 2 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
11
14
14
11
11
d
d
d
d
d
(quartz) (4)
where the coefficients d
31
, d
32
and d
33
relate the normal strain in the 1, 2 and 3
directions respectively to an electric field along the poling direction 3. For PZT
crystals, the coefficient d
15
relates the shear strain in the 1-3 plane to the field E
1
and
d
24
relates the shear strain in the 2-3 plane to the electric field E
2
. It is not possible

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to produce shear in the 1-2 plane purely by the application of an electric field, since
all terms in the last row of the matrix [d
c
] are zero (see Eq. 2.4). Similarly, shear
stress in the 1-2 plane does not generate any electric response. In all poled
piezoelectric materials, d
31
is negative and d
33
is positive. For a good sensor, the
algebraic sum of d
31
and

d
33
should be the maximum and at the same time,
33
and
the mechanical loss factor should be minimum (Kumar, 1991).

The compliance matrix has the form
=
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E
s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s
66 65 64 63 62 61
56 55 54 53 52 51
46 45 44 43 42 41
36 35 34 33 32 31
26 25 24 23 22 21
16 15 14 13 12 11
(5)
From energy considerations, the compliance matrix is symmetric, which leaves only
21 independent coefficients. Further, for isotropic materials, there are only two
independent coefficients, as expressed below (remaining terms are zero)

E
E E E
Y
s s s
1
33 22 11
= = = (6)

E
E E E E E E
Y
s s s s s s

= = = = = =
32 31 23 21 13 12
(7)

E
E E E
G
s s s
1
66 55 44
= = = (8)
1
2
3
Fig. 5 A piezoelectric material sheet with conventional 1, 2 and 3 axes.

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where
E
Y is the complex Youngs modulus of elasticity (at constant electric field),
E
G the complex shear modulus (at constant electric field) and the Poissons ratio.
It may be noted that the static moduli, Y
E
and G
E
, are related by

) 1 ( 2 +
=
E
E
Y
G (9)
The electric permittivity matrix can be written as
=
T T T
T T T
T T T
T
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
] [

(10)
From energy arguments, the permittivity matrix can also be shown to be symmetric,
which reduces the number of independent coefficients to 6. Further, taking
advantage of crystal configurations, more simplifications can be achieved. For
example, it takes following simple forms for monoclinic, cubic and orthorhombic
crystals (Zhu, 2003)
] [
T
=
T T
T
T T
33 13
22
31 11
0
0 0
0

,
T
T
T
33
22
11
0 0
0 0
0 0
T
T
T
11
11
11
0 0
0 0
0 0
(11)

Commercial Piezoelectric Materials
Previously, piezoelectric crystals, which used to be brittle and of large weight, were
used in practice. However, now the commercial piezoelectric materials are available
as ceramics or polymers, which can be cut into a variety of convenient shapes and
sizes and can be easily bonded.

(a) Piezoceramics
Lead zirconate titanate oxide or PZT, which has a chemical composition [Pb(Zr
1-
x
Ti
x
)O
3
)], is the most widely used type piezoceramic. It is a solid solution of lead
zirconate and lead titanate, often doped with other materials to obtain specific
properties. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of lead, zirconium and titanium
monoclinic
orthorhombic
(e.g. PZT)
cubic

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oxide powders to around 800-1000
o
C first to obtain a perovskite PZT powder, which
is mixed with a binder and sintered into the desired shape. The resulting unit cell is
elongated in one direction and exhibits a permanent dipole moment along this axis.
However, since the ceramic consists of many such randomly oriented domains, it has
no net polarization. Application of high electric field aligns the polar axes of the unit
cells along the applied electric field, thereby reorienting most of the domains. This
process is called poling and it imparts a permanent net polarization to the crystal. This
also creates a permanent mechanical distortion, since the polar axis of the unit cell is
longer than other two axes. Due to this process, the material becomes piezoelectrically
transversely isotropic in the plane normal to the poling direction i.e. d
31
= d
32
d
33
; d
15
= d
24
, but remains mechanically isotropic (Sirohi and Chopra, 2000b).

PZT is a very versatile smart material. It is chemically inert and exhibits high
sensitivity of about 3V/Pa, that warrants nothing more sophisticated than a charge
amplifier to buffer the extremely high source impedance of this largely capacitive
transducer. It demonstrates competitive characteristics such as light weight, low-cost,
small size and good dynamic performance. Besides, it exhibits large range of linearity
(up to electric field of 2kV/cm, Sirohi and Chopra, 2000a), fast response, long term
stability and high energy conversion efficiency. The PZT patches can be manufactured
in any shape, size and thickness (finite rectangular shapes to complicated MEMS
shapes) at relatively low-cost as compared to other smart materials and can be easily
used over a wide range of pressures without serious non-linearity. The PZT material is
characterized by a high elastic modulus (comparable to that of aluminum). However,
PZT is somewhat fragile due to brittleness and low tensile strength. Tensile strength
measured under dynamic loading is much lower (about one-third) than that measured
under static conditions. This is because under dynamic loads, cracks propagate much
faster, resulting in much lower yield stress. Typically, G1195 (Piezo Systems Inc.,
2003) has a compressive strength of 520 MPa and a tensile strength of 76 MPa (static)
and 21 MPa (dynamic) (Zhou et al., 1995). The PZT materials have negative d
31
,
which implies that a positive electric field (in the direction of polarization) results in
compressive strain on the PZT sheet. If heated above a critical temperature, called the
Curie temperature, the crystals lose their piezoelectric effect. The Curie temperature

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typically varies from 150
o
C to 350
o
C for most commercial PZT crystals. When
exposed to high electric fields (>12 kV/cm), opposite to the poling direction, the PZT
loses most of its piezoelectric capability. This is called deploing and is accompanied
by a permanent change in the dimensions of the sample.

Due to high stiffness, the PZT sheets are good actuators. They also exhibit high
strain coefficients, due to which they can act as good sensors also. These features
make the PZT materials very suitable for use as collocated actuators and sensors.
They are used in deformable mirrors, mechanical micropositioners, impact devices
and ultrasonic motors (Kumar, 1991), sonic and ultrasonic sensors, filters and
resonators, signal processing devices, igniters and voltage transformers (Zhu, 2003),
to name only a few. For achieving large displacements, multi layered PZT systems
can be manufactured, such as stack, moonie and bimorph actuators.

However, due to their brittleness, the PZT sheets cannot withstand bending and also
exhibit poor conformability to curved surfaces. This is the main limitation with PZT
materials. In addition, the PZT materials show considerable fluctuation of their
electric properties with temperature. Also, soldering wires to the electroded
piezoceramics requires special skill and often results in broken elements, unreliable
connections or localized thermal depoling of the elements. As a solution to these
problems, active piezoceramic composite actuators (Smart Materials Corporation),
active fibre composites (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and macro fibre
composites, MFCs (NASA, Langley Centre) have been developed recently (Park et
al., 2003a). The MFCs have been commercially available since 2003. These new
types of PZTs are low-cost, damage tolerant, can conform to curved surface and are
embeddable. In addition, Active Control eXperts, Inc. (ACX), now owned by Mide
Technology Corporation, has developed a packaging technology in which one or
more PZT elements are laminated between sheets of polymer flexible printed
circuitry. This provides the much robustness, reliability and ease of use. The
packaged sensors are commercially called QuickPack
actuators (Mide Technology

Corporation, 2004). These are now widely used as vibration dampers in sporting
goods, buzzer alerts, drivers for flat speakers and more recently in automotive and

14

aerospace components (Pretorius et al., 2004). However, these are presently many
times expensive than raw PZT patches.

(b) Piezopolymers
The most common commercial piezopolymer is the Polyvinvylidene Fluoride
(PVDF). It is made up of long chains of the repeating monomer (-CH
2
-CF
2
-) each
of which has an inherent dipole moment. PVDF film is manufactured by
solidification from the molten phase, which is then stretched in a particular
direction and poled. The stretching process aligns the chains in one direction.
Combined with poling, this imparts a permanent dipole moment to the film.
Because of stretching, the material is rendered piezoelectrically orthotropic, that is
d
31
d
32
, where 1 is the stretching direction. However, it still remains
mechanically isotropic.

The PVDF material is characterized by low stiffness (Youngs modulus is 1/12
th

that of aluminum). Hence, the PVDF sensors are not likely to modify the stiffness
of the host structure due to their own stiffness. Also, PVDF films can be shaped as
desired according to the intended application. Being polymer, it can be formed into
very thin sheets and adhered to curved surfaces also due to its flexibility. These
characteristics make PVDF films more attractive for sensor applications, in spite of
their low piezoelectric coefficients (approximately 1/10
th
of PZT). It has been
shown by Sirohi and Chopra (2000b) that shear lag effect is negligible in PVDF
sensors.

Piezo-rubber, which consists of fine particles of PZT material embedded in
synthetic rubber (Rogers, 1990), has appeared as an alternative for PVDF. The
piezo-rubber shows much higher electrical output due to larger thickness, which is
not possible in PVDF. The piezo-rubber is used in piezoelectric coaxial cable as a
vehicle sensor. It has much longer life and is immune to rain water.

15

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS AS MECHATRONIC IMPEDANCE
TRANSDUCERS (MITs) FOR SHM
The term mechatronic impedance transducer (MIT) was coined by Park (2000). A
mechatronic transducer is defined as a transducer which can convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. The piezoceramic (PZT) materials,
because of the direct (sensor) and converse (actuator) capabilities, are mechatronic
transducers. When used as MIT, their electromechanical impedance characteristics
are utilized for diagnosing the condition of the structures and the same patch plays
the dual roles, as an actuator as well as a sensor. The technique utilizing the PZT
based MIT for SHM/ NDE has evolved during the last nine years and is called as
the electro-mechanical impedance (EMI) technique in the literature. The following
sections describe the various aspects of this technique in detail.

Physical Principles

The EMI technique is very similar to the conventional global dynamic response
techniques described previously. The major difference is with respect to the
frequency range employed, which is typically 30-400kHz in EMI technique, against
less than 100Hz in the case of the global dynamic methods.

In the EMI technique, a PZT patch is bonded to the surface of the monitored
structure using a high strength epoxy adhesive, and electrically excited via an
impedance analyzer. In this configuration, the PZT patch essentially behaves as a
Fig. 6 Modelling PZT-structure interaction.
(a) A PZT patch bonded to structure under electric excitation.
(b) Interaction model of PZT patch and host structure.
(a) (b)
Alternating electric
field source
l l
Point of
mechanical
fixity
PZT Patch
3 (z)
1 (x)
Host
structure
2 (y)
PZT patch
Structural
Impedance
l
h
w
E
3

1
3
2
l
Z
Z

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thin bar undergoing axial vibrations and interacting with the host structure, as
shown in Fig. 6 (a). The PZT patch-host structure system can be modelled as a
mechanical impedance (due the host structure) connected to an axially vibrating
thin bar (the patch), as shown in Fig. 6(b). The patch in this figure expands and
contracts dynamically in direction 1 when an alternating electric field E
3
(which is
spatially uniform i.e. E
3
/x = E
3
/y = 0) is applied in the direction 3. The patch
has half-length l, width w and thickness h. The host structure is assumed to be
a skeletal structure, that is, composed of one-dimensional members with their
sectional properties (area and moment of inertia) lumped along their neutral axes.
Therefore, the vibrations of the PZT patch in direction 2 can be ignored. At the
same time, the PZT loading in direction 3 is neglected by assuming the
frequencies involved to be much less than the first resonant frequency for thickness
vibrations. The vibrating patch is assumed infinitesimally small and to possess
negligible mass and stiffness as compared to the host structure. The structure can
therefore be assumed to possess uniform dynamic stiffness over the entire bonded
area. The two end points of the patch can thus be assumed to encounter equal
mechanical impedance, Z, from the structure, as shown in Fig. 2.8 (b). Under this
condition, the PZT patch has zero displacement at the mid-point (x= 0), irrespective
of the location of the patch on the host structure. Under these assumptions, the
constitutive relations (Eqs. 1 and 2) can be simplified as (Ikeda, 1990)

1 31 3 33 3
T d E D
T
+ = (13)
3 31
1
1
E d
Y
T
S
E
+ = (14)
where S
1
is the strain in direction 1, D
3
the electric displacement over the PZT
patch, d
31
the piezoelectric strain coefficient and T
1
the axial stress in direction 1.
) 1 ( j Y Y
E E
+ = is the complex Youngs modulus of elasticity of the PZT patch at
constant electric field and ) 1 (
33 33
j
T T
= is the complex electric permittivity (in
direction 3) of the PZT material at constant stress, where 1 = j . Here, and
denote respectively the mechanical loss factor and the dielectric loss factor of the
PZT material.

17

The one-dimensional vibrations of the PZT patch are governed by the following
differential equation (Liang et al., 1994), derived based on dynamic equilibrium of
the PZT patch.

2
2
2
2
t
u
x
u
Y
E
(15)
where u is the displacement at any point on the patch in direction 1. Solution of
the governing differential equation by the method of separation of variables yields
t j
e x B x A u

) cos sin ( + = (16)
where is the wave number, related to the angular frequency of excitation , the
density and the complex Youngs modulus of elasticity of the patch by

E
Y
= (17)
Application of the mechanical boundary condition that at x = 0 (mid point of the
PZT patch), u = 0 yields B = 0.
Hence, strain in PZT patch x Ae
x
u
x S
t j

cos ) (
1
=
= (18)
and velocity x e Aj
t
u
x u
t j

sin ) ( =
= & (19)
Further, by definition, the mechanical impedance Z of the structure is related to the
axial force F in the PZT patch by

) ( ) ( 1 ) ( l x l x l x
u Z whT F
= = =
= = & (20)
where the negative sign signifies the fact that a positive displacement (or velocity)
causes compressive force in the PZT patch (Liang et al., 1993, 1994). Making use
of Eq. (2.14) and substituting the expressions for strain and velocity from Eqs.
(2.18) and (2.19) respectively, we can derive

) )( cos(
31
a
o a
Z Z l h
d V Z
A
+
=

(21)
where Z
a
is the short-circuited mechanical impedance of the PZT patch, given by

) tan( ) ( l j
Y wh
Z
E
a

= (22)

18

Z
a
is defined as the force required to produce unit velocity in the PZT patch in short
circuited condition (i.e. ignoring the piezoelectric effect) and ignoring the host
structure.

The electric current, which is the time rate of change of charge, can be obtained as

dxdy D j dxdy D I
A A

= =
3 3

&
(23)
Making use of the PZT constitutive relation (Eq. 13), and integrating over the entire
surface of the PZT patch (-l

to +l), we can obtain an expression for the
electromechanical admittance (the inverse of electro-mechanical impedance) as
+
+ =
l
l
Y d
Z Z
Z
Y d
h
wl
j Y
E
a
a E T

tan
) ( 2
2
31
2
31 33
(24)
This equation is same as that derived by Liang et al. (1994), except that an
additional factor of 2 comes into picture. This is due to the fact that Liang et al.
(1993, 1994) considered only one-half of the patch in their derivation.

In the EMI technique, this electro-mechanical coupling between the mechanical
impedance Z of the host structure and the electro-mechanical admittance Y is
utilized in damage detection. Z is a function of the structural parameters- the
stiffness, the damping and the mass distribution. Any damage to the structure will
cause these structural parameters to change, and hence alter the drive point
mechanical impedance Z. Assuming that the PZT parameters remain unchanged, the
electromechanical admittance Y will undergo a change and this serves as an
indicator of the state of health of the structure. Measuring Z directly may not be
feasible, but Y can be easily measured using any commercial electrical impedance
analyzer. Common damage types altering local structural impedance Z are cracks,
debondings, corrosion and loose connections (Esteban, 1996), to which the PZT
admittance signatures show high sensitivity. Contrary to low-frequency vibration
techniques, damping plays much more significant role in the EMI technique due to
the involvement of ultrasonic frequencies. Most conventional damage detection
algorithms (in low-frequency dynamic techniques), on the other hand are based on

19

damage related changes in structural stiffness and inertia, but rarely in damping
(Kawiecki, 2001).

It is worthwhile to mention here that traditionally, in order to achieve self-sensing, a
complicated circuit was warranted (Dosch et al., 1992). This was so because in the
traditional approach, an actuating signal was first applied and the sensing signal was
then picked up and separated from the actuating signal. But due to the high voltage,
and also due to the strong dependence of the capacitance on temperature, the signal
was mixed with the input voltage as well as noise and was therefore not very
accurate. The EMI technique, on the other hand, offers a much hassle free,
simplified, and more accurate self-sensing approach.

At low frequencies (<1/5 th of the first resonant frequency of the PZT patch), the
term (tanl/l) 1. This is called as quasi-static sensor approximation
(Giurgiutiu and Zagrai, 2002), and for this condition, Eq. (24) can be simplified as
+
=
a
E T
Z Z
Z
Y d
h
wl
j Y
11
2
31 33
2 (25)

The electromechanical admittance Y (unit Siemens or ohm
-1
) consists of real and
imaginary parts, the conductance (G) and susceptance (B), respectively. A plot of G
over a sufficiently wide band of frequency serves as a diagnosis signature of the
structure and is called the conductance signature or simply signature. Fig. (7)
shows the typical conductance and susceptance plots for a PZT patch bonded on to
the bottom flange of a steel beam (Bhalla et al., 2001). The sharp peaks in the
conductance signature correspond to structural modes of vibration. This is how the
conductance signature identifies the local structural system (in the vicinity of the
patch) and hence constitutes a unique health-signature of the structure at the point
of attachment.

Since the real part actively interacts with the structure, it is traditionally preferred
over the imaginary part in the SHM applications. It is believed that the imaginary
part (susceptance) has very weak interaction with the structure (Sun et al., 1995).

20

Therefore, all investigators have so far considered it redundant and have solely
utilized the real part (conductance) alone in the SHM applications.

Method of Application
In the EMI technique, a PZT actuator/ sensor patch is bonded to the surface of the
structure (whose health is to be monitored) using high strength epoxy adhesive. The
conductance signature of the patch is acquired over a high frequency range (30-
400 kHz). This signature forms the benchmark for assessing the structural health.
At any future point of time, when it is desired to assess the health of the structure,
the signature is extracted again and compared with the benchmark signature.

The signature of the bonded PZT patch is usually acquired by means of
commercially available impedance analyzers, such as HP 4192A impedance
analyzer (Hewlett Packard, 1996). The impedance analyzer imposes an alternating
voltage signal of 1 volts rms (root mean square) to the bonded PZT transducer over
the user specified preset frequency range (for example 140-150 kHz in Fig. 7). The
magnitude and the phase of the steady state current are directly recorded in the form
of conductance and susceptance signatures in the frequency domain, thereby
eliminating the requirements of domain transforms. Besides, no amplifying device
is necessary. In fact, Sun et al. (1995) reported that higher excitation voltage has no
influence on the conductance signature, but might only be helpful in amplifying
weak structural modes.

Fig. 7 Conductance and susceptance plots of a PZT patch bonded to
bottom flange of a steel beam.
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0007
0.0008
140 142 144 146 148 150
Frequency (kHz)
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
S
)
0.004
0.006
0.008
140 142 144 146 148 150
Frequency (kHz)
S
u
s
c
e
p
t
e
n
c
e

(
S
)

21

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