CHAPTER 4

USEFUL CIRCUIT
THEOREMS
EEEB113
Circuit Analysis I

Superposition theorem
Source transformation theorem
Thevenins theorem
Nortons theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits (like
series-parallel and wye delta ).
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source
v
s
in series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice verse.
Basic to these tools is the concept of equivalence.
R
v
i
R i v
s
s
s s
=
=
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

(a) Independent source transform

(b) Dependent source transform
Note:
1. The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of
the voltage source.
2. Source transformation is not possible when R=0 (ideal voltage source) and
R= (ideal current source)
Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit given.
Solution:
1. Transform the current and voltage sources.
Example
EXAMPLE: SOLVE BY SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
The equivalent current source will have the
value 12V/3k
The 3k and the 6k resistors now are in parallel
and can be combined
In between the terminals we connect a current
source and a resistance in parallel
In between the terminals we connect a voltage
source in series with the resistor
The equivalent source has value 4mA*2k
The 2k and the 2k resistor become connected
in series and can be combined
After the transformation the sources can be combined
The equivalent current source has value 8V/4k
and the combined current source has value 4mA
Options at this point
1. Do another source transformation and get
a single loop circuit
2. Use current divider to compute I_0 and then
compute V_0 using Ohms law
Exercise 1
Find v
x
using source transformation.
v
x
=7.5V
Exercise 2
Find i
o
in the circuit shown below using source transformation.
i
o
= 1.78A
These are some of the most powerful analysis
results to be discussed.
They permit to hide information that is not
relevant and concentrate in what is important
to the analysis
Usage: to avoid analyzing entire circuit for every
changes in variable element .
Provides a technique by which the fixed part of the
circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
Thevenins theorem states that a linear two terminal
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source V
TH
in series with a resistor R
TH
, V
TH

is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and R
TH
is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
Consider the following:
Coupled networks.
For purposes of discussion, at this point, we consider
that both networks are composed of resistors and
independent voltage and current sources
LINEAR CIRCUIT
May contain
independent and
dependent sources
with their controlling
variables
PART A
LINEAR CIRCUIT
May contain
independent and
dependent sources
with their controlling
variables
PART B
a
b _
O
v
+
i
Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1 and
we focus temporarily only on Network 1.
Network
1


A
B
Network 1, open-circuited.
Network 1 can be as complicated in structure as one
can imagine. Maybe 45 meshes, 387 resistors, 91
voltage sources and 39 current sources.
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TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND AMPLIFIER
IT IS MUCH EASIER TO CONSIDER THIS
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT!
TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND
AMPLIFIER ONE SHOULD ANALYZE
THIS CIRCUIT
+
-
R
TH
V
TH
REPLACE AMPLIFIER
BY SIMPLER
EQUIVALENT
Courtesy of M.J. Renardson
Network
1


A
B
Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and
read the voltage. We call this the open-circuit voltage.

No matter how complicated Network 1 is, we read one
voltage. It is either positive at A, (with respect to B)
or negative at A.

We call this voltage V
os
and we also call it V
THEVENIN
= V
TH

We now deactivate all sources of Network 1.

To deactivate a voltage source, we remove
the source and replace it with a short circuit.




To deactivate a current source, we remove
the source.
V
s
+
-
-
Voltage
Source
No voltage
=> Short
I
N
Current
Source
No current
=> Open
Consider the following circuit.
+
_
+
+
_
_
A
B
V
1
I
2
V
2
I
1
V
3
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
How do we deactivate the sources of this circuit?
When the sources are deactivated the circuit appears
as in Figure below.
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
A
B
Now place an ohmmeter across A-B and read the resistance.
If R
1
= R
2
= R
4
= 20 O and R
3
=10 O then the meter reads 10 O.
We call the ohmmeter reading, under these conditions,
R
THEVENIN
and shorten this to R
TH
. Therefore, the
important results are that we can replace Network 1
with the following network.
V
TH
R
TH
A
B
+
_
-
-
Figure 5: The Thevenin equivalent structure.
We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to terminals A-
B.
A
B
Network
2
V
TH
R
TH
+
_
-
-
System of Figure 1 with Network 1
replaced by the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
We can now make any calculations we desire within
Network 2 and they will give the same results as if we
still had Network 1 connected.
It follows that we could also replace Network 2 with a
Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance. The results
would be as shown in Figure below.
A
B
+ +
_ _
R
TH 1
R
TH 2
V
TH 1
V
TH 2
-
-
The network system replaced by Thevenin voltages
and resistances.
Find V
X
by first finding V
TH
and R
TH
to the left of A-B.
12 O 4 O
6 O 2 O
V
X
30 V
+
_
+
_
A
B
-
-
First remove everything to the right of A-B.
Example 1
12 O 4 O
6 O 30 V
+
_
A
B
-
-
(30)(6)
10
6 12
AB
V V = =
+
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 O resistor
(A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage across the
resistor.
Example 1
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find
the resistance seen looking in these terminals.
12 O
4 O
6 O
A
B
-
-
R
TH

R
TH
= 12||6 + 4 = 8 O
Example 1
After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this
to the load in order to find V
X
.
8 O
10 V V
TH
R
TH
2 O
V
X
+
_
+
_
A
B
-
-
10 2
2
2 8
= =
+
( )( )
X
V V
Example 1
Example 2
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit shown in Figure below, to the left of
the terminals a-b. Then find the current through R
L
=6, 16, and 36
Example 2
Step 1: Short Circuit Voltage source and open circuit current source, then
looking for R
th
Example 2
Step 2: Apply Mesh analysis to find V
th
Loop 1


Loop 2

Solving the equation:
Exercise
R
th
=8/7k
V V
TH
571 . 8 =
WARNING: Complications with dependent sources!
I s that The ALL ?????
CIRCUITS WITH ONLY
DEPENDENT SOURCES
CIRCUITS WITH BOTH
DEPENDENT &
INDEPENDENT SOURCES
CIRCUITS WITH
ONLY INDEPENDENT
SOURCES

Circuits with Only DEPENDENT SOURCES
A circuit with only dependent sources cannot self start.
0 =
TH
V
Thus we need a special approach for the
computation of the Thevenin equivalent resistance
Since the circuit cannot self start we need to probe it
with an external source
The source can be either a voltage source or a
current source and its value can be chosen arbitrarily!
Which one to choose is often determined by the
simplicity of the resulting circuit
( ) 0
0 ) (
2 1
2 1
= + +
= + +
x
X x
I R R a
I R R aI
0 0
2 1
= = + +
x
I R R a
FOR ANY PROPERLY DESIGNED CICUIT WITH ONLY DEPENDENT
SOURCES 0 , 0 = =
SC OC
I V
Any value can be assumed for v
0
and i
0
. (usually assume v
0
=1V and i
0
=1A)
IF WE CHOOSE v
0
=1V ...
) (
o
V
) (
o
V
P
o
TH
I
V
R =
1
R
aI V
I I
X o
X P

+ =
2
R
V
I
o
X
=
o P
V
R R
a
R R
I
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1 1 2
1 1
o
o
TH
V
R R
a
R R
V
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1 1 2
1 1
WE MUST COMPUTE CURRENT SUPPLIED BY
SOURCE
Circuits with Only DEPENDENT SOURCES
IF WE CHOOSE i
0
=1A
) (
o
I
) (
o
I
o
P
TH
I
V
R =
We must compute the node voltage V
p
0
1 2
=

+
o
X P P
I
R
aI V
R
V
KCL
2
R
V
I
P
X
=
o P
I V
R R
a
R R
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2 1 1 2
1 1
Circuits with Only DEPENDENT SOURCES
Make assumption for v
0
or i
0
?
FIND THE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT
Example 1
o
V
1
V
0
1 2
2
1
: @
1 1 1
1
=

+
k
V V
k
V V
k
V
V KCL
o X
Constrain equation:
1
V V V
o X
=
k
V
k
V V
k
V
I
X X o o
P
1 1
2
2
+

+ =
P
I
If we use voltage v
0
=1V
P
o
TH
I
V
R =
Using voltage v
0
assumption. Must compute
current supplied
o X o
V V V V
7
3
,
7
4
EQUATIONS THE SOLVING
1
= =
k
V
I
o
P
14
15
=
O = k
15
14
Example 1
Only dependent sources. Hence V
th
= 0
To compute the equivalent resistance we
must apply an external source.
We choose to apply a current I
o
o
I

+
o
V
o
o
TH
I
V
R =
Conventional circuit with dependent
sources - use node analysis
Find the Thevenin Equivalent circuit at A - B
Example 2
KCL at node V
1
:

KCL at node V
2
:

Constraint Equation:
0 ) ( 2 6 ) 2 ( 3
2 1 1 1 1
= + + V V V V V
6 3 ) ( 2
2 1 2
= + V V V
6 5 2
2 1
= + V V
7
10
21
30
2
= = V
O = = k
mA
V
R
TH
) 7 / 10 (
1
2
R
TH
A
B
Thevenin equivalent
Example 2
0 2 5
2 1
= V V
Exercise
V V
k R
TH
TH
0
2
=
O =
Circuits with both Dependent and Independent Sources
LINEAR CIRCUIT
May contain
independent and
dependent sources
with their controlling
variables
PART A
a
b _
O
v
+
i
+
-
TH
R
TH
V
a
b
OC TH
V V =
SC
OC
TH
I
V
R =
We will compute open circuit voltage and short circuit
current
For each determination of a Thevenin equivalent
we will solve two circuits
Any and all the techniques discussed should be readily
available; e.g.,
KCL, KVL, combination series/parallel, node, loop analysis,
source superposition, source transformation, homogeneity
The approach of setting to zero all sources and then
combining resistances to determine the Thevenin
resistance is in general not applicable!!
a
b
R
TH
V
TH

+
Mixed sources. Must compute Voc and Isc
Open circuit voltage

+
TH
V
1
I
KCL at super node
0 2
1
= + +
X X
I I I
Short circuit current
SC
I
X
I
mA I
SC
7
12
=
O = = = k
mA
V
I
V
R
SC
TH
TH
7
) 7 / 12 (
12
supernode
KCL at supernode
V V
TH
12 =
Example 1
+
TH
V
Mixed sources! Must compute open loop voltage and
short circuit current
X
V
b
V
S S X
V V
R R
R
V
3
2
) 2 (
2
=
+
=
Open circuit voltage
b X TH
V V V =
For Vx use voltage divider
For Vb use KVL
S S X b
V aR V aV R V ) 3 / 4 1 ( ) ( 2 + = + =
S S S X X TH
V V Ra V RaV V V = + = ) 3 / 2 )( 2 1 ( ) 2 (
S TH
V
aR
V
3
4 1+
=
Short circuit current
SC
I
We need to compute Vx
Single node
X
V
KCL at node Vx:
0
2 2
2
=

+ +

R
V V
aV
R
V
R
V V
s X
X
X S x
aR
V
V
S
X
2 4
3

=
KCL again can give the short circuit current
R
V V
aV I
S X
X SC
2

+ =
S SC
V
aR R
aR
I
) 2 1 ( 4
4 1

+
=
3
) 2 1 ( 4 aR R
I
V
I
V
R
SC
TH
SC
OC
TH

= = =
Example 2
Exercise 1
Use Thevenin to determine Vo
Part A should be as simple as possible.
After Part A is replaced by the Thevenin
equivalent we should have a very simple circuit
Guidelines to partition:
The dependent sources and their controlling
variables must remain together
TO BE CONTINUE.
Q & A???