Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
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Geochemical Instrumentation and Analysis Integrating Research and Education > Geochemical Instrumentation and Analysis > Browse Collection > Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
A typical SEM instrument, showing the electron column, sample chamber, EDS detector, electronics console, and visual display monitors.
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Room free of ambient magnetic and electric fields SEMs always have at least one detector (usually a secondary electron detector), and most have additional detectors. The specific capabilities of a particular instrument are critically dependent on which detectors it accommodates.
Applications
The SEM is routinely used to generate high-resolution images of shapes of objects (SEI) and to show spatial variations in chemical compositions: 1) acquiring elemental maps or spot chemical analyses using EDS, 2)discrimination of phases based on mean atomic number (commonly related to relative density) using BSE, and 3) compositional maps based on differences in trace element "activitors" (typically transition metal and Rare Earth elements) using CL. The SEM is also widely used to identify phases based on qualitative chemical analysis and/or crystalline structure. Precise measurement of very small features and objects down to 50 nm in size is also accomplished using the SEM. Backescattered electron images (BSE) can be used for rapid discrimination of phases in multiphase samples. SEMs equipped with diffracted backscattered electron detectors (EBSD) can be used to examine microfabric and crystallographic orientation in many materials.
Limitations
Samples must be solid and they must fit into the microscope chamber. Maximum size in horizontal dimensions is usually on the order of 10 cm, vertical dimensions are generally much more limited and rarely exceed 40 mm. For most instruments samples must be stable in a vacuum on the order of 10-5 - 10-6 torr. Samples likely to outgas at low pressures (rocks saturated with hydrocarbons, "wet" samples such as coal, organic materials or swelling clays, and samples likely to decrepitate at low pressure) are unsuitable for examination in conventional SEM's. However, "low vacuum" and "environmental" SEMs also exist, and many of these types of samples can be successfully examined in these specialized instruments. EDS detectors on SEM's cannot detect very light elements (H, He, and Li), and many instruments cannot detect elements with atomic numbers less than 11 (Na). Most SEMs use a solid state x-ray detector (EDS), and while these detectors are very fast and easy to utilize, they have relatively poor energy resolution and sensitivity to elements present in low abundances when compared to wavelength dispersive x-ray detectors (WDS) on most electron probe microanalyzers (EPMA). An electrically conductive coating must be applied to electrically insulating samples for study in conventional SEM's, unless the instrument is capable of operation in a low vacuum mode.
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Sample preparation can be minimal or elaborate for SEM analysis, depending on the nature of the samples and the data required. Minimal preparation includes acquisition of a sample that will fit into the SEM chamber and some accommodation to prevent charge build-up on electrically insulating samples. Most electrically insulating samples are coated with a thin layer of conducting material, commonly carbon, gold, or some other metal or alloy. The choice of material for conductive coatings depends on the data to be acquired: carbon is most desirable if elemental analysis is a priority, while metal coatings are most effective for high resolution electron imaging applications. Alternatively, an electrically insulating sample can be examined without a conductive coating in an instrument capable of "low vacuum" operation.
Literature
The following literature can be used to further explore Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Goldstein, J. (2003) Scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Kluwer Adacemic/Plenum Pulbishers, 689 p. Reimer, L. (1998) Scanning electron microscopy : physics of image formation and microanalysis. Springer, 527 p. Egerton, R. F. (2005) Physical principles of electron microscopy : an introduction to TEM, SEM, and AEM. Springer, 202. Clarke, A. R. (2002) Microscopy techniques for materials science. CRC Press (electronic resource)
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Related Links
For more information about Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) follow the links below. Petroglyph--An atlas of images using electron microscope, backscattered electron images, element maps, energy dispersive x-ray spectra, and petrographic microscope -- Eric Chrisensen, Brigham Young University SEM/EDX webpage from Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne
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