Conservation Equations and Modeling of Chemical and Biochemi

CONSERVATION
EQUATIONS ffND
MODELING OF CHEMICfiL
fiND BIOCHEMICAL
PROCESSES
Said S. E. M. Elnashaie
Parag Garhyan
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A.
MARCEL
M A R C E L D E K K E R , I NC . NE W Y O R K B A S E L
TM
Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Preface
We would like readersinstructors and studentsto read this preface care-
fully before using this book. This preface is classied into three parts:
1. Background and Basic Ideas explains the fundamentals of using
a system approach as a more advanced approach to teaching
chemical engineering. It also discusses very briey how this
approach allows compacting the contents of many chemical engi-
neering subjects and relates them with one another in a systema-
tic and easy-to-learn manner. More details on this aspect of the
book are given in Chapter 1.
2. Review of Chapters and Appendices briey describes the contents
of each chapter and the educational philosophy behind choosing
these materials.
3. Relation of the Book Contents to Existing Chemical Engineering
Courses shows how this book can be used to cover a number of
courses in an integrated manner that unfortunately is missing in
many curricula today. The relation of the contents of the book
to existing courses is discussed. Although our frame of reference
is the curricula of the Chemical Engineering Department at
Auburn University, the discussion can be applied to many curri-
cula worldwide.
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1. BACKGROUND AND BASIC IDEAS
We have adopted a novel approach in the preparation of this rather revolu-
tionary undergraduate-level chemical engineering textbook. It is based on
the use of system theory in developing mathematical models (rigorous design
equations) for dierent chemical and biochemical systems. After a brief
introduction to system theory and its applications, the book uses the gen-
eralized modular conservation equations (material and energy balances) as
the starting point.
This book takes as its basis the vision of chemical engineering trans-
formed, as expressed in the Amundson report of 1989, in which areas new to
the traditional subject matter of the discipline are explored. These new areas
include biotechnology and biomedicine, electronic materials and polymers,
the environment, and computer-aided process engineering, and encompass
what has been labeled the BINBio, Info, Nanorevolution. The book
addresses these issues in a novel and imaginative way and at a level that
makes it suitable for undergraduate courses in chemical engineering.
This book addresses one of the most important subjects in chemical
engineeringmodeling and conservation equations. These constitute the
basis of any successful understanding, analysis, design, operation, and opti-
mization of chemical and biochemical processes. The novel system approach
used incorporates a unied and systematic way of addressing the subject,
thus streamlining this dicult subject into easy-to-follow enjoyable reading.
By adopting a system approach, the book deals with a wide range
of subjects normally covered in a number of separate coursesmass and
energy balances, transport phenomena, chemical reaction engineering,
mathematical modeling, and process control. Students are thus enabled to
address problems concerning physical systems, chemical reactors, and bio-
chemical processes (in which microbial growth and enzymes play key roles).
We strongly believe that this volume strikes the right balance between
fundamentals and applications and lls a gap in the literature in a unique
way. It eciently transmits the information to the reader in a systematic and
compact manner. The modular mass/energy balance equations are formu-
lated, used, and then transformed into the design equations for a variety of
systems in a simple and systematic manner.
In a readily understandable way, this book relates a wide spectrum of
subjects starting with material and energy balances and ending with process
dynamics and control, with all the stages between. The unique system
approach shows that moving from generalized material and energy balance
equations to generalized design equations is quite simple for both lumped
and distributed systems. The same has been applied to homogeneous and
heterogeneous systems and to reacting and nonreacting systems as well as to
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steady- and unsteady-state systems. This leads the reader gracefully and
with great ease from lumped to distributed systems, from homogeneous to
heterogeneous systems, from reacting to nonreacting systems, and from
steady-state to unsteady-state systems.
Although steady-state systems are treated, we have provided enough
coverage of transient phenomena and unsteady-state modeling for students
to appreciate the importance of dynamic systems. While the early part of the
book is restricted to homogeneous systems, a later chapter introduces a
novel systems approach and presents, in an easy-to-understand manner,
the modeling of heterogeneous systems for both steady-state and
unsteady-state conditions, together with a number of practical examples.
Chemical and biochemical units with multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) and with multiple reactions (MRs) for all of the above-mentioned
systems are also covered. Nonreacting systems and single-input single-out-
put (SISO) systems are treated as special cases of the more general MIMO,
MR cases. The systems approach helps to establish a solid platform on
which to formulate and use these generalized models and their special cases.
As the book covers both steady- and unsteady-state situations, it
logically includes a chapter on process dynamics and control that is an
excellent introduction to a more advanced treatment of this topic, with
special emphasis on the industrially more relevant digital control systems
design.
Given that all chemical/biochemical engineering processes and systems
are highly nonlinear by nature, the book discusses this nonlinear behavior in
some detail. All the necessary analytical and numerical tools required are
included. Matrix techniques are also covered for large-dimensional systems
that are common in chemical/biochemical engineering. The book also
covers, in a manner that is clear and easy to understand for undergraduate
chemical engineers, advanced topics such as multiplicity, bifurcation, and
chaos to further broaden the students perspective. It is increasingly impor-
tant for undergraduate students to think outside the conventional realm of
chemical engineering, and we have shown that these phenomena are relevant
to many important chemical/biochemical industrial systems. It is also shown
that these phenomena cannot be neglected while designing these systems or
their control loops. In the past these subjectsmultiplicity, bifurcation, and
chaoshave tended to be relegated to advanced research treatises. We treat
them here in a manner that undergraduate students can understand and
appreciate.
In our fast-changing world the chemical/biochemical industry is also
rapidly changing. Todays chemical/biochemical engineering graduates
should be exposed to training in creativity as applied to these systems.
Therefore a chapter on novel congurations and modes of operations for
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two important processes is presented in the form of detailed exercises. This
important chapter requires a special eort from the instructor to make it the
exercise on creativity that it is meant to be.
2. REVIEW OF CHAPTERS AND APPENDICES
This book presents a unied approach to the analysis of a wide range of
chemical and biochemical systems. It begins with a summary of the funda-
mental principles governing thermodynamics and material and energy bal-
ances and proceeds to consider the mathematical modeling of a range of
systems from homogeneous steady state to heterogeneous unsteady state. A
novel feature is the inclusion of the concepts surrounding chaotic systems at
undergraduate levelan area of growing importance but one sadly
neglected in most texts of this kind. The last chapter deals with two indus-
trial processesreforming and fermentationin which the foregoing prin-
ciples are applied and illustrated for novel congurations and modes of
operation. The useful appendices deal with many of the mathematical tech-
niques such as matrix algebra, numerical methods, and the Laplace trans-
form that are utilized in the book.
Chapter 1: System Theory and Chemical/Biochemical
Engineering Systems
This chapter, one of the most important, introduces the main components of
the philosophy governing the entire book. It covers in a simple manner the
main ideas regarding system theory and its application to chemical and
biochemical systems. These systems are classied according to the principles
of system theory, and this more novel classication is related to the more
classical classications. This chapter also covers the main dierences
between material and energy balances (inventory) and design equations,
the concepts of rate processes together with their relation to state variables,
and the general modeling of processes. The thermodynamic limitation of
rate processes in relation to modeling and simulation is examined. A brief
discussion of the new approach adopted in this book in connection with
recent advances in the profession based on the Amundson report is also
presented.
Chapter 2: Material and Energy Balances
This chapter addresses materials and energy balances for reacting (single as
well as multiple reactions) and nonreacting systems in a compact way. It
also covers SISO as well as MIMO systems. A generalized material and
energy balance equation for a MIMO system with MRs is rigorously devel-
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oped. All other cases can be easily considered as special cases of this general
case. A large number of solved illustrative examples are provided, and
unsolved problems are given as exercises at the end of the chapter.
Chapter 2 is sucient for a solid course on material and energy balances.
The modular system approach used in this chapter ultimately requires the
reader to know only two generalized equations (material and energy bal-
ances), with all other cases being special cases. This approach makes the
subject easy to comprehend and utilize in a short time, and will also prove
extremely useful in preparing the reader to modify these equations into
design equations (mathematical models).
Chapter 3: Mathematical Modeling (I): Homogeneous
Lumped Systems
This chapter covers in an easy and straightforward manner the transforma-
tion of the material and energy balance equations to design equations
(mathematical models). It explores closed, isolated, and open lumped homo-
geneous systems. Steady-state as well as unsteady-state models are devel-
oped and solved for both isothermal and nonisothermal systems. Both
chemical and biochemical systems are addressed. Again, generalized design
equations are developed with all other cases treated as special cases of the
general one. This approach helps to achieve a high degree of eciency
regarding rational transformation of knowledge in a concise and clear man-
ner. We concentrate our eorts on reacting systems for two reasons: the rst
is that for homogeneous systems the nonreacting systems are rather trivial,
and the other is that the nonreacting system can be considered a special case
of reacting systems when the rates of reactions are set equal to zero. A good
number of solved and unsolved problems are given in this chapter.
Chapter 4: Mathematical Modeling (II): Homogeneous
Distributed Systems and Unsteady-State
Behavior
This chapter covers the transformation of the material and energy balance
equations to design equations (mathematical models) for distributed sys-
tems. Steady-state as well an unsteady-state models are developed and
solved for both isothermal and nonisothermal systems. Again, generalized
design equations are developed with all other cases treated as special cases of
the general one, and this approach facilitates ecient transformation of
knowledge. We concentrate on reacting systems for the same reasons pre-
viously discussed. Chapter 4 gives detailed coverage of the mathematical
modeling and analytical as well as numerical solution of the axial dispersion
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model for tubular reactors as an illustrative example for diusion/reaction
homogeneous systems. The same example is extended to provide the
solution of the two-point boundary value dierential equations and its
associated numerical instability problems for nonlinear systems. Several
unsolved problems are provided at the end of this chapter.
Together, Chapters 3 and 4 provide systematic, easy-to-understand
coverage of all types of homogeneous models, both lumped/distributed
and isothermal/nonisothermal systems. Both chapters can also be used as
the necessary materials for a thorough course on chemical reaction engineer-
ing based on a well-organized approach utilizing system theory.
Chapter 5: Process Dynamics and Control
In the last 20 years, digital control has completely replaced analog control in
industry and even in experimental setups. It is our strong belief that the
classic complete course on analog control is no longer necessary. Control
courses should be directed mainly toward digital control systems, which are
beyond the scope of this book. It is useful, however, for readers to have a
basic background in analog control (only one well-chosen chapter, not
necessarily an entire course) to prepare them for a next course on digital
control. Chapter 5 aims to do this by introducing the basic principles of
process dynamics and classical control, including the various forms of pro-
cess dynamic models formulation, basic process control concepts, the use of
Laplace transformation and its utilization, the transfer function concepts,
ideal forcing functions, block diagram algebra, components of the control
loop, and a limited number of simple techniques for choosing the control
constants for PID controllers. All these important concepts are supplemen-
ted with useful solved examples and unsolved problems.
Chapter 6: Heterogeneous Systems
Most chemical and biochemical systems are heterogeneous (formed of
more than one phase). The modular system approach we adopt in this
book makes the development of material and energy balances, as well as
design equations for heterogeneous systems quite straightforward.
Heterogeneous systems are treated as just a number of homogeneous sys-
tems (each representing one phase), and these systems are connected to
each other through material and energy exchange. This approach proves
to be not only rigorous and general but also easy to comprehend and
apply to any heterogeneous system utilizing all the knowledge and experi-
ence gained by the reader through the previous chapters on homogeneous
systems. Chapter 6 introduces these concepts and develops generalized
material and energy balance equations as well as design equations for all
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types of systemsisothermal/nonisothermal, lumped/distributed, and
steady-/unsteady-state. A number of chemical and biochemical examples
of varying degrees of complexity and unsolved problems are presented for
better understanding of the concepts.
Chapter 7: Practical Relevance of Bifurcation, Instability,
and Chaos in Chemical and Biochemical
Systems
This chapter covers the basic principles of multiplicity, bifurcation, and
chaotic behavior. The industrial and practical relevance of these
phenomena is also explained, with reference to a number of important
industrial processes. Chapter 7 covers the main sources of these phenom-
ena for both isothermal and nonisothermal systems in a rather pragmatic
manner and with a minimum of mathematics. One of the authors has
published a more detailed book on the subject (S. S. E. H. Elnashaie
and S. S. Elshishini, Dynamic Modelling, Bifurcation and Chaotic
Behavior of Gas-Solid Catalytic Reactors, Gordon & Breach, London,
1996); interested readers should consult this reference and the other refer-
ences given at the end of Chapter 7 to further broaden their understanding
of these phenomena.
Chapter 8: Novel Designs for Industrial Chemical/
Biochemical Systems
As discussed in the introduction of this preface, it is now important to
develop creative talents in chemical engineers. Chapter 8 aims to do this
by oering two examples of novel processes: one for the ecient production
of the ultraclean fuel hydrogen and the other for the production of the clean
fuel ethanol through the biochemical path of utilizing lingo-cellulosic
wastes. Readers can expect to use the tools provided earlier in this book
in order to develop these novel processes and modes of operation without
the need of the expensive pilot plant stage.
Appendices
Although it is dicult to make a book completely comprehensive, we tried
to make this one as self-contained as possible. The six appendices cover a
number of the critical mathematical tools used in the book. Also included is
a short survey of essential available software packages and programming
environments. These appendices include analytical as well as numerical tools
for the handling and solution of the dierent types of design equations,
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including linear and nonlinear algebraic and ordinary dierential and partial
dierential equations.
3. RELATION OF THE BOOK CONTENTS TO
EXISTING CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
COURSES
Chapters 1 and 7 should always be included in any usage of this book.
Chapter 2 can be used for a course on material and energy balance
(CHEN 2100, Principles of Chemical Engineering, which covers the appli-
cation of multicomponent material and energy balances to chemical pro-
cesses involving phase changes and chemical reactions).
Chapter 3 can be used as the basis for CHEN 3650, Chemical
Engineering Analysis (which covers mathematical modeling and analytical,
numerical, and statistical analysis of chemical processes). Statistical process
control (SPC) is not, of course, covered in this book and the course reading
should be supplemented by another book on SPC (e.g., Amitava Mitra,
Fundamentals of Quality Control and Improvement, Prentice Hall, New
York, 1998).
Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 8 are suitable for a senior class on modeling of
distributed systems and process dynamics and control (CHEN 4160, Process
Dynamics and Control, which covers steady-state and dynamic modeling of
homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed chemical processes, feedback
systems, and analog controller tuning and design) prior to the course on
digital control (CHEN 6170, Digital Process Control).
Chapters 3 and 4 and the rst part of Chapter 8 can be used for an
undergraduate course on chemical reaction engineering (CHEN 3700,
Chemical Reaction Engineering, which covers design of chemical reactors
for isothermal and nonisothermal homogeneous reaction systems).
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my appreciation and thanks to many colleagues and
friends who contributed directly and indirectly to the successful completion
of this book, namely: Professor Robert Chambers, the head of the Chemical
Engineering Department at Auburn University, and Professors Mahmoud
El-Halwagi and Chris Roberts of the same department. I also appreciate the
support I received from Professor Nabil Esmail (Dean of Engineering,
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada), Professor John Yates
(Chairman of the Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Department,
University College, London), Professor John Grace (University of British
Columbia, Canada), and Professor Gilbert Froment (Texas A & M
TM
University). I also thank Professor A. A. Adesina (University of New South
Wales, Australia) and Professor N. Elkadah (University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa).
Last but not least, I express my love and appreciation for the extensive
support and love I receive from my wife, Professor Shadia Elshishini (Cairo
University, Egypt), my daughter Gihan, and my son Hisham.
Said Elnashaie
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Said Elnashaie for giving
me the opportunity to work with him as his graduate student and later
oering me the chance to be the coauthor of this book. I express my gra-
titude to my grandfather, Shri H. P. Gaddhyan, an entrepreneur from
Chirkunda (a small township in India) for always being an inspiration to
me. Without the motivation, encouragement, and support of my parents
Smt. Savita and Shri Om Prakash Gaddhyan, I would have not been able
to complete this book. A special note of thanks goes to my brother Anurag
and his wife Jaishree. Finally, I express my love and thanks to my wife
Sangeeta for her delicious food, endurance, and help; her smile always
cheered me up and provided the impetus to continue when I was busy
working on the manuscript.
Parag Garhyan
TM
Contents
Preface
1 System Theory and Chemical/Biochemical Engineering Systems
1.1 System Theory
1.1.1 What Is a System?
1.1.2 Boundaries of System
1.2 Steady State, Unsteady State, and Thermodynamic
Equilibrium
1.2.1 The State of the System
1.2.2 Input Variables
1.2.3 Initial Conditions
1.3 Modeling of Systems
1.3.1 Elementary Procedure for Model Building
1.3.2 Solution of the Model Equations
1.3.3 Model Verication
1.4 Fundamental Laws Governing the Processes in Terms
of the State Variables
1.4.1 Continuity Equations for Open Systems
1.4.2 Diffusion of Mass (Transport Law)
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1.4.3 Energy Equation (Conservation of Energy, First
Law of Thermodynamics for an Open System)
1.4.4 Equations of Motion
1.4.5 Equations of State
1.4.6 Rate of Reaction
1.4.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
1.5 Different Classications of Physical Models
1.6 The Story of Chemical Engineering in Relation to
System Theory and Mathematical Modeling
1.7 The Present Status of Chemical Industry and
Undergraduate Chemical Engineering Education
1.8 System Theory and the Mathematical Modeling
Approach Used in This Book
1.8.1 Systems and Mathematical Models
1.8.2 Mathematical Model Building: General Concepts
1.8.3 Outline of the Procedure for Model Building
1.9 Modeling and Simulation in Chemical Engineering
1.10 Amundson Report and the Need for Modern Chemical
Engineering Education
1.11 System Theory and Mathematical Modeling as Tools for
More Efcient Undergraduate Chemical Engineering
Education
1.12 Summary of the Main Topics in this Chapter
1.12.1 Different Types of Systems and Their Main
Characteristics
1.12.2 What Are Models and What Is the Difference
Between Models and Design Equations?
1.12.3 Summary of Numerical and Analytical Solution
Techniques for Different Types of Model
References
Problem
2 Material and Energy Balances
2.1 Material and Energy Balances
2.1.1 A Simple, Systematic, and Generalized Approach
2.1.2 Development of Material Balance Relations
2.2 Single and Multiple Reactions: Conversion, Yield, and
Selectivity
2.2.1 Single Reactions
2.2.2 Degrees-of-Freedom Analysis
TM
2.2.3 Relations Among Rate of Reaction, Conversion,
and Yield
2.3 Generalized Material Balance
2.3.1 Sign Convention for the Stoichiometric Numbers
2.3.2 The Limiting Component
2.3.3 Reactions with Different Stoichiometric Numbers
for the Reactants
2.3.4 Multiple Reactions and the Special Case of
Single Reaction
2.3.5 The Algebra of Multiple Reactions (Linear
Dependence and Linear Independence of Multiple
Reactions)
2.3.6 The Most General Mass Balance Equation
(Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output, and Multiple
Reactions)
2.4 Solved Problems for Mass Balance
2.5 Heat Effects
2.5.1 Heats of Reactions
2.5.2 Effects of Temperature, Pressure, and Phases on
Heat of Reaction
2.5.3 Heats of Formation and Heats of Reaction
2.5.4 Heats of Combustion and Heats of Reaction
2.6 Overall Heat Balance with Single and Multiple Chemical
Reactions
2.6.1 Heat Balance for Multiple Reactions and the
Special Case of a Single Reaction
2.6.2 The Most General Heat Balance Equation
(for Multiple Reactions and Multiple-Input and
Multiple-Output System Reactor with Multiple
Reactions)
2.7 Solved Problems for Energy Balance
Reference
Problems
3 Mathematical Modeling (I): Homogeneous Lumped Systems
3.1 Mathematical Modeling of Homogeneous Lumped
Processes
3.1.1 Basic Concepts for the Mathematical Modeling
of Processes
TM
3.1.3 What Are Mathematical Models and Why Do
We Need Them?
3.1.4 Empirical (Black Box) and Physical
(Mathematical) Models
3.2 Mathematical Model Building: General Concepts
3.2.1 Classication of Models
3.2.2 Difference Between Modeling and Simulation
3.2.3 Design Equations and Mathematical Models
3.2.4 Simplied Pseudohomogeneous Models Versus
Rigorous Heterogeneous Models
3.2.5 Steady-State Models Versus Dynamic Models
3.2.6 A Simple Feedback Control Example
3.3 Generic and Customized Models
3.3.1 Practical Uses of Different Types of Models
3.3.2 Steady-State Models
3.3.3 Dynamic Models
3.3.4 Measures for the Reliability of Models and
Model Verication
3.4 Economic Benets of Using High-Fidelity Customized
Models
3.4.1 Design and Operation
3.4.2 Control
3.5 Incorporation of Rigorous Models into Flowsheet
Simulators and Putting Mathematical Models into
User-Friendly Software Packages
3.6 From Material and Energy Balances to Steady-State
Design Equations (Steady-State Mathematical Models)
3.6.1 Generalized Mass Balance Equation
3.6.2 Isothermal Reactors (Temperature Is Constant)
3.6.3 Nonisothermal Reactors
3.7 Simple Examples for the General Equations
3.8 Modeling of Biochemical Systems
3.8.1 Modeling of Enzyme Systems
3.8.2 Modeling of Microbial Systems
References
Problems
4 Mathematical Modeling (II): Homogeneous Distributed
Systems and Unsteady-State Behavior
4.1 Modeling of Distributed Systems
4.1.1 Isothermal Distributed Systems
TM
4.1.2 Nonisothermal Distributed Systems
4.1.3 Batch Systems (Distributed in Time)
4.2 The Unsteady-State Terms in Homogeneous and
Heterogeneous Systems
4.2.1 Lumped Systems
4.2.2 Distributed Systems
4.2.3 Nonisothermal Systems
4.3 The Axial Dispersion Model
4.3.1 Formulation and Solution Strategy for the
Axial Dispersion Model
4.3.2 Solution of the Two-Point Boundary-Value
Differential Equations and Numerical
Instability Problems
Problems
5 Process Dynamics and Control
5.1 Various Forms of Process Dynamic Models
5.2 Formulation of Process Dynamic Models
5.2.1 The General Conservation Principles
5.2.2 Conservation of Mass, Momentum, and Energy
5.2.3 Constitutive Equations
5.2.4 The Laplace Transform Domain Models
5.2.5 The Frequency-Response Models
5.2.6 Discrete Time Models
5.2.7 SISO and MIMO State-Space Models
5.2.8 SISO and MIMO Transform Domain Models
5.2.9 SISO and MIMO Frequency-Response Models
5.2.10 SISO and MIMO Discrete Time Models
5.3 State-Space and Transfer Domain Models
5.4 Introductory Process Control Concepts
5.4.1 Denitions
5.4.2 Introductory Concepts of Process Control
5.4.3 Variables of a Process
5.4.4 Control Systems and Their Possible
Congurations
5.4.5 Overview of Control Systems Design
5.5 Process Dynamics and Mathematical Tools
5.5.1 Tools of Dynamic Models
5.6 The Laplace Transformation
5.6.1 Some Typical Laplace Transforms
5.6.2 The Inverse Laplace Transform
TM
5.6.3 The Transform of Derivatives
5.6.4 Shift Properties of the Laplace Transform
5.6.5 The Initial- and Final-Value Theorems
5.6.6 Use of Laplace Transformation for the Solution
of Differential Equations
5.6.7 Main Process Control Applications of Laplace
and Inverse Transformations
5.7 Characteristics of Ideal Forcing Functions
5.8 Basic Principles of Block Diagrams, Control Loops, and
Types of Classical Control
5.9 Linearization
5.10 Second-Order Systems
5.10.1 Overdamped, Critically Damped, and
Underdamped Responses
5.10.2 Some Details Regarding the Underdamped
Response
5.11 Components of Feedback Control Loops
5.12 Block Diagram Algebra
5.12.1 Typical Feedback Control Loop and the
Transfer Functions
5.12.2 Algebraic Manipulation of the Loop Transfer
Functions
5.12.3 Block Diagram and Transfer Functions
5.13 Some Techniques for Choosing the Controller Settings
5.13.1 Choosing the Controller Settings
5.13.2 Criteria for Choosing the Controller Settings
from the Time Response
5.13.3 Cohen and Coon Process Reaction Curve
Method
Solved Examples
Problems
6 Heterogeneous Systems
6.1 Material Balance for Heterogeneous Systems
6.1.1 Generalized Mass Balance Equations
6.1.2 Two-Phase Systems
6.1.3 The Equilibrium Case
6.1.4 Stage Efciency
6.1.5 Generalized Mass Balance for Two-Phase
Systems
TM
6.2 Design Equations (Steady-State Models) for Isothermal,
Heterogeneous Lumped Systems
6.3 Design Equations (Steady-State Models) for Isothermal,
Distributed Heterogeneous Systems
6.4 Nonisothermal Heterogeneous Systems
6.4.1 Lumped Heterogeneous Systems
6.4.3 Dynamic Terms for Heterogeneous Systems
6.5 Examples of Heterogeneous Systems
6.5.1 Absorption Column (High-Dimensional Lumped,
Steady-State, and Equilibrium Stages System)
6.5.2 Packed-Bed Absorption Tower
6.5.3 Diffusion and Reaction in a Porous Structure
(Porous Catalyst Pellet)
6.6 Dynamic Cases
6.6.1 The Multitray Absorption Tower
6.6.2 Dynamic Model for the Catalyst Pellet
6.7 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of
Fluidized-Bed Reactors
6.7.1 Advantages of Freely Bubbling Fluidized Beds
6.7.2 Disadvantages of Fluidized Beds
6.7.3 Mathematical Formulation (Steady State)
6.8 Unsteady-State Behavior of Heterogeneous Systems:
Application to Fluidized-Bed Catalytic Reactors
6.9 Example: Simulation of a Bubbling Fluidized-Bed
Catalytic Reactor
6.10 A Distributed Parameter Diffusion-Reaction Model
for the Alcoholic Fermentation Process
6.10.1 Background on the Problems Associated with
the Heterogeneous Modeling of Alcoholic
Fermentation Processes
6.10.2 Development of the Model
6.10.3 Solution Algorithm
6.10.4 Comparison Between the Model and
Experimental/Industrial Data
References
Problems
7 Practical Relevance of Bifurcation, Instability, and Chaos in
Chemical and Biochemical Systems
7.1 Sources of Multiplicity
TM
7.1.1 Isothermal Multiplicity (or Concentration
Multiplicity)
7.1.2 Thermal Multiplicity
7.1.3 Multiplicity Due to the Reactor Conguration
7.2 Simple Quantitative Discussion of the Multiplicity
Phenomenon
7.3 Bifurcation and Stability
7.3.1 Steady-State Analysis
7.3.2 Dynamic Analysis
7.3.3 Chaotic Behavior
References
8 Novel Designs for Industrial Chemical/Biochemical Systems
8.1 Novel Reforming Process for the Efcient Production
of the Ultraclean Fuel Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons
and Waste Materials
8.1.1 Introduction
8.1.2 Literature Review
8.1.3 Limitations of Current Reforming Technologies
8.1.4 Main Characteristics of the Suggested Novel
Ultraclean/Efcient Reforming Process
Conguration
8.1.5 Components of the Suggested Novel Ultraclean
Process for the Production of the Ultraclean
Fuel Hydrogen
8.1.6 Main Tasks for the Exercise
8.2 A Novel Fermentor
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 Basic Research Description
8.2.3 Tasks for the Exercise
References
Appendix A Matrices and Matrix Algebra
Appendix B Numerical Methods
Appendix C Analytical Solution of Differential Equations
Appendix D Table of Laplace Transform of Some Common
Functions
Appendix E Orthogonal Collocation Technique
Appendix F Some Software and Programming Environments
TM
1
System Theory and Chemical/
Biochemical Engineering Systems
1.1 SYSTEM THEORY
1.1.1 What Is a System?
The word system derives from the Greek word systema and means an
assemblage of objects united by some form of regular interaction or inter-
dependence. A simpler, more pragmatic description regarding systems
includes the following:
. The system is a whole composed of parts (elements).
. The concept of a system, subsystem, and element is relative and
depends on the degree of analysis; for example, we can take the
entire human body as a system, and the heart, the arms, the liver,
and so forth as the elements. Alternatively, we can consider these
elements as subsystems and analyze them with respect to smaller
elements (or subsystems) and so on.
. The parts of the system can be parts in the physical sense of the
word or they can be processes. In the physical sense, the parts of
the body or of a chair form a system. On the other hand, for
chemical equipment performing a certain function, we consider
the various processes taking place inside the system as the elements
which are almost always interacting with each other to give the
function of the system. A simple chemical engineering example is a
TM
chemical reactor in which processes like mixing, chemical reaction,
heat evolution, heat transfer, and so forth take place to give the
function of this reactor, which is the changing of some reactants to
some products.
. The properties of the system are not the sum of the properties of
its components (elements), although it is, of course, aected by
the properties of its components. The properties of the system
are the result of the nonlinear interaction among its components
(elements). For example, humans have consciousness which is not
a property of any of its components (elements) alone. Also, mass
transfer with chemical reaction has certain properties which are
not properties of the chemical reaction or the mass transfer
alone (e.g., multiplicity of steady states, as will be shown later in
this book).
This is a very elementary presentation of system theory. We will revisit the
subject in more detail later.
1.1.2 Boundaries of a System
The system has boundaries distinguishing it from the surrounding environ-
ment. Here, we will develop the concept of environment. The relation
between the system and its environment gives one of the most important
classications of a system:
1. An Isolated System does not exchange matter or energy with the
surroundings. Thermodynamically it tends to the state of thermo-
dynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy). An example is a batch
adiabatic reactor.
2. A Closed System does not exchange matter with the surroundings
but exchanges energy. Thermodynamically it tends to the state of
thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy). An example is
a batch nonadiabatic reactor.
3. An Open System does exchange matter and energy with the sur-
roundings. Thermodynamically, it does not tend to the thermo-
dynamic equilibrium, but to the steady state or what should be
called the stationary non equilibrium state, characterized by
minimum entropy generation. An example is a continuous stirred
tank reactor.
This clearly shows that the phrase we commonly use in chemical engineer-
ing, steady state, is not really very accurate, or at least it is not distinctive
enough. A better and more accurate phrase should be stationary non-
equilibrium state, which is a characteristic of open systems and distin-
TM
guishes it from the stationary equilibrium state, associated with an
isolated and closed systems.
1.2 STEADY STATE, UNSTEADY STATE, AND
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
As briey stated above, the steady state and unsteady state are concepts
related to open systems (almost all continuous chemical engineering pro-
cesses are open systems). Steady state is when the state of the system does
not change with time, but the system is not at thermodynamic equilibrium
(i.e., the process inside the system did not stop and the stationary behavior
with time is due to the balance between the input, output, and processes
taking place in the system). The thermodynamic equilibrium is stationary
with time for isolated and closed systems because all processes have stopped,
and the nonequilibrium system is changing with time but tending to the
thermodynamic equilibrium state. We will come back to these concepts
with more details later in this book.
1.2.1 The State of the System
We have used the term state of the system many times; what is the state of
a system? The state of a system is rigorously dened through the state
variables of the system. The state variables of any system are chosen accord-
ing to the nature of the system. The state of a boiler can be described by
temperature and pressure, a heat exchanger by temperature, a nonisother-
mal reactor by the concentration of the dierent components and tempera-
ture, an isothermal absorption tower by the concentration of dierent
components on dierent plates, a human body by blood pressure and tem-
perature, ow through a pipe by the velocity as a variable varying radially
and axially, and so on.
Thus, state variables are variables that describe the state of the system,
and the state of the system is described by the state variables.
1.2.2 Input Variables
Input variables are not state variables; they are external to the system, but
they aect the system or, in other words, work on the system. For exam-
ple, the feed temperature and composition of the feed stream to a distillation
tower or a chemical reactor or the feed temperature to a heat exchanger are
the input variables. They aect the state of the system, but are not aected
by the state of the system (except when there is a feedback control, and in
this case, we distinguish between control variables and disturbances or input
variables).
TM
Later, we will discuss the distinction between dierent types of vari-
ables in more detail; for example, design and operating variables and the
dierence between variables and parameters.
1.2.3 Initial Conditions
These are only associated with unsteady-state systems. An unsteady-state
system is a system in which its state variables are changing with time.
Unsteady-state open systems will change with time, tending toward the
stationary nonequilibrium state, usually called the steady state in the
chemical engineering literature. On the other hand, for closed and isolated
systems, the unsteady-state behavior tends toward thermodynamic equili-
brium.
For these unsteady-state systems, whether open or closed, the system
behavior cannot be dened without knowing the initial conditions, or the
values of the state variables at the start (i.e., time 0). When the initial
conditions are dened, the behavior of the system is uniquely dened. The
multiplicity (nonunique) phenomena that appear in some chemical engineer-
ing systems are related to the steady state of open systems and not to the
unsteady-state behavior with known initial conditions. The trajectory
describing the change of the state variables with time starting at a specic
initial condition is unique.
1.3 MODELING OF SYSTEMS
The simplest denition of modeling is the following: putting physical reality
into an acceptable mathematical form.
A model of a system is some form of mathematical representation that
gives, in the nal analysis, a relation between the inputs and outputs of the
system. The simplest and least reliable are empirical models, which are based
more or less on the black-box concept. As shown in Figure 1.1, an empirical
model may have the following form:
O f I
Figure 1.1 The black-box concept.
TM
where O is the output and I is the input. On the other hand, a physical model
is a model based on the understanding of what is happening inside the
system and the exchange between the system and the surrounding. There
is no model which is completely empirical and there is no model which is
completely physical, but we name the model according to its dominant
feature.
1.3.1 Elementary Procedure for Model Building
An elementary procedure for model building is as follows:
1. Dene the boundaries of the system (Fig. 1.2).
2. Dene the type of system: open, closed, or isolated.
3. Dene the state variables.
4. Dene the input variables (sometimes called input parameters).
5. Dene the design variables (or parameters).
Figure 1.2 Boundaries of a system and subsystems.
TM
6. Dene the nature of the interaction between the system and the
surroundings.
7. Dene the processes taking place within the boundaries of the
system.
8. Dene the rate of the dierent processes in terms of the
state variables and rate parameters, and introduce the neces-
sary equations of state and equilibrium relations between the
dierent phases. Note: Usually, equilibrium relations between
certain variables are used instead of rates as an approxima-
tion when the rate is quite high and the process reaches
equilibrium quickly.
9. Write mass, heat (energy), and momentum balance equations to
obtain the necessary equations (or model equations) relating the
input and output through the state variables and parameters.
These equations give the variation of state variables with time
and/or space.
1.3.2 Solution of the Model Equations
The model developed should be solved for certain inputs, design parameters,
and physicochemical parameters in order to obtain the output and the
variation of state variables within the boundaries of the system. To solve
the model equations, we need two main items:
1. Determination of the model parameters (to be determined experi-
mentally)
2. A solution algorithm, the complexity of it, and whether it is
analytical or numerical depends on the complexity of the system
Of course, we will discuss the solution of the dierent types of model in full
detail later in this book.
1.3.3 Model Verication
To be able to use the developed model in design, control, and
optimization, it has to be veried against the real system. The behavior
of the system is compared with the behavior of a real system (labora-
tory scale, pilot plant, or industrial units). This important aspect of
developing model (design) equations of real value by verifying its repre-
sentation of real units will be discussed and analyzed in full detail
later.
TM
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS GOVERNING THE
PROCESSES IN TERMS OF THE STATE
VARIABLES
Here, we give a very simple presentation of the necessary components for
developing model (design) equations for chemical/biochemical processes.
Full details and generalization will be given in Chapter 3.
1.4.1 Continuity Equations for Open Systems
Total continuity equations (mass balances):
Mass flow into system Mass flow out of system

Time rate of change of mass inside the system

Component continuity equations (component mass balances):
Flow of moles of jth component into the system
Flow of moles of jth component out the system
Rate of formation of moles of jth component by
chemical reactions
Time rate of change of moles of jth component inside
the system
1.4.2 Diffusion of Mass (Transport Law)
Ficks law gives that the mass transfer (diusion) is proportional to the
concentration gradient (Fig. 1.3):
N
A
D
A
dC
A
dZ
where, N
A
is the molar ux in moles,unit areaunit time, D
A
is the
diusion coecient, dC
A
is the concentration driving force, and dZ is the
distance in the direction of diusion. The same equation over a certain
thickness (lm, interface, etc.) can be approximated as
N
A
K
L
C
A
where K
L
is the overall mass transfer coecient and N
A
is the ux.
Hence, we can write
K
L

D
A
o
TM
1.4.3 Energy Equation (Conservation of Energy, First Law of
Thermodynamics for an Open System)
Flow of internal,
kinetic and potential
energies into the
system by convection
or diffusion
0
B
B
B
B
@
1
C
C
C
C
A
Flow of internal,
kinetic and potential
energies out of the
system by convection
or diffusion
0
B
B
B
B
@
1
C
C
C
C
A
Heat added
to the system
by conduction,
radiation and
reaction
0
B
B
B
B
@
1
C
C
C
C
A
Work done
by the system
on surroundings,
i.e. shaft work
and PV work
0
B
B
B
B
@
1
C
C
C
C
A
fTime rate of change of internal, kinetic and potential
energies inside the systemg
In most chemical engineering systems that we will study, the above general
form reduces to essentially an enthalpy balance, as will be shown later.
Heat Transfer
Fouriers law describes the ow of heat in terms of temperature gradient as
follows:
q z
dT
dZ
Figure 1.3 Concentration gradient for diusive mass transfer.
TM
The above relation can be approximated in terms of the temperature dier-
ence between two points as follows:
q hT
where q is the heat ux in units of J/cm
2
s, z is the thermal conductivity, dT
is the temperature driving force, dZ is the distance in the direction of heat
transfer, and h z,o (analogous to the mass transfer case shown above and
in Fig. 1.3).
1.4.4 Equations of Motion
The force is given by
F
1
g
C
Ma
where F force (lb
f
), g
C
is the conversion constant needed to keep units
consistent [32.2 (lb
m
ft/lb
f
s
2
)], M is the mass (lb
m
), and a is the acceleration
(ft/s
2
). Alternatively, we can write that
Force Mass Acceleration
In this case, the mass is considered to be constant.
When the mass varies with time, the equation will have the following
general form:
1
g
C
d Mv
i

dt

X
N
j1
F
ji
where v
i
is the velocity in the i direction (ft/s or m/s) and F
ji
is the jth force
acting in the i direction (lb
f
or N).
Momentum Transfer (Fig. 1.4)
t
xy
Momentum Flux
_
PP
y
A
x
where
_
PP
y
is the time rate of change of momentum caused by the force in the
y direction F
y
(the momentum transfer is in the x direction) and A
x
is the
area perpendicular to x, where x is the direction of momentum transfer.
Shear Stress
o
xy

F
y
A
x
TM
where F
y
is the scalar y -component of the force vector and A
x
is the area
perpendicular to the x axis. We can write
F k
_
PP
For one particular direction,
F
y
k
_
PP
y
where
k
1
g
C

for the British system
1 for the SI system
For shear stress, we can write
o
xy

k
_
PP
y
A
x
kt
xy
and
t
xy

1
k
o
xy
where t
xy
is the momentum ux.
Newtons Law of Viscosity (or Momentum Transfer)
This is given by
t
xy

1
k
o
xy
j
ov
y
ox
Figure 1.4 Momentum transfer.
TM
1.4.5 Equations of State
To write mathematical models, in addition to material and energy balances
and rate of dierent processes taking place within the boundaries of the
system, we need equations that tell us how the physical properties, primarily
density and enthalpy, change with temperature.
Liquid density ,
L
f
1
P. T. x
i

Vapor density ,
V
f
2
P. T. y
i

Liquid enthalpy h f
3
P. T. x
i

Vapor enthalpy H f
4
P. T. y
i

For simplicity, h is related to C
p
T and H is related to C
p
T z
V
.
If C
p
is taken as function of temperature and we consider that the
reference condition is T
o
(at which h 0), then
h
T
T
0
C
p
T dT sensible enthalpy change
If
C
p
T A
1
A
2
T
then
h A
3
A
4
T A
5
T
2
where A
3
, A
4
, and A
5
are dened in terms of T
0
, A
1
and A
2
.
For Mixture of Components (and Negligible Heat of Mixing)
The enthalpy of the liquid mixture can be expressed as
h
P
J
j1
x
j
h
j
M
j
P
J
j1
x
j
M
j
where x
j
is the mole fraction of the jth component, M
j
is the molecular
weight of the jth component (g/gmol), and h
j
is the enthalpy of the pure
component j (J/gmol). The denominator depicts clearly the average mole-
cular weight of the mixture.
Density
Liquid densities are usually assumed constant (unless large changes in
composition and temperature occur).
TM
Vapor densities can be obtained from the relation
PV nRT 1.1
which gives
,
MP
RT
where P is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles,
R is the universal gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, and M is the
molecular weight.
Notes
1. The reader must be cautious about the use of consistent units for
R and other variables.
2. For a high-pressure and/or high-temperature system, the com-
pressibility factor (z factor) should be introduced, which is
obtained from the knowledge of the critical temperature and
critical pressure of the system (the reader is advised to refer to
a thermodynamics book; for example, Ref. 1).
3. For an open (ow) system, Eq. (1.1) becomes
Pq " nnRT
where q is the volumetric ow rate (L/min) and " nn is the molar ow
rate (mol/min).
1.4.6 Rate of Reaction
Homogeneous reaction rates are, in general, functions of concentrations,
temperature, and pressure:
r f T. C. P
where r is the rate of reaction (gmol/L s), T is the temperature, usually the
dependence of the rate of reaction constant on the temperature has the form
k k
0
e
E,RT
, P is the pressure (usually used for gas-phase reactions), and
C represents the concentrations.
In many cases, we can write the rate of reaction as the product of three
functions, each a function in one of the variables (temperature, concentra-
tions, or pressure.)
r f
1
T f
2
C f
3
P
TM
Gassolid catalytic reactions will have the same form, but will refer to the
weight of catalyst rather than the volume:
r f T. C. P
where r is the rate of reaction (gmol/g catalyst s). Note the dierence in the
units of the rate of reaction for this gassolid catalytic reaction compared
with the homogeneous reaction.
1.4.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Chemical Equilibrium (for Reversible Reactions)
Chemical equilibrium occurs in a reacting system when
X
J
j1
o
j
j
j
0
where o
j
is the stoichiometric coecient of jth component with the sign
convention that reactants have negative sign and products have positive
signs (this will be discussed in full detail later) and j
j
is the chemical poten-
tial of the jth component.
Also, we have the following important relation:
j
j
j
0
j
RT ln P
j
where j
0
j
is the standard chemical potential (or Gibbs free energy per mole)
of the jth component, P
j
is the partial pressure of the jth component, R is
the universal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature.
For the reaction
o
a
A ,
k
1
k
2
o
B
B
with the forward rate of reaction constant being k
1
and the backward being
k
2
. Then, at equilibrium,
o
B
j
B
o
A
j
A
0
which can be written as
o
B
j
0
B
RT ln P
B

o
A
j
0
A
RT ln P
A

0
which gives
ln P
B
ln P
A

o
A
j
0
A
o
B
j
0
B
RT
TM
which leads to
ln
P
B
P
A
!
|{z}
K
p
o
A
j
0
A
o
B
j
0
B
RT
|{z}
Function of temperature only
where, K
p
is the equilibrium constant; we can write
ln K
p
f T .
Finally, we can write
K
p
e
f T
K
p0
e
H,RT
This equilibrium constant of a reversible reaction is very important in order
to determine the limit of conversion of reactants under any given design and
operating conditions.
Phase Equilibrium
Equilibrium between two phases occurs when the chemical potential of each
component is the same in the two phases:
j
I
j
j
II
j
where, j
I
j
is the chemical potential of the jth component in phase I and j
II
J
is
the chemical potential of the jth component in phase II.
For VaporLiquid Systems
This phase equilibrium leads to the satisfaction of our need for a relation-
ship which permits us to calculate the vapor composition if we know the
liquid composition or vice versa when the two phases are at equilibrium. We
will give an example regarding the bubble-point calculation.
Bubble-Point Calculation (Fig 1.5)
Given the pressure P of the system and the liquid composition x
j
, we cal-
culate the temperature of the system T and the vapor composition y
j
.
This calculation usually involves trial and error (for some other cases, the
situation will be that we know x
j
and T and want to nd P and y
j
, or we
know P and y
j
and want to nd x
j
and T).
TM
For Ideal Vapor-Phase Behavior (Needs Correction at High
Pressures)
Daltons Law
Daltons law applies to the ideal vapor-phase behavior and states that the
partial pressure of component j in the vapor phase is the mole fraction of the
component multiplied by the total pressure:
p
j
Py
j
where p
j
is the partial pressure of component j in the vapor phase, P is the
total pressure, and y
j
is the mole fraction of component j in the vapor phase.
Raults Law
Raults law states that the total pressure is the summation of the vapor
pressure of each component p
0
j
multiplied by the mole fraction of com-
ponent j in the liquid phase:
P
X
J
j1
x
j
p
0
j
We can write the partial pressure in the vapor phase of each component as
related to the vapor pressure as follows:
p
j
x
j
p
0
j
Hence,
P
X
J
j1
p
j
where P is the total pressure, x
j
is the mole fraction of component j in liquid,
and p
0
j
is the vapor pressure of the pure component j.
Figure 1.5 Calculation of bubble point.
TM
Now, because the relations
p
j
x
j
p
0
j
and p
j
Py
j
hold, we can equate the two relations to get
x
j
p
0
j
Py
j
Therefore, we get
y
j

p
0
j
P
x
j
The vapor pressure p
0
j
is a function of temperature only, as shown by the
relation
ln p
0
j

A
j
T
B
j
Therefore, the vaporliquid equilibrium computation can be performed
according to the above relation.
The Utilization of Relative Volatility
The relative volatility of component i to component j is dened as
o
ij

y
i
,x
i
y
j
,x
j
Volatility of i
Volatility of j
For binary systems, we have
o
y,x
1 y , 1 x
which gives
y
ox
1 o 1x
The K-Values
Equilibrium vaporization ratios or K values are widely used, particularly in
the petroleum industry:
K
j

y
j
x
j
K
j
is a function of temperature and, to a lesser extent, of composition and
pressure.
TM
Activity Coefcient
For nonideal liquids, Raults law may be easily modied to the form:
p
j
x
j
p
0
j
,
j
Also,
P
X
J
j1
x
j
p
0
j
,
j
where ,
j
is the activity coecient (a function of composition, pressure, and
temperature).
The Z-Factor
For nonideal gases, the z factor (compressibility factor) is introduced. It is a
function of the critical temperature and pressure.
This very brief review of phase equilibrium gives the reader the
principles for dealing with two-phase systems. More background on
the thermodynamic equilibrium of multiphase systems will sometimes
be needed; it is not covered in this book. The reader is advised to
consult a multiphase thermodynamics book for that purpose.
1.5 DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHYSICAL
MODELS
Before we move to a more intellectual discussion of the history of
chemical engineering and the role and position of system theory and
mathematical modeling, we present the dierent basis for classication of
mathematical models.
I. Classication according to variation or constancy of the state
variables with time
. Steady-state models: described by algebraic equations or
ODEs (ordinary dierential equations) or PDEs (partial
dierential equations).
. Unsteady-state models: described by ODEs or PDEs.
II. Classication according to the spatial variation of the state
variables
. Lumped models (usually called lumped parameter models,
which is wrong terminology because it is the state variables
that are lumped together not the parameters): described by
algebraic equations for the steady state and ODEs for the
unsteady state.
TM
. Distributed models (usually called distributed parameter
models, which is wrong terminology because it is the state
variables that are distributed, not the parameters):
described by ODEs or PDEs for the steady state and
PDEs for the unsteady state.
III. According to the functional dependence of the rate governing laws
on the state variables
. Linear models: described by linear equations (can be alge-
braic equations, ODEs, or PDEs). These models can be
solved analytically.
. Nonlinear models: described by nonlinear equations (can be
algebraic equations ODEs, or PDEs). These models need to
be solved numerically.
IV. According to the type of processes taking place within the bound-
aries of the system
. Mass transfer (example: isothermal absorption).
. Heat transfer (example: heat exchangers).
. Momentum transfer (example: pumps or compressors).
. Chemical reaction (example: homogeneous reactors).
. Combination of any two or more of the above processes
(example: heterogeneous reactors).
V. According to the number of phases in the system
. Homogeneous models (formed of one phase).
. Heterogeneous models (more than one phase).
VI. According to the number of stages in the system
. Single stage.
. Multistage.
VII. According to the mode of operation of the system
. Batch (closed or isolated system).
. Continuous (open system).
VIII. According to the systems thermal relation with the surroundings
. Adiabatic (neither heating nor cooling).
. Nonadiabatic (example: cocurrent or countercurrent cool-
ing or heating).
IX. According to the thermal characteristics of the system
. Isothermal.
. Nonisothermal.
All of these classications are, of course, interactive, and the best approach
is to choose a main classication and then have the other classication as
subdivisions of this main classication.
TM
1.6 THE STORY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING IN
RELATION TO SYSTEM THEORY AND
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
Chemical engineering as we witness today at the beginning of the 21st
century has evolved into a very demanding discipline extending to a wide
spectrum of industries and requiring a wide spectrum of knowledge in many
diversied elds. The easy days of chemical engineers (or chemical technol-
ogists), being simply mechanical engineers with some background in indus-
trial chemistry, have long gone. Norton, at MIT, started, in 1888, what may
be called the rst chemical engineering curriculum. However, it was more of
a chemical technology than a chemical engineering curriculum as we have
known it for the last three to four decades. It consisted mostly of descriptive
courses in industrial chemistry and chemical technology. In about 1923
came the preliminary steps in the direction of classifying chemical engineer-
ing equipment and processes, on a higher level of generality. This was
represented by the concept of unit operations, where, for example, distilla-
tion and extraction are taught as unied courses not necessarily related to a
specic industry.
This conceptual approach spread worldwide and started to give birth to
more of these generalized subjects. Systematic, though simple, methods of
design were developed (e.g., McCabeThiele diagrams) and the concept of
equilibrium stages became well established. The emphasis at this stage, which
extended to the 1960s, was on the overall behavior of the chemical equipment
without real involvement into the details of the microscale processes.
The second milestone in chemical engineering came in 1960 with the
publication of Transport Phenomena, by Bird et al. [2]. Their new approach
emphasized the microscale processes and the analogy among mass, heat,
and momentum transfer in dierent processes.
This stage witnessed an explosion of changes in chemical engineering
both in research and education, giving birth to new well-dened elds. A
prime example is chemical engineering kinetics, which gradually evolved
into the rich discipline under the title Chemical Reaction Engineering,
which emphasizes the design, analysis, and optimization of dierent types of
chemical reactors.
The chemical engineering discipline started to bifurcate faster and
faster year after year. Process dynamics and control (PDC) became an
important branch of chemical engineering. Plant design, economics, and
other specialized disciplines within chemical engineering started to grow at
a rapid rate.
These developments were accompanied by a steady growth in pro-
ductivity, sophistication, and a high level of competition in the chemical
TM
industry. In order to meet these demands, a typical chemical engineering
curriculum had to be crowded with many subjects. In addition to basic
science courses (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, thermodynamics,
etc.), the student had to be taught the new chemical engineering disciplines:
mass and heat balance, mass and heat transfer, chemical reaction engineer-
ing, multistage operations, process dynamics and control, plant design and
economics, and so forth, in addition to supplementary subjects from other
engineering disciplines such as mechanical, civil, and electronic engineering.
The training of chemical engineers left little room for what James Wei calls
the Third Paradigm, which should emphasize a global outlook to the
relation between Engineering and Society [3].
Despite this crowding of the chemical engineering curriculum, a prac-
ticing engineer or an experienced professor can look at any curriculum and
nd a lot to be desired. Students are learning about chemical reaction engi-
neering principles, which is a must, but they do not learn much about actual
industrial reactors; they learn classical control theory, which is a must, but
they do not know enough about digital control, in a time when most plants
are discarding analog control and installing digital control systems. The list
is endless and oers a strong temptation to add more and more courses, but
because the students are incompressible (as Levenspiel once put it [4]), it is
very dicult to add more courses in response to the legitimate desires of
experienced industrialists and professors.
The situation becomes even more acute with the expansion of chemical
engineering into new elds, especially biotechnology, the electronic indus-
tries, new materials, and composite membranes. In addition to that, chem-
ical engineers are qualied and obliged to play a leading role in the
environmental challenge that is facing the human society in a dangerous
and complicated manner.
In a nutshell, we do have a problem that cannot be solved by quanti-
tative measures; it is so acute that it needs, actually, a change of concept.
This change of concept requires looking at chemical engineering from a
system theory point of view.
1.7 THE PRESENT STATUS OF CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY AND UNDERGRADUATE
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION
This book is designed for undergraduate chemical engineering students. The
system approach is utilized in order to structure undergraduate chemical
engineering education in a new fashion suitable for the present state of
chemical, biochemical, and related industries.
TM
The chemical industry has revolutionized human life to such an extent
that it invaded every domain of modern life in our society. The industrial
development and the innovative work of many pioneering chemical engi-
neering researchers, coupled with the advancement in computer technology,
makes the training of chemical engineers for the future quite a challenging
task. A chemical engineer graduating today is expected in his/her career to
deal with a wide range of problems that need a sound fundamental basis as
well as an arsenal of practical knowledge. Of course, much of the practical
knowledge is acquired in the industry after graduation; however, under-
graduate training is the critical factor that determines the degree of success
of the trajectory of the chemical engineers after graduation. The socioeco-
nomic, safety, and environmental challenges, together with the fast expan-
sion in the use of digital computers, make the task even more dicult. Is it
plausible today to produce a chemical engineer who is not uent in the
application of computer power to chemical engineering problems? Is it pos-
sible to be satised with a graduate who knows enough about chemical
engineering, but who is illiterate with regard to some of the basic computer
software and hardware necessary for computer-controlled experimentation
or operation of equipment? Considering the socioeconomic implications of
chemical, biochemical, and related industries, is it wise to produce chemical
engineers who are not suciently socially aware of the problems of their
society and the connections between these problems and their profession? Of
course, we should be aware that the 4 or 5 years of chemical engineering
education is not and should not be a substitute for the whole life experience
that he or she will acquire before university education or after graduation.
However, these 45 years are crucial for the production of our hoped-for
Chemical Engineer Citizen, a chemical engineer who can grasp the grow-
ing fascinating opportunities of our modern society as well as coping with its
diculties and problems.
1.8 SYSTEM THEORY AND THE
MATHEMATICAL MODELING APPROACH
USED IN THIS BOOK
The challenges facing the chemical engineering profession in its process of
healthy and fruitful intercourse with society, as well as with rst and second
natures, cannot be advanced to higher levels with one single idea. Certainly,
man has learned that life is much more complicated than the deterministic
views of the 18th and 19th centuries. A more complex view of nature,
society, and man-made processes is emerging, from simple monotony to
complex bifurcations which were thought to represent the highest degree
of complexity before the revolutionary discovery of chaos, strange attrac-
TM
tors, and fractals structures. Scientic development in the last few years
should teach us that, most probably, nobody will say the last word in any-
thing and that the most that anybody can hope for, which is very honorable,
is to achieve ones part in a successful iteration of the continuous human rise
to higher levels of civilization and intellect with all its dynamical beauty and
its enjoyable new challenges and diculties. Our argument regarding the
role of systems theory and mathematical modeling in undergraduate chem-
ical engineering education will, hopefully, represent one small part of a
complex set of changes that are needed to take the chemical engineering
science forward, through a tortuous route of developments, to match the
revolutionary changes the human society is witnessing scientically, techno-
logically, socially, and politically. We argue, in this section of the book, that
the extraordinary expansion in the domain of chemical engineering requires
a new step in the direction of generalized classication that will open new
and faster expanding horizons for this important discipline. This can be
achieved through a radical change of the undergraduate chemical engineer-
ing syllabus, in order to make it based on system theory and the mathema-
tical modeling approach, which is a very eective step forward in organizing
knowledge and achieving a much higher level of economy of information.
Before getting deeper into the subject, it may be worthwhile to present a
description of system theory and mathematical modeling in chemical engi-
neering, which will add further to the simpler understanding we presented in
the previous section.
In this subsection, we discuss very briey the basic principles of systems and
mathematical modeling theories, with special emphasis on chemical biochem-
ical engineering problems, in a manner that enriches the very simple explana-
tion we presented earlier. System theory is the more general, more abstract
part, whereas mathematical modeling is more applied and less abstract.
As explained earlier, a system is a whole consisting of elements or
subsystems. The concept of systemssubsystems and elements is relative
and depends on the level of analysis. The system has a boundary that
distinguishes it from the environment. The system may exchange matter
and/or energy with the environment depending on the type of system
from a thermodynamical point of view. A system (or subsystem) is described
by its elements (or subsystems), the interaction between the elements, and its
relation with the environment. The elements of the system can be material
elements distributed topologically within the boundaries of the system and
giving the conguration of the system, or they can be processes taking place
within the boundaries of the system and dening its function. They can also
TM
be both, together with their complex interactions. An important property of
the system wholeness is related to the principle of the irreducibility of the
complex to the simple, or of the whole to its elements; the whole system will
possess properties and qualities not found in its constituent elements. This
does not mean that certain information about the behavior of the system
cannot be deduced from the properties of its elements, but, rather, it adds
something to them.
The systems can be classied on dierent bases as briey explained
earlier. The most fundamental classication is that based on thermodynamic
principles, and on this basis, systems can be classied into the following
classes:
Isolated Systems
Isolated systems are systems that exchange neither energy nor matter with
the environment. The simplest chemical engineering example is the adiabatic
batch reactor. These systems tend toward their thermodynamic equilibrium
with time, which is characterized by maximum entropy (highest degree of
disorder).
Closed Systems
Closed systems are systems that exchange energy with the environment
through their boundaries, but do not exchange matter. The simplest
example is a nonadiabatic batch reactor. These systems also tend toward
a thermodynamic equilibrium with time, characterized by maximum
entropy (highest degree of disorder).
Open Systems
Open Systems are systems that exchange both energy and matter with
the environment through their boundaries. The most common chemical
engineering example is the continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR). These
systems do not tend toward their thermodynamic equilibrium with time, but
rather toward a stationary nonequilibrium state, which is characterized
by minimum entropy production.
It is clear from the above classication that batch processes are usually
of the isolated or closed type, whereas the continuous processes are usually
of the open type. As can be seen from the above denitions, the system
theory is very abstract and, in general, it treats any system regardless of
whether a mathematical model for this system can be built or not; mathe-
matical modeling, on the other hand, is less abstract and more applied than
the system concept.
TM
For continuous processes, a classication of systems from a mathe-
matical point of view is very useful for both model formulation and
algorithms for model solution. According to this basis, systems can be
classied as shown briey earlier.
Lumped Systems
Lumped systems are systems in which the state variables describing the
system are lumped in space (invariant in all space dimensions). The simplest
example is the perfectly mixed continuous-stirred tank reactor. These sys-
tems are described at steady state by algebraic equations, whereas the
unsteady state is described by initial-value ordinary dierential equations
for which time is the independent variable.
Distributed Systems
Distributed systems are systems in which the state variables are varying in
one direction or more of the space coordinates. The simplest example is the
plug ow reactor. These systems are described at steady state, either by
ordinary dierential equations [where the variation of the state variables
is only in one direction of the space coordinates (i.e., one-dimensional sys-
tems), and the independent variable is this space direction] or partial dier-
ential equations [where the variation of the state variables is in more than
one direction of space coordinates (i.e., two- or three-dimensional systems)
and the independent variables are these space directions]. The ordinary
dierential equations describing the steady state of the one-dimensional
distributed systems can be either initial-value dierential equations (e.g.,
plug ow systems) or two-point boundary-value dierential equations
(e.g., systems with superimposed axial dispersion). The equations describing
the dynamic behavior of distributed systems are invariably partial dieren-
tial equations.
Another classication of systems, which is important for deciding the
algorithm for model solution, is that of linear and nonlinear systems.
The equations of linear systems can usually be solved analytically,
whereas the equations of nonlinear systems are almost always solved
numerically. In this respect, it is important to recognize the signicant
fact that physical systems are almost always nonlinear and that linear
systems are either an approximation that should be justied or are
intentionally linearized in the neighborhood of a certain state of the
system and are strictly valid only in this neighborhood. This local
linearization is usually applied to dynamical system to investigate
local stability characteristics of the system.
TM
A third classication, which is relevant and important in chemical
engineering, is the classication based on the number of phases
involved within the boundaries of the system. According to this clas-
sication, the systems are divided as follows:
Homogeneous Systems
Homogeneous systems are systems in which only one phase is involved in the
processes taking place within the boundaries of the system. In reaction sys-
tems, the behavior of these systems is basically governed by the kinetics of the
reactions taking place, without the interference of any diusion processes.
Heterogeneous systems are systems in which more than one phase is
involved in the processes taking place. In reaction systems, the behavior
of these systems is not only governed by the kinetics of the reactions taking
place, but also by the complex interaction between the kinetics and diusion
processes. When the system does not involve a chemical reaction, then the
system behavior is not governed by processes taking place in one phase, but,
rather, by the totality of the processes taking place in the dierent phases
and the interaction between them. The modeling and analysis of these sys-
tems is obviously much more complicated than for homogeneous systems.
Heterogeneous systems are globally divided into two- and three-phase
systems. In more detail, they are divided as follows:
1. Liquidliquid systems
2. Gasliquid systems
3. Gassolid systems: catalytic and noncatalytic
4. Liquidsolid systems: catalytic and noncatalytic
5. Gassolidliquid systems: catalytic and noncatalytic
1.8.2 Mathematical Model Building: General Concepts
The process of classication and building of mathematical models (design
equations) has been simply discussed earlier. Here, we give more details
about this process which add to the buildup of knowledge for the reader
in this direction.
Building a mathematical model for a chemical engineering system
depends to a large extent on the knowledge of the physical and chemical
laws governing the processes taking place within the boundaries of the
system. This includes the dierent rates of mass, heat, and momentum
transfer, rates of reactions and rates of adsorptiondesorption, and so
forth. It also includes the thermodynamic limitations that decide the feasi-
bility of the process to start with, as well as heat production and absorption.
TM
Mass and heat transfer rates are both dependent on the proper description
of the uid ow phenomena in the system. The ideal case is when all of these
processes are determined separately and then combined into the systems
model in a rigorous manner. However, very often this is quite dicult
in experimental measurement; therefore, special experiments need to be
devised, coupled with the necessary mathematical modeling, in order to
decouple the dierent processes implicit in the measurements.
In the last two decades, there has been a considerable advancement in
the development of mathematical models of dierent degrees of sophistica-
tion for chemical engineering processes. These models are taking their part in
directing design procedures as well as in directing scientic research. It is
important in this respect to recognize the fact that most mathematical models
are not completely based on rigorous mathematical formulation of the phy-
sical and chemical processes taking place within the boundaries of the sys-
tem. Every mathematical model, contains a certain degree of empiricism. The
degree of empiricism limits the generality of the model, and as our knowledge
of the fundamentals of the processes taking place increases, the degree of
empiricism decreases and the generality of the model increases. The existence
of models at any stage, with their appropriate level of empiricism, helps
greatly in the advancement of the knowledge of the fundamentals, and, there-
fore, helps to decrease the degree of empiricism and increase the level of rigor
in the mathematical models. Models will always contain certain simplifying
assumptions believed by the model-builder not to aect the predictive nature
of the model in any manner that sabotages the purpose of it. Mathematical
models (design equations) are essential for design, optimization, and control
of dierent equipments for chemical, biochemical, and related industries.
Dierent models with dierent degrees of sophistication can be built.
Models which are too simplied will not be reliable and will not serve the
purpose, whereas models which are too sophisticated will present an
unnecessary and sometimes expensive overburden. In undergraduate chemi-
cal engineering education, the concept of model sophistication and its rela-
tion to the purpose of the model building should be emphasized. This book
will explain and discuss this extremely important issue at every stage of
development, starting from material and energy balance to heterogeneous
distributed models.
1.8.3 Outline of the Procedure for Model Building
This issue has been discussed earlier in a simplied manner. It is useful for
the gradual buildup of the readers understanding of modeling and simula-
tion to visit the problem again on a higher level of rigor and to distinguish
clearly the dierence between modeling and simulation.
TM
First, we start with procedure for model building, followed by the
distinction between modeling and simulation, followed by the Amundson
report and its emphasis on modern chemical engineering education, and
nally ending up by the relation among systems theory, mathematical
modeling, and modern chemical engineering education.
The procedure for model building can be summarized in the following
steps:
1. The identication of the system conguration, its environment,
and the modes of interaction between the system and its environ-
ment.
2. The introduction of the necessary justiable simplifying assump-
tions.
3. The identication of the relevant state variables that describe the
system.
4. The identication of the processes taking place within the bound-
aries of the system.
5. The determination of the quantitative laws governing the rates of
the processes in terms of the state variables. These quantitative
laws can be obtained from information given in the literature
and/or through an experimental research program coupled with
the mathematical modeling program.
6. The identication of the input variables acting on the system.
7. The formulation of the model equations based on the principles
of mass, energy, and momentum balances appropriate to the type
of system.
8. The development of the necessary algorithms for the solution of
the model equations.
9. The checking of the model against experimental results (labora-
tory, pilot plant, or commercial units) to ensure its reliability and
carrying out a re-evaluation of the simplifying assumptions. This
re-evaluation process may result in imposing new simplifying
assumptions or relaxing some of them.
It is clear that these steps are interactive in nature and the results of
each step should lead to a reconsideration of the results of all previous ones.
In many instances, steps 2 and 3 are interchanged in the sequence, depend-
ing on the nature of the system and the degree of knowledge regarding the
processes taking place.
Of course the modeling of an existing process will dier from the
modeling to design a new plant based on known technology. And both
will be dierent from using modeling to aid in the development of a novel
technology.
TM
1.9 MODELING AND SIMULATION IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Aris [5], in his 1990 Dankwarts Memorial Lecture entitled Manners
Makyth Modellers, distinguishes between modeling and simulation in a
special manner which follows the reasoning of Smith [6] in ecological mod-
els. This reasoning is very useful for chemical engineering students to com-
prehend early in their career. The reasoning goes as follows (having the
beautiful and very intellectual characteristics of the writings of Professor
Aris, the readers are advised to read the classical papers referred to in this
reasoning):
It is an essential quality in a model that it should be capable of
having a life of its own. It may not, in practice, need to be sundered
from its physical matrix. It may be a poor thing, an ill-favored thing
when it is by itself. But it must be capable of having this indepen-
dence. Thus Liljenroth (1918) in his seminal paper on multiplicity of
the steady states can hardly be said to have a mathematical model,
unless a graphical representation of the case is a model. He works
out the slope of the heat removal line from the ratio of numerical
values of a heat of reaction and a heat capacity. Certainly he is
dealing with a typical case, and his conclusions are meant to have
application beyond this particularity, but the mechanism for doing
this is not there. To say this is not to detract from Liljenroths
paper, which is a landmark of the chemical engineering literature,
it is just to notice a matter of style and the point at which a math-
ematical model is born. For in the next papers on the question of
multiple steady states, those of Wagner (1945), Denbigh (1944,
1947), Denbigh et al. (1948) and Van Heerden (1953), we do not
nd more general structures. How powerful the life that is instinct
in a true mathematical model can be seen from the Fouriers theory
of heat conduction where the mathematical equations are fecund of
all manner of purely mathematical developments. At the other end
of the scale a model can cease to be a model by becoming too large
and too detailed a simulation of a situation whose natural line of
development is to the particular rather than the general. It ceases to
have a life of its own by becoming dependent for its vitality on its
physical realization [the emphasis is ours]. Maynard Smith (1974)
was, I believe, the rst to draw the distinction in ecological models
between those that aimed at predicting the population level with
greater and greater accuracy (simulation) and those that seek to
disentangle the factors that aect population growth in a more
TM
general way (model). The distinction is not a hard and fast one, but
it is useful to discern these alternatives [5].
The basis of the classication given by Aris is very interesting, true,
and useful. It is typical of the Minnesota group founded by Amundson some
50 years ago. This important research group in the history of chemical
engineering has almost never veried the models (or the variety of interest-
ing new phenomena resulting from them) against experiments or industrial
units. Experimental verications of the new and interesting steady-state and
dynamic phenomena discovered by the Minnesota group were carried out at
other universities, mostly by graduates from Minnesota. The most interest-
ing outcome is the fact that not a single phenomenon, which was discovered
theoretically using mathematical models by the Minnesota group, was not
experimentally conrmed later. This demonstrates the great power of the
mathematical modeling discipline as expressed by Aris [5], where the model
is stripped of many of its details in order to investigate the most fundamen-
tal characteristics of the system. It also demonstrates the deep insight into
physical systems that can be achieved using mathematics, as Ian Stewart
puts it: Perhaps mathematics is eective in organizing physical existence
because it is inspired by physical existence . . . . The pragmatic reality is that
mathematics is the most eective method that we know for understanding
what we see around us [7]. In this undergraduate book, a dierent, more
pragmatic denition for mathematical modeling and simulation than that of
Aris [5] will be adopted. The denition we adopt is that mathematical mod-
eling will involve the process of building up the model itself, whereas simu-
lation involves simulating the experimental (or pilot plant or industrial)
units using the developed model. Thus, simulation in this sense is closely
linked to the verication of the model against experimental, pilot plant, and
industrial units. However, it will also include the use of the veried models
to simulate a certain practical situation specic to a unit, a part of a produc-
tion line, or an entire production line.
However, because universities are responsible also for the preparation
of the students for research careers, this book will also include the elements
discussed by Aris. In this case, the denition by Aris [5] must come strongly
into play. Because much of the chemical engineering research work today is
interdisciplinary in nature, especially in the relatively new elds such as
biotechnology and microelectronics, it should be clear that mathematical
modeling and system theory are the most suitable and ecient means of
communication between the dierent disciplines involved. Therefore,
chemical engineering education based on system theory and mathematical
modeling as portrayed in this book seems to be the best approach to prepare
the chemical engineers for this interdisciplinary research. The fact that
TM
Henry Poincare , the undisputed rst discoverer of Chaos, was trained rst in
engineering, following the Napoleonic traditions, helps to emphasize the
need for a broad education of the engineering researchers of tomorrow,
which is hard to achieve through the present structure of engineering syllabi.
Another very general denition of models is given by Stephen
Hawking [8], who relates models to theories of the universe:
A theory is just a model of the universe, or a restricted part of it,
and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations
that we make. It exists only in our minds and does not have any
other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a good theory
if it satises two requirements: it must accurately describe a large
class of observations on the basis of the model that contains only a
few arbitrary elements, and it must make denite predictions about
the results of future observations.
One of the major ndings of the Minnesota group, using mathematical
modeling, is the discovery of a wide variety of static and dynamic bifurca-
tion phenomena in chemical reactors. Although theoretical studies on the
bifurcation behavior have advanced considerably during the last three dec-
ades, the industrial appreciation of these phenomena remains very limited. It
is of great importance that practically oriented chemical engineers dealing
with the mathematical modeling of industrial units become aware of them.
These phenomena are not only of theoretical and academic importance, but
they have very important practical implications (e.g., for industrial Fluid
Catalytic Cracking Units [912]). Most chemical engineers complete their
undergraduate education without knowing almost anything about these
phenomena. A large percentage of chemical engineers nish their post-
graduate education without knowing anything about these phenomena.
This book will introduce undergraduate students to these phenomena in a
very simple manner early in their education.
1.10 AMUNDSON REPORT AND THE NEED FOR
MODERN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
The report of the committee on Chemical Engineering Frontiers: Research
Needs and Opportunities [13], known as the Amundson report, outlines
beautifully the picture of chemical engineering in the next decades. The
report is quite optimistic about the future of the profession, and the authors
of this book strongly share this optimism. Chemical engineering played an
important part in human development in the last few decades and it is
expected to play an even larger role in the future.
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Although the Amundson Report emphasizes the challenges facing
the American chemical and related industries, the report should not be
looked upon from this narrow point of view. In fact, the report is far
more reaching than that and is to a great extent relevant to the worldwide
chemical engineering profession. The report, without ignoring classical
chemical engineering problems, stresses a number of relatively new
chemical engineering elds:
1. Biotechnology and Biomedicine
2. Electronic, Photonic, and Recording Materials and Devices
3. Polymers, Ceramics, and Composites
4. Processing of Energy and Natural Resources
5. Environmental Protection, Process Safety, and Hazardous Waste
Management
6. Computer-Assisted Process and Control Engineering
7. Surfaces, Interfaces, and Microstructures
Emphasizing these elds without being able to ignore classical chemical
engineering problems helps only to emphasize the view that chemical engi-
neering is entering a new era. In addition, the chemical engineering commu-
nity cannot ignore its fundamental scientic responsibilities toward the
revolution in scientic knowledge created by the discovery of chaos, strange
attractors, and fractal structures, especially that many manifestations of
these phenomena are evident in typical chemical engineering systems.
The report is nowmore than 13 years old and the issues addressed in this
report must reect themselves on chemical engineering undergraduate educa-
tion. This can only be achieved through the adoption of system theory and
mathematical modeling in undergraduate chemical engineering education.
These considerations lead to the inevitable conclusion that a higher
level of organization of thinking and economy of knowledge is needed in
undergraduate chemical engineering education, as briey discussed earlier
and will be detailed in the rest of the book.
1.11 SYSTEM THEORY AND MATHEMATICAL
MODELING AS TOOLS FOR MORE
EFFICIENT UNDERGRADUATE CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING EDUCATION
In order to achieve a higher level of organization and economy of knowl-
edge, it will be extremely useful for the students to be introduced early in
their undergraduate education to the basic principles of system theory. The
best and most general classication of systems is based on thermodynamic
principles. Therefore, it is possible that the students, after passing their basic
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science courses, be exposed to a course in thermodynamics that emphasizes
the basic concepts of thermodynamics. The basic principles of system theory
can either be integrated into this course or may be taught in a separate
course. This course should emphasize not only the basic principles of system
theory but also its relevance to chemical engineering systems. In fact, such a
course can be used as an elegant and ecient tool for introducing the
students to chemical engineering systems. The students should learn how
to classify chemical engineering systems into their main categories: isolated,
closed, and open systems. They should learn how to divide the system into
its subsystems or elements depending on the level of analysis. They should
learn not only that distillation is a unit operation regardless of the specic
kind of distillation, as the unit operation paradigm teaches us, but to extend
their mind further and learn that continuous, heterogeneous, multistage
processes are systems that are open, formed of more than one phase and
more than one stage, that there are certain processes taking place within
their boundaries that need to be expressed in terms of state variables, and
that input variables should be specied and parameters should be identied
(regardless of whether the process is distillation, extraction, drying, or multi-
stage catalytic reactors).
Of course, at this early stage, students will not be able yet to develop
specic models for specic processes because they would not yet have
studied the laws governing the rates of these processes and their form of
dependence on the state variables. They even may not be able, at this stage,
to identify completely the state variables of the system. However, this early
training in system theory will orient the students mind and their further
education in the framework of the system approach.
The students can then be ready to view their other chemical engineer-
ing courses in a new light; those courses should also be changed to empha-
size the system approach, where all of the rate processes are treated in a
unied fashion, emphasizing the laws governing the rates of these processes
and its dependence on state variables, rather than dividing it into mass
transfer, heat transfer, momentum transfer, and rates of reactions. The
transport phenomena paradigm can be easily extended in this direction.
This will also allow higher emphasis on the interaction between these pro-
cesses and the eects resulting from these interactions (e.g., the interaction
between mass transfer and chemical reaction and its implication for the
behavior of the system).
It is natural that, at this stage, students be introduced to the formula-
tion of some simple mathematical models (design equations) for certain
systems. When the students are familiar with the laws governing the rates
of dierent processes in terms of the state variables, they will be ready for an
intensive applied course on mathematical modeling of chemical engineering
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systems. This course should cover the basic principles of mathematical mod-
eling theory, the main classications of mathematical models, the proce-
dures for building mathematical models, application to the development
of mathematical models for a large number of chemical engineering
processes in the petrochemical, petroleum rening, biochemical, electronic
industries, as well as some mathematical models for biological systems.
It is important to note that material and energy balances represent the
basis of any rational and useful chemical engineering education. In this book,
we use an approach that generalizes the material and energy balance equa-
tions in modular forms for the most general cases with multiple inputs,
multiple outputs, and multiple reactions. These generalized material and
energy balance equations will represent the basis for all material and energy
balance problems, with less complicated cases treated as special cases of these
generalized mathematical formulation. These material and energy balance
equations will themselves be used to develop both lumped and distributed
mathematical models (design equations). This approach will represent a
serious achievement with regard to economy of knowledge, organization
of thinking, and systematic optimization of information for chemical
engineering students. The extension of design equations (steady-state
models) to dynamic equations (unsteady-state models) will also be shown.
So far, we have emphasized the practical usefulness of the approach. In
this last sentence, we should also emphasize that the approach is beautiful
and elegant: He gets full marks who mixes the useful with the beautiful
[14].
In this preliminary section, we have explained to the reader that
chemical engineering is expanding very quickly and that a new approach
based on system theory and mathematical modeling is needed for a higher
level of organization of thinking and economy of information. The concept
has been briey introduced and discussed and the inuence of this approach
on the structure of chemical engineering teaching has been discussed in a
limited fashion, only to show how it can be integrated into a modern and
progressive chemical engineering syllabus and how it does aect the
approach to teaching material and energy balance and rate processes in
an integrated manner. This approach is adopted in this book, and the
approach will be clearer as more details and applications are given through-
out the book.
1.12 SUMMARY OF THE MAIN TOPICS IN THIS
CHAPTER
It is useful for the reader to summarize all of the ideas and classications.
Although each of the following subjects will be discussed in more detail, it is
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very useful for the reader to have an eagles-eye view to know where it all
ts.
1.12.1 Different Types of Systems and Their Main
Characteristics
What Is a System?
It is a whole, formed of interactive parts.
Isolated Systems
Do not exchange matter or energy with the surrounding. Example is
adiabatic batch reactors.
Most Basic Characteristics. Tend toward thermodynamic equili-
brium characterized by maximum entropy [it is stationary with time,
stationary in the sense of death (i.e., nothing happens)].
Closed Systems
Do not exchange matter with the environment or surrounding, but do
exchange energy. Example is a non-adiabatic batch reactor.
Most Basic Characteristics. Tend toward thermodynamic equili-
brium characterized by maximum entropy [it is stationary with time,
stationary in the sense of death (i.e., nothing happens)].
Open Systems
Exchange matter and energy with the environment or surrounding (actually
stating that it exchanges matter is sucient because this implies an exchange
of the energy in the matter transferred). Example is a CSTR.
Most Basic Characteristics. Do not tend toward thermodynamic
equilibrium, but rather toward what may be called a stationary nonequili-
brium state; it is stationary with time but not in the sense of being dead.
Things do happen; the stationary nature comes from the balance between
what is happening within the boundaries of the system and the exchange of
matter with the surrounding.
Important note A stationary nonequilibrium state can also be called a
point attractor. We will see later that other types of attractor are also
possible.
Relative Nature of Systems, Subsystems, and Elements
. Subsystems are parts of the system, that together with their inter-
actions dene the system.
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. The element is the smallest subsystem of the system, according
to level of analysis.
. Subsystems and elements are relative and depend on the level of
analysis.
. Subsystems, elements, and whole system can be dened on
dierent basis.
Linear and Nonlinear Systems
Linear and nonlinear systems are usually dened on the basis of the form of
the appearance of the state variables in the process. However, what are
state variables?
State Variables and Parameters
State variables are the variables that describe the state of the system (i.e.,
temperature of the uid in a tank, or concentration of a component in a
reactor or on a tray of a distillation column).
Parameters are constants (or variables) that are imposed (or chosen)
for the system and determine the state of the system through their eect on
the processes. We can classify them as follows:
1. Input parameters: feed ow rate, feed concentration, and so
forth.
2. Design parameters: diameter, height, and so forth of a vessel.
3. Process parameters: mass transfer coecients, kinetic rate con-
stants, and so forth.
4. Physical parameters: density, viscosity, and so forth.
The classical denition of linear/nonlinear systems is related to when
the system is described by a black box with empirical relation(s) between
input(s) (I) and output(s) (O) and the relation between I and O is linear/
nonlinear (refer to Fig. 1.1). However, with more models developed on a
physicochemical basis, the usual denition is as follows: The model in linear
if all state variables appear to the power 1 and without two state variables
appearing as multiplied with each other. The model is nonlinear otherwise.
For example,
y ax
is a linear model, where y and x are state variables and a is a parameter.
However,
y ax
2
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is a nonlinear model. Also,
dx
dt
ax
is a linear model and
dx
dt
ax
2
is a nonlinear model.
1.12.2 What Are Models and What Is the Difference
Between Models and Design Equations?
Models in the sense used in this book are equations describing the process; in
other words, a model is some kind of mathematical equation(s) (of dierent
degrees of rigor and complexity) that is (are) able to predict what we do not
know using the information that we know. In most cases, it is as follows:
. The output is unknown, and the input is known.
. The input is known, the desired output is xed and it is the design
parameters which are to be computed to obtain the desired output.
. It can be that the system design parameters are known, the desired
output is xed, and it is the input parameters which are to be
calculated.
As a matter of fact,
Mathematical models =Design equations
When the equations are based on fundamentals of the dierent processes
and are rather rigorous and complex, they are called mathematical models.
However, when they are simple and highly empirical, they are called design
equations. In the present age of powerful computers, the computer is able to
solve complicated nonlinear equations in a short time using suitable solution
techniques. Thus, the boundaries between mathematical models and design
equations should disappear.
Types of Model
There are dierent bases on which models are classied; none of them is
sucient in itself. The integral of all denitions and classications gives the
complete picture.
Examples are as follows:
Homogeneous and heterogeneous models
Lumped and distributed models
Rigorous (relatively rigorous) and empirical models
Linear and nonlinear models
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Steady-state and unsteady-state models
Deterministic and stochastic models.
1.12.3 Summary of Numerical and Analytical Solution
Techniques for Different Types of Model
The various solution techniques are presented in Figures 1.61.10.
Most of the ecient solution techniques (whether analytical or numer-
ical) will be presented in this book.
Programming
For most chemical engineering problems, the solution algorithm is quite
complex and needs to be solved using a computer program/software.
Students can use whatever programming language or computational envir-
onment they want (a short list of some programming environments and
softwares is given in Appendix F). Examples are as follows:
. Fortran with IMSL subroutines library
. C and C++ with necessary libraries
. Matlab
. Polymath
. Mathcad
. Mathematica.
Figure 1.6 Solution techniques for linear algebraic equations.
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Figure 1.7 Solution techniques for nonlinear algebraic equations.
Figure 1.8 Solution techniques for linear ordinary dierential equations.
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Figure 1.9 Solution techniques for nonlinear ordinary dierential equations.
Figure 1.10 Solution techniques for partial dierential equations.
TM
REFERENCES
1. Smith, J.M., Van Hess, H.C., Abbott, M.M., and Van Hess. Introduction to
Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000.
2. Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., and Lightfoot, E.N. Transport Phenomena. Wiley,
New York, 1960.
3. Wei, J. Educating Chemical Engineers for the Future, In Chemical Engineering
in a Changing Environment, Engineering Foundation Conference (S.L. Sandler
and B.A. Finlayson, eds.), 1988, pp. 112.
4. Levenspiel, O. Private discussion during AIChE meeting, San Francisco, 1989.
5. Aris, R. Manners makyth modellers. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 69(A2), 165174,
1991.
6. Smith, J.M. Models in Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1974.
7. Stewart, I. Does God Play Dice: The New Mathematics of Chaos, Penguin,
London, 1989.
8. Hawking, S.W. A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
Bantam Press, London, 1989.
9. Iscol, L. The dynamics and stability of a uid catalytic cracker, Joint Automatic
Control Conference, 1970, pp. 602607.
10. Elnashaie, S.S.E.H. and El-Hennawi, I.M. Multiplicity of the steady states in
uidized bed reactors, IV. Fluid catalytic cracking. Chem. Eng. Sci. 34, 1113
1121, 1979.
11. Edwards, W.M. and Kim, H.N. Multiple steady states in FCC unit operations.
Chem. Eng. Sci., 43, 18251830, 1998.
12. Elshishini, S.S. and Elnashaie, S.S.E.H. Digital simulation of industrial uid
catalytic cracking units, bifurcation and its implications. Chem. Eng. Sci., 45,
553559, 1990.
13. Amundson, N.R. Frontiers in Chemical Engineering, Research Needs and
Opportunities, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1988.
14. Aris, R. A quotation from Horace. Comments made during a discussion on
Chemical Engineering Education, 10th International Symposium on Chemical
Reaction Engineering, (ISCRE 10), 1988.
PROBLEM
Problem 1.1
State three of the systems that you have studied in your chemical engineer-
ing courses and show whether they are open, closed, or isolated. Dene the
following for each of the systems: the state variables, the processes taking
place in them, the laws governing the processes in terms of the state vari-
ables, and the system input variables.
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2
Material and Energy Balances
2.1 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
2.1.1 A Simple, Systematic, and Generalized Approach
Material and energy (M&E) balances are the basis of almost all chemical
engineering calculations. M&E balances, in themselves, are used for the
inventory of overall materials, dierent species and energy for single units,
and total process owsheets. It is essential, as a rst step, for the design of
single units as well as overall processes formed of a number of units to carry
out M&E balance calculations, in order to determine the basic character-
istics of unit/processes and is a prelude for the detailed design of these units/
processes. The tightly controlled inventory for units/process using M&E
balances, which is as rigorous as possible, is not only important for design,
operation and control but also for tight control over pollution. By deni-
tion, the polluting components can be escaping reactants or impurities with
the feed or escaping products or side products. The tight control over the
material balances and the comparison with continuous measurements after
the plant is built is one of the best and most reliable means to predict
pollution emissions from the plant (specially fugitive emissions).
The rigorous M&E balances are also the basis for the rigorous design
and control equations as will be shown in Chapter 5. M&E balances seem so
simple so that it can look intuitive; for example, we gave you six oranges,
TM
you have eaten two of them, then the remaining are certainly four oranges.
We gave you $200, you spent $50 and gave a friend $30, so the remaining
dollars are certainly $120. This intuitive approach was used in M&E bal-
ances for a long time.
However, it is important in our present age of large complicated
processes and large eective computers to systematize the process of
M&E balances into generalized equations, with all simpler cases coming
out of these equations as special cases. The rst textbook using this
approach is the book by Reklaitis [1]; however he did not explain this
approach fully. This approach not only allows the systematic computeriza-
tion of M&E balance calculations for small as well as large complicated
processes but also presents a simple, clear, and very useful link between
M&E balance equations on the one hand and design/control equations on
the other, as shown in Chapters 36.
In order to make the subject exceedingly easy and smooth for the
reader, we will develop this generalized and systematic approach and
these generalized equations starting from the intuitive approach (which is
very dear to a number of generations of chemical engineers). Our approach
here will make the subject very easy for the reader and will make the nal
generalized equation almost obvious.
2.1.2 Development of Material Balance Relations
Semi-Intuitive Approach for Nonreacting Systems
Consider the system in Figure 2.1; it is obviously an open system. So after
start-up, it reaches the state rigorously called the stationary nonequili-
brium state (see Chapter 1) and commonly known in chemical engineering
as the steady state. It is a separation unit with no reactions taking place.
Note that
X
i
(Weight fraction of component i
Mass of component i in the stream

Total mass of the stream
This is a completely dened mass balance diagram for this single unit; in
other words, there are no unknowns.
Let us now start training the reader on mass balance by hiding some of
the known variables. How many variables can we hide and rend? (We will
answer this question in stages, coming at the end in a very logical systematic
way to the rules of degrees of freedom analysis for single unit and complete
ow sheets).
So let us have the following problem (Fig. 2.2) by hiding some of the
known variables in Figure 2.1. Counting the number of unknowns (denoted
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by ?) shows that it has seven unknowns. Can we nd out those seven
unknowns through the laws of mass balance? Shall we start solving directly
or we can check if it is solvable or not?
Figure 2.1 Complete material balance over a separation unit.
Figure 2.2 Material balance diagram with some missing values.
TM
Let us rst check whether the equations are solvable or not. In other
words, from an inuititive mass balance point of view, do we have as many
possible equations as unknowns or not?
Number of Mass Balance Equations
1. Component balance
FX
if
F
D
X
iD
F
W
X
iW
for i A. B. C. and D
2.1--2.4
Because we have four components, we have four equations
2. Overall balance
F F
D
F
W
2.5
3. Summation of weight fractions for each stream is equal to 1:
X
i
X
if
1.0 2.6
X
i
X
iD
1.0 2.7
X
i
X
iW
1.0 2.8
Are all of the above eight equations independent? No, because the summing
of Eqs. (2.1)(2.4) and then using Eqs. (2.6)(2.8) results in Eq. (2.5). So,
actually, we have only seven independent equations, but we also have seven
unknowns. This leads to that the degrees of freedom are equal to zero and
the problem is solvable. This is one of the simplest examples for the degrees-
of-freedom analysis.
Strategy of Solution for This Simple Case
With which mass balance shall we start?
If we start with a component balance on, say, component A (this is a bad
choice); then we will have
FX
Af
F
D
X
AD
F
W
X
AW
2.9
In this equation, we have three unknowns (X
Af
. F
W
, and X
AW
). Also, the
product F
W
X
AW
can be considered a type of nonlinearity, which is not
desirable when we solve a sequence of linear equations.
Certainly, it is very clear that Eq. (2.9) is a very bad choice because it
has to be solved simultaneously with at least two other equations.
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So, What Is a Good Choice for Starting the Solution?
It is clear that the overall balance is the only starting balance that gives an
equation with one unknown. It is clear that this is the best starting step.
Thus, we start by using the overall balance Eq. (2.5),
F F
D
F
W
which becomes
100 60 F
W
thus giving
F
W
40 min/g
What Is the Next Best Step?
After F
W
has been calculated, we have other components that will give an
equation in one variable. Try component B:
FX
Bf
F
D
X
BD
F
W
X
BW
On substituting the corresponding values, we get
100 X
Bf
600.4 400.15
Therefore,
X
Bf
0.3
Similarly, try component D:
FX
Df
F
D
X
DD
F
W
X
DW
On substituting the corresponding values, we get
1000.1 60X
DD
400.19
Therefore,
X
DD
0.04
Until now we have used the overall mass balance equation and two of the
component mass balance equations (we are left with only one) and we still
have three
P
i
X
i
1.0 relations.
What Is the Next Best Move?
If we choose to use a component mass balance on component A, we will
have an equation with two unknowns. If we choose to use a component
mass balance on component C, we will have an equation with two
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unknowns. For example, the best choice is to start to use the
P
i
X
i
1.0
relations:
X
Af
X
Bf
X
Cf
X
Df
1.0
Thus,
X
Af
0.3 0.1 0.1 1.0
and we get
X
Af
0.5
Now, if we use a component mass balance on component A, we will have an
equation with only one unknown:
FX
Af
F
D
X
AD
F
W
X
AW
Substitution of values gives
1000.5 600.5 40X
AW
Calculation gives
X
AW
0.5
We have thus exhausted the component balances; we can then directly use
the remaining two
P
i
X
i
1.0 relations. Using
X
i
X
iD
1.0
we get
X
AD
X
BD
X
CD
X
DD
1.0
Substituting the values gives
0.5 0.4 X
CD
0.04 1.0
Thus,
X
CD
0.06
Also, for the other stream,
X
i
X
iW
1.0
we get
X
AW
X
BW
X
CW
X
DW
1.0
0.5 0.15 X
CW
0.19 1.0
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Thus,
X
CW
0.16
Note: By the proper sequence of solution, we went through the problem
without solving any simultaneous equations. Each equation we have
written in the proper sequence had only one unknown.
Suppose now that we have the following arrangement of the known
and unknown variables (keeping the total number of unknowns the same) as
shown in Figure 2.3. Counting the number of unknowns, there are obviously
the same number of unknowns as earlier (seven unknowns). The unaware
chemical engineer who does not use the degrees-of-freedom concept uently
will immediately go into trying to solve this problem, will spend a long time
and lots of frustration, and will end up not being able to solve it, whereas the
chemical engineer with good awareness regarding the use of the degrees-of-
freedom analysis will realize in a few seconds that the problem is not
solvable. Why? Because, actually, with the given structure of unknowns,
we have only six relations not seven. Why? This is because for the feed
stream the relation
X
i
X
if
1.0
Figure 2.3 Material ow diagram with unknown values.
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is redundant, because all of the weight fractions of the four components are
given in this stream.
Now let us pose the same mass balance problem in a third fashion
(Fig. 2.4). Here, we have eight unknowns and seven relations. Thus, the
degree of freedom is 1, so strictly speaking, the problem is not solvable.
However, actually, it can be solved for an assumed value of F or F
D
or F
W
,
which will be called the basis and we will notice a simple linear relation
between the solution and the chosen basis. This linear relation makes the
solution quite useful.
1. Assume F100 min/g (basis)
Here, we have seven unknowns and seven relations.
Step 1
100 F
D
F
W
which gives
F
W
100 F
D
Step 2
Use
X
i
X
if
1.0
Figure 2.4 Material ow diagram with unknown values.
TM
To get
X
Af
X
Bf
X
Cf
X
Df
1.0
which gives
X
Af
X
Bf
0.8
Step 3
The mass balance on component A is
FX
Af
F
D
X
AD
F
W
X
AW
which gives
100X
Af
F
D
0.5 100 F
D
0.5
Thus,
X
Af
0.5
Step 4
From the relation in step 2, we get
X
Bf
0.8 0.5 0.3
Step 5
The mass balance on component B is
FX
Bf
F
D
X
BD
F
W
X
BW
1000.3 F
D
0.4 100 F
D
0.15
Thus,
F
D
60 min/g
Then, using the relation in step 1, we get,
F
W
40 min/g
obtaining the rest of the variables is really straightforward. The
reader is advised to compute the remaining unknown values.
TM
2. Assume a basis of F=50 g/min
Step 1
50 F
D
F
W
which gives
F
W
50 F
D
Step 2
Use
X
i
X
if
1.0
to get
X
Af
X
Bf
X
Cf
X
Df
1.0
which gives
X
Af
X
Bf
0.8
Step 3
The mass balance on component A is
FX
Af
F
D
X
AD
F
W
X
AW
which gives
50X
Af
F
D
0.15 50 F
D
0.5
Thus,
X
Af
0.5
Step 4
From the relation in step 2, we get
X
Bf
0.8 0.5 0.3
Step 5
The mass balance on component B is
FX
Bf
F
D
X
BD
F
W
X
BW
TM
500.3 F
D
0.4 50 F
D
0.15
Thus,
F
D
30 min/g
Then, using the relation in step 1, we get
F
W
20 min/g
Thus, the dierence in the values by taking dierent basis can be
summarized as in Table 2.1. Because
F(first basis)
F(second basis)
2
we have
F
D
(first basis)
F
D
(second basis)
2 and
F
W
(first basis)
F
W
(second basis)
2
It should be noted that in both cases the weight fractions of all components
in all streams remain the same.
This is the essence for the wide and very useful use of basis with regard
to mass or molar ow rates.
Cases Where Taking Basis Does Not Solve the Problem of
the Number of Unknowns Being Larger Than the Number
of Relations
What will be the situation when we have eight unknowns (all of them weight
fractions, as shown in Figure 2.5)? In this case, let us proceed a few steps in
the calculations. We can obtain X
Af
by
FX
Af
F
D
X
AD
F
W
X
AW
Table 2.1 Comparison of Values for
Different Bases
Basis: F
1
100 g/min Basis: F
2
50 g/min
F
D1
60 g/min F
D2
30 g/min
F
W1
40 g/min F
W2
20 g/min
TM
On substituting the values, we get
100X
Af
600.5 400.5
Thus, we get
X
Af
0.5
After that, we cannot go any further with the computations; the remaining
equations are six in number and the unknowns are seven in number and no
basis can be taken because F, F
D
, and F
W
have specied values.
2.2 SINGLE AND MULTIPLE REACTIONS:
CONVERSION, YIELD, AND SELECTIVITY
Now, we move one important step forward toward the mass balance of units
with chemical reactions (chemical reactors). In order to reach this stage in a
systematic way, we start by analyzing the dierent types of reaction and
introduce the necessary additional information needed for the mass balance
of units with chemical reactions.
Figure 2.5 Mass ow diagram where basis does not work.
TM
2.2.1 Single Reactions
A single reaction is a reaction formed of one stoichiometric relation regard-
less of the number of components (species) involved as reactants or
products.
Example of Single Reactions
A !B (two components, irreversible)
A,B (two components, reversible)
A B !C D (four components, irreversible)
A B,C D (four components, reversible)
5A 8B 9C !3D6F (ve components, irreversible)
3A 2B,5C 7D (four components, reversible)
A reversible reaction such as
A,B
is strictly depicting two reactions. However, it has many relations to single
reactions because of the special nature of the two reactions involved.
However, in this book, for straightforward consistency we will always
treat it as two reactions.
The number in front of each component is called the stoichiometric
number and it is an indication of the proportion (in moles) of the compo-
nent entering the reaction in comparison with other components (reactants
or products).
The following stoichiometric relations are strictly equivalent:
5A 10B !C 20D
A 2B !
1
5
C 4D
50A 100B !10C 200D
Conversion and Yield for a Single Reaction
A reactor with a single reaction can be completely dened (and solved) in
terms of one variable (conversion of any one of the reactants, or the yield of
any one of the products, or the concentration of one of the components, or
the rate of reaction of one of the components) because all other quantities
can be computed in terms of this single variable as long as the stoichiometric
equation is fully dened. This will be clearly known after we dene conver-
sion and yield.
TM
The conversion of a reactant component is dened as the number of
moles reacted of the specic component divided by the original number of
moles of the same specic component. For continuous operation, this state-
ment will read: Conversion of a reactant component is dened as the
number of moles reacted per unit time of the specic component divided
by the feed numbers of moles per unit time of the same specic component
(i.e., molar ow rate).
For a reactor as the one shown in Fig. 2.6, the reaction is
A B !C D four components, irreversible)
The conversion of component A is dened as
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
The conversion of component B is dened as
x
B

n
Bf
n
B
n
Bf
The relation between x
A
and x
B
depends on the stoichiometric numbers
of each component. This will be shown and discussed later. Even if the
stoichiometric numbers are dierent,
2A 5B !7C 8D
the denitions still remain strictly the same:
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
Figure 2.6 Molar ow diagram across a reactor.
TM
and
x
B

n
Bf
n
B
n
Bf
Only the relation between x
A
and x
B
will be dierent because of the
stoichiometric numbers, as will be explained later.
Note: It is possible to use the same basis for the two conversions, such as
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
and
x
B

n
Bf
n
B
n
Af
Of course, the relation between x
A
and x
B
will be dierent because of the
dierent ways we dene the basis for each component.
Yield of a Product (e.g., C)
The yield of a product C is the number of moles of C formed (per unit time
for continuous processes) divided by the original (or feed for continuous
processes) number of moles of reactant A (per unit time for continuous
processes); that is,
Y
n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
or we can reference the yield to reactant B; that is,
Y
n
C
n
Cf
n
Bf
Also, the yield can be referred to the number of moles of A (or B) that
reacted:
Y
0

n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
n
A
or Y
00

n
C
n
Cf
n
Bf
n
B
Mass Balance Calculations for a Reactor with a Single
Reaction
As we mentioned earlier, the mass balance of the reactor can be dened
completely in terms of only one variable (x
A
. x
B
. Y. Y
0
. Y
00
, etc.) when there
is a single reaction.
TM
2.2.2 Degrees-of-Freedom Analysis
Solved Example 2.1
For the reactor shown in Figure 2.7, with known feed conditions n
Af
.
n
Bf
. n
Cf
. n
Df
, determine the relations giving the output variables n
A
. n
B
.
n
C
. n
D
) in terms of one variable x
A
or x
B
or Y) for the following
reaction:
2A 3B !3C 5D
If the number of unknowns is four (n
A
. n
B
. n
C
. n
D
plus one extra variable
(the rate of reaction, conversion, or yield; the relation among them will be
given later), then the total number of unknowns is ve.
The number of mass balance relations for four components is four. We
require an additional relation in terms of conversion (or yield). Suppose that
the conversion is given, then this is an extra given known variable. Thus,
the degrees of freedom is zero and the problem is solvable.
Solution for This Continuous Process
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
where n
Af
n
A
is the number of moles of component A reacted per minute
R
A
n
Af
x
A
, where R
A
is the rate of consumption of component A (moles
of A consumed per unit time).
Figure 2.7 Molar ow diagram for solved example 2.1.
TM
From the stoichiometric equation, we have the number of moles of
component B reacted per unit time R
B

3
2
number of moles of A reacted
per unit time):
R
B

3
2
n
Af
n
A

3
2
n
Af
x
A
where R
B
is the rate of consumption of component B.
From Stoichiometric Equations
The number of moles of C produced per unit time R
C

3
2
number of moles
of A reacted per unit time) is
R
C

3
2
n
Af
n
A

3
2
n
Af
x
A
The number of moles of D produced per unit time R
D

5
2
number of moles
of A reacted per unit time) is
R
D

5
2
n
Af
n
A

5
2
n
Af
x
A
Now, the simplest rational thinking will tell us that
n
A
n
Af
R
A
n
B
n
Bf
R
B
n
C
n
Cf
R
C
n
D
n
Df
R
D
Thus,
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
n
Af
1 x
A
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
n
Af
x
A
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
n
Af
x
A
n
D
n
Df

5
2
n
Af
x
A
Thus, all the exit variables from the reactor are given in terms of the known
input variables n
Af
. . n
Bf
. n
Cf
. n
Df
, and one conversion (i.e., x
A
).
Numerical Values for Example 2.1
n
Af
10 mol/min
n
Bf
30 mol/min
n
Cf
2 mol/min
n
Df
1.5 mol/min
TM
Then, for any given conversion, we can obtain n
A
. n
B
. n
C
, and n
D
. Say, for
example, the conversion is 80%; then,
x
A
0.8
From the above equations,
n
A
101 0.8 100.2 2 mol/min
n
B
30
3
2
100.8 30 12 18 mol/min
n
C
2
3
2
100.8 2 12 14 mol/min
n
D
1.5
5
2
100.8 1.5 20 21.5 mol/min
Exactly the same can be done in terms of x
B
or in terms of Y.
The reader should practice obtaining similar relations once in terms of
x
B
and once in terms of Y.
Rate of Reaction
The rate of reaction in the context of material and energy balance is dened
as the number of moles produced of a component per unit time. Of course,
produced or consumed in the denition is a matter of convention. We will
choose the convention that R is a rate of production. However, this is
arbitrary, and the reader should practice the derivation with R, which is
the rate of consumption.
According to the above sign convention, the rate of reaction (produc-
tion) of component A is obviously negative, because actually A is a reactant
(it is being consumed):
R
A
n
A
n
Af
If we write the rate of consumption of A and call it R

A
, then it is positive
and dened as
R
A
n
Af
n
A
This simple fact should be very clear in the mind of the reader. It is really
very simple; it is like saying that John lost $100, which is exactly the same as
saying that John gained $100.
However, of course, we have to follow a certain convention. Do we
work with the rates of production (and in this case, rates of consumption are
only negative rates of production) or do we work with the rates of consump-
tion (and in this case, rates of production are only negative rates of con-
sumption)? The choice is arbitrary; however, the chemical engineer should
TM
be very clear about the above meanings because in the complex process of
design in the chemical industry, dierent people (and dierent books and
manuals) may choose the convention dierently, which may cause confusion
if the chemical engineer is not completely aware of the above simple and
fundamental facts.
We will choose to work with the rates of production. Thus, for the
reaction
2A 3B !3C 5D
we will have the following:
Rate of production of A R
A
n
A
n
Af
(negative)
Rate of production of B R
B
n
B
n
Bf
(negative)
Rate of production of C R
C
n
C
n
Cf
(positive)
Rate of production of D R
D
n
d
n
Df
(positive)
Therefore, we have four rates of reaction: R
A
, R
B
, R
C
and R
D
. Does this
mean that the single reaction is dened by four dierent rates of reactions?
Of course not! The four rates are related by the stoichiometric numbers.
Intuitively, we can easily note that
R
B

3
2
R
A
R
C

3
2
R
A
R
D

5
2
R
A
Thus, one rate of reaction (e.g., R
A
; it can of course be R
B
or R
C
or R
D
, but
only one rate of reaction) denes automatically, together with the stoichio-
metric numbers, the other rates of reactions as long as it is a single reaction
system.
We can obviously dene the rates of reaction in terms of R
B
or R
C
or
R
D
(but only one rate) as follows:
1. The above relations are in terms of component A.
2. In terms of R
B
,
R
A

2
3
R
B
R
C
R
B
R
D

5
3
R
B
TM
3. In terms of R
C
,
R
A

2
3
R
C
R
B
R
C
R
D

5
3
R
C
4. In terms of R
D
,
R
A

2
5
R
D
R
B

3
5
R
D
R
C

3
5
R
D
Thus, the rates of reaction of a single reaction can be all expressed in terms
of one rate of reaction as long as the stoichiometric numbers for this single
reaction are all known. We will dene the generalized rate of reaction r in a
later section.
2.2.3 Relations Among Rate of Reaction, Conversion,
and Yield
We have made it very clear earlier that the single reaction system is fully
dened (and solvable) in terms of any conversion for one of the reactants or
any yield of one of the products. We have also made it very clear that all
rates of reaction of the components of a single reaction are fully dened in
terms of one rate of reaction.
Does this mean that we need one conversion (or yield) plus one rate
of reaction to dene (and solve) the system? Of course not! This will
contradict the strict statement that the system is completely dened (and
solvable) in terms of one variable. In fact, we need only either one
conversion (or yield) or one rate of reaction. This is because rates of
reaction are directly related to conversions (or yields), as will be shown
in the next few lines.
It also has to be very clear to the reader that if he/she has a degree of
freedom in a problem that is not zero, he/she cannot use a conversion (or
yield) and rate of reaction as two given relations. If conversion (or yield)
is used, any rate of reaction information is redundant from the degree-of-
freedom point of view and vice versa. This simple fact will be made even
clearer after we show the relations between conversion (or yield) and rate of
reaction.
TM
Rate of Reaction, Conversions, and Yields
Consider the reaction
2A 3B !3C 5D
taking place in the reactor in Figure 2.8. It is straightforward to dene R
A
as
follows:
Rate of production of component A,
R
A
n
A
n
Af
which is negative because A is consumed not produced.
The fractional conversion x
A
is dened as
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
Number of moles of A reacted

Number of moles of A fed
Therefore, from the above two relations, it is very clear that
x
A

R
A
n
Af
or, equivalently,
R
A
n
Af
x
A
Thus, there is a direct relation between R
A
and x
A
.
Figure 2.8 Molar ow diagram.
TM
Similar relations can be found between R
A
and Y (yield) as follows.
Because
R
A
n
A
n
Af
Y
C
(yield of component C) can be dened as
Y
c

n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
Number of moles of C produced

Number of moles of A fed
However, we know from the stoichiometry of the reaction that the number
of moles (per unit time for continuous process) produced of C is
3
2
times the
number of moles of A reacted; that is,
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
n
Af
n
A
Therefore,
Y
c

3
2
R
A
n
Af
which gives
R
A

2
3
Y
C
n
Af
Similar relations can be developed between any rate of reaction R
A
. R
B
. R
C
.
or R
D
) and any reactant conversion (x
A
or x
B
) or any yield Y
C
or Y
D
). The
reader should practice deriving these relations.
The following should be clear:
1. For a single reaction, the denition of one conversion (or yield)
makes any other denition of any other conversion (or yield) or
any other rate of reaction redundant.
2. For a single reaction, the denition of one rate of reaction makes
any other denition of any other rate of reaction or conversion
(or yield) redundant.
Solved Example 2.2
Again consider the reaction
2A 3B !3C 5D
taking place in the reactor in Figure 2.9 with the shown feed molar ow
rates of various components. The number of unknowns for this reactor is
four n
A
. n
B
. n
C
. n
D
), but because there is a single reaction, there is an extra
unknown (a rate of reaction or a conversion for the above equation). This
will add up to ve unknowns.
TM
Relations
We have four independent mass balance relations. Thus, the problem as
shown is not solvable. Why? The reason is that if we dene the degrees of
freedom as the dierence between number of unknowns and the number of
relations, we have
Degrees of freedom 5 unknowns 4 mass balance relations 1
(The reader can obviously dene the degree of freedom in the opposite
sense; i.e. as the dierence between number of relations and the number
of unknowns. This gives the degrees of freedom to be 4 5 1; this
should not cause any problem to the reader). Now, if this problem is to
be solved, something else should be dened, let us consider the following
cases:
1. Conversion of A dened as 80%
In this case, the problem is solvable because the degree of free-
dom now is zero. For
x
A

n
AF
n
A
n
Af
we get
0.8
10 n
A
10
giving
n
A
2 min/mol
Now, because 8 mol of A was consumed, the number of moles of
B consumed is equal to 3,28 12 mol/min. Thus,
TM
n
B
40 12 28 mol/min
Because, 8 moles of A was consumed, the number of moles of C
produced is equal to 3,28 12 mol/min. Thus,
n
C
3 12 15 mol/min
Also, because 8 moles of A was consumed, the number of moles
of D produced is 3,28 20 mol/min and
n
D
1.5 20 21.5 mol/min
Making the Above Calculations More Systematic
As we agreed earlier, we dene R as the rate of production; there-
fore,
n
A
n
Af
R
A
n
B
n
Bf
R
B
n
C
n
Cf
R
C
n
D
n
Df
R
D
However, we also agreed earlier that all the rates of reaction can
be expressed in terms of one rate of reaction and the stoichio-
metric numbers; thus,
R
B

3
2
R
A
R
C

3
2
R
A
R
D

5
2
R
A
Therefore, the four mass balance equations can be written in
terms of R
A
:
n
A
n
Af
R
A
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
R
A
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
R
A
n
D
n
Df

5
2
R
A
However, we also agreed that the rates of reaction can be
expressed in terms of conversion (or yield) and vice versa.
Thus, we have
R
A
n
Af
x
A
TM
This will give R
A
8 mol/min, which can be substituted in the
previous equation (or we write the equations in terms of x
A
).
Therefore, the mass balance equations can be written as
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
n
Af
x
A
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
n
Af
X
A
n
D
n
Df

5
2
n
Af
x
A
Substituting the numbers of the specic example in the above
relations give the same results as we obtained earlier:
n
A
10 100.8 10 8 2 min/mol
n
B
40
3
2
100.8 40 12 28 min/mol
n
C
3
3
2
100.8 3 12 15 min/mol
n
D
1.5
5
2
100.8 1.5 20 21.5 min/mol
2. Rate of reaction of A dened as R
A
8 mol/min
In this case, we use the relations
n
A
n
Af
R
A
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
R
A
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
R
A
n
D
n
Df

5
2
R
A
Therefore, we again obtain the same results we obtained earlier:
n
A
10 8 2 min/mol
n
B
40
3
2
8 28 min/mol
n
C
3
3
2
8 15 min/mol
n
D
1.5
5
2
8 21.5 min/mol
The reader is advised to solve for cases where other conversion
x
B
is dened or one of the yields Y
C
or Y
D
or one other rate of
reaction R
B
. R
C
, or R
D
) is dened.
TM
An Important Question
Can other relations (other than one conversion or one yield or one rate of
reaction) be used to solve the problem?
To answer this question, let us consider the same problem (Fig. 2.10).
The reaction is again the same,
2A 3B !3C 5D
and we have the same reactor with the same feeds and feed ow rates.
Instead of giving one conversion (or one yield) or one rate of reaction we
give one relation,
n
B
14n
A
Can we solve the problem? Yes, of course, because the degrees of freedom
is zero.
We have the following mass balance (with a single chemical reaction)
relations:
n
A
n
Af
R
A
2.10
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
R
A
2.11
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
R
A
2.12
n
D
n
Df

5
2
R
A
2.13
we also have
n
B
14n
A
2.14
On substituting the feed conditions, Eq. (2.10) becomes
n
A
10 R
A
2.15
TM
On substituting the feed conditions and using Eq. (2.14), Eq. (2.11) gives
14n
A
40
3
2
R
A
2.16
Substituting n
A
from Eq. (2.15) into Eq. (2.16) gives
1410 R
A
40
3
2
R
A
which becomes
100 12.5R
A
Therefore, the rate of reaction of component A is obtained as
R
A
8 min/mol
Then, substituting R
A
in Eqs. (2.10)(2.13) gives
n
A
10 8 2 min/mol
n
B
40
3
2
8 28 min/mol
n
C
3
3
2
8 15 min/mol
n
D
1.5
5
2
8 21.5 min/mol
Thus, from the given relation n
B
14n
A
, we are able to calculate R
A
and
then the solution proceeds as before. However, the reader cannot consider
this relation together with a given rate of reaction or conversion as two
independent relations. To make this point even clearer, let us consider the
same problem but with ve ow rates unknown (meaning it is a six
unknowns problem because of the single reaction) (Fig. 2.11).
The reaction is the same as earlier:
2A 3B !3C 5D
TM
Total number of unknowns 6 unknowns (5 molar ow rates
1 rate of reaction)
Mass balance reactions 4
Degrees of freedom 2
Thus, this problem is not solvable.
If we dene any one relation,
x
A
0.8 or R
A
8 or n
B
14n
A
we will have degree of freedom 6 5 1. Still the problem is unsolvable!
What if we dene any two of the above relations, say,
R
A
8 and n
B
14n
A
Now, the absent-minded chemical engineer or the one who is not strictly clear
about the degrees-of-freedom concept (the one who does not know at all
about the degree-of-freedom-concept will be in even worse condition) will
count as follows: I have six unknowns, I have four mass balance relations,
and two extra relations (R
A
8 and n
B
14n
A
), then the degree of freedom
is equal to zero and the problem is solvable! This is completely wrong!!! R
A

8 and n
B
14n
A
are not two independent relations and the problem is still
not solvable. The reader should try to solve it to see why it is unsolvable.
Another Important Question
Can two other independent relations be dened that will make the above
problem solvable? The answer is a conditional yes, depending on the true
independence of these relations.
Case 1: For the above problem, we will dene
R
A
8 and
n
Bf
n
Af
4
Now, the problem is solvable, because immediately from the second relation
we can nd that n
Bf
40 and the problem is solvable.
This appears too obvious, let us try something that is not that obvious.
Case 2: For the above problem, we dene
R
A
8 and n
C
7.5n
A
Is this solvable? Let us try.
We have
n
A
n
Af
R
A
2.10
TM
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
R
A
2.11
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
R
A
2.12
n
D
n
Df

5
2
R
A
2.13
Using R
A
8 and n
C
7.5n
A
, we get
n
A
10 8 2 min/mol
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
8 n
Bf
12 min/mol
n
C
3
3
2
8 15 min/mol
n
D
1.5
5
2
8 21.5 min/mol
The problem is not solvable, as we still have n
B
and n
Bf
as unknowns.
We notice from the above that automatically by applying
R
A
8
we get
n
C
n
A
7.5
The relation we gave as n
C
7.5n
A
is actually redundant and cannot be
used to obtain the unknowns n
B
and n
Bf
.
Conclusion
Because for given feed conditions, the output conditions (for the case of a
single reaction) are completely dened in terms of one and only one variable
(conversion of any reactant, or yield of any product, or rate of reaction of
any component), then only one relation related to these variables or one
relation relating the output variables together can be used in the solution of
the problem (and in the determination of the degrees of freedom).
2.3 GENERALIZED MATERIAL BALANCE
In the previous section, we have seen that, for a single reaction, the rates
of reaction for dierent components can all be expressed in terms of the rate
of reaction of one component (together with the stoichiometric numbers), or
the conversion of one of the reactants, or the yield of one of the products (of
course, together with the stoichiometric numbers). These information and
relations for the single reaction are adequate for the solution of any mass
balance problem with a single reaction and can be easily extended to multi-
ple reaction systems, as will be shown later. However, in this section, we will
try to make the calculations even more systematic. This will require, rst,
that we introduce the sign convention for the stoichiometric numbers, as we
TM
introduced earlier the sign convention for the rates of reaction (positive for
production and negative for consumption).
2.3.1 Sign Convention for the Stoichiometric
Numbers
The sign convention is arbitrary, and the reader should be very clear about
this and should not memorize certain relations under a certain sign conven-
tion. The equations you use should be always correct under the chosen sign
convention. However, it is best to adhere to the sign convention used by
most chemical engineers and textbooks.
Most books use the following sign convention:
R
i
rate of production of component i
Rate of production positive
Rate of consumption negative
Stoichiometric number of products positive
Stoichiometric number of reactants negative
Stoichiometric numbers for inerts zero
We will use dierent sign conventions and show that as long as it is con-
sistent it is correct.
I. First Sign Convention (Not Commonly Used)
R
i
rate of production of component i negative
Stoichiometric number of reactants (o
R
) positive
Stoichiometric number of products o
P
negative
We use the reaction given earlier,
2A 3B !3C 5D
Using this uncommon sign convention, we get
R
A
rate of production of component A negative
o
A
2
o
B
3
o
C
3
o
D
5
The balance equations developed earlier are
n
A
n
Af
R
A
2.10
TM
n
B
n
Bf

3
2
R
A
2.11
n
C
n
Cf

3
2
R
A
2.12
n
D
n
Df

5
2
R
A
2.13
and the relations between Rs are
R
B

3
2
R
A
2.17
R
C

3
2
R
A
2.18
R
D
5
2
R
A
2.19
Of course, we could have used R
B
, R
C
, or R
D
as the basis rather than R
A
. To
avoid this multiplicity of choices, we can dene a rate of reaction that does
not depend on the component. It is only related to the reaction; let us call
this rate the generalized rate of reaction, r:
r
R
i
o
i
We can easily show that r does not depend on the choice of i. If i A, then
r
A

R
A
o
a
R
A
2
2.20
If i B, then
r
B

R
B
o
B
R
B
3

1
3
3
2
R
A

R
A
2
2.21
If i C, then
r
C

R
C
o
C
R
C
3
1
3
3
2
R
A

R
A
2
2.22
If i D, then
r
D

R
D
o
D
R
D
5
1
5
5
2
R
A

R
A
2
2.23
Therefore, it is clear that
r
A
r
B
r
C
r
D
r generalized rate of reaction.
Thus, for the given uncommon sign convention (which is usually not used),
r
R
i
o
i
) always negative 2.24
TM
Therefore, the mass balance equations can be written as
n
A
n
Af

o
A
o
i
R
i
n
Af
o
A
r 2.25
n
B
n
Bf

o
B
o
i
R
i
n
Bf
o
B
r 2.26
n
C
n
Cf

o
C
o
i
R
i
n
Cf
o
C
r 2.27
n
D
n
Df

o
D
o
i
R
i
n
Df
o
D
r 2.28
where R
i
is the rate of production of the component i used as a basis for r
and o
i
is its stoichiometric number according to the sign convention chosen.
Equations (2.25)(2.28) can be rewritten in general as
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
o
i
> 0 for reactants
o
i
- 0 for products
and
r
R
i
o
i
) always negative
2.29
II. Second Sign Convention (Commonly Used)
R
i
rate of production of component i positive
Stoichiometric number of reactants o
R
negative
Stoichiometric number of products o
P
positive
Relation (2.29) remains the same, but r is now always positive (even when R
i
is negative),
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
o
i
- 0 for reactants
o
i
> 0 for products
and
r
R
i
o
i
) always positive
2.30
TM
Relations Among R
i
. r. x
i
, and Limiting Components
R
A
rate of production n
A
n
Af
and
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
2.31
Thus,
x
A

R
A
n
Af
2.32
or
R
A
n
Af
x
A

o
A
o
A
n
Af
x
A
R
B

o
B
o
A
R
A

o
B
o
A
n
Af
x
A
R
C

o
C
o
A
R
A

o
C
o
A
n
Af
x
A
R
D

o
D
o
A
R
A

o
D
o
A
n
Af
x
A
In general, we can write
R
i

o
i
o
A
n
Af
x
A
2.33
Therefore, the relation between the rate of reaction of any component and
the conversion for a specic equation does not depend on the stoichiometric
number sign convention. Of course, we can choose any other component
other than A as a base for conversion (if it is another reactant, then it will be
conversion, but if it is a product, then it will be called yield, not conversion).
Thus, the general form of Eq. (2.33) is
R
i

o
i
o
k
n
kf
x
k
2.34
where n
kf
is the feed number of moles on which basis x (conversion) is
dened.
TM
Now, the generalized rate of reaction is
r
R
i
o
i

n
kf
x
k
o
k
2.35
When we substitute into the mass balance relation, we have
n
i
n
if
o
i
r 2.36
which is actually
n
i
n
if

o
i
o
A
n
Af
x
A
2.37
2.3.2 The Limiting Component
This is a very important concept regarding the rational denition of the
conversion for a certain feed component; thus, this denition should not
violate the natural laws of the reaction itself. When the stoichiometric num-
bers for all reactants are equal, the problem is rather trivial; it is even more
trivial when the stoichiometric numbers of the reactants are equal and the
feed is equimolar. However, when the stoichiometric numbers of the reac-
tants are not equal and/or the feed molar ows of the dierent components
are not equal, the problem is not trivial, although it is very simple.
Consider, rst, the following reaction with equal stoichiometric
numbers for the dierent components:
A B !C D
taking place in the reactor in Figure 2.12 with the shown feed molar ow
rates for the four components.
If we specify the conversion of A as x
A
90%, then we nd that
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
10 9 1 min/mol
TM
Now,
n
B
n
Bf
n
Bf
x
A
6 9 3 min/mol!!!!
Obviously, this is impossible and it means that the molar ow rate of com-
ponent B does not allow 90% conversion of component A; however, if we
specify the conversion of B as x
B
90%. Then, we have
x
B

n
Bf
n
B
n
Bf
and n
B
n
Bf
n
Bf
x
B
6 60.9 0.6 min/mol
Therefore,
n
A
n
Af
n
Bf
x
B
10 60.9 4.6 min/mol
Thus, B is the limiting component, which means that it is the component
which gets exhausted or reacted completely before the other reactant is
exhausted. In other words, its conversion can be specied as high as
100% without violating the natural laws of the reaction.
Therefore, for reactions in which all of the reactants have the same
stoichiometric numbers, the limiting component is the reactant with the
lowest number of the moles in feed. For this case of equal stoichiometric
numbers for the reactants, if we additionally have equimolar feed, than any
reactant can be the limiting reactant.
2.3.3 Reactions with Different Stoichiometric
Numbers for the Reactants
Consider the following chemical reaction with dierent stoichiometric num-
bers for dierent components:
2A 10B !6C 3D 2.38
Now, if we take for this reaction that the limiting component is the compo-
nent with the lowest number of moles in the feed, we will fall into a serious
mistake. How?
Considering the case shown in Figure 2.13, if we wrongly use the
previous statement (the limiting component is the reactant with the lowest
number of moles in the feed), we will strongly say that A is the limiting
component. Let us check, say, the conversion of component A, x
A
90%,
then
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
10 9 1 min/mol
Now,
n
B
n
Bf

10
2
n
Bf
x
A
20 5100.9 25 min/mol!!!!
TM
Obviously this is wrong. A is not the limiting component (or reactant); in
fact, B is the correct limiting component (despite the fact that n
Bf
> n
Af
; this
is because jo
B
j >> jo
A
j. The reader could nd that out directly from look-
ing at the ratio of the stoichiometric numbers. However, for complex
systems, it is not that obvious.
A Deceptive Wrong Procedure for the Determination of the
Limiting Component
Let us refer to the generalized form of the mass balance equations for
reactants:
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
n
i
n
if

o
i
o
j
R
j
where R
j
rate of production (negative for reactants).
Let us make
n
i
n
if

o
i
o
j
R
j
max
the limit of this. The reactant i with the largest absolute value of o
i
,o
j
R
j
max
is the limiting component.
However, now, what is R
j
max
? It is R
j
at 100% conversion (obvious,
isnt it?).
Therefore may be it is better to write the above relation in terms of
conversion x
j
as follows. Because
R
j
n
j
n
jf
TM
and
x
j

n
jf
n
j
n
jf
therefore
x
j

R
j
n
jf
From the above relation, we get
R
j
x
j
n
jf
and, therefore,
R
j
max
1.0n
if
(as maximum conversion is 100% or x
j
1.0
Therefore, the mass balance relation will be reduced to
n
i
n
if

o
i
o
j
n
jf
(at maximum conversion x
j
1.0
Thus, the quantity
~ xx
i

o
i
o
j
n
jf
is the measure for the controlling component i. The component i with the
largest value of ~ xx
i
is the rate-limiting component. Here, reactant i with the
largest value of ~ xx
i
is the limiting component. (Be careful, this is a wrong
conclusion!! Although, it will be correct in the next deceiving example).
Application to the Previous Problem
Now, for the case shown in Figure 2.13 and for reaction (2.38), we want to
nd the reactant i (A or B) which represents the limiting component. The
base component j is arbitrary, we can actually choose whatever we like.
Choose component j to be A. Then,
~ xx
i

o
A
o
A
n
Af
which gives
~ xx
A

o
A
o
A

10 10
and
~ xx
B

o
B
o
A

10
10
2

10 50
TM
Thus, the limiting components is B (as ~ xx
B
is higher than ~ xx
A
. Therefore, B,
again, is the limiting component regardless of the basis j taken (A or B). Is
the procedure correct, or can it cause errors? The reader should think about
it and check this question before proceeding to the next part, where a
counterexample is given.
Counterexample
The previous procedure for the determination of the limiting reactant,
although it sounds logical and when applied to the previous example
gave correct results, it is actually wrong!! It is important for the reader to
realize that he/she cannot develop a procedure and check for one case and
from the result of this single case conclude that it is correct. Things should
be thought about much deeper.
We will now give a counterexample (Fig. 2.14) showing that the
previous procedure is not correct. We will only change the feed conditions;
the reaction remains the same as in the Eq. (2.38) case.
Let us apply the previous procedure:
1. Choose component A as j.
~ xx
i

o
A
o
A
n
Af
which gives
~ xx
A

o
A
o
A

10 10
and
~ xx
B

o
B
o
A

10
10
2

10 50
TM
Thus, B is the limiting component according to this (wrong)
procedure.
2. Choose component B as j.
~ xx
i

o
B
o
B
n
Bf
which gives
~ xx
B

o
B
o
B

n
Bf

10
10

2000 2000
and
~ xx
A

o
A
o
B

n
Bf

2
10

2000 400
Thus, B is the limiting component according to this procedure
(wrong again!!).
In fact, B is certainly not the limiting component. For if B is the limiting
component, then we should be able to dene x
B
100% without violating
the natural laws of the reaction.
Let us do that and see. Just take x
B
90% 0.9. Now, calculate
n
A
n
Af

o
A
o
B
x
B
n
Bf
Thus,
n
A
10
2
10
0.92000

350!!!
Obviously wrong!! So although the procedure gave the correct conclusion
when n
Bf
20, it gave the wrong conclusion when n
Bf
2000; therefore, it
is not a correct procedure.
The Correct Procedure for Determining the Limiting
Component
From the mass balance,
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
The limiting situation for any component i is when it is exhausted (i.e.,
100% conversion and therefore n
i
0. Thus, for this situation, we get
0 n
if
o
i
r
TM
which gives
r
Li

n
if
o
i
If we adhere to the more common sign convention for stoichiometric num-
bers, which is o
i
- 0 for reactants, then r
Li
will always be positive. It is
obvious now that the reactant which will deplete rst will be the reactant
i with the smallest r
Li
.
Solved Example 2.3
Let us apply this simple (and hopefully correct) criterion to the previous
cases:
2A 10B !6C 3D
Case 1 (Fig. 2.15)
r
LA

10
2
5
r
LB

20
10
2
The limiting component is B, which is a correct conclusion.
Case 2 (Fig. 2.16)
r
LA

10
2
5
r
LB

2000
10
200
The limiting component is A, which is a correct conclusion.
TM
In the previous examples, we used cases which are simple and almost
obvious in order to check and develop a procedure. Now, as we have devel-
oped a simple and nice procedure, let us use it to nd the limiting reactant
for a slightly complex case:
3A 8B 13C 2D !Products
The feeds are as shown in Figure 2.17.
What is the limiting reactant (component)?
r
LA

15
3
5
r
LB

22
8
2.75
r
LC

43
13
3.308
r
LD

8
2
4
Thus, the limiting reactant is B (correct), as it has the lowest r
Li
value.
TM
2.3.4 Multiple Reactions and the Special Case of a
Single Reaction
Now, we move to the more complex case of multiple reactions. Multiple
reactions are dened by more than one variable depending on the number of
independent reactions. The concept of independent and dependent reactions
will be discussed later, and until we do that, we will deal only with inde-
pendent reactions.
Consider the two independent consecutive reactions:
A !B !C
It can also be written as two separate reactions:
A !B and B !C
If we dene the conversion of A in Figure 2.18 as
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
then we can nd n
A
in terms of conversion x
A
(if it is given) as follows:
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
However, we cannot nd n
B
or n
C
. Why?
The reason is that we cannot know how much of the converted A
(n
Af
x
A
) has changed to B and how much to C. Therefore, we need to dene
one more variable. For example, we can dene the yield of one of the other
components (B or C):
Yield of B Y
B

n
B
n
Bf
n
Af
Figure 2.18 Molar ow diagram for a multiple-reaction system.
TM
or
Yield of C Y
C

n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
To completely specify the problem, we need to specify any two of the fol-
lowing three variables: x
A
, Y
B
, or Y
C
. A specication of the third variable is
redundant because it can be deducted from the other two variables.
Solved Example 2.4
In this example, we prove that if x
A
and Y
B
are dened, then Y
C
is auto-
matically dened because
n
A
n
Af
n
Af
x
A
n
B
n
Bf
n
Af
Y
B
and
n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
x
A
n
Af
Y
B
which means that if x
A
and Y
B
are dened, then we can compute n
C
and
then Y
C
. Also, if x
A
and Y
C
are dened, then Y
B
is automatically dened,
and if Y
B
and Y
C
are dened, then x
A
is also automatically dened.
Different Denitions of Yield
1. Yield of component i, Y
i
:
Y
i

n
i
n
if
n
Af
This is the amount of i produced as related to initial amount
(or rate) of reactant fed.
2. Yield of component i, Y
i
:
Y
i

n
i
n
if
n
Af
x
A
This is the amount (or rate) of i produced as related to the
amount (or rate) of the reactant that has reacted.
Selectivity
Selectivity has many denitions; one of the most popular one is
S
i

Number of moles of i produced
Number of moles of all products produced
TM
In the above case, it is dened as
S
B

n
B
n
B
n
C
Multiple Reactions in Terms of Rates of Reaction
The simplest case is the above case, where the reactions are independent and
also all of the stoichiometric numbers are equal to unity.
A !B R
1
B !C R
2
R
1
is dened as the rate of production of A by reaction 1 (negative, of
course). Then the rate of production of B by reaction 1 is R
1
; this is to say,
R
A1
R
1
(negative)
R
B1
R
1
(positive)
The rate of production of B by reaction 2 is R
B2
R
2
(negative) and the rate
of production of C by reaction 2 is R
C2
R
2
(positive). Therefore, for the
reactor shown in Figure 2.19, we can write
n
A
n
Af
R
A1
n
Af
R
1
where R
1
R
A1
is negative 2.39
n
B
n
Bf
R
B1
R
B2
n
Bf
R
1
R
2
where R
1
and R
2
are negative 2.40
n
C
n
Cf
R
C2
n
Cf
R
2
where R
2
is negative 2.41
Note that for this reaction,
X
i
n
if

X
i
n
i
. where i A, B, and C
TM
that is, the reaction is not accompanied by any change in the number of
moles.
Relations Among Conversions, Yields, and Rates of Reaction
1. As
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
and R
1
n
A
n
Af
Thus,
x
A

R
1
n
Af
nally giving
R
1
n
Af
x
A
2. As Y
B

n
B
n
Bf
n
Af
From relation (2.40),
n
B
n
Bf
R
2
R
1
Thus,
Y
B

R
2
R
1
n
Af
R
2
n
Af
x
A
n
Af
Finally giving
R
2
n
Af
Y
B
x
A
3. As
Y
C

n
C
n
Cf
n
Af
We get
Y
C

R
2
n
Af
nally giving
R
2
n
Af
Y
C
TM
Therefore, when R
1
and R
2
are dened, then x
A
, Y
B
, and Y
C
can be deduced
easily from them. When x
A
and Y
B
, or x
A
and Y
C
, or Y
B
and Y
C
are dened,
then R
1
and R
2
can be easily deduced from them. Thus, the system is fully
dened in terms of x
A
and Y
B
, or x
A
and Y
C
, or Y
B
and Y
C
, or R
1
and R
2
.
For N independent reactions, the system is completely dened in terms
of N conversions and yields or N rates of reaction.
A Case of Multiple Reactions with Slightly More Complex
Stoichiometry
In this case, let us consider the following two reactions:
3A 5B !6C 8D
4C 8K !4F 7L
These are two independent reactions and we are given two rates of reaction:
R
A1
(rate of production of A in reaction 1, negative)
R
C2
(rate of production of C in reaction 2, negative)
Consider the reactor in Figure 2.20 with the shown feed molar ow rates of
the seven components involved in the two reactions.
For the two values for R
A1
and R
C2
,
R
A1
6 mol/min
R
C2
2 mol/min
TM
the mass balance relations are
n
A
n
Af
R
A1
n
Af

3
3
R
A1
n
B
n
Bf

5
3
R
A1
n
C
n
Cf

6
3
R
A1
4
4
R
C2
n
D
n
Df

8
3
R
A1
n
K
n
Kf

8
4
R
C2
n
F
n
Ff

4
4
R
C2
n
L
n
Lf

7
4
R
C2
Therefore, on using the given values of the rates of reactions (R
A1
6
mol/min and R
C2
2 mol/min), we get
n
A
4 mol/min
n
B
15 mol/min
n
C
12 mol/min
n
D
19 mol/min
n
K
6 mol/min
n
F
2 mol/min
n
L
5 mol/min
Note that this reaction is accompanied by a change in the number of moles:
P
n
if
10 25 2 3 10 0 1.5 51.5 min/mol
P
n
i
4 15 12 19 6 2 5 63 min/mol
Let us try to make the relations more systematic by using stoichiometric
numbers (with its sign conventions, of course).
The following common sign convention is used:
o
i
positive for products
o
i
negative for reactants
o
i
zero for inerts in the specic reaction
o
ij
is the stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j, when i is a
reactant o
ij
- 0 and when i is a product, then o
ij
> 0, and, nally, o
ij
0
when i is not involved in the reaction.
TM
The mass balance relations become
n
A
n
Af

o
A1
o
A1
R
A1
o
A2
o
C2
R
C2
n
B
n
Bf

o
B1
o
A1
R
A1
o
B2
o
C2
R
C2
n
C
n
Cf

o
C1
o
A1
R
A1
o
C2
o
C2
R
C2
n
D
n
Df

o
D1
o
A1
R
A1
o
D2
o
C2
R
C2
n
K
n
Kf

o
K1
o
A1
R
A1
o
K2
o
C2
R
C2
n
F
n
Ff

o
F1
o
A1
R
A1
o
F2
o
C2
R
C2
n
L
n
Lf

o
L1
o
A1
R
A1
o
L2
o
C2
R
C2
Now, according to the sign convention we use for this problem, o
A1
3,
o
A2
0, o
B1
5, o
B2
0, o
C1
6, o
C2
4, o
D1
8, o
D2
0, o
K1
0,
o
K2
8, o
F1
0, o
F2
4, o
L1
0, and o
L2
7. Substituting the values in
the above mass balance relations gives
n
A
4 mol/min
n
B
15 mol/min
n
C
12 mol/min
n
D
19 mol/min
n
K
6 mol/min
n
F
2 mol/min
n
L
5 mol/min
This is the same result as we obtained earlier.
From the above relation, we note that we can dene generalized rates
for each reaction:
r
1

R
A1
o
A1
and r
2

R
C2
o
C2
where r
1
is the generalized rate of the rst reaction and r
2
is the generalized
rate of the second reaction.
Thus, we can write for the above two reactions that
n
i
n
if

X
2
j1
o
ij
r
j
. where i A. B. C. D. K. F. and L.
TM
Generalizing and using summation relation, we can write for N reactions:
n
i
n
if

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
(for the balance of any component i in a system of N reactions), where

r
j

R
ij
o
ij
where i is the component for which the rate of production in the reaction j is
given, R
ij
is the rate of production of component i in reaction j, and o
ij
is the
stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j.
Thus, the generalized mass balance equation for any system with
single-input, single-output and N reactions (as shown in Fig. 2.21) is
given by
n
i
n
if

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
2.42
for any number of components i and any number of reactions N.
If we have a single reaction, then the above expression becomes
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
For no reactions (nonreacting systems), it becomes
n
i
n
if
For a system with multiple-inputs, multiple-outputs and multiple reactions
(the most general case), as shown in Figure 2.22, the mass balance equation is
X
K
k1
n
ik

X
L
l1
n
if
l

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
. i 1. 2. . . . . M 2.43
This equation is the most general mass balance equation. It applies to all
possible mass balance cases. If there is only one input and one output, then
TM
it reduces to Eq. (2.42). If there are no reactions, then it reduces to the
following form:
X
K
k1
n
ik

X
L
l1
n
if
l
and so on.
2.3.5 The Algebra of Multiple Reactions (Linear
Dependence and Linear Independence of
Multiple Reactions)
The number of variables (whether conversions and yields or rates of reac-
tion) to dene a system of reactions is equal to the number of independent
reactions. Therefore, for a system of M reactions, we should determine the
number of linearly independent reactions N.
Because this process requires a little knowledge of linear algebra
(determinants and matrices), a limited review is given in Appendix A (matrix
algebra). Here, we introduce the concept through a simple example.
2.3.6 The Most General Mass Balance Equation
(Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output, and Multiple
Reactions)
This is the most general one-phase (homogeneous) chemical engineering
lumped system. It has F input streams (and we use L as the counter for
the input streams n
if
1
. n
if
2
. . . . . n
if
l
. . . . . n
if
L
and K output streams (we use k
Figure 2.22 Molar ow diagram for multiple-inputs, multiple-outputs, and mul-
tiple reactions.
TM
as the counter for output streams n
i
1
. n
i
2
.
i
k
. . . . . n
i
K
with M i 1. 2 . . . .
M components and N reactions r
1
. r
2
. . . . . r
j
. . . . . r
N
. Therefore the gen-
eralized material balance equation is
X
K
k1
n
ik

X
L
l1
n
if
l

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
. i 1. 2. . . . . M
There are M equations having N reactions r
j
. j 1. 2. . . . . N and o
ij
is the
stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j. The generalized rate
of reaction for reaction j is given by r
j
. Note that r
j
is the overall rate of
reaction for the whole unit (it is not per unit volume or per unit mass of
catalyst and so on; that is why our equations are mass balance equations,
not design equations as shown later).
Introductory Example
Consider the following system of reversible isomerization reactions:
1-butene , cis-2-butene
cis-2-butene , trans-2-butene
trans-2-butene , 1-butene
Let us call 1-butene component A, cis-2-butene component B, and trans-2-
butene component C. Then the reaction network can be rewritten as
A,B
Rate r
1

R
1
o
A1
B ,C
Rate r
2

R
2
o
B2
C ,A
Rate r
3

R
3
o
C3
There are apparently three reactions and three components. Let us write the
mass balance equations in terms of the rates of reaction r
1
. r
2
, and r
3
) for a
feed of n
Af
. n
Bf
, and n
Cf
:
n
A
n
Af
o
A1
r
1
o
A3
r
3
n
B
n
Bf
o
B1
r
1
o
B2
r
2
n
C
n
Cf
o
C2
r
2
o
C3
r
3
TM
When we introduce the values (with correct signs) for the stoichiometric
numbers, we get
n
A
n
Af
r
1
r
3
n
B
n
Bf
r
1
r
2
n
C
n
Cf
r
2
r
3
If n
Af
, n
Bf
, and n
Cf
are known, then in the above three equations we have six
unknowns: n
A
, n
B
, n
C
, r
1
, r
2
, and r
3
. Without thorough examination we
would say that we have to dene r
1
, r
2
, and r
3
(three rates of reaction) in
order to solve for n
A
, n
B
, and n
C
. This is actually not true and the problem is
solvable with only two specications.
Why Is That?
Because the given three reactions are not linearly independent. The system
actually contains only two independent reactions. The mass balance equa-
tions could have been written in terms of the two modied rate variables
r
0
1
r
1
r
3
and r
0
2
r
1
r
2
We can rewrite the mass balance relations as
n
A
n
Af
r
0
1
n
B
n
Bf
r
0
2
n
C
n
Cf
r
0
1
r
0
2
Therefore, there are only two unknown variables (r
0
1
and r
0
2
) other than n
A
,
n
B
, and n
C
. How can we tell beforehand that the reactions are linearly
independent or not? Let us illustrate that rst for the previous example.
A ,B 2.44
B ,C 2.45
C ,A 2.46
We will write them in the following algebraic form:
A B 0 C 0 2.47
0 A B C 0 2.48
1 A 0 B C 0 2.49
The matrix of the coecients is
TM
A
1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
0
B
B
@
1
C
C
A
It is a 3 3 matrix; if its determinant is zero (singular matrix), then the rank
of this matrix is less than 3, which means there is linear dependence:
DetA 11 11 0 1 1 0
This means that the matrix is singular and the above three equations are
linearly dependent. In fact addition of Eqs (2.47) and (2.48) gives Eq. (2.49).
Consider another reaction set; it is the steam reforming of methane. In
this set of reactions, there are ve components and three reactions:
CH
4
H
2
O ,CO3H
2
COH
2
O ,CO
2
H
2
CH
4
2H
2
O ,CO
2
4H
2
We will write these three reactions in algebraic form. Let us call CH
4
component A, H
2
O component B, CO component C, H
2
component D,
and CO
2
component E. We get
1A 1B 1C 3D0E 0 2.50
0A 1B 1C 1D1E 0 2.51
1A 2B 0C 4D1E 0 2.52
The matrix of the coecients is
1 1 1 3 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 2 0 4 1
0
B
B
@
1
C
C
A
For these three reactions to be linearly independent, we must have at least
one 3 3 submatrix which is nonsingular. This is not achieved in the above
matrix because all 3 3 submatrices are singular and therefore the rank is
less than 3 and the system is linearly dependent. Therefore, Eqs. (2.50)
(2.52) are linearly dependent.
2.4 SOLVED PROBLEMS FOR MASS BALANCE
Readers are advised to solve the problem on their own before inspecting the
given solution.
TM
Solved Example 2.5
In the Deacon Process for the manufacture of chlorine, HCl and O
2
react to
form Cl
2
and H
2
O. Sucient air (21% O
2
, 79% N
2
) is fed to the reactor to
supply 30% excess oxygen, and the fractional conversion of HCl is 70%.
Calculate the molar composition of the product stream.
Solution
4HCl O
2
!2H
2
O2Cl
2
For simplication, we can write
4A B !2C 2D
where HCl A, O
2
B, H
2
O C, Cl
2
D, and N
2
E
We can write the generalized mass balance (see Fig. 2.23) as
X
K
k1
n
i
k

X
L
l1
n
if
l

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
where L 1, K 1, and N 1, giving
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
The fractional conversion of component A is
x
A

n
A
f
n
A
n
A
f
0.7
thus giving
n
A
0.3 n
A
f
TM
We have
n
B
f
(required
1
4
n
A
f
As 30% excess is fed, we get
n
B
f
1.3
1
4
n
A
f
thus giving
n
B
f
0.325 n
A
f
Also, we have
n
E
f

79
21
n
B
f
n
E
f
1.223 n
A
f
Let R
A
be the rate of production of component A; then, we get
R
A
n
A
f
n
A
which is equal to
R
A
0.7 n
A
f
Now, we have
r
0.7 n
A
f
o
A
As o
A
4, we get
r 0.175 n
A
f
From the mass balance relations, we get, for component A,
n
A
n
A
f
o
A
r
n
A
0.3 n
A
f
2.53
For component B,
n
B
n
B
f
o
B
r
TM
As o
B
1 and n
B
f
0.325n
A
f
, we get
n
B
0.15n
A
f
2.54
For component C,
n
C
n
C
f
o
C
r
As o
C
2 and n
C
f
0, we get
n
C
0.35 n
A
f
2.55
For component D,
n
D
n
D
f
o
D
r
As o
D
2 and n
D
f
0, we get
n
D
0.35 n
A
f
2.56
For component E,
n
E
n
E
f
o
E
r
As o
E
0 and n
E
f
1.223n
A
f
, we get
n
E
1.223 n
A
f
2.57
Thus, the output mixture is as follows:
n
A
0.3 n
A
f
. n
B
0.15 n
A
f
. n
C
0.35 n
A
f
. n
D
0.35 n
A
f
.
n
E
1.223 n
A
f
The total output mixture is
n
Total
out
0.3 0.15 0.35 0.35 1.223 n
A
f
which is equal to
n
Total
out
2.373 n
A
f
TM
Now, to calculate the composition of exit stream (mole fraction),
Mole fraction of A X
A

n
A
n
Total
out
0.3 n
A
f
2.373 n
A
f
0.3
2.373
0.1264
Mole fraction of B X
B

n
B
n
Total
out
0.15 n
A
f
2.373 n
A
f
0.15
2.373
0.06321
Mole fraction of C X
C

n
C
n
Total
out
0.35 n
A
f
2.373 n
A
f
0.35
2.373
0.14749
Mole fraction of D X
D

n
D
n
Total
out
0.35 n
A
f
2.373 n
A
f
0.35
2.373
0.14749
Mole fraction of E X
E

n
E
n
Total
out
1.223 n
A
f
2.373 n
A
f
1.223
2.373
0.51538
Just as a check, the sum of the mole fractions of exit stream should be equal
to 1. Thus,
X
5
p1
X
p
0.1264 0.06321 0.14749 0.14749 0.51538
0.99997 1.0
Hence, our calculations are correct.
Solved Example 2.6
Chlorine oxide gas is used in the paper industry to bleach pulp and it is
produced by reacting sodium chlorate, sulfuric acid, and methanol in lead-
lined reactors:
6NaClO
3
6H
2
SO
4
CH
3
OH !6ClO
2
6NaHSO
4
CO
2
5H
2
O
(a) Suppose 14 moles of an equimolar mixture of NaClO
3
and
H
2
SO
4
are added per 1 mole of CH
3
OH per hour; determine
the limiting reactant.
(b) For the above given molar ratios, calculate the reactant ows
required to produce 10 metric tons per hour of ClO
2
, assuming
90% conversion (of the limiting component) is achieved.
Molecular weights of the components are Cl
2
70.906, Na 23.0,
S 32.0, C 12.0, H 1.0, and O 16.0.
Solution
The reaction (Fig. 2.24) can be written as
6A 6B C !6D6F M5K
TM
Part a: The limiting rates are given by
r
L
A

n
A
f
o
A
7
6
1.16666
r
L
B

n
B
f
o
B
7
6
1.16666
r
L
C

n
C
f
o
C
1
1
1
As r
L
C
has the smallest numeral value, component C is the limiting agent.
It is required to produce 10,000 kg/h of component D. The molecular
weight of DM
D
is 67 kg/kmol. Therefore,
n
D

W
D
M
D
10,000
67
149.253 kmol/h 2.58
Also, it is given in the problem that the conversion of component C is equal
to 0.9:
x
C
0.9 2.59
From the stoichiometric relations in the feed stream,
n
B
f
n
A
f
2.60
n
C
f

1
7
n
A
f
2.61
Figure 2.24 Molar ow diagram for example 2.6.
TM
Moreover, we have
n
D
f
0 2.62
n
F
f
0 2.63
n
M
f
0 2.64
n
k
f
0 2.65
Degrees-of-freedom analysis (i.e., the problem is solvable or not)
Total number of unknowns:
n
if
for i A. B. C. D. F. M and K: 7 unknowns
n
i
for i A. B. C. D. F. M and K: 7 unknowns
Rate of reaction (single reaction) : 1 unknown
Total : 15 Unknowns
Known and specied relations/values:
Number of mass balance relations: 7 for 7 components
Number of given relations (equations 2.59--2.65) : 8
Total: 15 known relations
Degrees of freedom 15 15 0
Hence, the problem is correctly specied and solvable.
Let us solve it.
Part b: Because we know n
D
, from the balance for component D we can
get r (because we know that n
D
f
0 as follows:
n
D
n
D
f
o
D
r
n
D
0 6r
Finally, we get
149.253 6r
thus giving
r
149.253
6
24.8756 kmol/h 2.66
Now, we know the conversion of component C, x
C
0.9. We can write
x
C

n
C
f
n
C
n
C
f
n
A
f
,7 n
C
n
A
f
,7
0.9 2.67
TM
Also, we have
n
C
n
C
f
o
C
r 2.68
On substituting the values (o
C
1, we get
n
C

n
A
f
7
r
Finally, we get
n
C

n
A
f
7
24.8756 2.69
Using Eqs. (2.69) and (2.67), we get
n
A
f
,7 n
A
f
,7 24.8756
n
A
f
,7
0.9
On solving, we get
n
A
f
193.477 kmol/h 2.70
From Eq. (2.60), we get
n
B
f
n
A
f
Hence,
n
B
f
193.477 kmol/h 2.71
n
C
f

n
A
f
7
Thus,
n
C
f
27.6396 kmol/h 2.72
Another (easier) route of solution
Instead of trying to obtain n
A
f
and then obtain n
B
f
and n
C
f
, we can actually
compute n
C
f
, and then from it, n
A
f
and n
B
f
as follows:
We compute r as we did earlier:
n
D
n
D
f
o
D
r 2.65
thus giving
r 24.8756 kmol/h 2.66
TM
We have
x
C

n
C
f
n
C
n
C
f
n
A
f
,7 n
C
n
A
f
,7
0.9 2.67
From the balance equation for component C, we have
n
C
n
C
f
o
C
r
Thus, we get
n
C
f
n
C
r 2.68
From Eqs. (2.67) and (2.68), we get
x
C
0.9
r
n
C
f
24.8756
n
C
f
2.69
Thus,
n
C
f

24.8756
0.9
27.63958 kmol/h
Therefore,
n
A
f
7n
C
f
727.63958 193.477 kmol/h
Finally,
n
B
f
n
A
f
193.477 kmol/h
Solved Example 2.7
Acetaldehyde, CH
3
CHO, can be produced by catalytic dehydrogenation of
ethanol, C
2
H
5
OH, via the reaction
C
2
H
5
OH !CH
3
CHOH
2
There is, however, a parallel reaction producing ethyl acetate,
CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
:
2C
2
H
5
OH !CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
2H
2
Suppose that, in a given reactor, the conditions are adjusted so that a con-
version of 95% ethanol is obtained with a 80% yield of acetaldehyde based
on the consumption of C
2
H
5
OH. Calculate the mole fraction of H
2
in the
product stream.
Solution
C
2
H
5
OH !CH
3
CHOH
2
TM
and
2C
2
H
5
OH !CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
2H
2
For simplication, we can write
A !B C, and the generalized rate of reaction is r
1
2A !D2C, and the generalized rate of reaction is r
2
where C
2
H
5
OH A, CH
3
CHO B, H
2
C, and CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
D.
We can write the generalized mass balance equation (Fig. 2.25) as
X
K
k1
n
ik

X
L
l1
n
if
l

X
N
j1
o
ij
r
j
where N 2, K 1, and L 1.
Thus, in a more simplied form, we can write
n
i
n
if

X
2
j1
o
ij
r
j
Fractional conversion of component A x
A

n
A
f
n
A
n
A
f
0.95
thus giving
n
A
n
A
f
0.95 n
A
f
2.70
thus, n
A
0.05 n
A
f
2.71
Yield of B Y
B

n
B
n
B
f
x
A
n
A
f
0.8
thus giving
n
B
n
B
f
0.80.95n
A
f
TM
Further calculation gives
n
B
n
B
f
0.76 n
A
f
2.72
As n
B
f
0, we get
n
B
0.76 n
A
f
2.73
From the mass balance equation for component B,
n
B
n
B
f
o
B
1
r
1
o
B
2
r
2
We get
n
B
n
B
f
r
1
0
thus giving
n
B
r
1
0.76 n
A
f
2.74
From the mass balance equation for component A,
n
A
n
A
f
o
A
1
r
1
o
A
2
r
2
We get
n
A
n
A
f
r
1
2r
2
Using Eqs. (2.70) and (2.74) in the above relation gives
0.95 n
A
f
0.76 n
A
f
2r
2
Finally, we get
r
2
0.095 n
A
f
2.75
From the simplied generalized mass balance relation, we have the fol-
lowing.
For component C,
n
C
n
C
f
o
C
1
r
1
o
C
2
r
2
As o
C
1
1, o
C
2
2, and n
C
f
0, we get
n
C
0.76 n
A
f
0.19 n
A
f
On solving, we get
n
C
0.95 n
A
f
2.76
For component D,
n
D
n
D
f
o
D
1
r
1
o
D
2
r
2
TM
As o
D
1
0, o
D
2
1, and n
D
f
0 we get
n
D
0 0 r
2
On substituting the value, we get
n
D
0.095 n
A
f
2.77
Thus, the output mixture is
n
A
0.05 n
A
f
. n
B
0.76 n
A
f
. n
C
0.95 n
A
f
.
n
D
0.095 n
A
f
The total output mixture is
n
Total
out
0.05 0.76 0.95 0.095 n
A
f
which is equal to
n
Total
out
1.855 n
A
f
Now, to calculate the composition of exit stream (mole fraction),
X
A

n
A
n
Total
out
0.05 n
A
f
1.855 n
A
f
0.027
X
B

n
B
n
Total
out
0.76 n
A
f
1.855 n
A
f
0.410
X
C

n
C
n
Total
out
0.95 n
A
f
1.855 n
A
f
0.512
X
D

n
D
n
Total
out
0.095 n
A
f
1.855 n
A
f
0.051
Just as a check, the sum of the mole fractions of exit stream should be equal
to 1. Thus,
X
4
p1
X
p
0.027 0.410 0.512 0.051 1.0
Hence, our calculations are correct.
2.5 HEAT EFFECTS
The only dierence between simple linear heat balance problems and the
heat balance problems, which are rather complex and nonlinear, is the
existence of chemical reactions [i.e., the conversion of one species or more
TM
to other species causing release of heat (exothermic reactions) or absorption
of heat (endothermic reactions)]. If the heat of reaction is negligible, then the
complex nonlinear heat balance equation reduces to the same simple linear
heat balance equations.
2.5.1 Heats of Reactions
It is very important for the reader to understand the concept and the meth-
ods of calculating the heat of reaction before he/she starts heat balance
problems for systems with chemical reactions. This is due to the fact that
the heat of reaction is the heart of the problem here.
The heat of reaction is usually dened as
Heat of reaction Enthalpy of products Enthalpy of reactants
Heats of reaction as defined above are:
Positive for endothermic reactions
Negative for exothermic reactions
The enthalpies of products and reactants here are meant to be in the same
molar proportions given in the stoichiometric equation. For example, for
the hypothetical reaction,
2A 3B !7C 8D 2.78
the heat of reaction for this reaction (as written) should be calculated as
H
R
7H
C
8H
D
2H
A
3H
B
2.79
This heat of reaction is not per mole of A or B or C or D; actually, it is per
the reaction as stoichiometrically written. Let us suppose that H
A
is in J/mol
of A, H
B
is in J/mol of B, H
C
is in J/mol of C, and H
D
is in J/mol of D; then,
it is clear that H
R
in Eq. (2.79) is not calculated per mole of any of the
components. If we insist at this stage to refer to the heat of reaction per mole
of A, B, C, or D, then we can just for the sake of clarity write it as follows:
H
R
joules/2 moles of A reacted
joules/3 moles of B reacted
joules/7 moles of C produced
joules/8 moles of D produced
TM
Therefore, if we want the heat of reaction per mole of any of the compo-
nents, then we will have to do the following simple division by the absolute
value of the stoichiometric number of the corresponding component:
H
A

H
R
jo
A
j
J/mol of A reacted
H
B

H
R
jo
B
j
J/mol of B reacted
H
C

H
R
jo
C
j
J/mol of C produced
H
D

H
R
jo
D
j
J/mol of D produced
Actually, in any problem we always need the rate of heat production or
absorption (J/time); therefore, we should always combine the heat of the
reaction with the rate of reaction.
For reaction (2.78), which is a single reaction, we can express this
amount of heat as follows:
Q H
A
jR
A
j J/time
where R
A
is the rate of reaction of A. It can also be written as
Q H
B
jR
B
j J/time
or
Q H
C
jR
C
j J/time
or
Q H
D
jR
D
j J/time
Q Positive for endothermic reactions (heat is absorbed by
the reaction)
Q Negative for exothermic reactions (heat is produced by
the reaction)
All of these relations give the same answer, of course. This can easily be
demonstrated by inspecting the relation between R
A
and R
B
as well as H
A
and H
B
; for example,
TM
jR
B
j jR
A
j
jo
B
j
jo
A
j
and
H
A

H
R
jo
A
j
. H
B

H
R
jo
B
j
Thus,
H
B
H
A
jo
A
j
jo
b
j
Therefore,
H
B
jR
B
j H
A
jo
A
j
jo
B
j
jR
A
j
jo
B
j
jo
A
j
H
A
jR
A
j
We can also express Q in terms of H
R
and the generalized rate of reaction
(r) as
Q H
A
jR
A
j
H
R
jo
A
j
jR
A
j H
R
r
Similarly,
Q H
B
jR
B
j
H
R
jo
B
j
jR
B
j H
R
r
and so on.
Important Notes
1. Note that for this irreversible single reaction, we always take the
absolute values for rates of reaction and stoichiometric numbers,
because the sign of Q is determined by the sign of the heat of
reaction (whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic) and
not by whether we are referring to a product or a reactant.
However, when we use the generalized rate of reaction r, this
issue is automatically addressed because r is always positive, as we
have shown in the previous section.
2. Heats of reactions obtained from tables or from the literature will
have the units and the basis given to them in the data source; for
example, if you nd H of a reaction given as J/mol of A reacted,
then this H actually is H
A
and is dened as
H
A

H
R
jo
A
j
where H
R
is for the reaction as stoichiometrically written.
TM
3. The sign convention of H
R
is dened by
H
R

X
H
iproducts
X
H
ireactants
2.80
This results in
H
R
Positive for endothermic reaction
H
R
Negative for exothermic reaction
Of course, scientically there is nothing wrong in reversing the
sign convention to be
H
R

X
H
ireactants
X
H
iproducts
2.81
In this case, we will have
H
R
Positive for exothermic reaction
H
R
Negative for endothermic reaction
However, the rst sign convention (2.80) is the one adopted
worldwide. In some cases, H
R
is used instead of H
R
. In
this case, it is obvious that
H
R
Positive for exothermic reaction
H
R
Negative for endothermic reaction
2.5.2 Effects of Temperature, Pressure, and Phases
on Heat of Reaction
We can now write the heat of reaction as
H
R

X
i
jo
i
j
products
H
i
T. P.
i

X
i
jo
i
j
reactants
H
i
T. P.
i
where
i
denes the phase of component i.
With the sign convention discussed earlier, o
i
> 0 for products and o
i
- 0 for reactants. We can write
H
R

X
i
o
i
H
i
T. P.
i
where i is the number of all components (reactants and products) involved

in the reaction.
Because the enthalpies are function of T, P, and
i
then H
R
is
obviously also a function of T, P, and
i
.
TM
Important note: T and P are numbers, and
i
represents denition of
phases (gas or liquid or solid). The change of H
R
with T or
i
(effect of
P is usually negligible except for processes at very high pressure) can be
obtained from the change of enthalpies with T or
i
. Suppose that the
heat of reaction of a certain reaction is given at T8, P8, and 8
i
and is re-
presented by H
R
T8. P8. 8
i
. We want to compute the heat of reaction
at T, P8, and
i
; this can be achieved through the fact that
H
R
T. P8.
i
H
R
T8. P8.
8
i
X
i
fo
i
H
i
T. P8.
i
o
i
H
i
T8. P8. 8
i
g
The right-hand side is a dierence between enthalpies and thus can be easily
calculated for both changes from T8 !T (sensible heat) and from 8
i
!
i
(change of phase, latent heat).
For the change of temperature only
H
R
T. P8. 8
i
H
R
T8. P8. 8
i
X
i
fo
i
H
i
T. P8. 8
i
o
i
H
i
T8. P8. 8
i
g
X
i
o
i
T
T
0
C
Pi
dT
For the change of phase, if 8
i
and
i
represent dierent phases, then the
heats of phase transition and the temperatures of phase transitions must be
involved as clearly illustrated in the following example.
An Illustrative Example
Given the heat of the reaction
4NH
3
g 5O
2
g !4NOg 6H
2
Ol
at 1 atm and 298 K to be 279.33 kcal/mol. Calculate the heat of reaction at
9208C and 1 atm with water in the vapor phase.
Solution
Given
H
R
T8. P8. 8
i
279.33 kcal
TM
where
T8 298 K. P8 1 atm
and
8
i

NH
3
gas
O
2
gas
NO gas
H
2
O liquid
8
>
>
<
>
>
:
What is required to compute is
H
R
T. P8.
i
?
where
T 920 273 1193 K. P8 1 atm
and
i

NH
3
gas
O
2
gas
NO gas
H
2
O vapor
8
>
>
<
>
>
:
Now,
H
R
T8. p8.
i
8
X
i
o
i
H
i
T8. P8.
i
8
and
H
R
T. P8.
i

X
i
o
i
H
i
T. P8.
i
Then,
H
R
T. P8.
i
H
R
T8. P8. 8
i

P
i
fo
i
H
i
T. P8.
i
o
i
H
i
T8. P8. 8
i
g
4fH
NH
3
1193. 1. gas H
NH
3
298. 1. gasg 5fH
O
2
1193. 1. gas
H
O
2
298. 1. gasg 4fH
NO
1193. 1.
gas H
NO
298. 1. gasg 6fH
H
2
O
1193. 1. vapor H
H
2
O
298. 1.
liquid)g
Thus, for the right-hand side, we get
TM
4
1193
298
C
p
NH
3
dT 5
1193
298
C
P
O
2
dT 4
1193
298
C
P
NO
dT
6
373
298
C
P
H
2
O
liq dT H
H
2
O
vap
1193
373
C
P
H
2
O
vap dT
!
Finally, we get
H
R
T. P8.
i
H
R
T8. P8.
i
8 4
1193
298
C
P
NH
3
dT 5
1193
298
C
P
O
2
dT 4
1193
298
C
P
NO
dT
6
373
298
C
P
H
2
O
liq dT H
H
2
O
vap
1193
373
C
P
H
2
O
vap dT
!
where H
H
2
O
vap is the latent heat of vaporization.
2.5.3 Heats of Formation and Heats of Reaction
What is the heat of formation? The heat of formation of a compound is
the heat of reaction evolved (or absorbed) during the formation of this
compound from its elementary constituents; for example, for the reaction
C 2H
2
!CH
4
the heat of this reaction is actually the heat of formation of CH
4
(methane).
The heats of formation of large number of compounds are tabulated at
standard conditions (heat of formation tables available in Perrys Chemical
Engineers Handbook, 1997). The standard conditions are usually dened at
258C and 1 atm and the phase that is normal for compounds under these
conditions (carbon is solid, H
2
O is liquid, CO
2
is gas, etc.).
The heats of reaction under standard conditions can be computed
from the heats of formation of the dierent components in this reaction
(reactants and products) under standard conditions through the following
formula, which can be easily proven:
H8
R

X
i
o
i
H8
Fi
Here, i is the numbering for the species (reactants and products) involved in
the reaction: o
i
> 0 for products and o
i
- 0 for reactants. H8
R
is negative
for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic reactions.
TM
2.5.4 Heats of Combustion and Heats of Reaction
The heat of combustion is the heat evolved from oxidizing the component
completely with a stoichiometric amount of oxygen; for example,
CH
4
2O
2
!CO
2
2H
2
O
The heat evolved from the above reaction is the heat of combustion of
methane.
S O
2
!SO
2
The heat evolved from this reaction is the heat of combustion of sulfur.
The heat of reaction can be computed from the heat of combustion
using the formula
H8
R

X
o
i
H8
Ci
Any heat of reaction is computed at standard conditions. H8
R
T8. P8.
i
8
can be used to compute the heats of reaction at any other condition H
R
T. P8.
i
using the previously discussed simple procedure.
2.6 OVERALL HEAT BALANCE WITH SINGLE
AND MULTIPLE CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The heat balance for a nonadiabatic reactor is given in Figure 2.26. i repre-
sents the numbering of all components involved in the reaction (reactants
and products). If any product does not exist in the feed, then we put its
n
if
0; if any reactant does not exist in the output, then we put its n
i
0.
Enthalpy balance is
X
i
n
if
H
i
T
f
. P
f
.
if
Q
X
i
n
i
H
i
T. P.
i
2.82
where Q is the heat added to the system (the reactor)
Figure 2.26 Heat balance for a nonadiabatic reactor.
TM
Note: We did not include any heats of reactions; it is automatically in-
cluded, as will be clear in the next few lines.
Dene a reference state, and add and subtract the following terms from Eq.
(2.82):
X
i
n
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
and
X
i
n
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
This addition of two terms and subtracting of the same two terms together
with rearrangement makes the heat balance equation have the following
form:
X
i
n
if
fH
if
T
f
. P
f
.
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g Q
X
i
n
i
fH
i
T. P.
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g
X
i
n
i
n
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
From the mass balance of a single reaction, we have

n
i
n
if
o
i
r 2.83
where
r
R
i
o
i
Equation (2.83) can be rearranged as
n
i
n
if
o
i
r
Therefore, the heat balance equation becomes
X
i
n
if
fH
if
T
f
. P
f
.
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g Q
X
i
n
i
fH
i
T. P.
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g
X
i
o
i
rH
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
This equation can be rearranged to give

X
i
n
if
fH
if
T
f
. P
f
.
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g Q
X
i
n
i
fH
i
T. P.
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g r
X
i
o
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
It is clear that, by denition,

X
i
o
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
H
R
r
where H
R
r
is the heat of reaction at the reference conditions.
Thus, the heat balance equation becomes
TM
X
i
n
if
fH
if
T
f
. P
f
.
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g Q
X
i
n
i
fH
i
T. P.
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g rH
R
r
In other words,
fEnthalpy in (above reference conditions)+Heat addedg
Enthalpy out (above reference conditions)

+Heat absorbed by reaction (at reference conditions)
& '
The terms of heat absorbed by reaction (for a single reaction) is rH
R
r
Note: If r 0 (i.e., a nonreacting system), then we obtain a simple heat
balance relation for the nonreacting system. The heat of reaction H
R
r
is evaluated at the reference state T
r
. P
r
.
r
.
The term rH
R
r
needs some more clarication. For the sake of
brevity, let us use:
Enthalpy in (at above reference conditions) I
in
Enthalpy out (at above reference conditions) I
out
Then,
I
in
Q I
out
rH
R
r
The sign convention ensures that r is always positive and this is more con-
venient in the heat balance; H
R
r
is the heat of reaction for the reaction
as stoichiometrically written as discussed earlier and re-explained in the
following notes:
Note 1: If the reaction is endothermic, then H
R
r
is positive and it is
the heat absorbed or consumed; therefore, it is clear that it must be added
to the right-hand side with I
out
as shown above.
If the reaction is exothermic, then H
R
r
is negative and the heat is
evolved; then, it will be effectively added as positive quantity to the left-
hand side.
Note 2: Suppose that the reaction we are dealing with is in the form
2A 4B !5C 6D
Then, H
R
r
is evaluated from the enthalpies as follows:
H
R
r

X
i
o
i
H
ir
TM
This (H
R
r
is for the reaction stoichiometry as written; if R
A
is given, then
we must divide H
R
r
by o
A
or R
A
by o
A
, giving
H
R
r
R
A
o
A
H
R
r
r
Suppose that the heat of reaction is given from experiment or tabulated in
the units of r, H
RA
( J/mol of A); then, r to be used should be based on
the above reaction rewritten as
A 2B !
5
2
C 3D
However, never use H
RA
( J/mol of A); use r R
A
,o
A
with jo
A
j 2
from the rst stoichiometric equation! This will mean that you have actually
divided all of the stoichiometric numbers by the stoichiometric coecient of
A twice: once when you used H
RA
which is equal to H
R
r
,o
A
and once
when you computed r to be equal to R
A
,o
A
. This mistake is very common
and many books and chemical engineers make this serious mistake. The
reader should understand this point very clearly.
Note 3: The heat generation (or absorption) term will always have the
sign of H
R
r
or H
RA
, because it is always multiplied by the general-
ized rate of reaction r, which is always positive.
2.6.1 Heat Balance for Multiple Reactions and the
Special Case of a Single Reaction
Consider that we have a number of reactions taking place simultaneously.
The heat of reaction in the heat balance equation should account for all the
heats produced/absorbed by all the reactions.
If the number of components is M, the number of reactions is N; we
use i as the component counter and j as the reaction counter. Therefore, the
heat balance equation becomes
X
M
i1
n
if
fH
if
T
f
. P
f
.
if
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g Q
X
M
i1
n
i
fH
i
T. P.
i
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
ir
g
X
N
j1
r
j
H
R
rj 2.84
It is convenient to write these heat balance equations in a shorter form by
realizing that the H
if
is the enthalpy at T
f
. P
f
.
if
without writing them
explicitly between brackets, and so on for other terms. Therefore, Eq.
(2.84) can be rewritten as
TM
X
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
Q
X
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir

X
N
j1
r
j
H
R
rj
An Illustrative Example
Steam reforming of methane includes the following three reactions:
CH
4
H
2
O ,CO3H
2
. generalized rate of reaction is r
1
COH
2
O ,CO
2
H
2
2
CH
4
2H
2
O ,CO
2
4H
2
3
We can label these components as follows: CH
4
A, H
2
O B, CO C,
H
2
D, CO
2
E, and Inerts I. Consider single-input, single-output.
The mass balance equations are all obtained from the general equations
discussed earlier:
n
i
n
i.f

X
3
j1
o
ij
r
j
. i A. B. C. D. E. I
Thus, the mass balance equations are simply
n
A
n
Af
o
A1
r
1
o
A2
r
2
o
A3
r
3
n
Af
r
1
r
3
n
B
n
Bf
o
B1
r
1
o
B2
r
2
o
B3
r
3
n
Bf
r
1
r
2
2r
3
n
C
n
Cf
o
C1
r
1
o
C2
r
2
o
C3
r
3
n
Cf
r
1
r
2
n
D
n
Df
o
D1
r
1
o
D2
r
2
o
D3
r
3
n
Df
3r
1
r
2
4r
3
n
E
n
Ef
o
E1
r
1
o
E2
r
2
o
E3
r
3
n
Ef
r
2
r
3
n
I
n
If
o
I1
r
1
o
I2
r
2
o
I3
r
3
n
If
The heat balance general equation is
X
6
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
Q
X
6
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir

X
3
j1
r
j
H
R
j
Thus, the heat balance equation (long and tedious, but very straightfor-
ward) is
n
Af
H
Af
H
Ar
n
Bf
H
Bf
H
Br
n
Cf
H
Cf
H
Cr
n
Df
H
Df
H
Dr
n
Ef
H
Ef
H
Er
n
If
H
If
H
Ir
Q n
A
H
A
H
Ar
n
B
H
B
H
Br
n
C
H
C
H
Cr
n
D
H
D
H
Dr
n
E
H
E
H
Er
n
I
H
I
H
Ir
r
1
H
R1
r
2
H
R2
r
3
H
R3
TM
2.6.2 The Most General Heat Balance Equation (for
Multiple Reactions and Multiple-Input and
Multiple-Output System Reactor with Multiple
Reactions)
In this case, we just sum up the enthalpies of the input streams and the
output streams. If we have F input streams (and we use l as the counter for
the input streams) and K output streams (we use k as the counter for output
streams) with L components and N reactions, then we have the following
most general heat balance equation:
X
L
l1
X
M
i1
n
if
l
H
if
l
H
ir
! ( )
Q
X
K
k1
X
M
i1
n
i
k
H
i
k
H
ir
! ( )
X
N
j1
r
j
H
R
rj
This is the most general heat balance equation for a multiple-input,
multiple-output (MIMO), multiple reactions (and, of course, multicom-
ponents) system.
2.7 SOLVED PROBLEMS FOR ENERGY
BALANCE
The reader is advised rst to solve each problem before inspecting the given
solution.
Solved Example 2.8
Two liquid streams of carbon tetrachloride are to be evaporated to produce
a vapor at 2008C and 1 atm. The rst feed is at 1 atm and 308C with a ow
rate of 1000 kg/h and the second feed stream is at 708C and 1 atm and has a
ow rate of 500 kg/h. Calculate the heat that must be supplied to the
evaporator.
The data given are as follows:
Carbon tetrachloride CCl
4
component A
Molecular weight of A M
A
153.84
Normal boiling of A T
BP
A
349.7 K 76.78C
Latent heat of vaporization of Aat boiling point z
A
36,882.1 J/mol
Specic heat in the vapor phase
C
P
AV
a
0
b
0
T c
0
T
2
d
0
T
3
e
0
T
4
J/mol K
where a
0
8.976, b
0
0.42, c
0
7.516 10
4
, d
0
6.237 10
7
,
and e
0
1.998 10
10
TM
Specic heat in the liquid phase
C
P
AL
a bT cT
2
dT
3
J/mol K
where a 12.284, b 1.09475, c 3.183 10
3
, and
d 3.425 10
6
.
Solution (see Fig. 2.27)
The heat balance on the evaporator gives
n
Af
1
H
Af
1
n
Af
2
H
Af
2
Q n
A
H
A
2.85
From the mass balance, we have
n
A
n
Af
1
n
Af
2
2.86
Substitution from Eq. (2.86) into Eq. (2.85) gives
n
Af
1
H
Af
1
n
Af
2
H
Af
3
Q n
Af
1
n
Af
2
H
A
Rearrangement gives
Q n
Af
1
H
A
H
Af
1
n
Af
2
H
A
H
Af
2
2.87
where H
A
is the enthalpy of carbon tetrachloride in the vapor phase at
2008C (473 K) and 1 atm, H
Af
1
is the enthalpy of carbon tetrachloride in
the liquid phase at 308C (303 K) and 1 atm; and H
Af
2
is the enthalpy of
carbon tetrachloride in the liquid phase at 708C (343 K) and 1 atm.
Therefore,
Figure 2.27 Heat ow diagram for solved example 2.8.
TM
H
A
H
Af
1

349.7
303
C
P
AL
dT z
A
473
349.7
C
P
AV
dT
349.7
303
a bT cT
2
dT
3
dT z
A
473
349.7
a
0
b
0
T c
0
T
2
d
0
T
3
e
0
T
4
dT
aT b
T
2
2
c
T
3
3
d
T
4
4
" #
349.7
303
z
A
a
0
T b
0
T
2
2
c
0
T
3
3
d
0
T
4
4
e
0
T
5
5
" #
473
349.7
Thus, we get
H
A
H
Af
1
a349.7303
b
2
349.7
2
303
2

c
3
349.7
3
303
3
d
4
349.7
4
303
4
36882.1
|{z}
z
A
a
0
473 349.7
b
0
2
473
2
349.7
2

c
0
3
473
3
349.7
3
d
0
4
473
4
349.7
4

e
0
5
473
5
349.7
5
By substituting the values of a, b, c, d a

0
, b
0
, c
0
, d
0
, and e
0
and performing the
straightforward computation, compute the value of H
A
H
Af
1
.
The reader is requested to perform this computation and obtain the
value of H
A
H
Af
1
; we will label it

A here, that is,
H
A
H
Af
1

A J/mol
Similarly, we can compute H
A
H
Af
2
(the reader is requested to perform
this computation), we will label the value as

B,
H
A
H
Af
2

B J/mol
Now, after computing the values of

A and

B, the heat balance equation
(2.87) can be rewritten as
Q n
Af
1
A n
Af
2
B
n
Af
1

1000
M
A
1000
153.84
6.5 kmol/h )n
Af
1
6500 mol/h
and
n
Af
2

500
M
A
500
153.84
3.25 kmol/h )n
Af
2
3250 mol/h
TM
Thus,
Q 6500

A 3250

B J/h
or
Q 6.5

A 3.25

B kJ/h
For More Practice
The reader is encouraged to carry out the following tasks to get a better
understanding of the concepts used in this section:
1. Solve the above problems by numbers and obtain the numerical
values of

A,

B, and Q.
2. Solve the above problem if the second feed stream is fed at 858C
instead of 708C. Compare the Q obtained with that of rst case.
Solved Example 2.9
Compute the heat of reactions for the following reactions:
(a) Oxidation of sulfur at 600 K
Ss O
2
g !SO
2
g
(b) Decomposition of propane at 500 K
C
3
H
8
!C
2
H
2
CH
4
H
2
Solution
Part a: The heat of reaction at 600 K can be calculated as follows:
The reaction is:
Ss O
2
g !SO
2
g
For simplicity write the reaction as, A B !C.
The heat of reaction can be written in terms of the heat of formation as
follows:
H
r
298

X
3
i1
o
i
H
f
i
298
l
. i A. B. and C
Thus, we get
H
r
298
o
A
H
f
A
298
o
B
H
f
B
298
o
C
H
f
C
298
(We will no longer write 298 because it is well known and it is the tempera-
ture at which the standard tables are tabulated.) The superscript degree sign
means at 298 K and 1 atm here and in Part b. Thus, we can write
H8
r
H8
f
A
|{z}
zero
H8
f
B
|{z}
zero
H8
f
C
TM
Thus, we get
H8
r
H8
f
C
at 258C 298 K
If we also want it evaluated at 600 K, we derive the relations
H
r
298

X
3
i1
o
i
H
f
i
298
and
H
r
600

X
3
i1
o
i
H
f
i
600
On subtracting the above two relations, we get
H
r
600
H
r
298

X
3
i1
o
i
H
f
i

600
H
f
i

298
n o
We can write
H
r
600
H8
r
o
A
H
f
A
600
H
f
A
298
o
B
H
f
B
600
H
f
B
298
o
C
H
f
C
600
H
f
C
298
which can be rewritten as

H
r
600
H8
r
T
mp
298
C
PS
A
dT
|{z}
solid
z
A
|{z}
transition
600
T
mp
C
PL
A
dT
|{z}
liquid
2
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
5
600
298
C
P
B
dT
600
298
C
p
C
dT
Part b: The heat of reaction at 500 K can be calculated as:
The reaction is:
C
3
H
8
!C
2
H
2
CH
4
H
2
For simplicity write the reaction as, A !B C D.
The heat of reaction at standard conditions can be written in terms of heats
of formation as follows:
H
r
298

X
4
i1
o
i
H
f
i
298
. i A. B. C. and D
Thus we get
H8
r
o
A
H8
f
A
o
B
H8
f
B
o
C
H8
f
C
o
D
H8
f
D
TM
H8
r
H8
f
A
H8
f
B
H8
f
C
H8
f
D
If we want it at 500 K, then we get
H
r
500
H
r
298

X
4
i1
o
i
fH
f
i
500
H
f
i
298
g
We can write
H
r
500
H8
r
o
A
H
f
A
500
H
f
A
298
o
B
H
f
B
500
H
f
B
298
o
C
H
f
C
500
H
f
C
298
o
D
H
f
D
500
H
f
D
298

H
r
600
H8
r
500
298
C
P
A
dT
500
298
C
P
B
dT
500
298
C
P
C
dT
500
298
C
P
D
dT
Solved Example 2.10
Ethylene is made commercially by dehydrogenating ethane:
C
2
H
6
g ,C
2
H
4
g H
2
g
H
R
2008C 134.7 kJ/mol
Ethane is fed to a continuous adiabatic reactor at T
F
20008C. Calculate
the exit temperature that would correspond to 100% conversion (x
A
1.0,
where A C
2
H
6
). Use the following data for the heat capacities in your
calculations:
C
P
A
49.37 0.1392T
C
P
B
40.75 0.1147T
C
P
C
28.04 4.167 10
3
T
where A C
2
H
6
g, B C
2
H
4
g, and C H
2
g; C
P
j
is in J/mol 8C, and
T is the temperature (in 8C).
For simplicity, let us represent the reaction as
A ,B C
TM
We take the basis as 100 mol/min. The generalized heat balance equation is
X
n
i
f
H
i
f
H
ir
n o
Q
X
n
i
H
i
H
ir
n o
H
R
r
Based on the basis and the rate of reaction denition in mass balance,
r 100 mol/min. Take the reference temperature as 2008C; thus, we get
100
2000
200
C
P
A
dT Q
|{z}
zero
100
T
200
C
P
B
dT 100
T
200
C
P
C
dT
134.7 10
3
100
100
2000
200
49.37 0.1392T dT 100
T
200
40.75 0.1147T dT
100
T
200
28.04 4.167 10
3
T dT
134.7 10
3
100
Solving the integrals gives
49.37T
0.1392T
2
2
" #
2000
200
40.75T
0.1147T
2
2
" #
T
200
28.04T
4.167 10
3
T
2
2
" #
T
200
134.7 10
3
Figure 2.28 Energy ow diagram for solved example 2.10.
TM
Solving it further gives
49.372000 200
0.13922000
2
200
2
2
" #
40.75T 200
0.1147T
2
200
2
2
" #
28.04T 200
4.167 10
3
T
2
200
2
2
" #
134.7 10
3
Mathematical calculations give
5.93835 10
5
T
2
0.06879T 232.15 0
Solution of this quadratic equation gives
T
0.06879
0.06879
2
45.93835 10
5
232.15
q
25.93835 10
5
Neglecting the negative solution, we get

T
0.068709 0.2446734
1.1876
10
4
Thus, T 1480.9988C (the answer)
Solved Example 2.11
Acetic acid is cracked in a furnace to produce the intermediate ketene via the
reaction
CH
3
COOHl !CH
2
COg H
2
Og
The reaction
CH
3
COOHl !CH
4
g CO
2
g
also occurs to an appreciable extent. It is desired to carry out cracking at
7008C with a conversion of 80% and a fractional yield of methane (CH
4
) of
0.0722. Calculate the required furnace heating rate for a furnace feed of 100
kmol/h acetic acid. The feed is at 3008C.
TM
The data given are as follows:
Heats of formation at standard conditions (258C, 1 atm):
H8
f
CH
2
CO
14.6
kcal
g mol
H8
f
H
2
O
57.8
kcal
g mol
H8
f
CH
3
COOH
103.93
kcal
g mol
H8
f
CH
4
17.89
kcal
g mol
H8
f
CO
2
94.05
kcal
g mol
The specic heats are given by the following relations (J/gmol K):
C
P
H
2
Ol
(liquid water) 18.2964 0.04721T 0.001338T
2
1.3 10
6
T
3
C
P
H
2
Og
34.047 9.65 10
3
T 3.2988 10
5
T
2
2.044 10
8
T
3
4.3 10
12
T
4
C
P
CO
2
g
19.02 7.96 10
2
T 7.37 10
5
T
2
3.745 10
8
T
3
8.133 10
12
T
4
C
P
CH
4
g
3.83 7.366 10
2
T 2.909 10
4
T
2
2.638
10
7
T
3
8 10
11
T
4
C
P
CH
3
COOHl
36.08 0.06T 3.9 10
5
T
2
5.6 10
7
T
3
C
P
CH
3
COOHg
14.6 2.3 10
2
T 11.02 10
5
T
2
2.6
10
9
T
3
2.8 10
13
T
4
C
P
CH
2
COg.l
4.11 2.966 10
2
T 1.793 10
5
T
2
4.22
10
9
T
3
Boiling point of acetic acid 118.18C
Boiling point of ketene T
K
Latent heat of vaporization of acetic acid 96.76 cal/g
Latent heat of vaporization of ketene z
k
cal/g
TM
In order to carry out the necessary heat balance, we must rst compute the
input and output streams and their composition. This means that we should
formulate and solve the mass balance problem rst.
Mass Balance The two reactions can be written as
A !B C with the generalized rate, r
1
and
A !DE with the generalized rate, r
2
The feed is pure acetic acid with a feed rate of n
Af
100 kmol/h.
Degrees of Freedom To make sure that the problem is solvable we rst
check the degree of freedom.
The number of unknowns 5n
A
. n
B
. n
C
. n
D
. n
E
2r
1
. r
2
7
Number of mass balance equations 5
Number of specications (x
A
. Y
D
2
Total number of equations and specications available 5 2 7
Degree of freedom 7 7 0
Thus, the mass balance problem is solvable. Note that n
A
can be easily
computed from n
Af
and the given conversion:
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
TM
Thus, we get
0.8
100 n
A
100
and the value of n
A
is equal to
n
A
20
kmol
h
n
D
can be easily computed from the fractional yield of methane, Y
D
(kmol
of D produced per kmol of A reacted):
Y
D
0.0722
n
D
n
Df
n
Af
x
A
n
D
80
which gives
n
D
80 0.0722 5.776 kmol/h
The rest of the components are calculated from their mass balance equations
n
B
n
Bf
o
B1
r
1
o
B2
r
2
which gives
n
B
r
1
Also,
n
C
r
1
and, similarly,
n
E
r
2
r
1
and r
2
can be easily obtained from the mass balance equations for com-
ponents A and D. The mass balance for A gives
n
A
n
Af
o
A1
r
1
o
A2
r
2
20 100 r
1
r
2
Therefore,
r
1
r
2
80 kmol/h 2.88
The mass balance for D gives
n
D
n
Df
o
D1
r
1
o
D2
r
2
TM
5.776 0 0 r
2
or we can write
r
2
5.776 kmol/h
Using this value of r
2
in Eq. (2.88), we get
r
1
80 5.776 74.224 kmol/h
Now, all input streams and output streams are known and we can carry out
the heat balance to nd Q.
Heat Balance (see Fig. 2.30) The heat balance equation is given by
X
n
if
H
if
T
f
. P
f
.
f
H
ir
T
r
. P
r
.
r

n o
Q
X
n
i
H
i
T. P. H
ir
T
r
. P
r
. P
r
.
r
n io
X
2
j1
r
j
H
R
rj
Take the reference condition to be 258C and 1 atm (standard conditions).
The rst term on the left-hand side of the above equation can thus be written
as
X
n
if
H
if
H
ir
n
Af
H
Af
H
Ar
0 0 0 0
Figure 2.30 Molar ow diagram (with temperature shown) for heat balance for
solved example 2.11.
TM
Which can be rewritten as
100 1000
118.1273
25273
C
P
CH
3
COOHl
dT z
CH
3
COOH
300273
118.1273
C
P
CH
3
COOHg
dT I
f
Now, also, the rst term on the right-hand side of the heat balance equation
can be written as:
X
n
i
H
i
H
ir

n
A
|{z}
201000
118.1273
25273
C
P
CH
3
COOHl
dT z
CH
3
COOH
700273
118.1273
C
P
CH
3
COOHg
dT
!
n
B
118.1273
25273
C
P
CH
2
COl
dT z
CH
2
CO
700273
T
K
C
P
CH
2
COg
dT
!
n
C
100273
25273
C
P
H
2
Ol
dT z
H
2
O
700273
100273
C
P
H
2
OIg
dT
!
n
D
700273
25273
C
P
CH
4
g
dT
!
n
E
700273
25273
C
P
CO
2
g
dT
!
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
I
Let the right-hand side of the above equation be equal to some value I.
After computing I
f
and I as shown above (note that reader has to do the
necessary units conversion to keep all the units consistent), the heat balance
equation is
I
f
Q I r
1
H
R1
r
2
H
R2
H
R1
and H
R2
are to be computed from the heats of formation:
H
R1
H8
f
B
H8
f
C
H8
f
A
and
H
R2
H8
f
D
H8
f
E
H8
f
A
Thus, Q can be easily computed:
Q I I
f
r
1
H
R1
r
2
H
R2
The reader should perform the above computation to get the numerical
value of the result.
More Practice for the Reader
Solve the above problem for 90% acetic acid conversion and a fractional
yield of methane of 0.08 and a reactor temperature of 8008C.
Solved Example 2.12
Consider the two-stage ammonia synthesis loop shown in Figure 2.31. In the
owsheet, a cold stoichiometric feed of N
2
and H
2
is introduced between the
TM
reactor stages. In each reactor, the following synthesis reaction takes place
with specic conversion.
N
2
3H
2
,2NH
3
or we can represent it by A 3B ,C for simplication.
The euent of the second reactor stage is cooled by exchanging heat
with the input stream to the rst reactor stage. After further cooling, stream
5 is separated to recover a product stream containing all of the NH
3
(C) and
some N
2
A and H
2
B. The following specication are given:
1. The feed rate (in stream 1) is 97.8 mol/h with 15% N
2
A and
75% H
2
B and the feed temperature is 508C.
2. The input stream to the rst reactor stage (stream 7) is at 4258C.
Figure 2.31 Flowsheet of solved example 2.12.
TM
3. Input stream to separator (stream 5) is at 508C and the tempera-
tures of the outlet streams (streams 6 and 9) are equal to each
other.
4. The recycle stream (stream 6) is to contain no NH
3
C and
0.9945 each of the N
2
A and H
2
B fed to the separator. This
stream contains no inerts.
5. The conversion of N
2
A is 10% in stage 1 and 12.33% in stage
2.
6. All of the units are adiabatic except the cooler, which is non-
adiabatic.
Assume all streams are gas phase and that pressure eects are neglected.
a. Show that the problem is correctly specied.
b. Outline a calculation procedure.
c. Solve the problem to obtain the temperatures and molar ow
rates of all components in all streams.
d. Construct a owchart for a computer program for your solution.
Solution
We will start the solution of this problem with the degrees-of-freedom
analysis.
First, let us identify all of the given values and specied relations for
the problem:
1. n
Total
1
n
T
1
97.8 mol/h
2. Y
A
1
0.15 (molar fraction of component A in stream 1)
3. Y
B
1
0.75 (molar fraction of component B in stream 1)
4. T
1
50 273 323 K
5. n
C
1
0
6. T
7
425 273 698 K
7. T
5
323 K
8. T
6
T
9
9. n
C
6
0
10. n
A
6
0.9945 n
A
5
11. n
B
6
0.9945 n
B
5
12. x
A
1

n
A
7
n
A
8
n
A
7
0.1
13. x
A
2

n
A
2
n
A
3
n
A
2
0.1233
14. n
l
6
0, where I inerts
Thus, we have 14 specied relations.
TM
Process Degrees of Freedom Total number of unknowns,
Reactor 1: 11
Mixer: 10
Reactor 2: 6
Exchanger: 10
Cooler: 6
Separator: 5
Total: 48
Mass and Heat Balance Relations
Reactor 1: 5
Mixer: 5
Reactor 2: 5
Separator: 5
Cooler: 5
Exchanger: 9
Total: 34
Note that the mass balance relations for the cooler (four in number) and
exchanger (eight in number) are described by the following relations:
For one side of the exchanger,
n
i
3
n
i
4
. i A. B. C. and I
Thus, giving four dierent relations.
For the other side of the exchanger,
n
i
6
n
i
7
. i A. B. C. and I
Thus, giving four dierent relations.
For the cooler,
n
i
4
n
i
5
i A. B. C. and I
Thus, giving four relations.
Given specied relations 149 5 as shown above)
So we have
Total known/specied relations 34 14 48
Total unknowns 48
TM
Thus,
Degrees of freedom 48 48 0
As the degrees of freedom is equal to zero, this problem is correctly specied
and hence is solvable.
Degrees of Freedom (DF) for Each Unit Separately
Reactor 1
Number of unknowns 10 1 11
Number of specied relations
T
7
698 K and x
A
1

n
A
7
n
A
8
n
A
7
0.1
so specied relations 2
Mass and heat balance equations 5
DF 11 5 2 11 7 4
Mixer
Number of unknowns 15
n
T
1
97.8 mol/h. Y
A
1
0.15. Y
B
1
0.75. n
C
1
0.
T
1
323 K
so specied relations = 5
DF 15 5 5 15 10 5
Reactor 2
x
A
2

n
A
2
n
A
3
n
A
2
0.1233
so total specied relations 1
DF 11 5 1 11 6 5
Exchanger
T
7
698 K and n
C
6
0
TM
Number of mass balance relations 8
Number of heat balance relations 1
DF 20 2 8 1 20 11 9
Cooler
T
5
323 K
Number of mass and heat balance relations 5
DF 11 1 5 11 6 5
Separator
n
C
6
0. n
A
6
0.9945n
A
5
. n
B
6
0.9945n
B
5
. T
5
323 K.
T
6
T
0
. n
I
6
0
DF 15 6 5 4
Overall Mass Balance (see Figs. 2.32 and 2.33)
Number of unknowns 10 2 1 13
Figure 2.32 Energy ow diagram.
TM
n
T
1
97.8 mol/h. Y
A
1
0.15. Y
B
1
0.75. T
1
323 K.
n
I
9
0.978
Number of mass and heat balance relations = 5
DF 13 5 5 13 10 3
Note that
r
1
rate of reaction in reactor 1
r
2
rate of reaction in reactor 2
r
1
r
2
R
The overall balance for component A is
n
A
9
n
A
1
o
A
1
r
1
o
A
2
r
2
n
A
9
n
T
1
Y
A
1
r
1
r
2
n
A
9
97.80.15 r
1
r
2
We nally get
n
A
9
14.67 R 2.89
Similarly,
n
B
9
n
B
1
o
B
1
r
1
o
B
2
r
2
Figure 2.33 Showing solution strategy: where to start and end.
TM
On substituting the values we get,
n
B
9
97.80.75 3r
1
3r
2
thus giving
n
B
9
73.35 3R 2.90
and
n
C
9
n
C
1
o
C
1
r
1
o
C
2
r
2
Substituting of values gives
n
C
9
0 2r
1
2r
2
thus giving
n
C
9
2R 2.91
and
n
I
9
n
I
1
Substitution of values gives
n
I
9
97.80.1
and we get
n
I
9
9.78 2.92
Heat balance
X
n
if
H
if
H
ir
n o
Q
X
n
i
H
i
H
ir
n o
r
1
H
r
r
2
H
r
Take the reference as 258C 25 273 298 K
Thus, we get
n
A
1
323
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
1
323
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
1
323
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
1
323
298
C
P
I
dT
& '
Q
n
A
9
T
9
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
9
T
9
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
9
T
9
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
T
9
298
C
P
I
dT
& '
RH
r
In the above equation, every value is known except R. Q, and T

9
. Therefore,
the above is a relation between R. Q, and T
9
. Thus any of them can be
expressed in term of the other two; for example, we can write
T
9
F
1
R. Q. Also, all n
i
9
n
A
9
, n
B
9
, n
C
9
) are expressed in terms of R
only. After we have expressed ve unknowns in the exit stream number 9
TM
(as well as Q), all in terms of R and Q, we can move to the separator as
shown in the following step.
Separator (see Fig. 2.34)
Number of unknowns,
n
i
5
. n
i
6
. T
5
. T
6
. R. and Q 12 unknowns
Number of specied relations,
n
C
6
0. n
A
6
0.9945n
A
5
. n
B
6
0.9945n
B
5
. T
5
323 K.
T
6
T
9
. n
I
6
0
Number of mass and heat balance relation 5
DF 12 6 5 1
Mass Balance
n
A
5
n
A
6
n
A
9
n
A
5
0.9945n
A
5
14.67 R
Finally, it gives
n
A
5
2667.27 181.8 R 2.93
Figure 2.34 Mass and energy ow diagram for separator.
TM
Also, we have
n
A
6
0.9945 n
A
5
Thus, we get
n
A
6
2652.6 180.8 R 2.94
For component B, we get
n
B
5
n
B
6
n
B
9
On substituting the values, we nally get
n
B
5
13336.36 545.454R 2.95
Also, we have
n
B
6
13263.01 542.45R 2.96
For component C, we get
n
C
5
n
C
6
n
C
9
n
C
5
2R 2.97
Also, we have specied
n
C
6
0 2.98
For component I (the inert), we get
n
I
5
n
I
6
n
I
9
n
I
5
9.78 2.99
Also, we get
n
I
6
0 2.100
Heat Balance
X
n
i
5
H
i
5
H
ir

X
n
i
6
H
i
6
H
ir

X
n
i
9
H
i
9
H
ir
We have
T
6
T
9
So, let us take the reference temperature
T
ref
T
6
T
9
TM
Thus, the right-hand side of the above-mentioned heat balance becomes
zero, and we get
X
n
i
5
H
i
5
H
i
6
0
This can be rewritten as
n
A
5
323
T
6
C
P
A
dT n
B
5
323
T
6
C
P
B
dT n
C
5
323
T
6
C
P
C
dT n
I
5
323
T
6
C
P
I
dT 0
On substituting the values of n
A
5
, n
B
5
, n
C
5
, and n
I
5
from Eqs. 2.93, 2.95, 2.97,
and 2.99, we get
2667.27 181.8R
323
T
0
C
P
A
dT 13336.36 545.45R
323
T
6
C
P
B
dT
2R
323
T
6
C
P
C
dT 9.78
323
T
6
dT 0
This gives a direct relation between R and T
6
as follows:
T
6
T
9
F
2
R
As we had established earlier,
T
9
F
1
R. Q
Therefore, we say
F
1
R. Q F
2
R
Q F
3
R
Cooler (see Fig. 2.35) Now we can look at the cooler as having only the
ve unknowns of stream 4 and all other variables are in terms of R.
Number of unknowns 5 R 6
Number of specied relations 0
DF 6 5 1
Mass Balance
The mass balance for each component can be simply written as
n
A
4
n
A
5
2667.27 181.8 R
n
B
4
n
B
5
13336.36 545.45 R
n
C
4
n
C
5
2 R
n
I
4
n
I
5
9.78
TM
Heat Balance
The generalized heat balance equation is
X
n
i
4
H
i
4
H
ir
Q
X
n
i
5
H
i
5
H
ir
Take the reference temperature as

T
ref
T
4
We get
Q
X
n
i
5
H
i
5
H
i
4
Calculations give
Q n
A
5
323
T
4
C
P
A
dT n
B
5
323
T
4
C
P
B
dT n
C
5
323
T
4
C
P
C
dT n
I
5
323
T
4
C
P
I
dT
On substituting the values of n
A
5
. n
B
5
. n
C
5
, and n
I
5
from Eqs. (2.93), (2.95),
(2.97), and (2.99), we get
Figure 2.35 Mass and energy ow diagram for the cooler.
TM
2667.27 181.8R
323
T
4
C
P
A
dT 13336.36 545.45 R
323
T
4
C
P
B
dT 2R
323
T
4
C
P
C
dT 9.78
323
T
4
C
P
I
dT Q
As Q F
3
R and all the above terms involve either R or T
4
, we can write
T
4
F
4
R
Thus, we have n
A
5
. n
B
5
. n
C
3
, and n
I
5
, all functions of R, and Q F
3
R,
together with T
4
F
4
R. Thus, whenever we compute R, we will get the
values of Q and T
4
, and back substitution will give us the values of all the
variables.
Now we move to the other path as shown in Figure 2.33.
Mixer (see Fig. 2.36)
Mass Balance
Mass balances for all the components give the following:
For component A:
n
A
1
n
A
8
n
A
2
n
A
2
14.67 n
A
8
For component B:
n
B
1
n
B
8
n
B
2
Figure 2.36 Mass and energy ow diagram for the mixer.
TM
n
B
2
73.35 n
B
8
For component C:
n
C
1
n
C
8
n
C
2
n
C
2
n
C
8
For component I:
n
I
1
n
I
8
n
I
2
n
I
2
9.78 n
I
8
Heat Balance
X
n
i
1
H
i
1
H
ir

X
n
i
8
H
i
8
H
ir

X
n
i
2
H
i
2
H
ir

T
ref
T
2
We get
X
n
i
1
H
i
1
H
i
2

X
n
i
8
H
i
8
H
i
2
0
Calculations give
14.67
323
T
2
C
P
A
dT 73.35
323
T
2
C
P
B
dT 0 9.78
323
T
2
C
P
I
dT
n
A
8
T
8
T
2
C
P
A
dT n
B
8
T
8
T
2
C
P
B
dT n
C
8
T
8
T
2
C
P
C
dT n
I
8
T
8
T
2
C
P
I
dT 0
Thus, we get
T
2
F
5
T
8
. n
i
8
. i A. B. C. and I
so, we can write
T
2
F
5
T
8
. n
i
8
As n
i
8
and n
i
2
are related, we can write
T
2
F
6
T
8
. n
i
2
TM
Reactor 2 (see Fig. 2.37)
For component A, we get
n
A
3
n
A
2
o
A
2
r
2
On substituting the values (note that o
A
2
1, we get
n
A
3
14.67 n
A
8
r
2
2.101
For component B, we get
n
B
3
n
B
2
o
B
2
r
2
B
2
3, we get
n
B
3
73.35 n
B
8
3r
2
2.102
For component C, we get
n
C
3
n
C
2
o
C
2
r
2
C
2
2, we get
n
C
3
n
C
8
2r
2
2.103
For component I, we get
n
I
3
n
I
2
o
I
2
r
2
I
2
0, we get
n
I
3
9.78 n
I
8
2.104
Now, we make use of the conversion value given in the problem:
x
A
2
0.1233
n
A
2
n
A
3
n
A
3
Figure 2.37 Mass and energy ow diagram for reactor 2.
TM
0.1233
14.67 n
A
8
n
A
3
n
A
3
Using the mass balance relations derived above, we get
0.1233
14.67 n
A
8
14.67 n
A
8
r
2
14.67 n
A
8
r
2
which can be simplied to

r
2
1.61 0.11n
A
8
2.105
Heat Balance
X
n
i
2
H
i
2
H
ir
Q
|{z}
zero
X
n
i
3
H
i
3
H
ir
r
2
H
r

T
ref
258C 298 K
We can write
n
A
2
T
2
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
2
T
2
298
C
B
dT n
C
2
T
2
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
2
T
2
298
C
P
I
dT
n
A
3
T
3
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
3
T
3
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
3
T
3
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
3
T
3
298
C
P
I
dT r
2
H
r
Note that all n

i
2
can be put in terms of n
i
8
as shown earlier (where
i A. B. C, and I). Therefore, the above heat balance equation gives a
relation among n
i
8
. n
i
3
. T
2
. T
3
. and r
2
. Thus, we can write
T
3
Gn
i
8
. n
i
3
. T
2
. r
2
. i A. B. C. and I
We can further write
T
3
Gn
i
8
. n
i
3
. F
5
T
8
. n
i
8
. r
2
Finally, we can write

T
3
F
7
n
i
8
. n
i
3
. T
g
. r
2
TM
However, we already know
n
i
3

^
FFn
i
8
. r
2
Thus, we get
T
3
F
8
n
i
8
. T
8
. r
2
Then, from Eq. (2.105), we have

r
2

~
FFn
A
8
Finally, we get
T
3
F
9
n
i
8
. T
8
Reactor 1 (See Fig. 2.38) For component A, we get

n
A
8
n
A
7
o
A
1
r
1
A
1
1, we get
n
A
8
n
A
7
r
2
This can be rewritten as
n
A
7
n
A
8
r
2
2.106
In the very same way, we can write the mass balance equations for compo-
nents B, C, and I, we get
n
B
7
n
B
8
3r
1
2.107
n
C
7
n
C
8
2r
1
2.108
n
I
7
n
I
8
2.109
Now, we make use of the conversion value given in the problem:
x
A
1
0.1
n
A
7
n
A
8
n
A
7
Figure 2.38 Mass and energy ow diagram for reactor 1.
TM
Using the mass balance relations derived above, we get
0.1
n
A
8
r
1
n
A
8
n
A
8
r
1
which can be simplied to

r
1
0.111n
A
8
2.110
As can be seen, r
1
is only a function of n
A
8
. Moreover, all n
i
7
involve both
r
1
and n
i
8
, so we can easily say that
n
i
7

^
GGn
i
8
i A. B. C. and I
Heat Balance
X
n
i
7
H
i
7
H
ir
Q
|{z}
zero
X
n
i
8
H
i
8
H
ir
r
1
H
r

T
ref
258C 298 K
It is given that
T
7
4258C 698 K
We can write
n
A
7
698
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
7
698
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
7
698
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
7
698
298
C
P
I
dT
n
A
8
T
8
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
8
T
8
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
8
T
8
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
8
T
8
298
C
P
I
dT r
1
H
r
On substituting the values from the mass balance relations derived above,
we get
TM
n
A
8
0.111n
A
8
698
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
8
30.111n
A
8
698
298
C
P
B
dT
n
C
8
20.111n
A
8
698
298
C
P
C
dT n
I
8
698
298
C
P
I
dT
n
A
8
T
8
298
C
P
A
dT n
B
8
T
8
298
C
P
B
dT n
C
8
T
8
298
C
P
C
dT
n
I
8
T
8
298
C
P
I
dT 0.111n
A
8
H
r
Therefore, the above heat balance equation gives a relation between n

i
8
and
T
8
. Thus, we can write
T
8
G
2
n
i
8
. i A. B. C. and I
Exchanger (See Fig. 2.39)
Mass Balance
The mass balance on streams 3 and 4 gives the following: For component A,
we get
n
A
3
n
A
4
14.67 1.61 n
A
8
1 0.11 F
00
A
n
A
8
Figure 2.39 Mass and energy ow diagram for the exchanger.

TM
As the above relation is in terms of only n
A
8
, we can solve it to get the value
of n
A
8
.
Similarly, we obtain the values for n
B
8
, n
C
8
, and n
I
8
using the mass
balances for components B, C, and I. Note that n
i
3
n
i
4
, where i A. B. C,
and I. Because the value of n
A
8
has been calculated, we can get the value of
T
4
as T
4
F
00
T
n
A
8
). Also, because n
A
8
has been calculated, T
3
F
9
n
i
8
. T
8
becomes
T
3
F
10
T
8
Then from the individual mass balance for the separator, we have
n
i
6
F
000
R F
000
n
A
8
.
Thus, it is known. Also, we get
T
6
F
000
R F
000
n
A
8
.
Thus, it is also known. Using the above two known values, n
i
7
and T
7
are
known.
Heat Balance
X
n
i
3
H
i
3
H
ir

X
n
i
6
H
i
6
H
ir
X
n
i
7
H
i
7
H
ir

X
n
i
4
H
i
4
H
ir
Because
n
i
3
n
i
4
and n
i
6
n
i
7
we get
X
n
i
3
H
i
3
H
i
4

X
n
i
7
H
i
7
H
i
6
On substituting the values, we see that the above expression has only one
unknown (T
8
), hence, the above expression can be solved to get the value of
T
8
, and on back substituting, we get all the unknowns in the problem.
REFERENCE
1. Reklaitis, G. V. Introduction to Material and Energy Balances. Wiley, New
York, 1983.
PROBLEMS
Obtain any missing data from the literature (e.g., Perrys Chemical
Engineering Handbook 1999).
TM
Problem 2.1
Superphosphate is produced by reacting calcium phosphate with sulfuric
acid according to the reaction
Ca
3
PO
4
2
2H
2
SO
4
!CaH
4
PO
4
2
2CaSO
4
If 20,000 kg/day of raw calcium phosphate containing 14% inert impurities
is reacted with 15,000 kg/day of H
2
SO
4
of 92% concentration, determine the
rate of production of superphosphate assuming the reaction is 95% com-
plete (95% conversion). Which is the limiting reactant?
Problem 2.2
Carbon disulde is used in viscose rayon and cellophane manufacture and in
the production of carbontetrachloride. In the generally preferred process,
vaporized sulfur is reacted with methane according to the reactions
CH
4
4S !CS
2
2H
2
S
CH
4
2S !CS
2
2H
2
CH
4
2H
2
S !CS
2
4H
2
For a feed containing 4 mol of sulfur per mole methane, calculate the
composition of the product if 90% conversion of methane and 70% con-
version of sulfur are achieved.
Problem 2.3
Formaldehyde can be made by the partial oxidation of natural gas using
pure oxygen made industrially from liquid air.
CH
4
O
2
!CH
2
OH
2
O
The natural gas must be in large excess. The CH
4
is heated to 4008C and O
2
to 3008C and introduced into the reactor. The products leave the reactor at
6008C and have the following analysis: H
2
O 1.9%, CH
2
O 11.7%, O
2
3.8%,
and CH
4
82.6%. How much heat is removed from the reactor by cooling per
hour for a production rate of 200 kg/h formaldehyde.
Problem 2.4
Methane and oxygen react in the presence of a catalyst to form formalde-
hyde. In a parallel side reaction, some of the methane is instead oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water:
CH
4
O
2
!HCHO H
2
O
CH
4
2O
2
!CO
2
2H
2
O
TM
The feed to the reactor contains equimolar amounts of methane and oxygen.
The fractional conversion of methane is 95%, and the fractional yield
of formaldehyde is 90%. Calculate the molar composition of the reactor
output stream and the selectivity of formaldehyde production relative to
carbon dioxide production.
In another case, the reactor output stream contains 45 mol% formal-
dehyde, 1% carbon dioxide, 4% unreacted methane, and the balance oxygen
and water. Calculate the fractional conversion of methane, the fractional
yield of formaldehyde and the selectivity of formaldehyde production rela-
tive to carbon dioxide production.
Problem 2.5
Ethylene oxide is produced by the catalytic partial oxidation of ethylene:
C
2
H
4
1
2
O
2
!C
2
H
4
O
An undesired competing reaction is the combustion of ethylene:
C
2
H
4
3O
2
!2CO
2
2H
2
O
The feed to the reactor (not the fresh feed to the process) contains 3 mol of
C
2
H
4
per mole of oxygen. The fractional conversion of ethylene in the
reactor is 20%, and the yield of ethylene oxide based on ethylene consumed
is 80%. A multiple-unit process is used to separate the products C
2
H
4
O,
CO
2
, H
2
O) from the output gases leaving the reactor: C
2
H
4
and O
2
are
recycled back to the reactor, C
2
H
4
O is sold as a product, and CO
2
and
H
2
O are discarded.
(a) Construct a degree-of-freedom table. Is the problem correctly
specied?
(b) Calculate the molar ow of C
2
H
4
and O
2
in the fresh feed. What
is the mass fraction of C
2
H
4
in the feed?
(c) Calculate the overall conversion and the overall yield based on
ethylene fed.
(d) Calculate the selectively of C
2
H
4
O based on reactor output.
Problem 2.6
Oxychlorination of hydrocarbons refers to a chemical reaction in which
oxygen and hydrogen chloride react with a hydrocarbon in the vapor
phase over a supported copper chloride catalyst to produce a chlorinated
hydrocarbon and water. The oxychlorination of ethylene to produce 1,2-
dichloroethane [commonly called ethylene dichloride (EDC)] is of the great-
est commercial importance. EDC is a precursor for poly(vinyl chloride)
TM
(PVC), which is one of the most widely used commercial plastics. The over-
all oxychlorination reaction of ethane is given as follows:
2C
2
H
4
4HCl O
2
!2C
2
H
4
Cl
2
2H
2
O
Determine the mass, moles, and weight percent of the reactant and product
streams if 2000 kmol of the limiting reactant HCl is fed with 10% excess air
and 5% excess ethane. Ninety-ve percent conversion of ethylene occurs in
the reactor.
Problem 2.7
A mixture containing 68.4% H
2
, 22.6% N
2
, and 9% CO
2
react according to
the following reaction scheme:
N
2
3H
2
,2NH
3
CO
2
H
2
,COH
2
O
The reaction proceeds until the mixture contains 15.5% NH
3
and 5% H
2
O.
Calculate the mole fraction of N
2
, H
2
, CO
2
, and CO.
Problem 2.8
A gas mixture consisting of NO
2
and air is bubbled through a process into
which water is fed at a rate of 55.5 kmol/h (as shown in Fig. P2.8). Water
absorbs most of the NO
2
and none of the air. The volumetric ow rate of
the feed gas is determined from the pressure drop across the orice. An
equation relating the pressure drop and volumetric ow rate is given by
V m
3
,h 13.2 h
0.515
Figure P2.8 Process diagram for Problem 2.8.
TM
where h is in mm Hg. The molar ow rate of the gas mixture is related to
volumetric ow rate by the ideal gas law
PV nRT
where R 0.082 L atm/g mol K, V is the volumetric ow rate, and n is the
molar ow rate.
An instrument was used to measure the composition of the gas
mixture, where the mole fraction x of the mixture is determined from the
reading M obtained from the instrument using the relation
x 5.00 10
4
e
0.06M
The following data are recorded for the inlet gas mixture: T 248C,
P 11.2 atm, h (oricemeter) 210 mm Hg, and M 80.4. For the outlet
gas, M 11.6.
Determine the amount of NO
2
absorbed by the water.
Problem 2.9
The recycle process, for producing perchloric acid (HClO
4
) is shown in
Figure P2.9. The reaction
BaClO
4
2
H
2
SO
4
!BaSO
4
2HClO
4
proceeds in the reactor with 85% conversion of Ba(ClO
4
2
. The ratio of the
number of moles of Ba(ClO
4
2
in feed (fed to the mixer in the gure) to the
number of moles of H
2
SO
4
fed to the reactor is 1.0 : 1.1. The process main
feed (fed to the mixer in the gure) consists of 88% (by weight) Ba(ClO
4
)
2
Figure P2.9 Flowsheet of the process for Problem 2.9.
TM
and the rest (12% by weight) is HClO
4
. The recycle contains only
Ba(ClO
4
)
2
. Calculate all ow rates and compositions for all the streams in
the process.
Problem 2.10
Rened sugar (sucrose) can be converted to glucose and fructose by the
inversion process
C
12
H
22
O
11
|{z}
sucrose
H
2
O !C
6
H
12
O
6
|{z}
d-glucose
C
6
H
12
O
6
|{z}
d-fructose
The combined quantity glucose/fructose is called inversion sugar. If 90%
conversion of sucrose occurs on one pass through the reactor, what would
be the recycle stream ow per 100 kg/h of sucrose solution entering the
process shown in Figure P2.10? What is the concentration of inversion
sugar in the recycle stream and in the product stream? The concentrations
of the components in the recycle stream and product streams are the same.
Note: All percentages are weight percentages.
Problem 2.11
Product P is produced from reactant R according to the reaction
2R !P W
Unfortunately, because both reactant and product decompose to form the
by-product B according to the reactions
R !B W
P !2B W
only 50% conversion of R is achieved in the reactor and the fresh feed
contains 1 mol of inerts I per 11 mol of R. The unreacted R and inerts I
Figure P2.10 Process ow diagram for Problem 2.10.
TM
are separated from the products and recycled. Some of the unreacted R and
inerts I must be purged to limit the inerts I in the reactor feed to 12% on a
molar basis (see Fig. P2.11). For a product stream produced at a rate of
1000 lb mol/h and analyzing 38% product P on molar basis, calculate the
following (see Fig. P2.11):
(a) The composition of the recycle stream on molar basis
(b) The fraction of the recycle which is purged [purge/purge+re-
cycle)]
(c) The fresh feed rate in lb mol/h
(d) The composition of the product stream on a molar basis
(e) The fraction of reactant R which reacts via the reaction
R !B W.
Problem 2.12
In the recycle system shown in Figure P2.12, a feed of 1000 mol/h consisting
of one-third A and two-thirds B is mixed with a recycle stream and reacted
following the stoichiometry
A B !D
In the reactor, 20% of the entering A is converted to product. The resulting
stream is separated so that the recycle stream contains 80% of A, 90% of B,
and 10% of D fed to the separator.
TM
(a) Show that the process is correctly specied (i.e., mass balance is
solvable).
(b) Determine a calculation order for manual solution.
(c) Solve the problem.
Problem 2.13
Acetic anhydride can be produced from acetic acid by catalytic cracking. In
the conceptual process shown in Figure P2.13, the acetic acid is reacted, the
TM
products are separated, and the unreacted acetic acid as well as inerts are
recycled. The fresh feed consists of 1 mol of inerts per 50 mol of acetic acid,
and the product analyses 46% CH
3
CO
2
O, 50% H
2
O, and 4% CH
2
CO
(molar basis).
(a) Determine the degree of freedom and a calculation order.
(b) Calculate the fraction of the acetic acid which must be purged to
prevent the inerts from accumulating.
(c) Calculate the conversion of acetic acid per pass.
Problem 2.14
A stream of saturated water at 10 bar is available to exchange heat with a
brine solution at 1 bar and 508C. If the brine ow is twice the water ow and
if the water stream can be cooled to 758C, what is the temperature to which
the brine can be heated? The brine can be assumed to have the properties of
water.
Problem 2.15
Given that the net heat of combustion of CH
4
(g) is 191.76 kcal/g mol,
calculate its heat of formation. The heats of formation of CO
2
and H
2
O are
as follows
H8
f
CO
2
g
94.0518 kcal/g mol
H8
f
H
2
Og
57.7979 kcal/ g mol
Problem 2.16
In the double-pipe heat exchanger shown in Figure P2.16, oxygen at the rate
of 100 kmol/h is being heated by condensing saturated steam at 1.5 bar.
Oxygen enters the inner pipe at 258C and leaves at 2008C. The exchanger is
well insulated such that no heat is lost to the atmosphere.
Find the amount of steam condensed per hour of operation if the
molar heat capacity of oxygen is given by the expression
C
P
29.88 0.11384 10
1
T 0.43378 10
4
T
2
where T is in K and C
P
is in kJ/kmol.
Problem 2.17
The temperature in a CO shift converter can be moderated by the injection
of excess steam. Assuming a feed of 30% CO, 20% H
2
, and 50% H
2
O at
6008F and assuming 90% of CO will be converted. Determine the additional
TM
5508F steam required (per mole of feed) to maintain the reactor outlet
temperature below 8508F. The reaction stoichiometry is:
COg H
2
Og !CO
2
g H
2
g
Problem 2.18
In the production of ethylene oxide by partial oxidation of ethylene, the
following reactions take place:
2C
2
H
4
O
2
!2C
2
H
4
O
C
2
H
4
3O
2
!2CO
2
2H
2
O
In a given reactor with a feed consisting of 12%C
2
H
4
and the rest air, 26%
conversion of C
2
H
4
and an 78% fractional yield of C
2
H
4
O from C
2
H
4
converted are attained when the reactor is operated at 2458C. Calculate
the required heat removal rate from the reactor for a feed rate of 1200
kmol/h if the reactor feed mixture is at 1058C. All species are in the gas
phase.
Problem 2.19
Carbon monoxide is completely burned at a pressure of 1 atm with excess
air. If reactants enter at 2008F, the products leave at 18008F and the heat
losses are negligible, what percentage of excess air was used?
Problem 2.20
Methanol is synthesized from CO and H
2
at 50 atm and 550 K over a
copper-based catalyst. With a feed of 75%H
2
and 25% CO at these condi-
tions, a product stream consisting of 20% CH
3
OH, 1% CH
4
, 20% CO, and
Figure P2.16 Flow diagram for Problem 2.16.
TM
the rest H
2
O and small amounts of CO
2
and H
2
are produced. The primary
reaction
COg 2H
2
g !CH
3
OHg
The two secondary reactions are
COg 3H
2
g !CH
4
g H
2
Og
COg H
2
Og !CO
2
g H
2
g
If the feed and product streams are maintained at 50 atm and 500 K, what is
the heat transfer rate required to maintain isothermal conditions? Must heat
be removed or added to the reactor?
Problem 2.21
For the reaction
2A B !C
the heat of reaction (at 300 K) is 10000 cal/g mol. The heat capacities of
the components are
C
P
A
16.0
1.5 10
3
T
C
P
B
11.0
0.5 10
3
T
C
P
C
25.0
1000
T
In the above relations, T is in K and C
P
in cal/g mol K. The heat capacity
equations are valid in the range 300 K T 1000 K.
(a) Derive an equation for the heat of reaction as a function of
temperature.
(b) Calculate the temperature at which the reaction changes from
exothermic to endothermic.
(c) Calculate the heat of reaction at 500 K assuming that substance
A undergoes a change of phase at 400 K with H
VL
A
928
cal/g mol after which its heat capacity becomes constant at
10 cal/g mol K.
Problem 2.22
A hot process stream is cooled by heat exchanger with boiler feed water
(BFW), thus producing steam. The BFW enters the exchanger at 1008C and
100 bar; the stream is saturated at 100 bar. The process ow stream is 1000
TM
kmol/h, its inlet molar enthalpy is equal to 2000 kJ/kmol, and the exit
enthalpy is 800 kJ/kmol. Calculate the required BFW ow rate (see Fig.
P2.22).
Problem 2.23
Methanol at 6758C and 1 bar is fed to an adiabatic reactor where 25% of it
is dehydrogenated to formaldehyde according to the reaction
CH
3
OHg !HCHOg H
2
g
which can be represented by the following reaction for simplication:
A !B C
Calculate the temperature of the gases leaving the reactor. The given data
are as follows:
Average heat capacity of CH
3
OHg C
P
0
A
17 kcal/g mol 8C
Average heat capacity of HCHO(g)=C
P
0
B
12 kcal/g mol 8C
Average heat capacity of H
2
g C
P
0
C
7 kcal/g mol 8C
Heat of formation of CH
3
OH(g) at 258C and 1 bar 48.08 kcal/
g mol
Heat of formation of HCHO(g) at 258C and 1 bar 27.7 kcal/g mol
Heat of formation of H
2
g at 258C and 1 bar 0.0 kcal/g mol
Problem 2.24
An evaporator is a special type of heat exchanger in which steam is used to
heat a solution to partially boil o some of the solvent. In the evaporator
shown in Figure P2.24, a brine containing 1% (weight) salt in water is fed at
TM
1 bar and 508C. The exit brine contains 2% (weight) salt and is saturated
liquid at 1 bar. The evaporated water is saturated steam at 1 bar. If satu-
rated steam at 2 bar is used as heat source and its condensate is assumed to
be saturated liquid at 2 bar, calculate the kilograms of 2-bar steam required
per kilogram of evaporated water
Problem 2.25
Acetic acid can be produced via the reaction
3C
2
H
5
OH2Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
8H
2
SO
4
!3CH
3
COOH2Cr
2
SO
4
3
2Na
2
SO
4
11H
2
O
In the recycle stream shown in Figure P2.25, 90% overall conversion of
C
2
H
5
OH is obtained with a recycle ow equal to the feed rate of fresh
C
2
H
5
OH.
The feed rates of fresh H
2
SO
4
and Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
are 20% and 10%,
respectively, in excess of the stoichiometric amounts required for the fresh
C
2
H
5
OH feed. If the recycle stream contains 94% H
2
SO
4
and the rest
C
2
H
5
OH, calculate the product ow and the conversion of C
2
H
5
OH in
the reactor.
Problem 2.26
The dehydrogenation of ethanol to form acetaldehyde takes place according
to the stoichiometric relation
Figure P2.24 Setup for Problem 2.24.
TM
C
2
H
5
OHg !CH
3
CHOg H
2
g
H8
R
H
rR
j
at 258C
68.95 kJ/mol of ethanol reacted
The reaction is carried out in an adiabatic reactor. Ethanol vapor is fed to
the reactor at 3008C and a conversion of 30% is obtained. Calculate the
product (outlet) temperature of this adiabatic reactor.
Heat Capacities
[Average values Assumed constant (independent of temperature)]:
C
2
H
5
OHg : C
P
0.11 kJ/mol 8C
C
3
CHOg : C
P
0.08 kJ,mol 8C
H
2
g : C
P
0.029 kJ/mol 8C
Problem 2.27
Ethylene is made commercially by dehydrogenating ethane:
C
2
H
6
g ,C
2
H
4
g H
2
g
H
R
2008C 134.7 kJ/mol
Ethane is fed to a continuous adiabatic reactor at T
f
20008C. Calculate
the exit temperature that would correspond to 95% conversion (x
A
0.95,
where A C
2
H
6
. Use the following data for the heat capacities in your
calculations:
TM
C
P
A
49.37 0.1392T
C
P
B
40.75 0.1147T
C
P
C
28.04 4.167 10
3
T
where A C
2
H
6
g. B C
2
H
4
g, and C H
2
g; C
P
j
is in J/mol 8C and
T is the temperature (in 8C)
Problem 2.28
Synthesis gas is upgraded to higher methane content in the recycle system
shown in Figure P2.28. The feed gas contains a small amount of methane
and analyzes 22% CO, 13% CO
2
, and 65% H
2
(mol%) on a methane-free
basis. The product stream (stream 6) analyzes (all mol %) CO 5%, H
2
9%,
CH
4
50%, CO
2
27%, and H
2
O 9%. Both feed and product are gases at
2008F. In the reactor, the following two reactions take place:
CO3H
2
!CH
4
H
2
O
COH
2
O !CO
2
H
2
The reactor euent is cooled to 5008F in exchanger 1 and then it is further
cooled in exchanger 2. Part of the euent is split o as product. The
TM
remainder is sent to a separator in which the stream is cooled to 908F and
95% of the H
2
O is separated as liquid. The remaining gas stream is reheated
in exchanger 2, mixed with the fresh feed, and returned to the reactor.
Assume that the mixer, splitter, exchanger 2, and reactor operate adiabati-
cally. Use the average C
P
values given in Table P2.28.
(a) Check if the process is correctly specied (i.e., process degrees of
freedom 0); if not, assume any missing information and give
sound engineering justication for your assumption.
(b) Determine a calculation order of the problem.
(c) Write a computer program for the solution based on subroutines
for the standard four mass and heat balance modules.
(d) Calculate the reactor outlet temperature.
Problem 2.29
A vertical lime kiln (Fig. P2.29) is charged with pure limestone (CaCO
3
) and
pure coke (C), both at 258C. Dry air is blown in at the bottom and provides
the necessary heat for decomposition of the carbonate by burning the
carbon to carbon dioxide. Lime (CaO) leaves the bottom at 9508C and
contains 5% carbon and 1% CaCO
3
. The kiln gases leave the top at
6008C and consist only of CO
2
and N
2
. Assume heat losses are negligible.
The two reactions are as follows:
CaCO
3
s !CaOs CO
2
g
Cs O
2
g !CO
2
g
Heats of formation are given in terms of kcal/gmol:
H8
f
CaCO
3
s
289.5. H8
f
CaOs
151.7.
H8
f
CO
2
g
289.5
Table P2.28 Values of Specic Heats
for Problem 2.28
C
P
g
(Btu/lb mol 8F)
C
P
l
(Btu/lb mol 8F)
CO 7.3
H
2
7.0
CH
4
12.0
CO
2
11.4
H
2
O 8.7 18.0
TM
The molar heat capacities (C
P
are given in units of cal/g mol K:
C
P
CaCO
3
s
28.6. C
P
Cs
4.6 C
P
CaOs
13.7.
C
P
CO
2
g
12.2. C
P
N
2
g
7.5. C
P
O
2
g
8.0
(a) Calculate the heats of reaction at 258C.
(b) Analyze the degrees of freedom of this process. Can the material
and energy balance be coupled?
(c) Calculate the required feed ratio of CaCO
3
to C required.
Problem 2.30
In the manufacture of sulfur dioxide by the direct oxidation of sulfur with
pure oxygen,
S O
2
!SO
2
Cool sulfur dioxide must be recycled to the burner to lower the ame tem-
perature below 1000 K so as not to damage the burner. The owsheet and
the temperatures of the dierent streams are given in Figure P2.30. For per
lb mol of SO
2
product, calculate the lb mol SO
2
recycled and the pounds of
steam produced.
Given data for sulfur: melting point 1138C, heat of fusion (at melt-
ing point) 0.3 kcal/mol, and heat capacity of solid 5.8 cal/mol K.
Obtain any other necessary data from appropriate tables.
Figure P2.29 Schematic diagram of the kiln for Problem 2.29.
TM
Problem 2.31
The production of ethylene oxide by partial oxidation of ethylene over a
silver catalyst involves the exothermic reaction
2C
2
H
4
g O
2
g !2C
2
H
4
Og
and the secondary, even more exothermic, reaction
C
2
H
4
g 3O
2
g !2CO
2
g 2H
2
Og
Temperature control is essential and is achieved by boiling a hydrocarbon
heat transfer uid on the outside of the reactor tubes. This vaporized uid
is then condensed in a heat exchanger by transferring heat to a stream of
saturated liquid water at 100 bar to produce saturated stream at 100 bar.
The reactor feed is 11% C
2
H
4
, 13% O
2
and the rest N
2
at 3608C at 10
bar. The reactor product stream is at 3758C and 10 bar and the conver-
sion of C
2
H
4
is 22% with a 83% selectivity for C
2
H
4
O. At the operating
pressure used in this system, the heat transfer uid boils at 3508C with a
heat of vaporization of 500 Btu/lb and has a liquid heat capacity of 0.8
Btu/lb 8C and a vapor heat capacity of 0.4 Btu/lb 8C. The ow of heat
transfer uid is adjusted so that it enters the reactor as liquid at 3408C
and leaves as a two-phase mixture with vapor fraction of 21% (see Fig.
P2.31).
(a) Calculate the mass of steam produced per mole of C
2
H
4
O pro-
duced.
(b) Calculate the recirculation rate of the heat transfer uid per mole
of C
2
H
4
O produced.
TM
(c) Why is a heat transfer uid used instead of the direct heat transfer
using water?
(d) What pressure would the reactor tubes have to withstand if water
were boiled at 3508C on the outside of the reactor tubes?
TM
3
Mathematical Modeling (I):
Homogeneous Lumped Systems
This chapter concentrates on the transformation of material and energy
balance equations of homogeneous lumped systems into mathematical
models (design equations).
3.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF
HOMOGENEOUS LUMPED PROCESSES
3.1.1 Basic Concepts for the Mathematical Modeling of
Processes
Mathematical modeling of mass transfer, heat transfer, and reaction in the
petrochemical, petroleum rening, biochemical, and electronic systems has
been a very strong tool for design, simulation, and control as well as
research and development (R&D) in these industries. It has led to a more
rational approach for design and control in addition to elucidating many
important phenomena associated with these systems. It has also led to a
higher level of organization for research in these elds. Rigorous highly
sophisticated mathematical models of varying degrees of complexity are
being developed and used in industrial design and control as well as aca-
demic and industrial research (13). An important point to be noted with
regard to the state of the art in these relatively well-established elds is that
steady-state modeling is more advanced than unsteady-state modeling
because of the additional complexities associated with unsteady-state beha-
vior and the additional physicochemical information necessary (1,48).
TM
Based on these achievements, continuous processing has advanced in
most chemical and related industries over the years and became the
dominant processing mode. Computerized reliable design packages
have been developed and computer control of units and whole plants
have been introduced widely (913). All of this has been coupled with a
considerable increase in the productivity of industrial units and plants with a
high reduction in manpower and tight control over the product quality.
On the industrial and academic levels, these advancements have led to
innovative designs and congurations that open new and exciting avenues
for developing new compact units with very high productivity (1417).
In this book, a system approach is adopted which treats any process or
processing plant as a system consisting of subsystems, with their properties
and interactions giving the overall system its characteristics. Before getting
into detail, it is important to give a more applied exposition of system theory
than that given in Chapter 1. To make the exposition more applied, we will
give some details regarding the principles of mathematical models building
with some emphasis on xed-bed catalytic reactors, which represent one of
the most important units in the above elds.
In this subsection, the basic concepts of system theory and principles for
mathematical modeling of chemical processes are briey revisited. The basic
principles have been discussed in Chapter 1, these basic principles are dis-
cussed here once again in a simple and brief manner.
A system is a whole consisting of elements and subsystems. The con-
cept of systemsubsystemselements is relative and depends on the level of
analysis. The system has a boundary that distinguishes it from the environ-
ment. The system may exchange matter and/or energy with the environ-
ment, depending on the type of system from a thermodynamics point of
view. A system (or subsystem) is described by its elements (or subsystems),
the interaction between the elements, and its relation with the environment.
The elements of the system can be material elements distributed topologi-
cally within the boundaries of the system and giving the conguration of the
system, or they can be processes taking place within the boundaries of the
system and dening its functions. They can also be both, together with their
complex interactions. An important property of the irreducibility of the
complex to the simple or of the whole to its elements is related to the fact
that the whole system will possess properties and qualities not found in its
constituent elements. This does not mean that certain information about
the behavior of the system cannot be deduced from the properties of its
elements, but it rather adds to it.
TM
Systems can be classied on dierent bases. The most fundamental
classication is that based on thermodynamic principles, and on this basis,
they can be classied into isolated systems, closed systems, and open systems
(18,19), as discussed in Chapter 1.
3.1.3 What Are Mathematical Models and Why Do
We Need Them?
Because much of the basic information for detailing the answer to this
question are discussed in other parts of this book, we present a brief answer
to this question here.
For the rst part of the question, we present briey Denns answer (20):
A mathematical model of a process is a system of equations whose
solution, given specied input data, is representative of the response
of the process to a corresponding set of inputs.
This brief answer contains the essential components of a true mathematical
model. However, for the denition to be more explicitly complete, we have to
add that the term process in the above context means the conguration of the
unit and all of the parameters related to its dimension and design. We have
also to add that the answer given by Denn (20) is phrased for the simulation
of existing processes. Of course, mathematical models are basically rigorous
design equations which can and must be used for design purposes. In design
problems, the output variables are specied as required from the process
together with the specications of the product and their rates of production.
Thus, in most design problems, the output variables are predetermined, as
well as the input variables, and it is the design parameters which we seek to
compute. Therefore, both input and output variables are fed to the model
(actually the computer program of the model) in order to compute (usually in
an iterative manner) some of the design parameters of the unit itself and also
to check that the obtained design does not violate the physically imposed
constraints. When the design results violate the physical constraints, the
model is further used to suggest solutions for this crucial problem.
The second part of the question has been explicitly and implicitly
answered in many places in this book and we can summarize the answer
in the following points regarding the advantages of using rigorous mathe-
matical models in design:
1. It gives more precise and optimal design of industrial units.
2. It allows the investigation of new more eective designs.
3. It can be used for simulation of the performance of existing units
to ensure their smooth operation.
TM
4. It is usable for the optimization of the performance of existing
units and compensation for external disturbances in order to
always keep the unit working at its optimum conditions.
5. Dynamic models are used in the design of control loops for
dierent industrial units to compensate for the dynamic eects
associated with external disturbances.
6. Dynamic models are also used for stabilization of the desirable
unstable steady state by designing the necessary stabilizing
control.
7. It is utilized in the organization and rationalization of safety
considerations.
8. It is extremely useful for training purposes.
9. It provides an excellent guide regarding environmental impact
and protection.
3.1.4 Empirical (Black Box) and Physical
(Mathematical) Models
Empirical models are based on inputoutput relations that do not take into
consideration the description of the processes taking place within the sys-
tem. This is why it is sometimes referred to as the black-box approach,
because the system is considered as a nontransparent box with attention
focused only on input and output variables, without much concern about
what is going on inside the box. Many procedures exist for determining the
appropriate experimental design and the way in which data are converted to
equations. It is usually necessary to make some a priori assumptions about
the physical structure of the system as well as the mathematical structure of
the equations. Empirical models are highly unreliable and can hardly be
extrapolated outside the region where the experiments were conducted.
However, they are relatively easy and some empirical models are sometimes
used as parts of an overall physical (or mathematical) model. Thus, empiri-
cal models are unreliable as overall process models, but sometimes they are
used as parts of overall mathematical models.
On the other hand, physical (or mathematical) models are built on the
basis of understanding the processes taking place within the boundaries of
the system, the laws governing the rates of these processes, the interaction
between the processes, as well as the interaction with the input variables
and surrounding environment. These models are sometimes called physical
models. This is to distinguish them from empirical models, because they
describe the physical situation instead of ignoring it. Empirical models, on
the other hand, relate input and output through linear and nonlinear
regression. Physical models are also called mathematical models because
TM
of the mathematical description of the processes taking place within the
boundaries of the system and in the description of the overall system.
Of course, no mathematical model is completely rigorous. Each math-
ematical model will always contain some empirical parts. As the degree of
empiricism decreases, the model reliability increases. As an example, in the
development of mathematical models for packed beds, the mass and heat
transfer resistances are usually computed using the empirical j-factor corre-
lations for mass and heat transfer between the solid surface and the bulk
uid. Having some of the components of the mathematical models as
empirical relations does not make the model empirical; it is only that
some of the parameters involved in the quantitative description of the
processes taking place within the system are determined from empirical
relations obtained experimentally.
To illustrate the above points in a simple manner, let us consider a
nonisothermal adiabatic xed-bed reactor packed with nonporous catalyst
pellets for a simple exothermic reaction
A !B
Assume that the pellets are of large thermal conductivity and that the rate of
reaction is rst order in the concentration of component A:
r k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
kmol
kg catalyst h
3:1
A mathematical model for this system will be a heterogeneous model taking
into consideration the dierences in temperature and concentration between
the bulk gas phase and the solid catalytic phase. For the catalyst pellet, the
steady state is described by algebraic equations as follows.
Using the symbols in the schematic diagram of the catalyst pellet as
shown in Figure 3.1, the mass balance for component A (for a case with
negligible intraparticle mass and heat transfer resistances) is given by
a
P
k
gA
C
AB
C
A
W
P
r 3:2
Figure 3.1 Nonporous catalyst pellet.
TM
where a
P
is the external surface area of the pellet (in m
2
), W
P
is the weight of
the catalyst pellets (in kg), k
g
A
is the external mass transfer coecient of
component A (in m=h), r is the rate of reaction per unit mass of the catalyst,
C
A
is the concentration of component A in the catalyst pellet, and C
A
B
is the
bulk concentration around the pellet. The heat balance for the pellet is given
by
a
P
hT T
B
W
P
rH
R
3:3
where H
R
is the heat of reaction (in kJ=k mol, h is the external heat
transfer coecient (in kJ=m
2
Kh, T is the pellet temperature (in K), and T
B
is the bulk temperature (in K). The bulk phase balances are shown in Figure
3.2. The bulk mass balance equation for the variation of C
AB
along the
length of the reactor (details of its derivation will be given in a later section)
is
q
dC
AB
dl
k
gA
A
t
a
S
r
B
C
A
C
AB
3:4
Similarly, the bulk temperature variation along the length of reactor is given
by
qr
mix
C
Pmix
dT
B
dl
hA
t
a
S
r
B
T T
B
3:5
with initial conditions (at l 0
C
AB
C
Af
and T
B
T
f
3:6
where q is the volumetric ow rate (in m
3
=h), r
mix
is the density of the gas
mixture, r
B
is the density of the catalyst (in kg/m
3
, A
t
is the cross-sectional
area of the catalyst tube (in m
2
), C
P
mix
is the specic heat of the mixture (in
kJ/kg), and a
S
is the specic surface area of the catalyst (in m
2
=kg catalyst).
To obtain the eect of input variables (e.g., q; C
Af
, and T
f
on the
output variables C
B
and T
B
), Eqs. (3.1)(3.6) must be solved simultaneously
and numerically to obtain necessary results, as shown in Figure 3.3, where L
is the length of the reactor.
Figure 3.2 Mass and energy ow diagram for the bulk phase.
TM
In the above simple model, the parameters of the system are obtained
from independent experiments to evaluate k
0
, E, and H
R
. The heat and
mass transfer coecients (h and k
gA
, respectively) are obtained from empiri-
cal j-factor correlations. For each value of T
f
shown in Figure 3.3, the
equations are solved to obtain the output variables C
AB
and T
B
. The solu-
tion also provides the concentration and temperature proles along the
length of the catalyst bed. It will also provide the temperature of the catalyst
pellet T and the concentration C
A
at every position along the length of the
reactor. This is obviously a physical (mathematical) model, although some
of the parameters are obtained using empirical relations (e.g., h and k
gA
from j-factor correlations).
If the relations in Figure 3.3 are to be obtained by an empirical model,
a number of experiments have to be performed, where, for example, T
f
is
changed and C
AB
j
at lL
is measured experimentally, and then the results are
tted to a polynomial (or any other suitable function) by nonlinear regres-
sion to obtain an empirical model of the form
C
AB
j
at lL
f T
f
_ _
If other input variables need to be incorporated, then a very large number of
experiments must be performed and multiple regression is used to obtain an
empirical model of the form
C
AB
j
at lL
f T
f
; q; C
Af
_ _
The dierence in rigor, reliability, and predictability between the two
approaches should be obvious from this simple example. It is obvious
that such empirical relations have no physical basis and, therefore, it is
Figure 3.3 Eect of feed temperature on output concentration of reactant A.
TM
highly unreliable and it is not very wise (nor necessary nowadays) to try to
extrapolate it.
3.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL BUILDING:
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Building a mathematical model for any chemical engineering system
depends to a large extent on the level of knowledge regarding the physical
and chemical processes taking place within the boundaries of the system and
the interaction between the system and the environment. It is, of course, also
essential to know the laws governing the processes taking place within the
boundaries of the system as well as the laws governing its interaction with
the surroundings. For example, if we consider the more general catalytic
reacting systems, these will include the diusion mechanism and rates of
diusion of reacting species to the neighborhood of active centers of reac-
tion, the chemisorption of the reacting species on these active sites, the
diusion of reactants through the pores of the catalyst pellets (intraparticle
diusion), the mechanism and kinetic rates of the reaction of these species,
the desorption of products, and the diusion of products away from the
reaction centers. It also includes the thermodynamic limitations that decide
the feasibility of the process to start with, and also includes heat production
and absorption as well as heat transfer rates. Of course, diusion rates and
heat transfer rates are both dependent to a great extent on the proper
description of the uid ow phenomena in the system. The ideal case is
when all of these processes are determined separately and then combined
into the systems model in a rigorous manner. However, very often this is
quite dicult to achieve; therefore, special experiments need to be devised,
coupled with the necessary mathematical modeling, in order to decouple the
dierent processes interacting in the measurements.
Mathematical models (design equations) of dierent degrees of sophis-
tication and rigor were built in last three to four decades to take their part in
directing design procedure as well as directing scientic research in all elds
of chemical engineering and its related disciplines. It is important in this
respect to stress the fact mentioned a number of times previously that most
mathematical models are not completely based on rigorous mathematical
formulation of the physical and chemical processes taking place within the
boundaries of the system and the interaction between the system and its
environment. Every mathematical model contains a certain degree of
empiricism. The degree of empiricism, of course, limits the generality of
the model, and as our knowledge of the fundamentals of the processes
taking place increases, the degree of empiricism decreases and the degree
of rigor (generality) of the model increases. The existing models at any stage,
TM
with this stages appropriate level of empiricism, helps greatly in the
advancement of the knowledge of the fundamentals and therefore helps to
decrease the degrees of empiricism and increase the level of rigor in the
mathematical models. In addition, any model will contain simplifying
assumptions which are believed, by the model builder, not to aect the
predictive nature of the model in any manner that sabotages the purpose
of the model.
With a given degree of fundamental knowledge at a certain stage of
scientic development, one can build dierent models with dierent degrees
of sophistication depending on the purpose of the model building and the
level of rigor and accuracy required. The choice of the appropriate level of
modeling and the degree of sophistication required in the model is an art
that needs a high level of experience. Models that are too simplied will not
be reliable and will not serve the purpose, whereas models that are too
sophisticated will present unnecessary and sometimes expensive overburden.
Models that are too sophisticated can be tolerated in academia and may
sometimes prove to be useful in discovering new phenomena. However,
oversophistication in modeling can hardly be tolerated or justied in indus-
trial practice.
The procedure for model building diers depending on the process
itself and the modeling group. However, a reasonably reliable procedure
can be summarized in the following steps:
1. The identication of the system conguration, its environment,
and the modes of interaction between them.
2. The introduction of the necessary justiable simplifying assump-
tions.
3. The identication of the relevant state variables that describe the
system.
4. The identication of the processes taking place within the bound-
aries of the system.
5. The determination of the quantitative laws governing the rates of
the processes in terms of the state variables. These quantitative
laws can be obtained from the known information in the litera-
ture and/or through an experimental research program coupled
with the mathematical modeling program.
6. The identication of the input variables acting on the system.
7. The formulation of the model equations based on the principles
of mass, energy, and momentum balance appropriate to the type
of system.
8. The development of the necessary algorithm for the solution of
the model equations.
TM
9. The checking of the model against experimental results to ensure
its reliability and re-evaluation of the simplifying assumptions
which may result in imposing new simplifying assumptions or
relaxing some of them.
It is clear that these steps are interactive in nature and the results of each step
should lead to a reconsideration of the results of all previous steps. In many
instances, steps 2 and 3 are interchanged in the sequence, depending on the
nature of the system and the degree of knowledge regarding the processes
taking place, within its boundaries, and its interaction with the environment.
3.2.1 Classication of Models
We revisit the dierent types of models which are essential in model devel-
opment for the dierent chemical/biochemical engineering processes. Batch
processes are usually of the isolated- or closed-system type, whereas the
continuous processes are almost always of the open-system type.
For continuous processes, a classication from a mathematical point
of view is very useful for both model formulation and algorithms for model
solution. According to this basis, systems can be classied as follows:
1. Lumped systems: These are systems in which the state variables
describing the system are lumped in space (invariant in all space
dimensions). The simplest chemical engineering example is the
perfectly mixed continuous-stirred tank reactor. These systems
are described at steady state by algebraic equations, whereas
the unsteady state is described by initial-value ordinary dieren-
tial equations for which time is the independent variable.
2. Distributed systems: These are systems in which the state variables
are varying in one or more direction of the space coordinates.
The simplest chemical engineering example is the plug ow reac-
tor. These systems are described at steady state by either an
ordinary dierential equation [when the variation of the state
variable is only in one direction of the space coordinates, (i.e.,
one-dimensional models) and the independent variable is the
space direction] or partial dierential equations [when the varia-
tion of the state variables is in more than one direction of the
space coordinates (i.e., two-dimensional models or higher), and
the independent variables are these space directions]. The ordin-
ary dierential equations of the steady state of the one-dimen-
sional distributed parameter models can be either initial-value
dierential equations (e.g., plug ow models) or two-point
boundary-value dierential equations (e.g., models with super-
TM
imposed axial dispersion or diusion through pellets or mem-
branes). The equations describing the unsteady state of distribu-
ted models are invariably partial dierential equations.
Another classication of systems, which is very important for deciding
the algorithm for model solution, is that of linear and nonlinear systems.
The equations of linear systems can usually be solved analytically, whereas
the equations of nonlinear systems are almost always solved numerically. In
this respect, it is important to recognize the important fact that physical
systems are almost always nonlinear, and linear systems are either an
approximation that should be justied or intentionally linearized in the
neighborhood of a certain state of the system and are strictly valid only in
this neighborhood.
A third classication, which is very relevant and important to chemical
engineers, is the classication based on the number of phases involved
within the boundaries of the system. According to this classication systems
are divided as follows (21):
1. Homogeneous systems: These are systems in which only one phase
is involved in the process taking place within the boundaries of
the system. The behavior of these systems (for reacting systems) is
basically governed by the kinetics of the reaction taking place
without the interference of any diusion processes between
phases. Nonreacting homogeneous systems are usually very sim-
ple (e.g., mixer, splitter, lling/emptying of a tank, etc.).
2. Heterogeneous systems: These are systems in which more than
one phase is involved in the processes taking place within the
boundaries of the system. The behavior of these systems (for
reacting systems) is governed not only by the kinetics of the
reactions taking place but also by the complex interaction
between the kinetics and the relevant diusion processes. The
modeling and analysis of these systems is obviously much more
complicated than for homogeneous systems. It is clear that the
systems for xed-bed catalytic reactors fall into the category of
heterogeneous systems and, more specically into the category of
gassolid systems; therefore, the behavior of the system is depen-
dent on a complex interaction between kinetics and diusion.
Nonreacting heterogeneous systems are not very simple (e.g.,
absorption, distillation, adsorption, etc.).
The reader interested in more details about system theory and the
general concepts of mathematical modeling will nd a large number of
very good and interesting books (2224).
TM
3.2.2 Difference Between Modeling and Simulation
Aris (25) in his 1990 Dankwerts Memorial Lecture entitled Manners
Makyth Modelers distinguishes between modeling and simulation in a
special manner that follows the reasoning of Smith (26) in ecological
models,
It is essential quality in a model that it should be capable of having
a life of its own. It may not, in practice, need to be sundered from
its physical matrix. It may be a poor, an ill-favored thing when it is
by itself. But it must be capable of having this independence.
He also adds in the same lecture:
At the other end of the scale a model can cease to be a model by
becoming too large and too detailed a simulation whose natural line
of development is to the particular rather than the general. It ceases
to have a life of its own by becoming dependent for its vitality on its
physical realization.
As discussed in Chapter 1, the basis of the classication given by Aris
is very interesting, true, and useful. It is typical of the Minnesota school,
which actually revolutionized the eld of mathematical modeling in chemi-
cal engineering with their extensive work in this eld since the mid-1940s
until today. Experimental verications of the arsenal of new and interesting
steady-state and dynamic phenomena discovered by the Minnesota school
were carried out in other universities, mostly by graduates from Minnesota.
The most interesting outcome is the fact that not a single phenomena which
was discovered theoretically using mathematical models by the Minnesota
group was not experimentally conrmed later. This demonstrates the great
power of mathematical modeling discipline as expressed by Aris (25), where
the model is stripped of many of its details in order to investigate the most
fundamental characteristics of the system. The Minnesota school using this
approach has achieved a real revolution in chemical engineering in general
and in chemical engineering mathematical modeling in particular.
In this book, a dierent denition for mathematical modeling and
simulation than the one of Aris (25) will be adopted. Our denition will
be more pragmatic and will serve our specic purpose in this book. The
denition we will adopt is that mathematical modeling will involve the
process of building up the models themselves, whereas simulation involves
simulating experimental or industrial units using the developed models.
Thus, simulation in this sense is actually closely linked to the verication
of the model against experimental and industrial units. However, it will also
include the use of the veried models to simulate a certain practical situation
TM
specic to a unit, a part of a production line, or an entire production line.
The main purpose of developing and verifying these models is to use them as
rigorous design equations.
3.2.3 Design Equations and Mathematical Models
From the process design point of view, design means deciding on the con-
guration of the unit, its dimensions, and the optimal input variables. Of
course, the guidelines for such a design are the imposed constraints, such as
the amount of raw material to be processed in the unit, the properties of the
raw material and the products, chemical and physical paths between the raw
material and the products, the rate of these paths, the thermochemical
properties of the materials and processes (or paths), the maximum tempera-
ture that the material of construction and catalyst can withstand, the quality
of the products and their rate of production, and so forth.
Design can be carried out based on previous experience with very few
calculations and that was the case at the very early stages of the chemical
industry before even chemical engineering was established. Certainly, some
elements of this highly empirical approach still exists in todays advanced
design procedure. A relatively higher degree of rationalization as compared
with the highly empirical approach will be based on scaling up from bench
scale to pilot plant, then to commercial scale directly or through a semi-
commercial-scale unit. This procedure includes extensive experimental work
with a limited amount of computation. Another procedure is to use design
equations that are of a certain degree of rigor coupled with design guidelines
that accumulated over the years.
What are usually called design equations are usually expressed in
terms of nonlinear sets of algebraic, dierential, or integral equations and
can be called mathematical models.
Actually, there is no dierence in principle between design equations
and mathematical models. It is just that when the process is described
by a highly empirical and simplied set of equations, we call them design
equations, whereas when the equations are more rigorous and therefore
more reliable, they are called a mathematical model.
3.2.4 Simplied Pseudohomogeneous Models
Versus Rigorous Heterogeneous Models
We will use the industrially important xed bed-catalytic reactor as a tool
to illustrate some basic modeling principles. The main steps for reactions
taking place in xed-bed catalytic reactors are as follows:
TM
1. External mass transfer from the bulk gas phase to the external
surface of the pellet
2. Intraparticle diusion of reactants through the pores of the
catalyst pellets toward the center of the pellet
3. Chemisorption of reaction molecules onto the surface of the
pellet
4. Surface reaction of the adsorbed species
5. Desorption of the product molecules
6. Intraparticle diusion of product molecules toward the surface of
the pellet
7. External mass transfer of the product molecules from the surface
of the pellet to the bulk gas phase
This sequence of events makes the concentrations under which the reactions
actually take place quite dierent form those at the measurable bulk con-
ditions. In addition to that, when the heats of reactions are appreciable,
there will also be a temperature dierence between the bulk gas phase and
the solid catalyst phase.
Heterogeneous models (to be discussed in Chapter 6) take into con-
sideration these dierences between the bulk gas phase and the catalyst solid
phase, whereas pseudohomogeneous models ignore these dierences. These
dierences between the two phases are best expressed through a coecient
called the eectiveness factor Z (or sometimes called the eciency factor)
which is dened as the ratio of the actual rate of reaction to the rate of
reaction when mass and heat transfer resistances are neglected.
In other words,
Z
Correct rate of reaction computed from heterogeneous models
Rate of reaction computed from homogeneous models
The eectiveness factor computation involves the solution of nonlinear two-
point boundary-value dierential equations of varying degrees of complex-
ity depending on the specic reactions taking place in the reactor. The
eectiveness factors vary with the change of the bulk-gas-phase conditions
and therefore must be computed at every point along the length of the
reactor. Ecient numerical techniques have been developed for solving
this problem.
From the above simple discussion, it is clear that the pseudo-
homogeneous model is simply a heterogeneous model but with Z 1:0
[or at least Z constant (i.e., it is not changing along the length of the
reactor)]. Therefore, when Z approaches 1.0, the pseudohomogeneous
models are valid for design, operation, and optimization of catalytic
TM
reactors. However, when Z is far from unity and is varying along the length
of the reactor, the use of the heterogeneous model is a must.
In industrial xed-bed catalytic reactors, the catalysts are usually rela-
tively large to avoid a pressure drop, and, therefore, the Zs are usually far
from unity and heterogeneous models are necessary for the accurate design,
operation, and optimization of these reactors. For example, ammonia con-
verters have Zs is in the range 0.30.7, and an error of 3070% results from
the use of the pseudohomogeneous models. For steam-reforming Z is in the
range 10
2
10
3
; therefore, the use of pseudohomogeneous models will give
extremely wrong predictions (10,000100,000% error).
In some cases of highly exothermic reactions and reactions with non-
monotonic kinetics, Z can be much larger than unity and, therefore, the use
of pseudohomogeneous models can give very erroneous results.
It is clear that the use of pseudohomogeneous models is not suitable
for most industrial xed-bed catalytic reactors, and heterogeneous models
should almost always be used. To the contrary, for uidized-bed catalytic
reactors, the catalyst particles are in the form of ne powder and, therefore,
Zs are very close to unity. However, in uidized-bed reactors, the hydro-
dynamics of the uidized bed should be taken into consideration especially
the bubbles of gas rising through the uidized powder. Thus, for uidized
beds, although the dierence in conditions between the gas surrounding the
solid particles and the solid particles in the emulsion phase can be neglected,
the dierence in concentration and temperature between the emulsion phase
and the bubble phase cannot be neglected.
In the petrochemical industry, uidized beds are used in the pro-
duction of polyethylene and polypropylene, and in the petroleum rening
industry, they are used in uid catalytic cracking (FCC).
In this chapter, we will concentrate on the development of homo-
geneous models; and Chapter 6 is devoted to the heterogeneous systems.
3.2.5 Steady-State Models Versus Dynamic Models
Steady-state models are those sets of equations which are time invariant and
describe the conditions of the system at rest (i.e., when the states of the
system are not changing with time). This will automatically presuppose
that the system parameters are also time invariant (i.e., input variables,
heat transfer coecients, catalyst activity, and so forth are not changing
with time). Of course, this is a theoretical concept, for no real system can
fulll these requirements perfectly. However, this theoretical concept rep-
resents the basis for the design and optimization of almost all chemical/
biochemical engineering equipment. The philosophy is that we assume
that the system can attain such a time-invariant state and design the system
TM
on that basis. Then, we design and implement the control system that always
pushes the system back to its optimally designed steady state.
For design and optimization purposes, we use steady-state models,
whereas for start-up and control of units, we must use dynamic models
(unsteady-state models). To illustrate these concepts we use a very simple
example of a consecutive reaction,
A !
k
1
B !
k
2
C
taking place in an isothermal continuous-stirred tank reactor (CSTR), with
B being the desired product. For simplicity, we assume that the feed is pure
A (contains no B or C):
C
Bf
C
Cf
0
Now, the unsteady-state mass balance equation for component A is:
V
dC
A
dt
qC
Af
qC
A
Vk
1
C
A
3:7
and for component B is:
V
dC
B
dt
qC
B
Vk
1
C
A
k
2
C
B
3:8
with the initial conditions (t 0)
C
A
C
A0
and C
B
C
B0
We want to nd the size of the reactor V that gives maximum concentration
of the desired product B for given q, C
Af
, k
1
, and k
2
. To achieve this rst
task, we use the steady-state equations, which can be simply obtained by
setting the time derivatives in Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8) equal to zero, thus giving
qC
Af
C
A
Vk
1
C
A
3:9
and
qC
B
Vk
1
C
A
k
2
C
B
3:10
Some simple manipulations of Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) give
C
B

qk
1
C
Af
V
q Vk
1
q Vk
2
3:11
To obtain V
optimum
, we dierentiate Eq. (3.11) with respect to V to get
dC
B
dV
qk
1
C
Af
q
2
k
1
k
2
V
2
q Vk
1
2
q Vk
2
2
_ _
3:12
TM
Then, putting dC
B
=dV 0 gives V
optimum
(denoted as V
opt
,
V
opt

q
k
1
k
2
_ 3:13
Therefore,
C
B
max

qk
1
C
Af
V
opt
q V
opt
k
1
q V
opt
k
2
3:14
If the reactor is operating at this output concentration, disturbances will
cause it to deviate from it. The deviation can be dynamic, (varying with
time) or static (very slow disturbance) so that the system settles down to a
new steady state.
If we want to follow the change of the state variables with time due to
a disturbance, say a change in q, we have to solve the unsteady-state equa-
tions. Suppose that the system is at its optimum steady-state conditions;
then, the initial condition t 0 is given by
C
A
C
A
opt
and C
B
C
B
opt
where
C
A
opt

qC
Af
q V
opt
k
1
3:15
and C
B
opt
is equal to C
B
max
in Eq. (3.14).
If q changes to q
0
, then we insert q
0
in the dynamic equations instead of
q and solve the dierential equations from t 0 to higher values of time in
order to follow the change with time. At large values of t, the system will
settle to new steady-state values corresponding to the new q
0
. These new
values of C
A
and C
B
will be C
0
A
and C
0
B
:
C
0
A

q
0
C
Af
q
0
V
opt
k
1
3:16
C
0
B

q
0
k
1
C
Af
V
opt
q
0
V
opt
k
1
q
0
V
opt
k
2
3:17
V
opt
is used here as a symbol to indicate the value of V chosen to give C
B
max
for q. However, for q
0
, the volume V
opt
is no longer optimum.
This steady-state deviation from C
B
max
can be compensated for by the
change of another variable such as C
Af
and/or the operating temperature
that will change k
1
and k
2
. The requirement for this compensation (say, in
feed concentration) will be that
TM
q
0
C
0
Af
q
0
V
opt
k
0
1
qC
Af
q V
opt
k
1
3:18
and
q
0
k
0
1
C
0
Af
V
opt
q
0
V
opt
k
0
1
q
0
V
opt
k
0
2
qk
1
C
Af
V
opt
q V
opt
k
1
q V
opt
k
2
3:19
These are two equations in three unknowns C
0
Af
, k
0
1
and k
0
2
). However, note
that both k
0
1
and k
0
2
are functions of the new temperature T
0
. Equations
(3.18) and (3.19) can be solved for C
0
Af
and T
0
(gives k
0
1
and k
0
2
) to nd the
new feed concentration and temperature needed to maintain the system at
its original optimum state despite the change of q to q
0
.
However, the question arises with regard to the dynamic variation due
to change in input. What is to be done when the variation in input para-
meters is continuous (i.e., when the system does not have enough time to
settle to any new steady state)? In this case, the dynamic model equations
must be used to design a controller that introduces compensation which is
changing with time. It is also important in this respect to make clear that
when the disturbances are very slow (e.g., slowly deactivating catalyst), then
the quasi-steady-state approximation can be used, where the change with
time is considered as a series of steady states each corresponding to the value
of the changing variable at the sequence of time intervals.
3.2.6 A Simple Feedback Control Example
A simple example can be used to illustrate the concept of the use of dynamic
models in simulation and control. Consider the water tank shown in Figure
3.4, where the valve at the bottom discharges water at a rate proportional to
the head h. It is well known that the discharge is proportional to
h
p
; how-
ever, we use the assumption that it is proportional to h in order to make the
equations linear and, therefore, illustrate the ideas in a simple manner.
The mass balance on water gives
q
in
q
0
A
dh
dt
Ch A
dh
dt
3:20
where C is the valve coecient and A is the cross-sectional area of the
cylindrical tank. This is a simple linear equation. Suppose that the tank
was originally empty; then, at t 0, h 0. Also suppose that q
in
is constant;
then, Eq. (3.20) can be solved analytically and we get the change of h with
time:
ht
q
in
Aa
1 e
at
3:21
TM
where
a
C
A
The steady-state height can be obtained from the steady-state equation
q
in
Ch
SS
3:22
Thus,
h
SS

q
in
C
or from the solution of Eq. (3.21) by putting t !1,
h
SS

q
in
C
3:23
The change of h with time from h 0 to h h
SS
follows Eq. (3.21).
Figure 3.4 Schematic diagram for the controlled water tank (PC proportional
controller).
TM
If there is a disturbance in q
in
while the height is at h
SS
, then h will
change with time until it reaches the new steady state. If we want to keep the
height at h
SS
, then we have to install a control system which will get the
system back to h
SS
every time h changes from h
SS
.
In such situation, we can have a level controller with the set point
adjusted at h
SS
; therefore, any deviation of the measured h from h
SS
will
create a signal proportional to h h
SS
. This signal will actuate the valve to
change its position in order to compensate for the deviation from h
SS
through the proportional law:
C C
SS
Kh h
SS
3:24
Thus, when h > h
SS
, C increases, allowing an increase in q
0
to bring h down
to h
SS
. When h < h
SS
, C decreases, allowing a decrease in q
0
to bring h up to
h
SS
.
The dynamic model equation for this closed-loop controller system
becomes
q
in
C
SS
Kh h
SS
h A
dh
dt
3:25
and the response of this closed-loop system can be investigated using Eq.
(3.25) in order to nd the value of K that gives the best system response to
external disturbances.
After this simple discussion, we can emphasize that, in general,
steady-state models are used for design and optimization, whereas dynamic
models are used for start-up, shutdown, and process control.
3.3 GENERIC AND CUSTOMIZED MODELS
Generic models is a term usually used to describe models which are not
developed for a specic unit but are simple models which have the qualita-
tive behavior of the unit rather than the exact quantitative behavior. It gives
trends for the behavior of the unit and is therefore not veried against
specic units. They are usually simple and formed from a collection of
semiempirical relations that are supposed to give the qualitative behavior
of the unit. These models are quite useful in many cases, especially for
training purposes. However, it is our experience that in some situations,
these generic models do not even give the correct qualitative behavior of
the unit.
In this section, we will always refer to heterogeneous catalytic chemical
reactors as our industrial example. This is because many other important
chemical engineering processes can be treated as special cases of these
complex units, as will be shown later. The mathematical modeling of
homogeneous reactors is a special case of heterogeneous catalytic reactors
TM
when the diusional resistances are neglected; the modeling of a nonreacting
system is a special case when the rates of reactions are set equal to zero.
For catalytic reactors (which represent some of the most complex che-
mical engineering units), generic models are less widespread than in separa-
tion and heat transfer processes. This is because catalytic systems have their
own specic characteristics that depend on the intrinsic kinetics, the diu-
sional processes, as well as the reactors conguration and thermal character-
istics. The term generic in the eld of chemical reactors is usually and loosely
applied to reactors models based on thermodynamic equilibrium (Gibbs free-
energy reactor models) or at their highest level of sophistication, they refer
to plug ow and perfectly mixed homogeneous steady-state models. These
models hardly represent actual catalytic reactors. Thermodynamic equili-
brium models do not represent even homogeneous reactors because they
neglect the kinetics of reactions altogether, whereas pseudohomogeneous
plug ow and perfectly mixed models, although they do not neglect the
kinetics of the reaction, they actually completely neglect diusional pro-
cesses. In heterogeneous reactors, the concept of the eectiveness factor Z
is extremely important. It expresses the eect of diusional resistance by one
number. The pseudohomogeneous models, which neglect diusional resis-
tances, assume that the eectiveness factors Zs are equal to unity (or any
other constant number). Taking into consideration the fact that diusional
processes expressed in terms of eectiveness factors can be very dierent from
unity (or constancy) and depend on intrinsic kinetics, operating variables,
particle size, and so forth, one can easily realize that such models cannot
seriously be a representation of industrial catalytic reactors. For example, Z
for steam reforming of natural gas is in the range 10
2
10
3
(and varies
strongly along the length of the reactor), whereas for some highly exothermic
reactions, Z may reach values of several hundreds and sometimes several
thousands. These simple and clear facts show very clearly that generic models
are actually not suitable for serious consideration when we are dealing with
industrial catalytic reactors as well as other industrial chemical engineering
processes involving diusional limitations (e.g., adsorption column).
On the other hand, customized models for catalytic reactors include all
of the main processes taking place inside the catalytic reactors. The most
important of these processes for catalytic reactors are those associated with
the catalyst pellets, namely intrinsic kinetics (which includes chemisorption
and surface reaction), intraparticle diusion of mass and heat, external mass
and heat transfer resistances between the catalyst surface and the bulk of the
uid, as well as all the heat production and heat consumption accompanying
the catalytic reaction.
For uidized-bed reactors, the diusional processes associated with
the catalyst pellets are not very important because the particles are quite
TM
small; however, the intrinsic kinetics is still of prime importance, as well as
the hydrodynamics of the uidization process, especially those associated
with the bubbles and the mass and heat transfer between the bubble and
dense phases, as will be shown in Chapter 6.
Such customized models for industrial catalytic reactors (or any other
chemical engineering units) should be veried against the performance of
industrial units. After some verication work and identication of the basic
physicochemical parameters of the industrial units, the model should be able
to predict the behavior of the unit without adjustable parameters. The
introduction of too many adjustable parameters reduces the predictive
power of the model.
Such kinetic-diusion highly rigorous models should not be veried
against ineciently designed units operating very close to thermodynamic
equilibrium for in this case, the verication will not be critical enough
because many models without the required degree of precision will predict
correct results. Units operating near thermodynamic equilibrium are not
good for testing models based on rate processes and which are built for
the correct prediction of the behavior of these units away from thermo-
dynamic equilibrium.
3.3.1 Practical Uses of Different Types of Models
Mathematical models are very useful and ecient tools for the design, opti-
mization, and control of dierent chemical engineering units. Steady-state
models are suitable for design and optimization, whereas unsteady-state
models are necessary for dynamic analysis, start-up, shutdown, and control.
Rigorous and reliable models are excellent tools during the design
stage and also during the entire operational life period of units and plants.
When correctly developed, these models can eliminate the stage of pilot
plant and semicommercial units and, therefore, achieve a great economical
saving. When a pilot plant is still needed, rigorous mathematical models
help to exploit the pilot plant to the maximum level and will also make
the pilot plant stage shorter, less expensive, and more fruitful.
We will still use heterogeneous catalytic reactors as our illustration
example, for the reasons described earlier (i.e., mathematical models of
most other important chemical engineering units will be shown to be special
cases of the heterogeneous catalytic reactors). Our descriptive discussion here
will include steady states as well as dynamic models and their applications.
3.3.2 Steady-State Models
Models for industrial catalytic reactors, like all other units, can be built with
dierent degrees of sophistication and rigor. The level of sophistication and
TM
rigor is strongly linked to the intended use of the model. Obviously, the
more sophisticated and rigorous the model, the more expensive it is to buy
or develop because highly sophisticated models require a higher level of
expertise and more time and eort for their development.
The most benecial practical use of these models is in the design and
optimization of these industrial units. In fact, most industrial units design
and optimization is based on steady-state design, with the dynamic models
developed in a later stage for the design of the proper control loops in order
to keep the reactor dynamically operating near its optimum steady-state
design in the face of external disturbances.
Models intended for design, optimization, and on-line steady-state
adjustment of variables to keep the reactor operating at its optimum con-
ditions should be sophisticated, rigorous, high-delity models. However, if
the models are intended for operator training or rough design calculations,
then models of lower level of rigor and delity can be used.
For high-delity models, there is also an optimum degree of sophisti-
cation to be used, for if one tries to describe all of the processes taking place
in the unit to the highest degree of rigor, the model can become too com-
plicated and too expensive. The expert developer of the model should
emphasize the most inuential processes in the models development and
try to formulate it to the highest degree of rigor. However, less inuential
processes should be treated in a more approximate and less rigorous man-
ner. There is always a trade-o between the accuracy of the model and its
cost; a critical point exists beyond which added accuracy is too small to
justify the extra cost involved in the extra development of the model. This
critical point is not easily distinguished and depends to a high degree on the
experience of the model developers. We can call this side of the problem the
optimum degree of model sophistication.
The practical advantages gained from the use of steady-state models in
design, optimization, and operation of catalytic reactors are tremendous. It
is estimated that about 8085%of the success of the process depends on the
steady-state design and the remaining 1520% depends on the successful
dynamic control of the optimum steady state. These estimates are, of course,
made for a process operating smoothly with conventional control which is
not model based. However, in certain cases, inecient dynamic control may
cause temperature runaway or a complete shutdown of the process.
3.3.3 Dynamic Models
For most continuous processes operating under steady-state conditions,
dynamic models are used to design appropriate control loops that minimize
the deviation of the process dynamically from the optimum steady-state
TM
operation. This is the classical control objective whether we use analog or
digital computer control. However, a more crucial but less common objec-
tive is when the process is intrinsically unstable and the control objective is
to stabilize this intrinsically unstable process. This objective does not cancel
the rst one, but rather adds to it, for either the stabilizing controller is also
able to achieve the rst objective or extra control loops are added to achieve
that.
Dynamic models are essential for discovering intrinsic instability and
for choosing the proper control action to stabilize the unstable process.
With regard to the classical control objective, although it may be achieved
without the need of a model for the process, this, in fact, can be quite
dangerous because the closed-loop dynamics of a process can be unstable,
even when the process is intrinsically stable. Also, the model-based control is
almost always more ecient and robust than control not based on reliable
dynamic models.
In industrial catalytic reactors with their heterogeneous and dis-
tributed nature (variation of the state variables with respect to the space
coordinates), dynamic temperature runaways may occur, especially for
highly exothermic reactions. A reliable dynamic model is one of the best
ways to discover and monitor these temperature runaways, which may cause
explosions or, at the least, emergency shutdowns, which are quite expensive,
especially with todays large-capacity production lines.
Both steady-state and dynamic models are essential tools for the full
exploitation of modern digital computers used in the design, optimization,
and control of petrochemical and petroleum rening plants, as well as bio-
chemical systems. They allow the on-line computation of optimum operat-
ing conditions and optimum actions to be taken in order to keep the plant at
its maximum production capacity. These models are also essential for the
optimum performance of adaptive control, where the set points obtained
from steady-state design need to be changed in the case of long-term
changes in feed conditions (especially changes in feedstock composition).
3.3.4 Measures for the Reliability of Models and
Model Verication
A theory is just a model of the universe, or a restricted part of it,
and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations
that we make. It exists only in our minds and does not have any
other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a good theory
if it satises two requirements: it must accurately describe a large
class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a
TM
few arbitrary elements, and it must make denitive predictions
about the results of future observations. (27)
The reliability of a mathematical model for any chemical engineering
process depends on many integrated factors which are inherent in the struc-
ture of the model itself. Although the nal test of the model is through its
comparison with experimental or industrial results, this, in fact, is not
enough; more scientic and intellectual logical insight into the model is
necessary. Blind reliance upon comparison with experimental and industrial
data, although of great value, can sometimes be extremely misleading.
Therefore, before the model is put to the test through a comparison with
experimental data, physical and chemical information should be put into the
model. The model should stand the test of logical and scientic theoretical
analysis before it is put to the test of a comparison with experimental data.
Before we proceed further, it is important to make the above statement
clearer, for it may sound strange to many practitioners who put great
faith on the comparison of the model with experimental results. To that
end, we recall that a mathematical model of a process is a system of
equations whose solution, given specic input data, is representative of
the response to a corresponding set of data. We also recall a simple theo-
retical fact: One never proves that a theory is correct (validate a model), for
this would require an innite number of experiments. In other words, the
model must have a certain logic in order to be reliable without the need to
use a large number of experimental runs for comparison.
In this sense, the situation changes drastically; it becomes the follow-
ing. The model should contain, in a rational and scientically sound basis,
the important processes taking place within the system. These processes are
included in the model through the use of scientically sound laws and
through the correct estimation of the parameters. Such a model should be
a good representation of the real system; it should match the results of the
real system. A few experiments need to be compared with the model pre-
dictions to conrm these facts and/or ne-tune the model to represent reality
more accurately.
To illustrate the above argument by a simple industrial example, con-
sider the industrial steam reformer, where three reversible reactions are
taking place catalytically in the reactor. If the industrial or experimental
reactor is operating under conditions such that the exit conditions are close
to the thermodynamic equilibrium of the mixture and the comparison
between model predictions and industrial performance is based on exit con-
ditions (which is actually the case, because it is quite dicult to measure
proles of variables along the length of an industrial steam reformer), then
this comparison is not a valid check for the accuracy of the model with
TM
regard to its correct prediction of rates of reaction and mass transfer. This is
because the results do not depend on the rates because the reactions are
close to thermodynamic equilibrium. Therefore, if a diusion-reaction
model which is not rigorously built is compared with a large number of
industrial cases, all close to thermodynamic equilibrium, it does not mean
that the model is reliable, because a thermodynamic equilibrium model
(which is much simpler) will also give good results. Such a model, although
checked successfully against a large number of industrial cases, may prove
to be a failure when compared with a case operating far from thermo-
dynamic equilibrium.
Another example, it is our experience that models using the simplied
Fickian diusion for the catalyst pellet give good results for cases not very
far from thermodynamic equilibrium. However, for cases far from thermo-
dynamic equilibrium, such models fail and the more rigorous dusty gas
model must be used for the modeling of the catalyst pellets.
Denn (20) discusses a similar case for coal gasiers, where the kinetic-
free model (thermodynamic equilibrium model) fails in certain regions of
parameters, necessitating the use of a kinetic model.
In a nutshell, the reliability of the model depends on the following:
1. The structure of the model as a combination of accurate descrip-
tion of the processes taking place within the system, together with
the interaction between the processes themselves and between
them and the environment
2. The verication of the model against experimental and industrial
units, provided that these tests are for critical cases that actually
test the rates of the processes in the system
Verication of the model does not mean the use of a number of adjus-
table parameters. The main role of the model is prediction, and adjustable
parameters reduce the predictive nature of the model; when overused, they
can reduce it to zero. It is best when the model is veried without any
adjustable parameters. When this is too dicult, one (or more) set(s) of
data can be used to adjust some parameters; however, there should be
enough data to test the model successfully against other sets of data without
any adjustable parameters.
3.4 ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF USING HIGH-
FIDELITY CUSTOMIZED MODELS
These benets can be classied into the following two broad categories:
design and operation, and control.
TM
3.4.1 Design and Operation
Chemical reactors (as well as many other chemical/biochemical process
units) design diers fundamentally from other engineering design in the
fact that Design Safety Factors which are widely and comfortably used
in other engineering designs are not applicable in the case of many chemical/
biochemical engineering processes. This is due to the complexity of these
units, in which a large number of processes are taking place. However, the
core of the matter is the fact that, for chemical reactors, reaction networks
are usually formed of complex consecutive and parallel steps which give rise
to selectivity and yield problems. For a large class of reactions, the depen-
dence of the yield of desired product(s) on design variables is nonmono-
tonic. This nonmonotonic dependence implies that the use of Design Safety
Factors can be rather catastrophic for the process.
To illustrate this point in the simplest possible fashion, consider the
consecutive reaction
A !B !C
taking place in an isothermal CSTR with component B being the desired
product. For this simple system, the yield of the desired component B, Y
B
,
will depend on the reactor volume V
R
or the volumetric ow rate to the
reactor q
R
in the manner shown schematically in Figure 3.5. It is clear from
Figure 3.5 Schematic representation of Y
B
versus V
R
(for certain values of q
R
and
other parameters), or Y
B
versus 1
_
q
R
(for certain values of V
R
and other para-
meters).
TM
Figure 3.5 that there is an optimum value of V
R
(or 1
_
q
R
), V
RO
, which gives
the maximum yield of B, Y
B
max
. It is obvious that the celebrated engineering
Design Safety Factors used in many engineering designs (including
separation processes when the number of trays are increased over the design
calculated value by multiplying it by a safety factor or dividing by what is
called tray eciency) can be disastrous in the case of certain chemical/
biochemical units.
Although the above simple illustration of the concept for a homo-
geneous isothermal lumped system is applicable to other more complicated
systems, the situation for catalytic reactors is much more involved because
of the complexity of the intrinsic kinetics as well as the complex inter-
action among reactions, heat release (or absorption), and mass and heat
diusion inside the reactor. For example, many catalytic and biocatalytic
reactions show nonmonotonic dependence of the rate of reaction on reac-
tant concentrations. For example, the hydrogenation of benzene to cyclo-
hexane over dierent types of nickel catalyst has an intrinsic rate of
reaction of the form
r
kC
A
C
B
1 K
A
C
A
K
B
C
B
2
where A is hydrogen and B is benzene. This rate equation has nonmonotonic
dependence on reactant concentrations, and, therefore, in some regions of
parameters, the rate of reaction may decrease when the concentration
increases!
Furthermore, the interaction between diusion and reaction in porous
catalyst pellets gives rise to an arsenal of complicated behaviors. The sim-
plest is the reduction of the rate of reaction due to diusional resistances,
giving rise to eectiveness factors less that 1.0. However, eectiveness
factors greater than 1.0 are also widespread in catalytic and biocatalytic
systems for nonmonotonic kinetics and/or nonisothermal pellets. In addi-
tion, negative eectiveness factors (for reversible reactions) indicating that
the reactions reverse their direction due to diusion are also possible for
important industrial catalytic reactors with multiple reactions [e.g., steam
reforming of natural gas, partial oxidation of o-xylene to phthalic anhy-
dride, methanation, etc. (28)]. Nonmonotonic change of the eectiveness
factor Z along the length of the reactor is also possible for reversible single
reactions (29, 30). Fluctuation in the value of the eectiveness factor along
the reactor length is possible in many industrial reactors (e.g., steam reform-
ing of natural gas and methanol synthesis).
From the above, it is clear that the widespread engineering design
procedure of using simple design equations coupled with a Design Safety
Factor is not generally applicable in the design of catalytic and non-
TM
catalytic chemical and biochemical reactors. Therefore, rigorous high-de-
lity, steady-state models (design equations) should be used for the precise
design of these units. This does not mean that it is not possible to design
such units without such models. This false statement is contradictory to
the history of the chemical and biochemical industries because dierent
units were designed and operated before chemistry and chemical engineer-
ing principles were even discovered. Units can be designed and operated
using empirical techniques and accumulation of practical experience and
even using trial and error and sequential scaling up. However, such designs
will have a very high cost and will not be the most ecient and safe
designs. With todays large continuous production lines, design cost, pro-
ductivity, and safety are of the highest concern.
The rst step in the design of any unit is the sizing of the unit for a
given conguration and operating conditions. The high-delity mathemati-
cal models allow optimizing the design not only with respect to operating
and design parameters but also with regard to the conguration of the unit
itself. Design and optimization on this basis can have a very strong impact
on the process. To take a very well-known example from an important
chemical industry, consider an ammonia production line of 1200 MTPD
capacity. For this line, an improvement of 1% in the production line will
mean about 1.52 million $/year in extra revenues. Optimization of an
existing plant using high-delity models can lead to up to 10% improvement
in the ammonia production (equivalent to 1520 million $/year in added
revenues). The opportunities for improvement are much higher when the
high-delity models and optimization algorithms are used in the design
stage.
Despite the great importance of ecient control of processes and
production lines, it is now well established in industry that the overall
value of the project is not dominated by controllers action but by the ability
to predict the best operating point in terms of process variables. For exam-
ple, 0.030.05 $/barrel might be achieved by holding an FCC plant under
tight control near a desired point or constraint. Complicated control loops
will help to achieve smaller excursions and faster responses to set-point
changes and load disturbances by moving the operation to the desired
point faster and with less variation in product yields. However, 0.30.5
$/barrel might be realized by moving the steady state of the plant from a
steady state which was not properly optimized to new and near-optimal
steady-state operating conditions.
The above brief discussion gives an elementary idea about the eco-
nomic benets of using rigorous high-delity, steady-state models in the
design and operation of industrial catalytic reactors. The same principle
applies to other industrial chemical and biochemical units also.
TM
The follow-up of the operation of the plant using such models
allows an instant and deep insight into what is going on inside the
units. This allows smooth operation and early warning of troubles that
may cause an expensive shutdown or an even more expensive and catas-
trophic accident.
3.4.2 Control
Steady-state models are invaluable in what we may call steady-state control.
The term steady-state control refers to situations in which the operator is not
highly concerned about the dynamic behavior of the system, but is mostly
concerned about operating the unit at its optimum steady state in the face of
long-term external disturbances. This is a situation in which one of the
operating parameters changes (usually feedstock composition), and the
steady-state control question is: What are the input variables that need to
be changed in order to keep the unit at the same steady state and producing
the desired yield and production rates? Both o-line and on-line use of high-
delity mathematical models can be utilized here. Of course, the on-line
option is more ecient and reliable, however, it has a higher cost with
regard to xed investment (computer, measurement, and manipulation
hardware).
On the other hand, dynamic control is when it is desired to avoid
the losses associated with dynamic excursions of the process from steady-
state optimum operation resulting from transient disturbances and the
corresponding process responses.
Economic incentives for advanced control (which is usually model
based) can be considered to fall into three categories:
1. The major benet results from moving the steady-state operation
to a better operating point, which has been discussed earlier and
which mainly depends on high-delity, steady-state models.
2. Improved control allows operation closer to any limiting con-
straint, thus resulting in additional benets. This relies upon
steady-state as well as dynamic models.
3. Smaller excursions and faster responses to setpoint changes and
load disturbances move the operation back to the desired steady
state faster and with less variation in the yield and productivity
(and, of course, the product quality). This relies mainly on
steady-state and dynamic models.
Of course, all of the above is for intrinsically stable processes. For intrinsi-
cally unstable processes, stabilization of the unstable process must precede
all of the above-discussed points. We should note that in some cases,
TM
unstable operation may give higher yield and productivity than stable states.
However, this is well beyond the scope of this undergraduate book.
Dynamic models are also essential for the smooth and fast start-up of
the process and for shutdown procedures. These two crucial stages in the
plant operation are intrinsically unsteady state and therefore dynamic
models are the ones applicable to these stages. In the start-up and shutdown
phases, the controller settings are very dierent from the settings at steady
state operation because the objectives are completely dierent.
It was estimated that the close control over an ammonia production
line based on objective 3 given above, can achieve a 23% improvement in
ammonia productivity. For an ammonia plant with a capacity of 1200
MTPD, this amounts to about 2.46.0 million $/year.
The use of rigorous, high-delity, steady-state mathematical models in
the design stage allows integration between steady-state design and control
considerations. This is due to the fact that changes in the process design
could inuence profoundly the process dynamics. Thus, for the optimal
overall design of the process, control congurations should be considered
during the design of the process itself. This crucial objective is best achieved
using rigorous, high-delity, steady-state and dynamic models.
3.5 INCORPORATION OF RIGOROUS MODELS
INTO FLOWSHEET SIMULATORS AND
PUTTING MATHEMATICAL MODELS INTO
USER-FRIENDLY SOFTWARE PACKAGES
Commercial steady-state owsheet simulators are usually computer
packages equipped with an extensive physical properties database and mod-
ular steady-state mass and heat balance calculations facilities. These simu-
lators usually also contain modules for the process design of multistage
operations such as distillation, absorption, extraction, and so forth. Most
of these simulators are based on equilibrium stage calculations coupled with
empirical formulas for calculation of stage eciencies. Very few packages
contain design procedures based on rates of mass and heat transfer.
Therefore, most of these packages are not completely suitable for the design
of continuous contact separation processes such as packed and spray col-
umns. However, most of them contain some highly empirical correlations
for the rough design of such equipment.
With regard to chemical reactors, the most sophisticated simulators
usually contain modules for idealized plug ow and perfectly mixed contin-
uous-stirred tank reactors. The less sophisticated simulators usually contain
TM
only procedures for reactor design based on thermodynamic equilibrium
(Gibbs free energy).
However, with regard to catalytic reactors, these simulators usually
contain nothing. This state of aairs is due to the fact that each catalytic
reactor has its own characteristics. The development of catalytic reactor
models needs a deep understanding of catalysis, kinetics, kinetic modeling,
mass and heat transfer processes, reactor modeling, and advanced numerical
techniques. The development of models for these catalytic reactors needs a
modeler with long experience in a number of elds related to catalytic
processes and it is also a time-consuming process.
High-delity models for industrial catalytic reactors can be incorpo-
rated into these owsheet simulators via a number of techniques depending
on the characteristics of the owsheet simulator. In some steady-state ow-
sheet simulators, there is a built-in facility for the user to add his own
module. In such cases, the high-delity reactor model can be added as
one of these special modules. The reactor model in this case can make full
use of the physical properties database available in the simulator. However,
in most owsheet simulators, this facility is not available; in such cases, the
module can be used with the owsheet simulator on the basis that the output
variables from the last unit preceding the catalytic reactor is used as an input
le to the catalytic reactor model, and when the calculations for the reactor
are complete, the output le from the reactor model is used as an input le
to the unit next to the reactor in the process owsheet. Clearly, this last
technique is less ecient and takes more eort to implement than in the rst
case.
In many cases, the catalytic reactor model is used as a stand-alone unit
in the design, simulation, and optimization of catalytic reactors. There are
some typical cases in the petrochemical industry where the catalytic reactors
dominate the production lines (e.g., the ammonia production line usually
contains about six catalytic reactors representing almost 90%of the produc-
tion line). In these cases, an evaluation has to be made in order to decide
whether the reactor modules should be added to the owsheet simulator
or the few noncatalytic processes should be borrowed from the owsheet
simulator and added to a specially formulated owsheet simulator of
catalytic reactors forming the production line.
With regard to dynamic simulation, very few simulators exist and they
usually give the trends of the dynamic behavior rather than the precise
simulation of the dynamics. High-delity dynamic models for catalytic reac-
tors are quite rare and they are usually developed through special orders and
agreements. The incorporation of these models into commercial dynamic
simulators follows basically the same general principles outlined for the
steady-state models.
TM
Putting Mathematical Models into User-Friendly Software
Packages
Great eorts are expended in the development and verication of rigorous,
high-delity mathematical models for any chemical and biochemical engi-
neering unit(s). Therefore, it is quite important to maximize the benets
from these models and to facilitate their use to a wider spectrum of users.
This aim is achieved through putting the models into user-friendly software
packages with advanced graphic capabilities. This facilitates the use of the
model by many people in the plant or design oce without much back-
ground in mathematical modeling, numerical analysis, or computer pro-
gramming. Also, the results are usually presented in both graphical and
tabulated forms. The user can have a summary screen with all of the most
important inputoutput variables or the user can zoom to any set of vari-
ables and get more details about them. The user can also obtain a hardcopy
of the results independently or use an on-line insertion of the tabulated or
graphical results into a report. In addition to these facilities, the user can
follow the progress of the solution through interesting visual means.
Of course, it is beyond the scope of this undergraduate book to aim at
teaching and training the reader on how to put the models into these soft-
ware packages. However, we can give a general outline for the procedures of
developing such computer packages. An overall introduction for undergrad-
uate chemical and biochemical engineers can be summarized in the follow-
ing very general and brief points:
I. What is a software package?
A software package is a collection of modules interlinked to
achieve certain purpose(s).
II. Components of software packages
1. Input section for acquiring necessary information
2. Database for retrieving basic data necessary for computations
3. Calculation section for creating new data from input, a data-
base, and a mathematical model (a numerical algorithm is, of
course, developed and incorporated into the software pack-
age for the accurate solution of the model equations)
4. Output section for presenting computed information
III. Basic decisions for software design
1. Language selection: Fortran, C, C++, and so forth.
2. Operating system selection: DOS, Unix, VMS, windows, and
so forth
IV. Design steps for software packages
A. Preliminary steps:
TM
1. Select (or develop) the proper mathematical model with
the appropriate state variables
2. Identify input parameters
3. Identify calculation procedures
4. Identify output variables (the state variables at the exit of
the unit)
5. Test run with I/O from les
B. Input and Output:
1. Design input screen layout
2. Test run readings from screen
3. Select output variables
4. Design output selection screen
5. Decide output variable format
C. Alert the user:
1. Select indicative intermediate variables
2. Decide on intermediate displays
3. Test displays of intermediate results
4. Add as many variables and indicators as necessary to
keep the user alert
D. Error trapping (input):
1. Include limits on input parameters
2. Check input parameters for type and value
3. Check other related values
Warning: Take nothing for granted, you have to check everything
and test run it.
E. Error trapping (calculations):
1. Check for overow and underow
2. Give user a proper warning when there is a problem in
calculations
3. Advise user to possible action
4. Always make an option to quit gracefully
F. Error trapping (les):
1. Check for existence
2. Never write over a le
3. Never erase a le
4. Avoid end of le trap
G. Fine-tuning:
1. Avoid redundant inputs
2. Keep a consistent use of keys
3. Keep messages in one area
4. Use short indicative messages
TM
V. Ultimate package
1. General in nature
2. Based on sound mathematical model and an ecient
solution algorithm
3. Easy to use by nonspecialists
4. User friendly with error trapping
5. Flexibility in data entry
6. Provides intermediate, summary, and detailed results
7. Industrially veried against industrial units
3.6 FROM MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
TO STEADY-STATE DESIGN EQUATIONS
(STEADY-STATE MATHEMATICAL MODELS)
Let us rst review the most general material and heat balance equations and
all of the special cases which can be easily obtained from these equations.
This will be followed by the basic idea of how to transform these material
and energy balance equations into design equations, rst for lumped systems
and then followed by the same for distributed systems. We will use homo-
geneous chemical reactors with multiple inputs, multiple outputs, and
multiple reactions. It will be shown in Chapter 6 how to apply the same
principles to heterogeneous system and how other rates (e.g., rates of mass
transfer) can systematically replace (or is added to) the rates of reactions.
This approach will put the mathematical modeling of all chemical/
biochemical engineering systems into one unied and very easy-to-use fra-
mework. We will also extend this unied framework to dynamic models.
3.6.1 Generalized Mass Balance Equation (Fig. 3.6)
This is the most general one-phase (homogeneous) chemical/biochemical
engineering lumped system. It has L input streams n
if
1
; n
if
2
; . . .;
_
n
if
l
; . . .; n
if
L
) and K output streams n
i
1
; n
i
2
; . . . ; n
i
k
; . . . ; n
i
K
_
with N reactions
r
1
; r
2
; . . . ; r
j
; . . . ; r
N
and the number of species is M i 1; 2; . . . ; M .
The generalized material balance equation is
K
k1
n
i
k

L
l1
n
if
l

N
j1
ij
r
j
; i 1; 2; . . . ; M 3:26
These are M equations having N reactions r
j
; j 1; 2; . . . ; N
_ _
and
ij
is
the stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j. The generalized
rate of reaction for reaction j is given by r
j
. Note that r
j
is the overall
rate of reaction for the whole unit (it is not per unit volume, or per unit
TM
mass of catalyst, and so forth, and that is why our equations are mass
balance equations, not design equations, as shown later).
This general system can also be represented as three systems: a mixer, a
single inputsingle output reactor, and a splitter, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Equation (3.26) can be put in an equivalent form consisting of three
sets of equations:
n
i

L
l1
n
if
l
and n
i
n
if
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M 3:27
n
i
n
i
N
j1
ij
r
j
and n
i
n
if
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M 3:28
K
k1
n
ik
n
if
n
i
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M 3:29
Figure 3.6 Mass ow diagram.
Figure 3.7 Another representation of the system.
TM
Note also that Eq. (3.26) is the general form for all kinds of special cases:
1. For a single reaction N 1 , the equation becomes
K
k1
n
ik

L
l1
n
if
l

i
r for i 1; 2; . . . ; M
2. For a single input L 1 , the equation becomes
K
k1
n
ik
n
if

N
j1
ij
r
j
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M
3. For a single output K 1 , the equation becomes
n
i

L
l1
n
if
l

N
j1
ij
r
j
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M
4. For no reactions N 0 , the equation becomes
K
k1
n
ik

L
l1
n
if
l
for i 1; 2; . . . ; M
5. For N 0 and L 1, we have thus the equation for a single
input splitter:
K
k1
n
ik
n
if
6. For N 0 and K 1, we have the equation of a mixer:
n
i

L
l1
n
if
l
and so on.
Now, can we change this general mass balance equation to a design
equation? Very simply, we use r
0
instead of r, where r
0
is the rate of reaction
per unit volume of the reactor, and the equation becomes
K
k1
n
i
k

L
l1
n
if
l

N
j1
ij
r
0
j
V
R
Now, this is not a mass balance equation; it is actually a design equation
which can be used for the design of a lumped system (e.g., an isothermal
CSTR). Let us illustrate this for a very simple case of a rst-order irrever-
sible liquid-phase reaction, where
A !B
TM
and the rate of reaction is given by r
0
kC
A
, where k is the reaction rate
constant (in s
1
) and C
A
is the concentration of component A (in gmol=L.
Later in this book, we will show how the same principles can be applied to
distributed system and also for other rates like the rate of mass transfer for
heterogeneous systems (Chapter 6).
Let us consider the singleinput, singleoutput case, thus,
n
i
n
if

i
r
0
V
R
which, when applied to component A, gives
n
A
n
Af
kC
A
V
R
3:30
We have a simple problem; that is, the existence of C
A
and n
A
in the same
equation. For liquid-phase systems when there is no change in volume, this
problem is trivial (for a gas-phase system with a change in number of moles
accompanying the reaction, although it is simple, it is not as trivial, as will
be shown later).
For this case of the liquid-phase system, we can easily write
n
A
qC
A
and n
Af
qC
Af
Thus, Eq. (3) becomes
qC
A
qC
Af
kC
A
V
R
3:31
Thus, for a specic volumetric ow rate q and the rate of reaction constant
k, we can obtain the volume of the reactor that is needed to achieve a certain
conversion.
Rearranging Eq. (3.31) gives
V
R

qC
Af
q k C
A
Thus, for example, if we want 90% conversion, then C
A
0:1C
Af
and V
R
can be obtained as
V
R

q
0:1 q k
This is how simply the mass balance equation has been turned into a design
equation (a mathematical model for the lumped isothermal system).
The same very simple principles apply to the heat balance equations
for a nonisothermal system and also for distributed systems as shown in the
following section. It also applies to the heterogeneous system, as shown in
Chapter 6.
TM
Now, we will apply these simple principles to batch reactors, CSTRs,
and tubular reactors (distributed systems), starting with isothermal systems
followed by nonisothermal systems.
3.6.2 Isothermal Reactors (Temperature Is Constant)
We will illustrate the design problem using the consecutive reactions
network problem for CSTR, batch and tubular reactors. We consider the
following reaction network:
3A !
k
1
2B !
k
2
5C
The Rates of Reaction
. This network is a three-component, two-reaction network. The
two reactions are obviously independent.
. Accordingly, the system can be described in terms of two state
variables, for example, n
A
and n
B
or x
A
and Y
B
. [n
A
and n
B
are
the molar ow rates (or number of moles of A and B respectively,
and x
A
n
Af
n
A
=n
Af
and Y
B
n
B
n
Bf
=n
Af
are the conver-
sion of A and yield of B, respectively. n
Af
and n
Bf
are the molar
ow rates at the entrance (feed point) of the reactor for the
continuous-ow reactors (CSTR and tubular) or the initial number
of moles in a batch reactor].
The rates of reaction can be given for the production or consumption of the
components or they can be given for the reactions that lead to the general-
ized rates of reaction studied earlier.
The network can be written as
3A !
k
1
2B 3:32
2B !
k
2
5C 3:33
Dene all rates for components as production rates:
R
A
Rate of production of A K
1
C
A
moles of A converted
L s
R
B
Rate of production of B
2
3
K
1
C
A
K
2
C
B
moles of B produced
L s
R
C
Rate of production of C
5
2
K
2
C
B
moles of C produced
L s
TM
In a more detailed fashion, we write
R
A1
Rate of production of A in reaction 3:32
K
1
C
A
moles of A converted
L s
R
B1
Rate of production of B in reaction 3:32
B1
A1
K
1
C
A

2
3
_ _
K
1
C
A

2
3
K
1
C
A
_ _
moles of B produced
L s
R
B2
Rate of production of B in reaction 3:33
K
2
C
B
moles of B produced
L s
R
C2
Rate of production of C in reaction 3:33
C2
B2
K
2
C
B

5
2
_ _
K
2
C
B

5
2
K
2
C
B
_ _
moles of C produced
L s
As explained earlier, it is much more convenient to dene the rates for the
reaction rather than the components:
3A !
k
1
2B r
0
1
is the generalized rate of this first reaction
2B !
k
2
5C r
0
2
is the generalized rate of this second reaction
The generalized rates of reactions r
0
1
and r
0
2
(moles per unit volume per unit
time) can be dened as explained in the following very simple steps.
The generalized rate r
0
j
for any reaction j is dened as the rate of
production of any component in reaction j divided by the stoichiometric
number of the said component; therefore,
r
0
1

R
A1
A1
K
1
C
A
3

K
1
3
C
A
k
1
C
A
gmol
L s
where
k
1

K
1
3
or (giving exactly the same result),
r
0
1

R
B1
B1
2=3K
1
C
A
2

K
1
3
C
A
k
1
C
A
gmol
L s
TM
where
k
1

K
1
3
and
r
0
2

R
B2
B2
K
2
C
B
2

K
2
2
C
B
k
2
C
B
gmol
L s
where
k
2

K
2
2
or (giving exactly the same result)
r
0
2

R
C2
C2
5=2K
2
C
B
5

K
2
2
C
B
k
2
C
B
gmol
L s
where
k
2

k
2
2
Note: Notice that we called the generalized rates used above r
0
1
and r
0
2
as
per unit volume of the reactor, whereas earlier we called them r
1
and r
2
,
as the overall rates. In other words, r
0
1
and r
0
2
are in moles per unit
volume per unit time, whereas r
1
and r
2
were in moles per unit time for
the whole unit. As explained in the previous few pages, this is the only
real difference between the mass balance (inventory) equations and the
design equations; for example,
1. For a CSTR,
r
j
V
CSTR
r
0
j
2. For a tubular reactor,
r
j
V
t
r
0
j
where V
t
is a dierence element of the volume of the tubular
reactor.
3. For a batch reactor,
r
j
Vtr
0
j
where t is a dierence element of time.
With this simple and obvious background material, we can tackle the
design problem for dierent congurations of isothermal reactors.
TM
The general mass balance equation for the reacting system with single
inputsingle output (SISO) and N multiple reactions is given by
n
i
n
if

N
j1
ij
r
j
i 1; 2; . . . ; M
where M is the number of components, N is the number of reactions,
r
j
mol/time Vr
0
j
and r
0
j
mol/(volume)(time)
I. The Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
The design equation for component A is
n
A
n
Af

A1
Vr
0
1
A2
Vr
0
2
It can be rearranged in the form
n
A
n
Af
3Vk
1
C
A
3:34
For component B,
n
B
n
Bf

B1
Vr
0
1
B2
Vr
0
2
On rearrangement, we get
n
B
n
Bf
2Vk
1
C
A
2Vk
2
C
B
3:35
For component C,
n
C
n
Cf

C1
Vr
0
1
C2
Vr
0
2
On rearrangement,
n
C
n
Cf
5Vk
2
C
B
3:36
From Eqs. (3.34)(3.36), by addition we get
n
A
3

n
B
2

n
C
5

n
Af
3

n
Bf
2

n
Cf
5
3:37
Equation (3.37) is essentially the same overall mass balance relation
obtained for any kind of reactor:
M
i1
n
i
M
i1
n
if
It is obvious that we need only Eqs (3.34) and (3.35) to solve the system,
because n
C
can be obtained from Eq. (3.37) when n
A
and n
B
are computed.
Design equations (3.34) and (3.35) can be formulated in term of n
A
and n
B
or in terms of C
A
and C
B
or in terms of x
A
(conversion of A) and Y
B
(yield
of B) as discussed earlier.
TM
We will illustrate this for the more dicult gas-phase case (isothermal
and constant pressure). Formulation of the design equations in terms of n
A
and n
B
can be done as follows:
C
A

n
A
q
and C
B

n
B
q
where q is the volumetric ow rate.
Also, we know that
Pq n
T
RT
for nonideal gases we have to use the compressibility factor Z:
where n
T
is the total molar ow rate. Thus, the relation between the
volumetric ow rate and n
T
(the total molar ow rate), T (temperature),
and P (pressure) will be
q
n
T
RT
P
q an
T
where
n
T
n
A
n
B
n
C
and a
RT
P
From Eq. (3.37),
n
C
5
n
if

n
A
3

n
B
2
_ _
f
1
n
A
; n
B
and
q a n
A
n
B
f
1
n
A
; n
B
f
2
n
A
; n
B
where f
1
and f
2
are functions of n
A
and n
B
only. Thus,
C
A

n
A
q

n
A
f n
A
; n
B
g
A
n
A
; n
B
3:38
C
B

n
B
q

n
B
f n
A
; n
B
g
B
n
A
; n
B
3:39
where g
A
and g
B
are functions of n
A
and n
B
only.
Using Eqs. (3.38) and (3.39) in Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35), we get
n
A
n
Af
3Vk
1
g
A
n
A
; n
B
3:40
n
B
n
Bf
2Vk
1
g
A
n
A
; n
B
2Vk
2
g
B
n
A
; n
B
3:41
TM
Equations (3.40) and (3.41) are two equations in two variables n
A
and n
B
;
they can be solved to obtain n
A
and n
B
. When n
A
and n
B
are computed, we
can easily compute q (is a function of n
A
and n
B
), C
A
, C
B
, x
A
, and Y
B
, where
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
and Y
B

n
B
n
Bf
n
Af
and C
A
and C
B
in terms of n
A
, n
B
, and q as shown above.
Exercise
Formulate the design equations for the above-discussed CSTR in terms of
C
A
and C
B
and in terms of x
A
and Y
B
.
II. Batch Reactors
This is a system which is distributed with respect to time.
For the batch reactor with variable volume (constant pressure), the
gas-phase reaction is
3A !
k
1
2B
2B !
k
2
5C
The design equation for component A (carried out over an element of time,
t) is
n
A
t t n
A
t
A1
Vr
0
1
t
This dierence form can be written as
n
A
n
A
n
A
A1
Vr
0
1
t
which, after rearrangement and taking the limit as t !0, gives
dn
A
dt

A1
Vr
0
1

A1
Vk
1
C
A
3Vk
1
C
A
3:42
Similarly,
dn
B
dt

B1
Vr
0
1
B2
Vr
0
2
V
B1
r
0
1
B2
r
0
2
Thus,
dn
B
dt
V 2k
1
C
A
2k
2
C
B
2V k
1
C
A
k
2
C
B
3:43
Similarly,
dn
C
dt

C1
Vr
0
2
5Vk
2
C
B
3:44
TM
Here, we will demonstrate some of the possible simple manipulations that
help to reduce the dimensionality of many problems.
We can easily obtain a relation among n
A
, n
B
, and n
C
, and therefore
eliminate one of the three dierential equations. Write Eqs. (3.42)(3.44) as
follows:
1
3
dn
A
dt
Vk
1
C
A
3:45
1
2
dn
B
dt
Vk
1
C
A
k
2
C
B
3:46
1
5
dn
C
dt
Vk
2
C
B
3:47
By addition of equations (3.45)(3.47), we get
d
dt
n
A
3

n
B
2

n
C
5
_ _
0
Thus, by integration, we get
n
A
3

n
B
2

n
C
5
C
1
where C
1
is a constant and is evaluated from the initial conditions, at t 0,
n
A
n
Af
, n
B
n
Bf
, and n
C
n
Cf
. Therefore,
n
A
3

n
B
2

n
C
5

n
Af
3

n
Bf
2

n
Cf
5
3:48
Equation (3.48) can be rewritten in the generalized form
M
i1
n
i
M
i1
n
if
3:49
where M is the number of components. Therefore, it is clear that Eq. (3.48)
can be used to compute n
C
without the need to solve the dierential
equation (3.47).
Now, we are left with Eqs. (3.45) and (3.46), which have the state
variables n
A
, n
B
, C
A
, and C
B
; however, it is very easy to note that (for the
case of constant reactor volume)
C
j
V n
j
3:50
Therefore, Eqs. (3.45) and (3.46) can be rewritten as
dn
A
dt
3k
1
n
A
3:51
TM
and
dn
B
dt
2k
1
n
A
k
2
n
B
3:52
with the initial conditions, at t 0, n
A
n
Af
and n
B
n
Bf
. The two equa-
tions are linear and can be solved analytically to obtain the change of n
A
and
n
B
with time as follows. Note that Eq. (3.51) does not include n
B
and can
thus be solved independently of Eq. (3.52) as follows:
dn
A
n
A
3k
1
dt
Integration gives
ln n
A
3k
1
t C
1
Because, at t 0, n
A
n
Af
, we have,
ln n
Af
C
1
and
ln
n
A
n
Af
_ _
3k
1
t
Thus,
n
A
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
3:53
Substituting the value of n
A
dn
B
dt
2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
2k
2
n
B
which can be arranged in the following form in order to use the integration
factor method to solve it:
dn
B
dt
2k
2
n
B
2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
Multiplying by the integration factor (e
2k
2
t
), we get
e
2k
2
t
dn
B
dt
2e
2k
2
t
k
2
n
B
2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
We can put this in the following form:
d n
B
e
2k
2
t
_ _
dt
2k
1
n
Af
e
2k
2
3k
1
t
TM
By integration we obtain
e
2k
2
t
n
B

2k
1
n
Af
e
2k
2
3k
1
t
2k
2
3k
1
C
1
3:54
At t 0, n
B
n
Bf
; thus we get:
n
Bf

2k
1
n
Af
2k
2
3k
1
C
1
Therefore,
C
1
n
Bf

2k
1
n
Af
2k
2
3k
1
3:55
Substituting the value of C
1
e
2k
2
t
n
B

2k
1
n
Af
e
2k
2
3k
1
t
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf

2k
1
n
Af
2k
2
3k
1
which can be rearranged as
e
2k
2
t
n
B

2k
1
n
Af
e
2k
2
3k
1
t
1
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf
Thus,
n
B

2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf
e
2k
2
t
3:56
Equations (3.53) and (3.56) give the change of n
A
and n
B
with time; if n
C
is
required, it can be easily computed using Eq. (3.48), as the values of n
A
and
n
B
are known from Eqs. (3.53) and (3.56).
If the volume change is also required, then from the following relation
for ideal gases
PV n
T
RT for nonideal gases we have use compressibility factor Z
we get
V n
A
n
B
n
C

RT
P
a n
A
n
B
n
C

TM
Thus,
V a
_
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf
e
2k
2
t
M
i1
n
if
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
3

1
2
2k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
1
2
n
Bf
e
2k
2
t
_
which simplies to give
V a
M
i1
n
if
2
3
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
k
1
n
Af
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
1
2
n
Bf
e
2k
2
t
_
_
_
_
3:57
If the conversion and yield are required, then we obtain the following:
Conversion of A,
x
A

n
Af
n
A
n
Af
Using Eq. (3.53), we get
x
A
1
n
A
n
Af
_ _
)1 e
3k
1
t
Yield of B,
Y
B

n
B
n
Bf
n
Af
Using Eq. (3.56), we get
Y
B

n
B
n
Af
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
2k
1
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
e
2k
2
t
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
This can be further simplied to get
Y
B

2k
1
e
3k
1
t
e
2k
2
t
_ _
2k
2
3k
1
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
e
2k
2
t
1
_ _
From this relation, we can obtain the optimum time for obtaining the
maximum yield of B Y
B
max
as depicted in Figure 3.8:
TM
dY
B
dt

2k
1
2k
2
3k
1
3k
1
e
3k
1
t
2k
2
e
2k
2
t
_ _
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
2k
2
e
2k
2
t
_ _
Now, we obtain the optimum time t
opt
_ _
by equating dY
B
=dt to zero:
0
2k
1
2k
2
3k
1
3k
1
e
3k
1
t
2k
2
e
2k
2
t
_ _
n
Bf
n
Af
_ _
2k
2
e
2k
2
t
_ _
Solving the above equation to obtain t
opt
, gives Y
B
max
.
For the special case of n
Bf
0, we get
2k
2
e
2k
2
t
opt
3k
1
e
3k
1
t
opt
This gives
e
3k
1
2k
2
t
opt
3k
1
2k
2
Thus,
t
opt

ln 3k
1
=2k
2

3k
1
2k
2
Thus, for such a reaction and for n
Bf
0, the optimum time t
opt
_ _
for
obtaining the maximum yield of B Y
B
max
, which is only a function of k
1
and k
2
as shown above.
III. Tubular Reactors
For the homogeneous tubular reactor (the simplest model is the plug ow),
the design equations are again obtained from the mass balance equations
Figure 3.8 Maximum yield.
TM
after turning them into design equations as shown earlier for the batch
reactor by taking the balance over an element of length or volume instead
of time. Note that in the batch case, n
i
is the number of moles of component
i, whereas, here, for the tubular reactor, n
i
is the molar ow rate of compo-
nent i. Thus the balance over an element l will be
n
A
l l n
A
l
A
A
t
lr
0
Again considering the same reaction network,
3A !
k
1
2B !
k
2
5C
Rearranging and taking the limit as l !0 gives the following dierential
equation for the change of the molar ow rate of component A along the
length of the tubular reactor:
dn
A
dl
3A
t
k
1
C
A
3:58
The above equation can also be written in terms of dV:
dn
A
dV
3k
1
C
A
where
dV A
t
dl
and A
t
is the cross-sectional area of the tubular reactor.
With the initial condition at
l 0 (or V 0;
n
A
n
Af
or C
A
C
Af
Important notes: Note that in the batch reactor, n

A
is the number of
moles of component A, whereas, here, in the continuous reactor, n
A
is the
molar ow rate of A (mol/time). Also in the batch case, C
A
is the concen-
tration of the component A inside the batch reactor n
A
=V number of
moles in reactor divided by the volume of reactor). In the present contin-
uous case, this in not the case; in fact, C
A
n
A
=q is molar ow rate of
component A divided by the total volumetric ow rate. These facts will
slightly complicate the formulation of the design equation as will be
shown in this section.
In this continuous-ow system (gas ow system), the change in num-
ber of moles causes a change in the volumetric ow rate (q) and no change in
pressure. The balance on component B gives
TM
dn
B
dl
A
t
2k
1
C
A
2k
2
C
B
3:59
Similarly,
dn
B
dV
2k
1
C
A
2k
2
C
B
For component C,
dn
C
dl
5A
t
k
2
C
B
3:60
From Eqs. (3.58)(3.60), it is clear that the same relation among n
A
, n
B
, and
n
C
obtained earlier for the CSTR and batch reactors can be obtained:
n
A
3

n
B
2

n
C
5

n
Af
3

n
Bf
2

n
Cf
5
3:61
Therefore, only Eqs. (3.58) and (3.59) need to be solved [because n
C
can be
computed from Eq. (3.61) when n
A
and n
B
have been computed). However,
these equations contain the expression for components A and B in two
dierent forms; we have n
A
and n
B
as well as C
A
and C
B
. We can handle
this situation by writing everything in terms of n
A
and n
B
, or C
A
and C
B
, or
x
A
and Y
B
, as discussed earlier.
Formulation in terms of n
A
and n
B
yields
C
A

n
A
q
and C
B

n
B
q
Also,
Pq n
T
RT
q
n
T
RT
P
Therefore,
q an
T
where
n
T
n
A
n
B
n
C
From Eq. (3.61),
n
C
5
n
if

n
A
3

n
B
2
_ _
TM
Therefore, we can write
n
T
n
A
n
B
5
n
if

n
A
3

n
B
2
_ _
which gives
n
T
5
n
if
_ _
2
3
n
A
3
2
n
B
This can be rewritten simply as
n
T
5
n
Af
3
5
n
Bf
2
n
Cf

2
3
n
A
3
2
n
B
On reorganizing, we have
n
T
n
Cf

1
3
5n
Af
2n
A
_ _
1
2
5n
Bf
3n
B
_ _
Thus, n
T
can now be written in terms of n
A
and n
B
:
n
T
f
1
n
A
; n
B

Thus,
q af
1
n
A
; n
B

So we get
C
A

n
A
af
1
n
A
; n
B
g
A
n
A
; n
B
3:62
and
C
B

n
B
af
1
n
A
; n
B
g
B
n
A
; n
B
3:63
Substituting Eqs. (3.62) and (3.63) into Eqs. (3.58) and (3.59) gives
dn
A
dl
3A
t
k
1
g
A
n
A
; n
B
3:64
dn
B
dl
A
t
2k
1
g
A
n
A
; n
B
2k
2
g
B
n
A
; n
B
3:65
Equations (3.64) and (3.65) are two dierential equations that can be solved
simultaneously using one of the standard subroutines and the initial condi-
tions at l 0 (or V 0), n
A
n
Af
and n
B
n
Bf
. Of course, by computing
n
A
and n
B
at any position along the length of the reactor, all other variables
can be computed, including x
A
, Y
B
, C
A
, C
B
, q, and so forth.
TM
Formulation in terms of C
A
and C
B
(instead of in terms of n
A
and n
B
) is as
follows: For this case, we write Eq. (3.58) as
d qC
A

dl
3A
t
k
1
C
A
Thus,
q
dC
A
dl
C
A
dq
dl
3A
t
k
1
C
A
3:66
From the formulation in terms of n
A
and n
B
we have
q a n
A
n
B
n
C

Thus,
dq
dl
a
dn
A
dl

dn
B
dl

dn
C
dl
_ _
3:67
Substituting Eqs. (3.58)(3.60) into Eq. (3.67), we get
dq
dl
aA
t
3k
1
C
A
2k
1
C
A
2k
2
C
B
5k
2
C
B
which reduces to
dq
dl
aA
t
k
1
C
A
3k
2
C
B
3:68
Substituting the value of dq=dl from Eq. (3.68) into Eq. (3.66), we get
q
dC
A
dl
C
A
aA
t
k
1
C
A
3k
2
C
B
3A
t
k
1
C
A
dC
A
dl

A
t
q
aC
A
k
1
C
A
3k
2
C
B
3k
1
C
A
3:69
Equation (3.59) can also be rearranged in term of C
B
and q, and the result-
ing equation is solved simultaneously with Eqs. (3.68) and (3.69).
It is clear that the formulation in term of n
A
and n
B
is more straight-
forward than the formulation in terms of C
A
and C
B
.
Exercise
Formulate the design equations in terms of x
A
and Y
B
, as dened earlier.
TM
The Simple Special Case of No Change in Number of Moles (or Liquid
Phase) Systems
The simple procedure given here is applicable to gas phase systems with no
change in the number of moles and also to liquid phase in general, where the
change of number of moles accompanying the reaction has negligible eect
on volumes and volumetric ow rates.
Consider the reaction
A !
k
1
B !
k
2
C
This is a much simpler case and the design equations can be formulated
easily in terms of C
A
and C
B
(or any other form: n
A
and n
B
or x
A
and Y
B
).
CSTR
The balance for component A (design equation) is given by
n
A
n
Af
Vk
1
C
A
In this case,
n
A
qC
A
where q is a constant. So we can also write
n
Af
qC
Af
Thus, the above equation can be written as
qC
A
qC
Af
Vk
1
C
A
Similarly,
qC
B
qC
Bf
Vk
1
C
A
Vk
2
C
B
qC
C
qC
Cf
Vk
2
C
B
and
C
A
C
B
C
C
C
Af
C
Bf
C
Cf
Clearly, the resulting design equations are much simpler than the gas-phase
case, which is accompanied by a change in the number of moles.
Batch Reactor
The balance for component A is
dn
A
dt
Vk
1
C
A
where
n
A
VC
A
and V constant
TM
Thus,
d VC
A

dt
Vk
1
C
A
Because V is constant, we can write,
V
dC
A
dt
Vk
1
C
A
which gives
dC
A
dt
k
1
C
A
Similarly,
dC
B
dt
k
1
C
A
k
2
C
B
and
dC
C
dt
k
2
C
B
with initial conditions at t 0, C
A
C
Af
, C
B
C
Bf
, and C
C
C
Cf
. Also,
C
A
C
B
C
C
C
Af
C
Bf
C
Cf
Again, the design equations are much simpler than the gas-phase case, which is
accompanied by change in the number of moles.
Plug Flow (Tubular)
The balance for component A is
dn
A
dl
A
t
k
1
C
A
Here,
n
A
qC
A
and q constant
Therefore,
q
dC
A
dl
A
t
k
1
C
A
Similarly,
q
dC
B
dl
A
t
k
1
C
A
k
2
C
B

and,
q
dC
C
dl
A
t
k
2
C
B
TM
With initial conditions at l 0 or V 0, C
A
C
Af
, C
B
C
Bf
, and
C
C
C
Cf
and
C
A
C
B
C
C
C
Af
C
Bf
C
Cf
As seen for the previous two cases, these design equations are much simpler
than the gas-phase system accompanied by a change in the number of moles.
3.6.3 Nonisothermal Reactors
The generalized heat balance equation for L inputs, K outputs, M com-
ponents, and N reactions is the following single equation:
L
l1
M
i1
n
if
l
H
if
l
H
ir
Q
K
k1
M
i1
n
ik
H
ik
H
ir

N
j1
r
j
H
j
Similar to what we have shown earlier for the mass balance, the above
equation is the very general heat balance equation for homogeneous
systems. All other cases are special cases of this generalized form:
1. For no reactions, we just put all r
j
s equal to zero.
2. For adiabatic operation, we simply put Q 0.
3. For single-input, single-output, and single reaction, the general
equation becomes
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir
rH
and so on.
Now, we start with some specic examples combining the mass and heat
balance equations. In order to turn this heat balance equation into a part of
the design equations, we simply replace r
j
with Vr
0
j
, as we did earlier for mass
balance.
I. Nonisothermal CSTR
Mass Balance
For a case of single-input, single-output, and N reactions, the mass balance
equations for any component is given by
n
i
n
if

N
j1
ij
r
j
3:70
TM
where i 1; 2; 3; . . . ; M, M is the number of components, N is the number
of reactions, and r
j
is the generalized overall rate of reaction for reaction j
[in mol/time (rate of reaction for the entire unit)].
As we have discussed earlier, in order to turn the mass balance [Eq.
(3.70)] into a design equation, we write it as
n
i
n
if
V
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
3:71
Here, r
0
j
is the generalized rate of reaction for reaction j [in mol/(time
volume)] (it is equal to r
j
for a unit volume of reactor). For a single reaction,
the design equation simply becomes
n
i
n
if
V
i
r
0
3:72
Heat Balance
The heat balance for a single-input, single-output and N reactions can be
written as
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir

N
j1
H
j
r
r
j
3:73
where H
j
r
is the heat of reaction for reaction j and Q is the heat added to
the system.
Derivation of the Heat Balance Equation (3.73) for a Single Reaction
To remind the reader of the derivation of this equation, which is quite
important, we derive it again here. The heat balance equation is as follows:
M
i1
n
if
H
if
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
3:74
However, now we have to put it in the form of enthalpy dierence, this can
be done as follows:
1. Subtract
M
i1
n
if
H
ir
from the left-hand side (therefore, subtract it
from the right-hand side so as not to change the equation).
2. Subtract

M
i1
n
i
H
ir
from the right-hand side (therefore, subtract
it from the left-hand side so as not to change the equation).
TM
Thus, we get
M
i1
n
if
H
if

M
i1
n
if
H
ir
M
i1
n
i
H
ir
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
M
i1
n
if
H
ir
M
i1
n
i
H
ir
3:75
Rearranging gives
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir

M
i1
n
i
n
if
_ _
H
ir
3:76
However, from the mass balance for a single reaction, we have
n
i
n
if

i
r 3:77
Using Eq. (3.77) in Eq. (3.76), we get
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir

M
i1
i
rH
ir
3:78
From the denition of the heat of reaction, we have
M
i1
i
H
ir
H
r
Therefore, Eq. (3.78) becomes
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir
r H
r
3:79
where H
r
is the heat of reaction at reference conditions r for the reaction
as stoichiometrically written.
What do we mean by the heat of reaction for the reaction as stoichio-
metrically written? Suppose we have
3A 5B !6C 8D
Because we dene the heat of reaction as
H
r
8H
D
6H
C
3H
A
5H
B
which is
H
r

M
i1
i
H
i
this H
r
is not per mole of A, B, C, or D, but it is actually per 3 mol of A
reacted, 5 mol of B reacted, 6 mol of C produced, or 8 mol of D produced. If
TM
we want it per mole of any component, we should divide by
i
, where i is
that particular component for which we want to make the heat of reaction
per mole of it.
In most cases, H
r
is computed from the heat of formation or heats of
combustion as follows:
H
r

i
H
fi
or
H
r

i
H
ci
These heats of reaction are the correct ones to be used in Eq. (46), because
they are for the reaction as stoichiometrically written.
However, if H
r
is obtained experimentally and is dened as H
r
,
which is in calories per mole of A, then the correct H
r
to be used in Eq.
(3.79) is H
r

A
; in general,
H
r
H
ri

i
For reactor design purposes, of course r should be written as Vr

0
(for
CSTR), or Vr
0
(for tubular), or Vtr
0
(for batch). Thus, Eq. (3.79) for a
CSTR should be written as
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir
Vr
0
H
r

For multiple reactions, it will be
M
i1
n
if
H
if
H
ir
Q
M
i1
n
i
H
i
H
ir
V
N
j1
r
0
j
H
rj
3:80
where M is total number of components involved (i.e., reactants + products
+ inerts) and N is the number of reactions.
For multiple inputs and multiple outputs, we have
L
l1
M
i1
n
if
l
H
if
l
H
ir
_ _
Q
K
k1
M
i1
n
ik
H
ik
H
ir
V
N
j1
r
0
j
H
j
3:81
Because our entire book prior to heterogeneous systems deals with
homogeneous systems, in this part of the book no change of phase is
involved and therefore the change of enthalpies are changes in sensible
heats only. Therefore, Eq. (3.81) can be rewritten as
TM
M
i1
n
if
_
T
f
T
r
C
pi
dT Q
M
i1
n
i
_
T
T
r
C
pi
dT V
N
j1
r
0
j
H
rj
3:82
Equations (3.71) and (3.82) are the basic design equations for the design of
nonisothermal CSTR. For tubular and batch reactors, the same equations
are slightly modied to put them in a suitable dierential equation form.
II. Nonisothermal Tubular Reactors
This case, of course, belongs to the distributed system type, which will be
covered in more detail in Chapter 4. For this distributed case, Eq. (3.71)
becomes
n
ill
n
il
A
t
l
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
n
i
n
i
n
i
A
t
l
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
After rearrangement and taking the limit as l !0, we get the dierential
equation
dn
i
dl
A
t
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
3:83
For a single reaction, the above equation becomes
dn
i
dl
A
t
i
r
0
3:84
To get the heat balance design equation, an enthalpy balance over an ele-
ment l for a single reaction gives
M
i1
n
i
H
i
l
Q
0
l
M
i1
n
i
H
i
ll
where M is the total number of components involved (reactants + products
+ inerts), including components not in the feed but created during the
reaction (they will have n
if
0 and Q
0
is the rate of heat removed or
added per unit length of reactor. Rearranging gives
M
i1
n
i
H
i
l
Q
0
0
TM
Taking the limit as l !0, we obtain the dierential equation
M
i1
d n
i
H
i

dl
Q
0
0
which gives
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
H
i
dn
i
dl
_ _
Q
0
0 3:85
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
H
i
A
t
i
r
0
_ _
Q
0
0
Rearrangement gives
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
A
t
r
0
M
i1
H
i
i
_ _
Q
0
0
Because
M
i1
i
H
i
H heat of reaction
we get
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
0
Finally the above equation can be written as
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
3:86
For multiple reactions, it will be
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl

N
j1
A
t
r
0
j
H
j
_ _
Q
0
3:87
The design equations for the multiple reactions case are Eqs. (3.83) and
(3.87), whereas for the single-reaction case, the design equations are Eqs.
(3.84) and (3.86).
TM
III. Nonisothermal Batch Reactor
For this case, mass balance design equations are obtained as follows
(balance over a time element t):
n
i
t t n
i
t Vt
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
Rearranging and taking the limit as t !0 gives
dn
i
dt
V
N
j1
ij
r
0
j
3:88
For single reaction, it will be
dn
i
dt
V
i
r
0
3:89
The heat balance (for a single reaction) is
M
i1
n
i
H
i
t
Q
0
t
M
i1
n
i
H
i
tt
After rearranging and taking the limit as t !0, we obtain the following
dierential equation:
M
i1
d n
i
H
i

dt
Q
0
0
After dierentiation, we obtain
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
H
i
dn
i
dt
_ _
_ _
Q
0
0 3:90
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
H
i
V
i
r
0
_ _
_ _
Q
0
0
Rearranging gives
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
Vr
0
M
i1
H
i
i
_ _
Q
0
0
Because
i
H
i
H heat of reaction
TM
we obtain
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
Vr
0
H Q
0
0
The above equation can be rearranged and written as
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
Vr
0
H Q
0
3:91
For multiple reactions,
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
V
N
j1
r
0
j
H
j
_ _
Q
0
3:92
Equations (3.88) and (3.92) are the design equations for the multiple-
reactions case and equations (3.89) and (3.91) are the design equations for
the single-reaction case.
3.7 SIMPLE EXAMPLES FOR THE GENERAL
EQUATIONS
In this section, we show the design (model) equations for the three types of
reactors. We consider only the one-phase (homogeneous) case.
I. Nonisothermal CSTR
Consider the simplest case of a single reaction with no change in the number
of moles:
A !
k
B; with r
0
kC
A
Equation (3.72) becomes
n
A
n
Af
V1kC
A
3:93
Because there is no change in the number of moles, q (the volumetric ow
rate) is constant; therefore,
n
A
qC
A
and n
Af
qC
Af
Thus, Eq. (3.93) becomes
qC
A
qC
Af
VkC
A
and k depends on the temperature according to the Arrhenius relation
k k
0
e
E=RT
TM
The mass balance design equation is thus
qC
A
qC
Af
Vk
0
e
E=RT
C
A
3:94
Equation (3.94) has two variables, C
A
and T; therefore, we must use the
heat balance equations also.
We assume that there is no change in phase and use Eq. (3.82) and
after putting N 1 (single reaction), we get
M
i1
n
if
_
T
f
T
r
C
pi
dT
_ _
Q
M
i1
n
i
_
T
T
r
C
pi
dT
_ _
VkC
A
H
r
We further assume adiabatic operation Q 0 and also assume that all of

the C
pi
s are constant (or using constant average values) to obtain
M
i1
n
if
C
pi
T
f
T
r
_ _
M
i1
n
i
C
pi
T T
r
_ _
VkC
A
H
r
We further assume an average C

p
mix
, which is the same for feed and
products, to obtain
C
p
mix
T
f
T
r
M
i1
n
if
_ _
C
p
mix
T T
r
M
i1
n
i
_ _
VkC
A
H
r
We further assume that n

Tf
n
T
(actually, there is no change in the number
of moles for this simple reaction; therefore, for this specic, case this is a
physical fact not an assumption) and therefore the equation reduces to
n
T
C
0
p
T
f
n
T
C
0
p
T VkC
A
H
r

C
0
p
C
p
mix
, where C
0
p
is the molar specic heat and n
T
is the molar ow rate.
We can also write it in terms of specic heat C
p
(per unit mass as):
qrC
p
T
f
qrC
p
T Vk
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H
r
3:95
where q is the volumetric ow rate and r is the average constant density of
the mixture. Equations (3.94) and (3.95) are the design equations for this
nonisothermal case; we can put them in a dimensionless form as follows:
X
A
X
Af
a
0
e
g=Y
X
A
3:96
where
X
A

C
A
C
A
ref
; X
Af

C
Af
C
A
ref
; a
0

Vk
0
q
; Y
T
T
ref
and g
E
RT
ref
TM
Similarly, the heat balance equation can be written in a dimensionless form
as
Y Y
f
a
0
e
g=Y
X
A
b 3:97
where
b
H
r
C
ref
rC
p
T
ref
When analyzed, eqs. (3.96) and (3.97) show the complex behavior of this
system and will be discussed later.
If we take
C
A
ref
C
Af
and T
ref
T
f
Then the dimensionless heat balance equation becomes
Y 1 a
0
e
g=Y
bX
A
3:98
and the dimensionless mass balance equation becomes
X
A
1 a
0
e
g=Y
X
A
3:99
The two nonlinear algebraic equations [Eqs. (3.98) and (3.99)] have two
variables (X
A
and Y) and can be solved simultaneously for given values
of a
0
, b, and g.
Note: The nine physical parameters (also design and operating para-
meters) are q; r;C
0
P
; T
f
; V; k
0
; E; C
Af
; and H
r
. They all are lumped into
three parameters: a
0
, b, and g
Can we get some insight into the characteristics of this system and its
dependence on the parameters before we solve its design equations (3.98)
and (3.99)? Let us use some chemical engineering intelligence together with
Eqs. (3.98) and (3.99):
Y 1 a
0
e
g=Y
bX
A
3:98
X
A
1 a
0
e
g=Y
X
A
3:99
Multiplying Eq. (3.99) by b and adding it to Eq. (3.98) gives
Y 1 b X
A
1 0
Y 1 b 1 X
A
3:100
TM
What is the maximum possible value of Y? It is when X
A
!0 (i.e., at
100% conversion):
Y
max
1 b
For the exothermic reaction, b is called as the maximum dimensionless
adiabatic temperature rise.
Can we reduce the two nonlinear coupled equations to one equation in
one variable and the other is a simple explicit linear equation? Yes, we can do
that through the two alternative equivalent route shown in Table 3.1. From
either of the two routes, we get one equation in terms of Y (one variable); we
can solve it and get the value of Y. Then, the value of x
A
can be obtained
easily from Eq. (3.101) or (3.102).
Take, for example,
1
a
0
Y 1 e
g=Y
1 b Y
Table 3.1 Alternate Routes to Solve Eqs. (3.98) and (3.99)
Route 1 Route 2
Equation (3.99) can be rearranged as
X
A
a
0
e
g=Y
X
A
1
X
A

1
1 a
0
e
=Y
3:101
Substitute Eq. (3.101) into Eq. (3.98)
to eliminate X
A
and obtain
Y 1
a
0
e
=Y
b
1 a
0
e
=Y
We can rearrange it in the following form:
1
a
0
Y 1
.,,.
RY
be
=Y
1 a
0
e =Y
.,,.
GY
which gives
RY GY
where RY is a heat removal function and
GY is a heat generation function.
Equation (3.100) can be rearranged
to give
X
A

1 b Y
b
3:102
Use Eq. (3.102) in Eq. (3.98) to
eliminate X
A
and obtain
Y 1 a
0
e
=Y
b
1 b Y
b
1
a
0
Y 1
.,,.
RY
e
=Y
1 b Y
.,,.
GY
where RY is a heat removal
function and GY is a heat
generation function
TM
It can be solved numerically (using NewtonRaphson, bisectional methods,
etc.; see Appendix B), but for the sake of illustration, we solve it graphically
(as shown in Fig. 3.9).
1
a
0
Y 1
.,,.
R Y
e
g=Y
1 b Y
.,,.
G Y
where, G Y is the heat generation function and R Y is the heat removal
function.
It is clear from Figure 3.9 that for an exothermic reaction, there is a
possibility of three steady states (stationery nonequilibrium states), whereas
for an endothermic reaction, there is only one steady state. For more
information regarding this very important phenomenon (multiplicity
phenomenon or bifurcation behavior), see Chapter 7.
II. Nonisothermal Tubular Reactor
Consider the simple reaction
A !
k
B
Figure 3.9 Plot of heat generation and heat removal functions (points of inter-
section are the steady states).
TM
where r
0
kC
A
. The mass balance design equation [Eq. (3.84)] for com-
ponent A is
dn
A
dl
A
t
kC
A
Because q is constant, n
A
qC
A
and dn
A
=dl qdC
A
=dl; thus,
q
dC
A
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
3:103
The heat balance design equation is
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H Q
For adiabatic operation, Q 0, and for no change in phase, it becomes
M
i1
n
i
d C
pi
T
_ _
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H
For constant C
pi
, we can write
M
i1
n
i
C
pi
_ _
dT
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H
Using constant molar C
p
mix
gives,
n
T
C
p
mix
dT
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H
If we use C
p
mix
per unit mass instead of per unit mole and call it C
p
, we can
write
qrC
p
dT
dl
A
t
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H 3:104
Equations (3.103) and (3.104) are the design equations for this case. They
can be put in dimensionless form as we did for the CSTR. On the same
basis, the reader can develop these equation for the batch reactor case.
Note: H here is not at reference condition as in the CSTR case, it can
be assumed constant or its variation with temperature can be taken into
consideration.
Questions
1. Derive the simplied design equations for the batch nonisothermal
reactor.
TM
2. Write the tubular reactor and the batch reactor equations in
dimensionless form.
3. Compare your dimensionless groups for the batch and the tubular
reactors with those for the CSTR and comment.
3.8 MODELING OF BIOCHEMICAL SYSTEMS
Biochemical systems can be classied into two main categories: The rst
deals with enzyme systems and the second deals with processes catalyzed by
whole-cell micro-organisms.
3.8.1 Modeling of Enzyme Systems
Biochemical systems can be handled in a very similar manner as was done so
far for chemical systems in the previous chapters and sections. The few
simple dierences will be claried in this subsection through simple and
illustrative examples. Also, some of the most important terminology will
be introduced.
Microbial systems. These are systems in which there is a biochemical
reaction which is catalyzed by micro-organisms.
Micro-organisms. They contain large number of enzymes and they
exist in a tissue structure. They not only catalyze the biochemical
reaction, but they themselves grow also.
Micro-organism operation (Fig. 3.10):
1. Micro-organisms behave as a catalyst when fed with the substrate
(reactant).
2. They grow and accumulate.
3. They release product(s)
4. They are responsive to surroundings (pH, temperature, etc.).
Figure 3.10 Micro-organism operation.
TM
Microbial reactions
Substrates +Micro-organisms ! Products +More micro-organisms
The process is autocatalytic, because the micro-organism is not only
catalyzing the reactions, but it also grows and reproduces during the
reaction.
The parameter used to describe the fraction of substrate (reactant)
converted to micro-organism is called the yield factor Y
S
:
Y
S

gram of micro-organism produced
gram of substrate consumed
Characteristics of microbial systems
1. Micro-organisms grow and accumulate.
2. The reaction network is quite complex.
3. Historical experience from many processes such as fermentation
are important for process development.
Enzyme Systems
There are more than 2000 dierent kinds of known enzyme (e.g., trypsin,
pepsin, etc.).
Example
Glucose !
Glucose isomerase
Fructose
Enzymes also act as catalysts, but they dier from micro-organisms, as
shown in the few simple points given below.
Enzymes
1. They do not grow like microorganisms.
2. Very selective in nature.
3. Soluble in some solvent to form a solution.
Micro-organisms, in contradiction, are characterized by the following:
1. They grow and accumulate in the presence of substrate and
nutrients.
2. They contain a large number of enzymes in their network tissues.
3. They are not soluble in solution, they remain suspended.
Both enzymes and micro-organisms are expensive and they have to be pro-
tected from washing out with the product. Thus, enzyme and micro-organism
immobilization is used to prevent their washout.
TM
Immobilization
There are two main types of immobilization techniques:
1. Attachment to solid surface: This technique is usually used for
microorganisms through attaching the micro-organism onto a
solid surface either by physical or chemical bonding in order to
prevent its mobility. The advantage of this technique is that there
is very little or no mass transfer resistance. The disadvantage of
this method is that if micro-organisms are used in a reactor where
the ow rate is high, then the shear stress will remove the micro-
organisms from the solids surface.
2. Microencapsulation: This technique is suitable for both enzymes
and micro-organisms where they are entrapped in capsules made
of materials which are permeable only to substrates and products,
but are impermeable to enzyme or micro-organism. The advan-
tage of this technique is that it keeps the enzymes or micro-organ-
isms inside the capsules even under high-ow-rate turbulent
conditions. The main disadvantage of this method is that it intro-
duces additional mass transfer resistances.
Enzyme Kinetics
A simple enzyme kinetic can be expresssed as,
S !
E
P
where S is the substrate and P is the product. Concentration and pH are the
most important variables aecting the rates of enzyme reactions, and that is
why they are the main state variables for enzyme systems.
Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
This is the simplest type of enzyme reaction giving rise to monotonic enzyme
kinetics. The mechanism can be simply expressed by the following steps:
E S ,
k
1
k
1
ES 3:105
where E is an enzyme, S is a substrate, and ES is a enzymesubstrate
complex. The equilibrium constant for this reversible reaction is K
S
,
which is given by
K
S

E S
ES

k
1
k
1
TM
The enzymesubstrate complex gives the product P and reproduces the
enzyme E according to the reaction
ES !
K
P E 3:106
The rate of product production through this irreversible reaction is given by
r K ES 3:107
We cannot measure the intermediate concentration of ES ES , so we try
to describe the rate of reaction in terms of the substrate concentration S .
E reacts with S and at steady state; thus, we have the relation
K ES k
1
S E k
1
ES 3:108
where E is the amount of enzyme available for reaction at any time. This is
equal to the dierence between the total amount of enzyme and the amount
of enzyme used for the formation of ES. Mathematically, it can be written as
E E
T
ES
where E
T
is the total amount of enzyme. Substituting this relation of E in
Eq. (3.108) gives
K ES k
1
S E
T
ES
_ _
k
1
ES
which can be rearranged to give
ES K k
1
S k
1
_ _
k
1
E
T
S
Thus, we can obtain ES as a function of E
T
and S as follows:
ES
k
1
E
T
S
K k
1
S k
1
3:109
Equation (3.109) can be manipulated into the following form:
ES
k
1
k
1
_ _
E
T
S
_
K
k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
k
1
S
_ _
Because
k
1
k
1
K
S
we can rewrite the equation as
ES
E
T
S
K=k
1
K
S
S
3:110
From Eq. (3.107), the reaction rate is given as
r K ES
TM
Substituting the expression for ES from Eq. (3.110) into Eq. (3.106) gives
r
K E
T
S
K=k
1
K
S
S
3:111
Let
K E
T
V
max
r
V
max
S
K=k
1
K
S
S
3:112
If k
1
is large, then the term K=k
1
is negligible, but K
S
k
1
=k
1
is not
negligible because it is a division of two large numbers. If we assume that
K=k
1
0, it means that the reaction given by Eq. (3.105) is very fast as
compared to the reaction given by Eq. (3.107). Equation (3.112) becomes
r
V
max
S
K
S
S
3:113
Equation (3.113) is called the MichaelisMenten equation, and the follow-
ing can be deduced from the equation:
1. If S is very small as compared with K
S
, a rst-order reaction rate
r is dominating, which can be described graphically by a straight
line with slope V
max
=K
S
and the rate is r V
max
S =K
S
.
2. If K
S
is small as compared to S (at high concentration), then the
reaction rate r is a horizontal line having one value, r V
max
, and
that will be described graphically by a straight line parallel to the x
axis. The MichaelisMenten kinetics is graphically shown in
Figure 3.11.
Important Notes
1. The actual dierential equations which describe the reaction and
the relation between S and ES are
d S
dt
k
1
S E k
1
ES 3:114
and
d ES
dt
k
1
S E k
1
ES K ES 3:115
where
E E
T
ES
TM
2. If d S =dt and d ES =dt in Eqs. (3.114) and (3.115) are set equal to
zero, then Eq. (3.112) is satised and that means that the dynamics
of the system is fast (equilibrium).
3. When using Eq. (3.113) to develop unsteady-state models, we
should notice that there are many assumptions, including that
the operation is quasi-steady-state. Also, we assume that ES pro-
duced from reaction (3.105) is the same as that reacted in reaction
(3.107). Thus, MichaelisMenten Eq. (3.113) is not rigorous
enough for unsteady-state models.
Substrate-Inhibited Enzyme Kinetics
For noncompetitive substrate inhibition, the overall reaction is given by
S !P 3:116
The formation of the active enzyme complex can be shown as
S E,ES 3:117
The equilibrium constant for reaction (3.117) can be written as
K
S

S E
ES

k
1
k
1
The formation of inactive enzyme complex follows the pathway
ES S,ES
2
3:118
Figure 3.11 Graphical representation of MichaelisMenten kinetics.
TM
The equilibrium constant for reaction (3.118) is
K
0
S

ES S
ES
2

The active enzyme complex produces the product and enzyme again accord-
ing to the pathway
ES !
K
P E
The overall rate can be written as
r K ES
K S E
K
S
Also,
E
T
E ES ES
2

By using the equilibrium relations of reactions (3.116)(3.118) in the deni-
tion of E
T
, we get
E
T
E
S E
K
S
ES S
K
0
S
By taking E as a common part, where ES S E =K
S
, we get
E
T
E 1
S
K
S
S
2
K
S
K
0
S
_ _
from which we obtain
E E
T

_
1
S
K
S
S
2
K
S
K
0
S
_ _
From the denition of the reaction rate,
r
K S E
K
S
We substitute the relation for E to get
r
K S
K
S
_ _
E
T

_
1
S
K
S
S
2
K
S
K
0
S
_ _
K S
E
T

K
S
S S
2
=K
0
S
_ _
or we can write
r
V
max
S
K
S
S S
2
=K
0
S
3:119
TM
The dierence between Eqs. (3.113) (MichaelisMenten) and (3.119) is that
in Eq. (3.119) when S
2
is large, it will dominate the equation leading to a
nonmonotonic behavior.
We can see from the graph on the right-hand side of Figure 3.12 the
existence of a negative slope region (after the dashed line), where the rate of
reaction decreases with the increase in concentration of substrate (inhibi-
tion). The negative slope region means that as the substrate concentration
increases, the reaction rate decreases r K= S .
Equation (3.119) represents what we call nonmonotonic kinetics. This
has a very important implication on the behavior of the bioreactors when
such bioreactions are conducted.
Explanation of non-monotonic kinetics (Fig. 3.13)
Positive reactionorder (regionI). It means that the rate of ES produced
fromreaction (3.117) is higher than that consumed in reaction (3.118).
Zero reaction order (region II). It means that the rate of ES produced
from reaction (3.117) is equal to that consumed by reaction (3.118).
Negative reaction order (region III). It means that the rate of ES
produced from reaction (3.117) is less than that consumed by reac-
tion (3.118).
Competitive Substrate Inhibition
The above substrate inhibition mechanism is called consecutive substrate
inhibition. Another mechanism is the competitive substrate inhibition as
shown in this subsection.
Figure 3.12 Plots showing the dierence between the behavior of rates expressed
by Eqs. (3.113) and (3.119).
TM
E S,ES Equilibrium constant K
S
3:120
2S E,ES
2
Equilibrium constant K
0
S
3:121
ES !
K
P E Rate of reaction, r K ES
We know that
K
S

E S
ES
and K
0
S

S
2
E
ES
2

The reaction rate can be written as
r K
S E
K
S
3:122
Now the total enzyme balance gives
E
T
E ES ES
2

By substituting the relations for ES and ES
2
in terms of K
S
and K
0
S
, we
get
E
T
E
E S
K
S
E S
2
K
0
S
E
T
E 1
S
K
S
S
2
K
0
S
_ _
We can obtain E as
Figure 3.13 Dierent kinetics regions.
TM
E E
T

_
1
S
K
S
S
2
K
0
S
_ _
By substituting this expression of E in the rate equation (3.123), we get
r
K S
K
S
E
T

1 S =K
S
S
2
=K
0
S
_ _
or we can write
r V
max
S
_
K
S
S
K
S
S
2
K
0
S
_ _
3:124
We can generalize the reaction rate equation of competitive and non-
competitive substrate inhibitions by using the following formula:
r
V
max
S
K
S
S a
I
S
2
_ _ 3:125
If a
I
1=K
0
S
, we have noncompetitive (consecutive) inhibition; if
a
I
K
S
=K
0
S
we have competitive inhibition.
Continuous-Stirred Tank Enzyme Reactor (or Enzyme CSTR)
(Fig. 3.14)
For simplicity, assume that the enzymes are immobilized inside of the
reactor (i.e., no washout) but, at the same time, there is no mass transfer
resistance, then the equation is simply
qS
f
qS Vr 3:126
Note: If r is per unit mass, then multiply by the enzyme concentration C
E
.
By dividing Eq. (3.126) by V, we get
Figure 3.14 Enzyme CSTR.
TM
q
V
_ _
S
f

q
V
_ _
S r 3:127
where q=V is the dilution rate D time
1
_ _
, which is the inverse of the
residence time, t V=q Therefore,
D S
f
S
_ _
r 3:128
Equation (3.128) can be easily solved; the nature of the solution(s) will
depend on the rate of the bioreaction function r. We will call it the consump-
tion function C S ; the left-hand side D S
f
S
_ _ _ _
will be called the supply
function S S . Let us solve them graphically as shown in Figure 3.15.
It is clear that for MichaelisMenten kinetics, we have only one steady
state for the whole range of D, whereas for the substrate-inhibited kinetics,
we can have more than one steady state over a certain range of D values
(this can be easily visualized by Fig. 3.16).
More details regarding multiplicity of the steady states are shown in
Figure 3.16. The stability of the dierent steady states is stated below.
The simplest denition of the stability of steady states is as follows:
Stable steady state. If disturbance is made and then removed, the
system will return back to its initial steady state.
Figure 3.15 Graphical solution of Eq. (3.128).
TM
Unstable steady state. If a disturbance is made and then removed, the
system will not return to its initial steady state.
Corresponding to Figure 3.16, we can describe the stability behavior of the
three steady states (denoted by points A, B, and C in Fig. 3.16).
Steady-state point A. From a static point of view, it is stable because
slightly to the right of it, the rate of consumption of the substrate is
greater than the rate of supply. This will give rise to a decrease in the
concentration and the reactor goes back to its steady state at A. Also,
for concentrations slightly to the left of steady state A, the rate of
consumption is smaller than the rate of supply. Therefore, the con-
centration will increase and the reactor will go back to steady state A.
Steady-state point B. From the static point of view, it is unstable
because for any concentration change slightly to the right of this
point, the rate of substrate consumption is smaller than the rate of
substrate supply. Therefore, the concentration continues to increase
and the system does not go back to steady state B. Also, as the
concentration is changed slightly to the left of steady state point
B, the rate of substrate supply is lower than the rate of consumption
and, therefore, the concentration continues to decrease and never
returns to steady state B.
Figure 3.16 Multiple steady states and their stability characteristics.
TM
Steady-state point C. This steady state is stable for the same reasons
described for steady-state point A. (The reader is advised to perform
the tests described for steady state points A and B to verify that
steady-state point C is indeed stable).
At which stable steady state will the reactor operate? This is not known
and the behavior of the reactor is described by its previous history (non-
physical, nonchemical condition).
Sources of multiplicity
1. Nonmonotonic dependence of a rate process (or more) on at least
one state variable
2. Feedback of information (a recycle in a tubular reactor or axial
dispersion, which will be discussed later) (see Fig. 3.17).
More details about multiplicity of steady states and bifurcation
behavior are given in Chapter 7.
3.8.2 Modeling of Microbial Systems
Microbial bioreactors dier from enzyme reactors with regard to the fact
that the biocatalyst (micro-organism) grows with the progress of the reac-
tion (i.e., it is an autocatalytic process).
Micro-organism concentration X
g
L
_ _
and the reaction is as follows:
S X !P X
The following biochemical yield factors replace the stoichiometric numbers
used in reactions:
Y
S

Grams of micro-organism produced
Grams of substrate consumed
Figure 3.17 Recycle is a source of multiplicity.
TM
Y
P

Grams of product produced
Grams of substrate consumed
or
Y
0
P

Y
P
Y
S
Grams of product produced

Monod Equation and Substrate Inhibition
This is the most common reaction rate equation used. It resembles the
enzyme rate equation, but it is more empirical:
m
Grams of micro-organisms existing Time
time
1
Mathematically, it can be written as
m
m
max
S
K
S
S
For the case of substrate inhibition,
m
m
max
S
K
S
S K S
2
3:129
. There can be product inhibition also.
. There can be cell inhibition also, where, after a time, the cells stop
the reaction.
If the reaction is taking place in a batch reactor, then
d VX
dt
m VX
where m is the rate of production of the micro-organism and VX is the total
weight of the micro-organism at any time t.
Simplifying Assumptions
1. Assume V is constant.
2. Assume dilute solution where the micro-organism is small and is
accumulating slowly.
With these simplifying assumptions, the equation can be modied to give
V
dS
dt

mVX
Y
S
(consumption rate of substrate)
This gives
TM
dS
dt

mX
Y
S
3:130
Also, we get
dX
dt
mX 3:131
with initial condition at t 0, X X
f
and S S
f
. By rearranging Eqs.
(3.130) and (3.131) and adding them, we get
Y
S
dS
dt

dX
dt
mX mX 0
d Y
S
S X
dt
0
To solve this dierential equation, we integrate with the initial conditions at
t 0, X X
f
and S S
f
:
_
d Y
S
S X
dt

_
0
_
d Y
S
S X C Y
S
S
f
X
f
We get
Y
S
S X Y
S
S
f
X
f
On rearranging, we get
X X
f
Y
S
S
f
S
_ _
By substituting the value of X in Eq. (3.130) and after some rearrangement,
we get the design equation in terms of one state variable S:
Y
S
dS
dt

m
max
S
K
S
S
X
f
Y
S
S
f
S
_ _ _ _
where
m
m
max
S
K
S
S
For other cases, another mechanism can also decrease (eat) the micro-
organism through death. Therefore, we introduce a term k
d
to incor-
porate this decrease in micro-organism number,
TM
dX
dt
mX k
d
X X m k
d
3:132
and for the substrate, we can write
dS
dt

mX
Y
S
3:133
The two dierential equations (3.132 and 3.133) can to be solved simulta-
neously with suitable initial conditions.
Continuous-Stirred Tank Fermentor (Without Micro-organism
Death) (Fig. 3.18)
For this case and with the assumption of constant volume, the unsteady-
state equations are given as follows:
For micro-organisms
FX
f
mXV FX V
dX
dt
For substrate
FS
f
FS
mXV
Y
S
V
dS
dt
With initial conditions at t 0; S S
f
and X X
f
. The steady-state
equations can be obtained by simply setting
dX
dt

dS
dt
0
Figure 3.18 Continuous-stirred tank fermentor.
TM
A much more detailed and involved heterogeneous modeling of microbial
reaction systems is discussed in Chapter 6.
Solved Example
The continuous anaerobic digester used for treating municipal waste
sludge is essentially like any other CSTR except that it involves multiphase
biological reactions. Material essentially consisting of organisms of con-
centration C
XO
mol/m
3
and a substrate of concentration C
SO
mol/m
3
is fed
to a certain anaerobic digester at F m
3
/day. Use the following additional
assumptions:
1. The reactions of interest take place only in the liquid phase and the
reactor (liquid) volume V (m
3
) is constant.
2. The organism concentration in the digester C
X
is uniform, as is the
substrate concentration C
S
.
Obtain a model for this digester process by carrying out organism and
substrate balances and using the following constitutive relationships:
1. The organism growth rate (in the reactor) is given by
r
X

dC
X
dt
mC
X
where m, the specic growth rate, is itself given by the Monod
function
m m
0
C
S
K
S
C
S
_ _
Here, m
0
is the maximum specic growth rate and K
S
is the satu-
ration constant.
2. The yield (the rate of growth of organism ratioed to the rate of
consumption of substrate) in the reactor is given by
r
X
Y
XS
r
S
Solution
The process can be shown schematically as in Figure 3.19. The microbial
reaction is given by
S !
X
P
The rate of production of the micro-organism is given by
TM
r
X
mC
X
m
0
C
S
K
S
C
S
_ _
C
X
The rate of consumption of the substrate is given by (note the negative sign
in the rate as the substrate concentration decreases due to its consumption
by the micro-organisms)
r
S

dC
S
dt

1
Y
XS
m
0
C
S
K
S
C
S
_ _
C
X
An appropriate model may be obtained from a micro-organism material
balance and a substrate mass balance:
Substrate balance
V
dC
S
dt
FC
SO
FC
S
1
Y
XS
m
0
C
S
K
S
C
S
_ _
C
X
3:134
Micro-organism balance
V
dC
X
dt
FC
XO
FC
X
m
0
C
S
K
S
C
S
_ _
C
X
3:135
With initial conditions at t 0; C
S
C
S
0 and C
X
C
X
0 .
Equation (3.134) and (3.135) with initial conditions formulate the dynamic
model for this microbial system.
Note: Volume V is assumed to be constant.
Figure 3.19 Schematic diagram of the process.
TM
The steady state is obtained by setting the dierential terms equal to zero in
Eqs. (3.134) and (3.135):
dC
S
dt

dC
X
dt
0
The steady-state equations are
FC
SO
FC
S
SS

1
Y
XS
m
0
C
S
SS
K
S
C
S
SS
_ _
C
X
SS
0
and
FC
XO
FC
X
SS
m
0
C
S
SS
K
S
C
S
SS
_ _
C
X
SS
0
where C
S
SS
is the steady-state concentration of the substrate and C
X
SS
is the
steady-state concentration of the micro-organism.
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Verlag, New York, 1981, pp. 284304.
2. Salmi, T. Modeling and simulation of transient states of ideal heterogeneous
catalytic reactors. Chem. Eng. Sci, 43(3), 503511, 1988.
3. Aube, F., and Sapoundjiev, H. Mathematical model and numerical simulations
of catalytic ow reversal reactors for industrial applications. Computers Chem.
Eng., 24(12), 26232632, 2000.
4. Elnashaie, S. S., Gaber, A. H., and El-Rifai, M. A. Dynamic analysis of enzyme
reactors exhibiting substrate Iinhibition multiplicity. Chem. Eng. Sci. 32(5),
557559, 1977.
5. Baiker, A., and Bergougnan, M. Investigation of a xed-bed pilot plant reactor
by dynamic experimentation. Part 1. Apparatus and experimental results. Can.
J. Chem. Eng. 63(1), 138145, 1985.
6. Baiker, A., and Bergougnan, M. Investigation of a xed-bed pilot plant reactor
by dynamic experimentation. Part 2. Simulation of reactor behavior. Can. J.
Chem. Eng. 63(1), 146154, 1985.
7. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H., Moustafa, T., Alsoudani, T., and Elshishini, S. S.
Modeling and basic characteristics of novel integrated dehydrogenation-hydro-
genation membrane catalytic reactors. Computers Chem. Eng., 24(27), 1293
1300, 2000.
8. Ajbar, A., Alhumazi, K., and Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. Classication of static and
dynamic behavior in a uidized-bed catalytic reactor. Chem. Eng. J., 84(3), 503
516, 2001.
9. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H., Alhabdan, F. M., and Adris, A. M. A Software
Computer Package for the Simulation of Industrial Steam Reformers for
TM
Natural Gas. Institute of Chemical Engineering Symposium Series No. 114.
1989, pp. 5967.
10. Hoelzer, D., and Hahn, H. H. Development of a software package for the
dimensioning and operation of activated sludge plants. Korresp. Abwasser
42(10), 18361838, 18411846, 1995.
11. Li, Ke, Crittenden, J. C., and Hand, D. W. A software package for modeling of
the H2O2/UV advanced oxidation process. Proceedings of the Annual
Conference of the American Water Works Association, 2001, pp. 14211424.
12. Schnelle, P. D., Jr., and Richards, J. R. A review of industrial reactor control:
Dicult problems and workable solutions. Chemical Process Control (CPC3),
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Chemical Process Control,
1986, pp. 749802.
13. Richards, J. R., and Schnelle, P. D., Jr. Perspectives on industrial reactor
control. Chem. Eng. Prog. 84(10), 3236, 1988.
14. Boreskov, G. K., and Matros, Yu. Sh. Fixed catalyst bed reactors operated in
steady- and unsteady-state conditions. Recent Adv. Eng. Anal. Chem. React.
Syst., 142155, Wiley, New York, 1984.
15. Adris, A., Grace, J., Lim, C., and Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. Fluidized bed reaction
system for steam/hydrocarbon gas reforming to produce hydrogen, U.S. Patent
5,326,550, June 5, 1994.
16. Makel, D. Low cost microchannel reformer for hydrogen production from
natural gas. California Energy Commission (CEG), Energy Innovations
Small Grant (EISG) Program, 1999.
17. Sammells, A. F., Barton, A. F., Peterson, D. R., Harford, S. T., Mackey, R.,
Van Calcar, P. H., Mundshau, M. V., and Schultz, J. B. Methane conversion to
syngas in mixed conducting membrane reactors. 4th International Conference
on Catalysis in Membrane Reactors, 2000.
18. Prigogine, I., George, C., Henin, F., and Rosenfeld, L. Unied formulation
of dynamics and thermodynamics. With special reference to non-equilibrium
statistical thermodynamics. Chem. Scr., 4(1), 532, 1973.
19. Nicolis, G., and Prigogine, I. Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From
dissipative structures to order through uctuations. Wiley, New York, 1977.
20. Denn, M. M. Process Modeling. Longman Science and Technology, London,
1986.
21. Froment, G. F., and Bischo, K. B. Chemical Reactor Analysis and Design.
Wiley, New York, 1990.
22. Dranseld, P. Engineering Systems and Automatic Control, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Clis, NJ, 1968.
23. Von Bertalany, L. General Systems Theory. George Braziller, New York, 1968.
24. Robert Shaw, J. E., Mecca, S. J., and Rerick, M. N. Problem Solving. A System
Approach. Academic Press, New York, 1964.
25. Aris, R. Manners makyth modellers. Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 69(A2), 165174,
1991.
26. Smith, J. M. Models in Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1974.
27. Hawking, S. W. A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
Bantam Press, London, 1989.
TM
28. Soliman, M. A. and Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. Negative eectiveness factors for
cyclic reversible reactions, Chem. Eng. Sci. 45(7), 19251928, 1990.
29. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H., Abashar, M. E., and Alubaid, A. S. Simulation and
optimization of an industrial ammonia reactor, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 27(11),
20152022, 1988.
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disturbances on methanator. Math. Computer Model. 21(4), 85106, 1995.
PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1
Derive the steady-state mass balance equations for an isothermal contin-
uous-stirred tank reactor in which a consecutive homogeneous reaction
A !
k
1
B !
k
2
C
is taking place. Put the resulting equation in a matrix form and suggest
the sequence of solution procedures to obtain the output of the three
components.
Problem 3.2
A semibatch reactor is run at constant temperature by varying the rate of
addition of one of the reactants A. The irreversible exothermic reaction
taking place in the reactor is rst order in reactants A and B:
A B !C
The tank is initially lled to its 40% level with the pure reactant B at a
concentration C
BO
. Cooling water is passed through a cooling coil immersed
in the reactor and reactant A is slowly added to the perfectly stirred vessel.
Write the equations describing the system. Without solving the equations,
try to sketch the proles of F
A
(feed ow rate) and C
A
(concentration of A in
the reactor), and C
B
(concentration of B in the reactor) with time.
Problem 3.3
A perfectly mixed nonisothermal adiabatic reactor carries out a simple rst-
order exothermic reaction in the liquid phase:
A !B
The product from the reactor is cooled from the output temperature T to
a temperature T
C
and is then introduced into a separation unit where the
unreacted A is separated from the product B. The feed to the separation
unit is split into two equal parts: top product and bottom product; the
TM
bottom product from the separation unit contains 95% of the unreacted A in
the euent of the reactor and 1% of the B in the same stream. This bottom
product, which is at temperature T
C
(i.e., the separation unit is isothermal), is
recycled and mixed with the fresh feed to the reactor and the mixed stream is
heated to the reactor feed temperature T
f
before being introduced into the
reactor. Write the steady-state mass and heat balance equations for this
system assuming constant physical properties and heat of reaction. (Note:
concentrate your modeling attention on the nonisothermal, adiabatic reac-
tor, and for the rest of units, carry out a simple mass and heat balance in
order to dene the feed conditions to the reactor.)
Problem 3.4
Consider a system that initially consists of 1 mol of CO and 3 mol of H
2
at
1000 K. The system pressure is 25 atm. The following reactions are to be
considered:
2CO 2H
2
,CH
4
CO
2
A
CO3H
2
,CH
4
H
2
O B
CO
2
H
2
,H
2
OCO C
When the equilibrium constants for reactions A and B are expressed in
terms of the partial pressures of the various species (in atm), the equilibrium
constants for these reactions have the values K
P
A
0:046 and K
P
B
0:034.
Determine the number of independent reactions, and then determine the
equilibrium composition of the mixture.
Problem 3.5
A perfect gas with molecular weight M ows at a rate W
0
(kg/h) into a
cylinder through a restriction. The ow rate is proportional to the square
root of the pressure drop over the restriction:
W
0
K
0
P
0
P
_
where P is the pressure (N/m
2
absolute) in the cylinder, P
0
is constant
upstream pressure. The system is isothermal. Inside the cylinder a piston
is forced to the right as the pressure P builds up. A spring resists the move-
ment of the piston with a force that is proportional to axial displacement X
of the piston:
F
S
K
S
X N
The pressure on the spring side is atmospheric and is constant. The piston
is initially at X 0 when the pressure in the cylinder is zero. The cross-
TM
sectional area of the cylinder is A (m
2
). Assume that the piston has negligible
mass and friction.
(a) Derive the equations describing the system, (i.e., the dynamic
behavior of the system).
(b) What will the steady-state piston displacement be?
(c) What is the eect of relaxing the assumption of negligible mass
of the piston on both the dynamic behavior and steady-state
position of the piston?
(d) What is the eect of relaxing the assumption of constant atmo-
spheric pressure in the spring side (behind the piston)?
Problem 3.6
The reaction of ethylene and chlorine in liquid ethylene dichloride solution
is taking place in a CSTR. The stoichiometry of the reaction is,
C
2
H
4
Cl
2
!C
2
H
4
Cl
2
Equimolar ow rates of ethylene and chlorine are used in the following
experiment, which is carried out at 368C. The results of the experiment
are tabulated in Table P3.6.
(a) Determine the overall order of the reaction and the reaction rate
constant.
(b) Determine the space time (space time is the residence time which
is the ratio between the volume of the reactor and the volumetric
ow rate) necessary for 65% conversion in a CSTR.
(c) What would be the conversion in a PFR having the space time
determined in part (b)?
Table P3.6 Experimental Data
Space time (s)
Euent chlorine concentration
(mol/cm
3
)
0 0.0116
300 0.0094
600 0.0081
900 0.0071
1200 0.0064
1500 0.0060
1800 0.0058
TM
In parts (b) and (c), assume that the operating temperature and the initial
concentrations are the same as in part (a).
Problem 3.7
Some of the condensation reactions that take place when formaldehyde F
is added to sodium paraphenolsulfonate M in an alkaline-aqueous solu-
tion have been studied. It was found that the reactions could be represented
by the following equations:
F M!MA; k
1
0:15 L/gmol min
F MA !MDA; k
2
0:49
MAMDA !DDA; k
3
0:14
MMDA !DA; k
4
0:14
MAMA !DA; k
5
0:04
MAM!D; k
6
0:056
F D !DA; k
7
0:50
F DA !DDA; k
8
0:50
where M, MA, and MDA are monomers and D, DA, and DDA are dimers.
The process continues to form trimers. The rate constants were evaluated
using the assumption that the molecularity of each reaction was identical to
its stoichiometry.
Derive a dynamic model for these reactions taking place in a single,
isothermal CSTR. Carefully dene your terms and list your assumptions.
Problem 3.8
The conversion of glucose to gluconic acid is a relatively simple oxidation of
the aldehyde group of the sugar to a carboxyl group. A micro-organism in a
batch or continuous fermentation process can achieve this transformation.
The enzyme (a biocatalyst) glucose oxidase, present in the micro-organism,
converts glucose to gluconolactone. In turn, the gluconolactone hydrolyzes
to form the gluconic acid. The overall mechanism of the fermentation
process that performs this transformation can be described as follows:
Cell growth
Glucose Cells !Cells
Rate of cell growth
R
X
k
1
C
X
1
C
X
K
1
_ _
where, C
X
is the concentration of cells and k
1
and K
1
are rate con-
stants.
TM
Glucose oxidation
Glucose O
2
!
Glucose oxidase
Gluconolactone H
2
O
2
and
H
2
O
2
!
1
2
O
2
H
2
O
Rate of gluconolactone formation
R
Gl

k
2
C
X
C
S
K
2
C
S
where C
S
is the substrate (glucose) concentration and k
2
and K
2
are
rate constants.
Gluconolactone hydrolysis
Gluconolactone H
2
O !Gluconic acid
Rate of gluconolactone hydrolysis
R
GH
0:9k
3
C
Gl
Rate of gluconic acid formation
R
G
k
3
C
Gl
where C
Gl
is the gluconolactone concentration and k
3
is a rate con-
stant.
Overall rate of substrate (glucose) consumption
R
S
1:011
k
2
C
X
C
S
K
2
C
S
_ _
At operating conditions of 328C and pH 6:8, the values of the parameters
are as follows:
k
1
0:949
K
1
3:439
k
2
18:72
K
2
37:51
k
3
1:169
(a) Develop a model for the batch fermentor and calculate the
change of the concentration of the species with time for the
following initial conditions (demonstrate the calculations for a
few steps using the simple Eulers method):
TM
C
X
0 0:05 mg/mL
C
Gl
0 0:0 mg/mL
C
GA
0 0:05 mg/mL (gluconic acid concentration)
C
S
0 50:0 mg/mL
(b) Develop the unsteady-state model for the continuous fermentor.
Find the feed ow rate and fermentor active volume, which gives
60% substrate (glucose) conversion at steady state and 50 kg/h of
gluconic acid. Show, using the unsteady-state model, the dynamic
response of the fermentor to disturbances in the input feed ow
rate.
Problem 3.9
A perfectly mixed, isothermal CSTR has an outlet weir as shown in Figure
P3.9. The ow rate over the weir is proportional to the height of liquid over
the weir, h
ow
, to the 1.5 power. The weir height is h
w
. The cross-sectional
area of the tank is A. Assume constant density.
A rst-order chemical reaction takes place in the tank:
A !
k
B
Derive the equations describing the system.
Figure P3.9 Schematic diagram of Problem 3.9.
TM
Problem 3.10
The liquid in a jacketed, nonisothermal CSTR is stirred by an agitator
whose mass is signicant compared with the reaction mass. The mass of
the reactor wall and the mass of the jacket wall are also signicant. Write the
energy equations for the system. Neglect radial temperature gradients in the
agitator, reactor wall, and jacket wall.
Problem 3.11
The reaction
3A !2B C
is carried out in an isothermal semibatch reactor as shown in Figure P3.11.
Product B is the desired product. Product C is a very volatile by-product
that must be vented o to prevent a pressure buildup in the reactor. Gaseous
C is vented o through a condenser to force any A and B back into the
reactor to prevent loss of reactant and product.
Assume F
V
is pure C. The reaction is rst-order in C
A
. The relative
volatilities of A and C to B are a
AB
1:2 and a
CB
10. Assume perfect
gases and constant pressure. Write the equations describing the system.
Carefully list all assumptions.
Figure P3.11 Schematic diagram for Problem 3.11.
TM
Problem 3.12
A vertical, cylindrical tank is lled with well water at 658F. The tank is
insulated at the top and bottom but is exposed on its vertical sides to cold
night air at 108F. The diameter of the tank is 2 ft and its height is 3 ft. The
overall heat transfer coecient is 20 Btu/h 8F ft
2
. Neglect the metal wall of
the tank and assume that the water in the tank is perfectly mixed.
(a) Calculate how many minutes it will be until the rst crystal of ice
is formed.
(b) How long will it take to completely freeze the water in the tank?
The heat of fusion of water is 144 Btu/lb
m
.
Problem 3.13
An isothermal, rst-order, liquid-phase, irreversible reaction is conducted in
a constant volume batch reactor:
A !
k
B
The initial concentration of reactant A at the beginning of the batch is C
AO
.
The specic reaction rate decreases with time because of catalyst deactiva-
tion as k k
0
e
bt
.
(a) Solve for C
A
t
(b) Show that in the limit as b !0, C
A
t C
AO
e
k
0
t
(c) Show that in the limit as b !1, C
A
t C
AO
Problem 3.14
There are 3580 lbs of water in the jacket of a reactor that are initially at
1458F. At time equal to zero, 708F cooling water is added to the jacket at a
constant rate of 418 lbs/min. The holdup of water in the jacket is constant
because the jacket is completely lled with water and excess water is
removed from the system on pressure control as cold water is added.
Water in the jacket can be assumed to be perfectly mixed.
(a) How many minutes does it take the jacket water to reach 998F if
no heat is transferred to the jacket?
(b) Suppose a constant 358,000 Btu/h of heat is transferred into the
jacket from the reactor, starting at time equal zero when the
jacket is at 1458F. How long will it take the jacket water to
reach 998F if the cold water addition rate is constant at 416
lbs/min?
TM
Problem 3.15
Consider an enzymatic reaction being carried out in a CSTR. The enzyme is
subject to substrate inhibition, and the rate equation is given by Eq. (3.119):
r
V
max
S
K
S
S S
2
=K
0
S
(a) Sketch a plot of reaction rate versus the substrate concentration
for this system. Use this plot to show that for suciently high
inlet substrate concentration, there is a range of dilution rates for
which multiple steady states are possible.
(b) Explain how would you calculate the highest and lowest dilution
rates for which multiple steady states are possible.
TM
4
Mathematical Modeling (II):
Homogeneous Distributed Systems
and Unsteady-State Behavior
In Chapter 3, we covered the mathematical modeling of lumped systems as
well as some preliminary examples of distributed systems using a systematic,
generalized approach. The examples for distributed systems were preliminary
and they were not suciently generalized. In this chapter, we introduce su-
cient generalization for distributed systems and give more fundamentally and
practically important examples, such as the axial dispersion model resulting
in two-point boundary-value dierential equations. These types of model
equations are much more dicult to solve than models described by initial-
value dierential equations, specially for nonlinear cases, which are solved
numerically and iteratively. Also, examples of diusion (with and without
chemical reaction) in porous structures of dierent shapes will be presented,
explained, and solved for both linear and nonlinear cases in Chapter 6.
In this chapter, the unsteady-state term(s) to be introduced into
the models will be explained and discussed for homogeneous as well as
heterogeneous systems, approximated using pseudohomogeneous model.
Rigorous steady-state and dynamic heterogeneous models will be covered
in Chapter 6. The approach adopted in this chapter regarding dynamic
modeling, like the rest of the book, is a very general approach which can
be applied in a very systematic and easy-to-understand manner. It consists of
explaining how to formulate the unsteady-state term(s) in any situation and
where to add it to the equations of the steady-state model in order to make
TM
the model an unsteady state (dynamic) model. These dynamic models are
suitable for start-up, shutdown, process control, and investigation of the
dynamic stability characteristics of the system, as will be shown in Chapter 5.
4.1 MODELING OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
A distributed system is characterized by variation of the state variable(s)
along one or more of the space coordinates. When the state variable(s) are
varying along only one of the space coordinates, then the distributed model
is called a one-dimensional model, and is described by ordinary dierential
equations (ODEs). When the variation is along two of the space coordi-
nates, the model is called a two-dimensional model, and is described by
partial dierential equations (PDEs). When the variation is along three
space coordinates, it is called a three-dimensional model (PDEs). In this
book, only one-dimensional distributed models will be covered. The reason
for that is that one-dimensional distributed models are sucient for most
practical purposes, in addition to the fact that the mathematical formulation
and solution of higher-dimensional models is beyond the scope of this
undergraduate book.
4.1.1 Isothermal Distributed Systems
Here, we present the basic idea for the formulation of one-dimensional
distributed models for a single-input, single-output, and single-reaction
tubular reactor. Axial dispersion is neglected in this preliminary stage;
then, it will be introduced and discussed later in this chapter.
Figure 4.1 illustrates a single reaction in a tubular reactor. The overall
steady-state mass balance is
n
i
n
if
s
i
r
where r is the overall rate of reaction for the whole reactor. This means that
it is not a design (model) equation; it is a mass balance equation. The
technique used for lumped system [i.e., replacing r by r
0
(rate per unit
Figure 4.1 Mass ow along a tubular reactor.
TM
volume) multiplied by the reactor volume V is not directly applicable
here. Why? Because r
0
changes along the length of the reactor.
The solution is to carry out the balance over an element of length l
(or volume V A
t
l, where A
t
is the cross-sectional area of the tubular
reactor). Thus the mass balance over this element becomes
n
i
n
i
n
i
s
i
r
0
A
t
l
Rearranging and dividing the equation by l gives
n
i
l
s
i
A
t
r
0
Taking the limit as l ! 0 gives the dierential mass balance (design)
equation for this simple distributed model:
dn
i
dl
s
i
A
t
r
0
or (because V A
t
l)
dn
i
dV
s
i
r
0
where, i 1. 2. 3. . . . . M and r
0
is the rate of reaction per unit volume of the
reactor.
For multiple reactions, it becomes
dn
i
dV

N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
where M is the number of components and N is the number of reactions
with the initial condition at l 0 (or V 0. n
i
n
if
.
For a simple case having no change in the number of moles with the
reaction (or liquid-phase system), we can write
n
i
qC
i
giving
q
dC
i
dV

N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
with initial condition at V 0. C
i
C
if
.
For multiple-input, multiple-output, the dierential equation will not
change; we will have only the equivalent of a mixer at the feed conditions
and a splitter at the exit. The simplest way to handle multiple-input, multi-
ple-output situations for distributed systems is to use the modular approach
discussed earlier and as shown in Figure 4.2.
TM
4.1.2 Nonisothermal Distributed Systems
Similarly, the heat balance for the distributed system is to be handled by
carrying out the heat balance over an element (see Fig. 4.3).
For the nonadiabatic case, Q
0
6 0; Q
0
is the heat ux per unit length
J,min m .
A heat balance over the l element gives
M
i1
n
i
H
i
Q
0
l
M
i1
n
i
H
i

M
i1
n
i
H
i

which, on rearrangement, gives
M
i1
n
i
H
i

l
Q
0
Taking the limiting case as l ! 0, we get
M
i1
d n
i
H
i

dl
Q
0
Figure 4.2 Modules and modular approach.
TM
On dierentiating the left-hand side of the above equation, we get,
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
H
i
dn
i
dl
_ _
Q
0
4.1
From mass balance for the distributed system with a single reaction, we have
dn
i
dl
A
t
s
i
r
0
4.2
Substituting Eq. (4.2) into Eq. (4.1), we get
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
H
i
A
t
s
i
r
0
_ _
Q
0
Rearrangement gives
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
_ _
M
i1
H
i
A
t
s
i
r
0
_ _
Q
0
which can be written as,
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
_ _
A
t
r
0
M
i1
H
i
s
i

.,,.
H
Q
0
Dening H as the heat of reaction (not at reference conditions), the above
equation becomes
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dl
_ _
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
This derivation can be easily extended to multiple reactions by replacing the
rst term of the right-hand side (RHS) by
Figure 4.3 The heat balance setup for a tubular reactor.
TM
A
t
N
j1
r
0
j
H
j
_ _
where N is the number of reactions.
Simplied Case
If there is no change in phase and only one reaction takes place, then we can
write the heat balance design equation as
M
i1
n
i
d C
pi
T
_ _
dl
_ _
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
If C
pi
is taken as an average constant value for each i (not varying with
temperature), then we get
M
i1
n
i
C
pi
dT
dl
_ _
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
Taking an average constant C
0
pmix
gives
M
i1
n
i
C
0
pmix
dT
dl
_ _
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
M
i1
n
i
_ _
.,,.
n
t
C
0
pmix
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
The above equation gives
n
t
C
0
pmix
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
where, n
t
is the total molar ow rate and C
0
pmix
is the molar specic heat.
For constant volumetric ow rate q and specic heat per unit mass
C
p
_ _
, this equation can be written in the more popular but simplied
form
qr
mix
C
p
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H Q
0
with initial condition at l 0. T T
f
.
TM
4.1.3 Batch Systems (Distributed in Time)
Batch reactors can be considered unsteady-state lumped systems with no input
and no output, or it can be considered a distributed system in time (not in
space) with the initial conditions as the feed conditions and the nal conditions
as the exit conditions.
In either case, the batch reactor design equations can be developed as
follows. With the regard to the heat balance (see Fig. 4.4), we get
M
i1
n
i
H
i
Qt
M
i1
n
i
H
i

M
i1
n
i
H
i

After the same kind of manipulation we did for the tubular reactor, we get
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
_ _
Vr
0
H Q
For multiple reactions,
M
i1
n
i
dH
i
dt
_ _

N
j1
Vr
0
j
H
j
Q
where M is the number of components and N is the number of reactions. We
can simplify the above equation to (as we did earlier for the tubular reactor)
Vr
mix
C
p
dT
dt

M
j1
Vr
0
j
H
j
Q
where, C
p
is an average constant specic heat per unit mass of the mixture.
The initial condition is at t 0. T T
f
.
The mass and heat balance design (model) equations must be solved
simultaneously (see Fig. 4.5, as a reminder of how we derived the mass
Figure 4.4 Heat balance for a batch reactor.
TM
balance design equation for the batch reactor). The mass balance design
(model) equation is easily obtained (for a single reaction):
n
i
n
i
n
i
s
i
Vr
0
t
which, after some simple manipulations as discussed earlier, also gives
dn
i
dt
s
i
Vr
0
For multiple reactions, the equation becomes
dn
i
dt
V
N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
_ _
The initial condition at t 0 is given by n
i
n
if
For the special case of no change in the number of moles accompany-
ing the reaction (or liquid phase) giving constant V, we can write
n
i
VC
i
Thus, the mass balance design equation becomes
dC
i
dt

N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
_ _
The initial condition at t 0 is given by C
i
C
if
.
4.2 THE UNSTEADY-STATE TERMS IN
HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEMS
The heterogeneous system here is described by a pseudohomogeneous
model. For complete heterogeneous systems, see Chapter 6.
The unsteady-state (dynamic) models dier from the steady-state
model through the addition of the dynamic (accumulation/depletion)
term. This term is always added to the side of the equation having the
Figure 4.5 Mass balance for a batch reactor.
TM
output stream. This term has many names, dynamic or unsteady state, or
accumulation/depletion, or, sometimes, capacitance.
4.2.1 Lumped Systems
Isothermal Homogeneous Lumped Systems
We will start with the simplest isothermal lumped homogeneous case, a
lumped system, as shown in Figure 4.6. The steady-state equation (for a
single reaction) is given by
n
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
For the unsteady state, all that we will do is add the unsteady-state
(dynamic) term to the side of equation having the output stream. In this
case, the equation becomes
dn
0
i
dt
.,,.
dynamic term
n
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
4.3
For the homogeneous system, we can write n
0
i
(the molar content of the
tank) as
n
0
i
VC
i
and if V is constant, then
dn
0
i
dt
V
dC
i
dt
TM
Now, Eq. (4.3) becomes
V
dC
i
dt
n
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
Isothermal Heterogeneous Lumped Systems
Suppose that there are catalyst particles in the reactor (see Fig. 4.7). The
total volume of the catalyst is V 1 e and the gas or liquid volume is Ve.
The concentration of the component in the liquid or gas is C
i
(in mol,L,
whereas on the catalyst surface, the concentration is C
is
in mol,g
(or cm
3
or cm
2
of catalyst. For illustration, we will use C
is
with units of
gmol,cm
2
(surface) of catalyst. Therefore,
n
0
i
VeC
i
V 1 e S
v
C
is
where S
v
is the specic surface area of the catalyst (in cm
2
/cm
3
). For
constant V and e,
dn
0
i
dt
Ve
dC
i
dt
V 1 e S
v
dC
is
dt
4.4
We can relate C
i
and C
is
through a simple linear adsorption isotherm, as
follows:
C
is
K
i
C
i
If we assume K
i
to be constant, on dierentiation we get
dC
is
dt
K
i
dC
i
dt
4.5
TM
Using Eq. (4.5) in Eq. (4.4), we get
dn
0
i
dt
Ve
.,,.
a
1
V 1 e S
v
K
i
.,,.
a
2
_
_
_
_
dC
i
dt
Usually, a
2
is very large for ne or porous particles.
In most practical cases,
a
2
>>> a
1
(a
2
is thousands of times greater than a
1
), so a
1
can be neglected as com-
pared to a
2
:
a
1
.,,.
neglected
a
2
_
_
_
_
dC
i
dt
n
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
and the suitable dynamic (unsteady state) model equation for this hetero-
geneous system (described by pseudohomogeneous model, because mass
transfer resistances are negligible) becomes
a
2
dC
i
dt
n
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
The same principles apply to distributed systems. However, all the balances
are over dierential elements, giving rise to partial dierential equation as
shown in Figure 4.8.
Homogeneous Isothermal Systems
The dynamic term is carried out over the element and is added to the term of
the exit stream on the left-hand side of the equation, giving
n
i
n
i
A
t
l
oC
i
ot
n
i
s
i
A
t
lr
0
Figure 4.8 Mass ow diagram for a distributed system.
TM
which can be put into the following partial dierential equation form:
on
i
ol
A
t
oC
i
ot
s
i
A
t
r
0
For constant volumetric ow rate q , the above equation can be written as
q
oC
i
ol
A
t
oC
i
ot
s
i
A
t
r
0
Dividing both sides by the cross-sectional area of the tubular reactor A
t

and recognizing that q,A
t
v, which is velocity of the ow, we get
v
oC
i
ol

oC
i
ot
s
i
r
0
4.6
The initial conditions at l 0 and t 0 are, C
i
C
if
, and C
i
C
i
lj
t0
,
respectively. Obviously for multiple reactions, Eq. (4.6) becomes
v
oC
i
ol

oC
i
ot

N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
_ _
Heterogeneous Isothermal Systems
This is a case with negligible mass transfer resistances, as described by the
pseudohomogeneous model. For a full heterogeneous system, see Chapter 6.
This situation is a bit more complicated compared to the lumped system. We
will consider a two-phase system with no mass transfer resistance between
the phases and the voidage is equal to e (see Fig. 4.9). The mass balance
design equation over the element l is:
n
i
n
i
A
t
le
oC
i
ot
A
t
l1 eS
v
oC
is
ot
n
i
s
i
A
t
lr
0
Figure 4.9 Mass ow diagram for a two-phase distributed system.
TM
which can be put into the following partial dierential equation form:
on
i
ol
A
t
e
oC
i
ot
A
t
1 eS
v
oC
is
ot
s
i
A
t
r
0
4.7
Here, S
v
is the solid specic surface area (per unit solid volume).
We can relate C
i
and C
is
through a simple linear adsorption isotherm:
C
is
K
i
C
i
If we assume K
i
to be constant, on dierentiation we get
dC
is
dt
K
i
dC
i
dt
4.8
on
i
ol
A
t
e
oC
i
ot
A
t
1 eS
v
K
i
oC
i
ot
s
i
A
t
r
0
For a constant ow rate q, we get
q
oC
i
ol
A
t
e A
t
1 eS
v
K
i

oC
i
ot
s
i
A
t
r
0
On dividing the equation by A
t
, we obtain
v
oC
i
ol
e
.,,.
a
1
1 eS
v
K
i
.,,.
a
2
_
_
_
_
oC
i
ot
s
i
r
0
As discussed earlier, a
2
>>> a
1
. So we can write
a
1
.,,.
negligible
a
2
_
_
_
_
oC
i
ot
v
oC
i
ol
s
i
r
0
4.9
With the initial conditions at l 0 and t 0, C
i
C
if
and C
i
C
i
l
t0
,
respectively. Needless to mention, for multiple reactions equation (4.9) will
become
a
1
.,,.
negligible
a
2
_
_
_
_
oC
i
ot
v
oC
i
ol

N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
_ _
The reader can now handle any dynamic (capacitance) case through a
correct physical understanding, together with rational mathematical
expression.
TM
4.2.3 Nonisothermal Systems
Lumped Homogeneous Systems
For the steady state, the heat balance design equation for a single reaction is
qrC
p
T T
f
_ _
Vr
0
H
For the unsteady state, after introducing the earlier assumption of no
change in phase, average constant specic heats, constant volume and volu-
metric ow rate, and then adding the dynamic term with the output on the
left-hand side of the equation, we get
VrC
p
dT
dt
qrC
p
T T
f
_ _
Vr
0
H
where, before the approximation, the rst term on the left-hand side (the
dynamic term) is d
n
i
H
i
,dt and the second term is

n
i
H
i
H
ir

n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
.
Lumped Heterogeneous Systems
Described by a pseudohomogeneous T
S
T system and solid is stationary
inside the system with no solid input or output:
VerC
p
V 1 e r
s
C
ps
_ _
dT
dt
qrC
p
T T
f
_ _
Vr
0
H
For gassolid systems,
rC
p
-- r
s
C
ps
Distributed Homogeneous Systems
The steady state is given by
qrC
p
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H
The unsteady state is given by
A
t
rC
p
oT
ot
qrC
p
oT
ol
A
t
r
0
H
at l 0. T T
f
, and at t 0. T Tl
t0
.
Distributed Heterogeneous Systems
The distributed heterogeneous system (described by pseudohomogeneous
T T
S
) is given by (with no input or output solids)
TM
A
t
erC
p
A
t
1 e r
s
C
ps
_ _
oT
ot
qrC
p
oT
ol
A
t
r
0
H
at l 0. T T
f
, and at t 0. T Tl
t0
.
As an exercise the reader can develop equations for the case of
continuous solid ow in and out of the reactor.
4.3 THE AXIAL DISPERSION MODEL
The assumption of plug ow is not always correct. The plug ow assumes
that the convective ow (ow by velocity q,A
t
v, caused by a compressor
or pump) is dominating over any other transport mode. In fact, this is not
always correct, and it is sometimes important to include the dispersion of
mass and heat driven by concentration and temperature gradients.
However, the plug ow assumption is valid for most industrial units because
of the high Peclet number. We will discuss this model in some detail, not
only because of its importance but also because the techniques used to
handle these two-point boundary-value dierential equations are similar
to that used for other diusionreaction problems (e.g., catalyst pellets) as
well as countercurrent processes and processes with recycle. The analytical
analysis as well as the numerical techniques for these systems are very
similar to this axial dispersion model for tubular reactors.
4.3.1 Formulation and Solution Strategy for the Axial
Dispersion Model
The axial dispersion of mass is described by Ficks law:
N
i
D
i
dC
i
dl
where, N
i
is the mass ux of component i (in mol,cm
2
s), D
i
is the diusivity
in component i (in cm
2
,s, C
i
is the concentration of component i (in
mol,cm
3
), and l is the length (in cm).
The axial dispersion of heat is described by Fouriers law:
q z
dT
dl
where q is the heat ux (in J,cm
2
s, z is the thermal conductivity (in
J,cm s K), and T is the temperature (in K).
We will demonstrate the introduction of the axial dispersion of mass
and heat for a single reaction in the tubular reactor operating at steady state
with the generalized rate of reaction per unit volume r
0
_ _
.
In Figure 4.10, the mass balance for the convective and diusion ows
are shown. It should be noted that n
i
is the convective ow, N
i
is the diu-
TM
sion ow, and A is the cross-sectional area of the reactor tube. The steady-
state mass balance with axial dispersion gives
n
i
n
i
A
t
N
i
N
i
n
i
A
t
N
i
s
i
A
t
lr
0
Dividing the equation by l and taking the limit l ! 0, we get
dn
i
dl
A
t
dN
i
dl
s
i
A
t
r
0
4.10
This equation can be put in a dimensionless form after introducing simple
assumptions (constant volumetric ow rate q). With this assumption we can
write
q
dC
i
dl
A
t
dN
i
dl
s
i
A
t
r
0
Now, we use Ficks law,
N
i
D
i
dC
i
dl
Assuming D
i
to be constant, we get
dN
i
dl
D
i
d
2
C
i
dl
2
and the mass balance design equation becomes
q
dC
i
dl
A
t
D
i
d
2
C
i
dl
2
s
i
A
t
r
0
Dividing by A
t
gives
v
dC
i
dl
D
i
d
2
C
i
dl
2
s
i
r
0
where, v is the velocity of ow q,A
t
.
Dening a dimensionless length
o
l
L
Figure 4.10 Convective and diusion ows.
TM
where L is the total length of the tubular reactor, we get
v
L
dC
i
do

D
i
L
2
d
2
C
i
do
2
s
i
r
0
On rearranging, we get,
1
Pe
M
d
2
C
i
do
2

dC
i
do
s
i
L
v
r
0
0
where Pe
M
is the Peclet number for mass Lv,D
i
.
Applying the same procedure for heat balance with axial dispersion of
heat, we get
n
i
H
i
A
t
q Q
0
l
n
i
H
i
n
i
H
i
A
t
q q
The above equation can be rearranged to give
d n
i
H
i

dl
A
t
dq
dl
Q
0
Dierentiating the product n
i
H
i
in the rst term gives
n
i
dH
i
dl

H
i
dn
i
dl
A
t
dq
dl
Q
0
4.11
Equation (4.10) can be rewritten as
dn
i
dl
s
i
A
t
r
0
A
t
dN
i
dl
Substitute this equation in the heat balance design equation (4.11), we
obtain
n
i
dH
i
dl

H
i
s
i
A
t
r
0
A
t
dN
i
dl
_ _
A
t
dq
dl
Q
0
which can be rearranged to the following form:
n
i
dH
i
dl
A
t
r
0
s
i
H
i
A
t
H
i
dN
i
dl
_ _
A
t
z
d
2
T
dl
2
Q
0
After some approximations (for one-phase systems), as was used in previous
chapters, we can approximate the above equation to the following form:
n
t
C
0
p
mix
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H A
t
H
i
dN
i
dl
A
t
z
d
2
T
dl
2
Q
0
where C
0
p
mix
is the average molar specic heat of the mixture and n
i
is the
average total molar ow rate. This equation can also be written in the
following form:
TM
A
t
z
d
2
T
dl
2
qrC
p
mix
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H A
t
H
i
dN
i
dl
Q
0
4.12
where C
p
mix
is the average mass specic heat for the mixture, q is the average
volumetric ow rate, and r is the average density.
A Problematic Term Usually Neglected in All Books Without Ever
Mentioning Anything About It
In Eq. (4.12), the term A
t
H
i
dN
i
,dl is the most problematic. It represents
the enthalpy carried with mass axial dispersion. We make the following
approximations in order to handle this term (without blindly neglecting it):
The First and Simplest Consider that the term A
t
H
i
dN
i
,dl, accounts
for the heat transferred with the axial dispersion of mass to be accounted
for through a small empirical correction in z ! z
e
.
Second and Less Simple The term A
t
H
i
dN
i
,dl can be written as
follows:
A
t
H
i
D
i
d
2
C
i
dl
2
which gives approximately
A
t
D
av
H
i
d
dl
dC
i
dl
_ _
4.13
From the mass balance equation for plug ow (an assumption),
q
dC
i
dl
s
i
A
t
r
0
dC
i
dl

A
t
q
_ _
s
i
r
0
4.14
Using Eq. (4.14) in Eq. (4.13) gives
A
t
D
av
H
i
d
dl
A
t
q
_ _
s
i
r
0
_ _
A
t
D
av
H
i
A
t
q
_ _
s
i
dr
0
dl
TM
It reduces to
A
t
D
av
A
t
q
_ _
dr
0
dl
s
i
H
i
Replacing

s
i
H
i
with H gives
A
2
t
D
av
q
dr
0
dl
H 4.15
From Eq. (4.15), we reach at the following expression for this problematic
term:
A
t
H
i
dN
i
dl

A
2
t
D
av
q
H
dr
0
dl
Using the above expression in the heat balance equation gives
A
t
z
d
2
T
dl
2
qrC
0
p
mix
dT
dl
A
t
r
0
H
A
2
t
D
av
q
H
dr
0
dl
Q
0
A
t
z
d
2
T
dl
2
qrC
0
p
mix
dT
dl
A
t
H r
0

A
t
q
_ _
.,,.
1,v
D
av
dr
0
dl
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Q
0
4.16
Dividing the equation by A
t
gives
z
d
2
T
dl
2
vrC
0
p
mix
dT
dl
H r
0

D
av
v
dr
0
dl
_ _
Q
0
For most systems,
r
0
>>>
D
av
v
dr
0
dl
So for this case, we can rewrite the above equation as
z
d
2
T
dl
2
vrC
0
p
mix
dT
dl
r
0
H Q
0
4.17
Note: For cases where r
0
is not much larger than D
av
,vdr
0
,dl, this
term can not be neglected and thus must be included in the equation.
TM
Using the dimensionless form o l,L in Eq. (4.17), we get
z
L
2
d
2
T
d l,L
2

vrC
0
p
mix
L
dT
d l,L
r
0
H Q
0
Multiplying both sides by L,vrC
0
p
mix
gives
z
L
2
L
vrC
0
p
mix
d
2
T
do
2

vrC
0
p
mix
L
L
vrC
0
p
mix
dT
do
r
0
H
L
vrC
0
p
mix
Q
0
L
vrC
0
p
mix
which can be reorganized into the following form:
z
LvrC
0
p
mix
d
2
T
do
2

dT
do
r
0
H
L
vrC
0
p
mix
Q
0
L
vrC
0
p
mix
Let
z
LvrC
0
p
mix
1
Pe
H
where Pe
H
is the dimensionless Peclet number for heat transfer, and we get
1
Pe
H
d
2
T
do
2

dT
do
H L
rC
0
p
mix
1
v
r
0
Q
where
Q Q
0
L
vrC
0
p
mix
Now, let us consider that the rate of reaction is for a simple rst-order
irreversible reaction is
r
0
k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
and let us dene dimensionless temperature and concentration as follows:
y
T
T
f
(dimensionless temperature)
and
x
A

C
A
C
Af
(dimensionless concentration)
Using the rate of reaction and the dimensionless temperature and concen-
tration, we get
1
Pe
H
d
2
y
do
2

dy
do
H C
Af
rC
0
p
mix
T
f
.,,.
[
D
a
e
,,y
x
A

Q
T
f
TM
which can be simplied as
1
Pe
H
d
2
y
do
2

dy
do
[D
a
e
,,y
x
A

^
QQ 4.18
Here,
[
H C
Af
rC
0
p
mix
T
f
(thermicity factor)
D
a

k
0
L
v
(Damkohler number)
and
^
QQ
Q
T
f
Similarly, the mass balance design equation for this case is
1
Pe
M
d
2
x
A
do
2

dx
A
do
D
a
e
,,y
x
A
0 4.19
Note that both mass and heat balance design equations (4.18) and (4.19) are
two-point boundary-value dierential equations. Thus, each one of them
requires two boundary conditions. These boundary conditions are derived
as shown in this solved example (Example 4.1). In Example 4.1, the bound-
ary conditions are developed for the mass balance design equation. For the
nonisothermal case, the boundary conditions for the heat balance design
equations are left as an exercise for the reader.
Solved Example 4.1 Axial Dispersion Model
In this solved example, we present the development of the isothermal model
and its boundary conditions for a case where the equation is linear and can
be solved analytically. Also presented is another case, where the model is
nonlinear and we describe its numerical solution using Foxs iterative
method.
For a steady-state, isothermal, homogeneous tubular reactor consider
the simple reaction
A ! B
taking place in a tubular reactor; axial dispersion is not negligible (Peclet
number Pe 15.0). Answer the following design questions:
A. If the reaction is rst order, what is the value of D
a
(Damkohler
number) to achieve a conversion of 0.75 at the exit of the reactor?
TM
B. If the reaction is second order and the numerical value of D
a
(Damkohler number) is the same as in part 1 (although its deni-
tion is slightly dierent), nd the exit conversion using the Foxs
iterative method (explain your formulation of adjoint equations
for the iterative solution of the nonlinear two-point boundary-
value dierential equation).
Solution (Fig. 4.11)
The mass balance design equation is
qC
A
A
t
N
A
qC
A
C
A
A
t
N
A
N
A
A
t
lkC
n
A
where n is the order of reaction. Canceling similar terms from both sides of
the equation gives
0 qC
A
A
t
N
A
A
t
lkC
n
A
Dividing the equation by l and taking the limit as l ! 0 gives
0 q
dC
A
dl
A
t
dN
A
dl
A
t
kC
n
A
4.20
From Ficks law for diusion we have
N
A
D
A
dC
A
dl
which, upon dierentiation, gives
dN
A
dl
D
A
d
2
C
A
dl
2
4.21
Figure 4.11 Axial dispersion mass ow.
TM
0 q
dC
A
dl
A
t
D
A
d
2
C
A
dl
2
A
t
kC
n
A
Divide both sides by A
t
and note that v, the velocity of ow, equals q,A
t
, we
obtain
0 v
dC
A
dl
D
A
d
2
C
A
dl
2
kC
n
A
We reorganize the equation to get
D
A
d
2
C
A
dl
2
v
dC
A
dl
kC
n
A
0
We dene the following dimensionless variables:
o
l
L
(dimensionless length, where L is the total length of the
reactor tube)
x
C
A
C
Af
(dimensionless concentration, where C
Af
is the feed
concentration of A
Using these dimensionless variables, we get
D
A
L
2
d
2
C
A
_
C
Af
_ _
d l,L
2

v
L
d C
A
_
C
Af
_ _
d l,L
kC
n1
Af
C
n
A
C
n
Af
0
Multiplying the equation with L and dividing it by v we obtain
D
A
Lv
d
2
x
do
2

dx
do
kLC
n1
Af
v
_ _
x
n
0
Dene Pe Lv,D
A
and D
a
kLC
n1
Af
,v to get
1
Pe
d
2
x
do
2

dx
do
D
a
x
n
0 4.22
where
for the rst-order reaction
D
a

kL
v
for the second-order reaction
D
a

kLC
Af
v
TM
Boundary Conditions
At the exit,
o 1.
dx
do
0 4.23
At the entrance,
o 0.
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1 4.24
Boundary condition (4.24) can be obtained as shown in Figure 4.12.
A mass balance at the entrance at l 0 gives
qC
Af
qC
A
A
t
N
A
Dividing by A
t
and using Ficks law, we get
vC
Af
vC
A
D
A
dC
A
dl
Rearranging in dimensionless form gives
1 x
D
A
Lv
dx
do
which can be written in its more popular form
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1
Thus, the model equations are as follows
A. For the First-Order Reaction
1
Pe
d
2
x
do
2

dx
do
D
a
x 0 4.22
Figure 4.12 Mass ow at the entrance.
TM
The boundary conditions are as follows:
At o 1.
dx
do
0 4.23
At o 0.
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1 4.24
The present problem is a design problem because the required conversion is
given and it is required to nd the value of D
a
. However, for educational
purposes, before we present the solution of this design problem, we will rst
present the simulation problem when D
a
is given and the conversion is
unknown. For illustration, we will take D
a
1.4. The solution steps for
this simulation problem is as follows:
1. Solution of the second-order dierential equation (4.22)
Equation (4.22) can be rewritten as:
d
2
x
do
2
Pe
dx
do
PeD
a
x 0
This is a linear second-order ordinary dierential equation which
can be solved using the operator method (see Appendices B and
C).
Thus, the characteristic equation is
z
2
Pez PeD
a
0
The roots of this characteristic equation is obtained as:
z
1.2
Pe
Pe
2
4PeD
a
_
2
Thus, for Pe 15.0 and D
a
1.4, the characteristic roots (eigen-
values) z
1
and z
2
are given by
z
1.2

15
15
2
4 15 1.4
_
2
which simplies to
z
1.2

15 17.58
2
We get z
1
16.29 and z
2
1.29.
TM
The solution of this second-order dierential equation has the
following general form:
x C
1
e
z
1
o
C
2
e
z
2
o
For the present specic case, the dimensionless concentration x is
given by
x C
1
e
16.29o
C
2
e
1.29o
The constants C
1
and C
2
can be calculated using the boundary
conditions.
The dierential of x is given by
dx
do
C
1
z
1
e
z
1
o
C
2
z
2
e
z
2
o
First, the boundary condition at o 1.0 is
dx
do
C
1
z
1
e
z
1
C
2
z
2
e
z
2
0
It gives
C
1
16.29 e
16.29
C
2
1.29 e
1.29
Further simplication yields
C
2
5.4488 10
8
_ _
C
1
The second boundary condition at o 0 is
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1. Therefore,
1
Pe
C
1
z
1
C
2
z
2
C
1
C
2
1
which gives
1
15
16.29 C
1
1.29 5.448 10
8
C
1
_ _ _ _
C
1
5.448 10
8
C
1
_ _ _ _
1
Thus we can obtain C
1
as:
C
1
16.9 10
10
and because
C
2
5.4488 10
8
_ _
C
1
TM
C
2
is obtained as
C
2
0.9208
Thus, the solution is
x 16.9 10
10
_ _
e
16.29o
0.9208e
1.29o
At the exit, o 1.0,
xo 1.0
.,,.
at exit
16.9 10
10
_ _
e
16.29
0.9208e
1.29
giving
xo 1.0
.,,.
at exit
0.27248
As x C
A
,C
Af
, the conversion is
C
Af

C
A
C
Af
1 x
so the value of conversion at the exit for D
a
1.4 and Pe 15.0
is
Conversion 1 0.27348 0.7265
Note that we were just lucky that we took the value of D
a
1.4,
which gave us the conversion close to 0.75 in the design problem.
This is just luck (do you know why?).
2. The design problem
D
a
is unknown, but xo 1.0 at the exit is 0.25 (because the
given conversion is 0.75). In this case, the same procedure is
followed, but it is slightly more dicult and lengthier. Why?
All the steps are the same as above until we reach the calcula-
tion of z
1
and z
2
with D
a
unknown; thus, we have
z
1.2

15
15
2
4 15 D
a
_
2
giving
z
1.2
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
Thus, z
1
and z
2
are given by
z
1
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
and z
2
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
TM
Now, we have
x C
1
e
z
1
o
C
2
e
z
2
o
and
dx
do
C
1
z
1
e
z
1
o
C
2
z
2
e
z
2
o
The rst boundary condition (at o 1.0) is
dx
do
C
1
z
1
e
z
1
C
2
z
2
e
z
2
0
Therefore,
C
2

C
1
z
1
e
z
1
z
2
e
z
2
4.25
The other boundary condition is at o 0
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1
1
15
C
1
z
1
C
2
z
2
C
1
C
2
1 4.26
Substituting Eq. (4.25) in Eq. (4.26), we get
1
15
C
1
z
1

C
1
z
1
e
z
1
z
2
e
z
2
_ _
z
2
_ _
C
1

C
1
z
1
e
z
1
z
2
e
z
2
_ _
1
which gives
C
1
z
1
15
z
1
15
_ _
e
z
1
z
2
_ _
C
1
1
z
1
z
2
e
z
1
z
2
_ _
1
Further rearrangement gives
C
1
z
1
15
1
_ _
z
1
z
2
e
z
1
z
2
_ _
1
z
2
15
_ _ _ _
1
So we can write
C
1

z
1
15
1
_ _
z
1
z
2
e
z
1
z
2
_ _
1
z
2
15
_ _ _ _
1
Because
z
1
z
2
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
_ _
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
_ _
TM
we have
z
1
z
2
2
56.25 15D
a
_

225 60D
a
_
Thus, C
1
is given as
C
1

7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
15
1
_ _ _
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
e
22560D
a
1
2
_
_
_
_
1
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
15
_ __
1
4.27
We can write Eq. (4.27) as
C
1
F
1
D
a

and from Eq. (4.25), we have
C
2
C
1
z
1
z
2
e
z
1
z
2
Therefore,
C
2
F
1
D
a

7.5
56.25 15D
a
_
7.5
56.25 15D
a
_ e
22560D
a
p
C
2
F
2
D
a

we return to the dimensionless concentration equation
x C
1
e
z
1
o
C
2
e
z
2
o
which at exit o 1.0 can be written as
xo 1.0
.,,.
at exit
C
1
e
z
1
C
2
e
z
2
Giving
xo 1.0
.,,.
at exit
F
1
D
a
e
7.556.2515D
a
1
2
.,,.
f
1
D
a
F
2
D
a
e
7.556.2515D
a
1
2
.,,.
f
2
D
a
TM
Now, for 75% conversion, the equation becomes
0.25 F
1
D
a
f
1
D
a
F
2
D
a
f
2
D
a

F
1
D
a
f
1
D
a
F
2
D
a
f
2
D
a
0.25
.,,.
FD
a
0
Finally, we have this single equation in terms of D
a
:
F D
a
0
This last equation is a nonlinear algebraic equation in D
a
; it can
be solved using the NewtonRaphson method [if the dierentia-
tion is very lengthy and cumbersome, which is the case here, then
in the NewtonRaphson method, you can use the modied
NewtonRaphson by approximating oF,oD
a

n
by F
n1
F
n
,
_
D
n1
a
D
n
a
or, easier and sure to converge, use the bisectional
method, which is straightforward and sure to converge and
is applicable to this case, which is a single equation F in
single variable D
a
]. For NewtonRaphson, modied Newton
Raphson, and Bisectional methods, see Appendix B.
Hint: If all these very elementary techniques are too painful for the
reader, then just plot FD
a
versus D
a
for different values of D
a
and nd
the value of D
a
for which FD
a
0.
B. For the Second-Order Reaction and Foxs Iterative Method for Nonlinear
Two-Point Boundary-Value Dierential Equation
For the second-order reaction, the equation is
1
Pe
d
2
x
do
2

dx
do
D
a
x
2
0
with
D
a

kLC
Af
v
where D
a
is the value obtained from the previous part (it will be close to or
greater than 1.4) and the Peclet number is
Pe 15.0
The boundary conditions are as follows:
At o 1
dx
do
0
TM
At o 0
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1
For the numerical solution of this nonlinear equation, the rst step is to put
the second-order dierential equation in the form of two rst-order dier-
ential equations. Let
x x
1
so
dx
do

dx
1
do
and let
dx
1
do
x
2
so
d
2
x
do
2

d
2
x
1
do
2

dx
2
do
The second-order dierential equation can now be rewritten as the set of the
following two rst-order dierential equations:
1
Pe
dx
2
do
x
2
D
a
x
2
1
0
and
dx
1
do
x
2
Thus, the equivalent two rst-order dierential equations are
dx
1
do
x
2
dx
2
do
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
with the boundary conditions:
At o 1
x
2
1 0
At o 0
x
2
0 Pe x
1
0 1 .
TM
If we want to start the integration using the marching technique
(Euler, RungeKutta, or using any subroutine from Polymath, Matlab, or
IMSL libraries for the solution of initial-value dierential equations, see
Appendix B), then we need to assume x
1
0 or x
2
0. Suppose we choose
to assume x
1
0 x
n
1
0, where n refers to the nth iteration (for the initial
guess, it will be n 1). Then, x
n
2
0 can be easily and directly computed from
the relation
x
n
2
0 Pe x
n
1
0 1
Now, knowing x
n
1
0 and x
n
2
0, we can integrate forward using any of the
subroutines until we reach o 1.0, but we will nd that x
n
2
1 6 0. So, our
initial guess or choice is not correct and we have to choose another value,
x
n1
1
0, and then try again and so on until we nd a guess x
n1
1
0, which,
after integration until o 1.0, will give us x
n1
2
1 0.
How can we accelerate this process? We can use Foxs method (which is a
modied NewtonRaphson method for two-point boundary-value dierential
equations).
For a certain iteration x
n
1
0, the next iteration x
n1
1
0 can be obtained
using the following process.
Our objective is to have
x
2
1 f x
1
0 0
However, for any guess of x
n
1
0, we will not have this satised. Actually, we
will have f
n
x
n
1
0 6 0. Then we expand the function f , which is a function
of x 0 using Taylor series expansion, as follows:
f
n1
x
n1
1
0
_ _
f
n
x
n
1
0
of x
n
1
0
ox
1
0
_ _
n
x
n1
1
0 x
n
1
0
_ _

Note: n and n 1 are numbers of the iteration (not exponentials!)
Our objective is that
f
n1
x
n1
1
0
_ _
0
and f
n
x
n
1
0 is calculated from the integration at o 1.0 as x
n
2
1.
Therefore, from the Taylor series expansion, we get
0 x
n
2
1
ox
2
1
ox
1
0
_ _
n
x
n1
1
0 x
n
1
0
_ _
Neglect higher-order terms
Rearrangement gives
x
n1
1
0 x
n
1
0
x
n
2
1
ox
2
1,ox
1
0
n
TM
In the above relation, if we calculate ox
2
1,ox
1
0
n
, then the iteration can
go on. How do we calculate this dierential ox
2
1,ox
1
0
n
?
We will do that through the following steps:
Dene a variable (called adjoint variable)
y
1
o
ox
2
o
ox
1
0
_ _
which leads to
ox
2
1
ox
1
0
_ _
y
1
1.0
we also dene
y
2
o
ox
1
o
ox
1
0
_ _
How can we compute y
1
o so that we can get x
n1
1
0? This can be achieved
by formulating adjoint equations for y
1
o that are solved simultaneously
with the x
1
and x
2
dierential equations. However, the adjoint equations
must be initial-value dierential equations. The method of doing this
follows:
Because
dx
1
o
do
x
2
o
if we dierentiate both sides of the above equation partially with respect to
x
1
0, we get
d ox
1
o
_
ox
1
0
_ _
do

ox
2
o
ox
1
0
By the denition of y
1
o and y
2
o given above, we get
dy
2
o
do
y
1
o
which is the rst adjoint equation. To get the second adjoint equation, we
look at the second dierential equation of the state variable x
2
. Because
dx
2
o
do
Pex
2
o PeD
a
x
2
1
o
dierentiating the above equation with respect to x
1
0 gives
d ox
2
o
_
ox
1
0
_ _
do
Pe
ox
2
o
ox
1
0
PeD
a
ox
2
1
o
ox
1
0
TM
dy
1
o
do
Pe y
1
o PeD
a
ox
2
1
o
ox
1
o
ox
1
o
ox
1
0
giving
dy
1
o
do
Pey
1
o 2PeD
a
x
1
oy
2
o
which is the second adjoint equation.
The initial conditions at o 0 for the adjoint variables are
y
1
0
ox
2
0
ox
1
0
From the boundary condition at o 0, we have
x
2
0 Pe x
1
0 1
Dierentiation gives
ox
2
0
ox
1
0
Pe y
1
0
and
y
2
0
ox
1
0
ox
1
0
1
Now the problem is ready for the iterative solution.
The system equations and the boundary conditions are
dx
1
do
x
2
and
dx
2
do
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
With the following boundary conditions:
At o 1
x
2
1 0
At o 0
x
2
0 Pe x
1
0 1
TM
The adjoint equations and their initial conditions are
dy
2
o
do
y
1
o
and
dy
1
o
do
Pey
1
o 2PeD
a
x
1
oy
2
o
with the initial conditions at o 0 of
y
1
0 Pe and y
2
0 1.0
The iterative formula is
x
n1
1
0 x
n
1
0
x
n
2
1
y
n
1
1
Important Note: The iterative solution for this two-point boundary-value
differential equation utilizing the adjoint equations is shown in Figure
4.13. Notice that this procedure may be unstable numerically and we may
need to reverse the direction of the integration from the exit of the reactor
toward the inlet as explained in the following subsection.
4.3.2 Solution of the Two-Point Boundary-Value Differential
Equations and Numerical Instability Problems
Consider the axial dispersion model
1
Pe
d
2
x
do
2

dx
do
D
a
x
2
0 4.28
with the following boundary conditions:
At o 1
dx
do
0
At o 0
1
Pe
dx
do
x 1
The iterative procedure as explained earlier is to put the equation in the
form of two rst-order dierential equations:
dx
1
do
x
2
TM
Figure 4.13 Solution scheme for the two-point boundary-value dierential equa-
tions of the isothermal nonlinear axial dispersion model.
TM
dx
2
do
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
At o 1
x
2
1 0
At o 0
x
2
0 Pe x
1
0 1 4.29
If we employ forward integration and iteration, then following two
problems may arise:
1. You guess x
1
0 with its errors; then, x
2
0 is dened automati-
cally from the boundary condition (4.29). For a large value of
Pe(>5.0) the error in x
1
0 propagates to x
2
0 amplied by Pe.
Thus, the x
1
0 error is clearly amplied.
2. Consider the linear version of this equation and inspect the
characteristic roots (eigenvalues) of the dierential equation.
The characteristic equation for this linear case is
z
2
Pez D
a
Pe 0
giving the characteristic roots (eigenvalues)
z
1.2

Pe
Pe
2
4D
a
Pe
_
2
This leads to one negative eigenvalue and one positive eigenvalue:
z
1

Pe
Pe
2
4D
a
Pe
_
2
which is positive
z
2

Pe
Pe
2
4D
a
Pe
_
2
which is negative
This is illustrated as follows:
Case 1
For Pe 15.0 and D
a
1.5, the eigenvalues are
z
1

15
15
2
4 1.5 15
_
2
16.37
z
2

15
15
2
4 1.5 15
_
2
1.374
TM
The solution of the dierential equation is
x
1
C
1
e
16.37o
C
2
e
1.374o
Note that z
1
>> z
2
; e
16.37o
indicates strong instability in the o direction
and e
1.374o
indicates stabilization in the o direction. For such a case, it is
very likely to have numerical instability.
Case 2
For Pe 0.1 and D
a
1.5, the eigenvalues are
z
1
0.88
.,,.
Positive
and z
2
0.681
.,,.
Negative
Note that z
1
and z
2
are very comparable; therefore, numerical instability

is less likely. Thus, it is clear that the integration in the positive direction
from o 0 to o 1.0 is not very wise. The following backward integration
is much more stable and avoids the complexities due to the above two
reasons.
Backward Integration. Consider again the differential equations
dx
1
do
x
2
dx
2
do
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
At o 1
x
2
1 0
At o 0.
x
2
0 Pe x
1
0 1
We use the following simple transformation from o to o
0
in order to achieve
backward integration:
o
0
1 o
Thus, at o 1.0. o
0
0, and at o 0. o
0
1. The dierential equations
become
dx
1
do
0
x
2
dx
2
do
0
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
TM
Now, the set of dierential equations by its boundary conditions can be
written as
dx
1
do
0
x
2
4.30
dx
2
do
0
Pex
2
PeD
a
x
2
1
4.31
with the following boundary conditions
At o
0
0
x
2
0 0 4.32
At o
0
1
x
2
1 Pe x
1
1 1 4.33
Now, the iteration proceeds by assuming that x
1
0 x
1
at o
0
0,
which is at the exit and the function F x
1
0 should be zero at o
0
1,
which means that
x
2
1 Pe x
1
1 1
.,,.
F x
1
0
0 4.34
Thus, the Taylor series expansion of F x
1
0 can be written as
F
n1
x
1
0
.,,.
equal to zero
F
n
x
1
0
oF
o x
1
0
_ _
n
x
n1
1
0 x
n
1
0
_ _
From Eq. (4.34), dierentiating with respect to x
1
0 gives
oF
o x
1
0
_ _
n
ox
2
1
ox
1
0
_ _
Pe
ox
1
1
ox
1
0
_ _
We dene the following adjoint variables:
y
1
o
0

ox
1
o
0
ox
1
0
_ _
y
2
o
0

ox
2
o
0
ox
1
0
_ _
Dierentiate the dierential equation (4.30) with respect to x
1
0 to get
d ox
1
o
0
_
ox
1
0
_ _
do
0

ox
2
o
0
ox
1
0
TM
which can be written in terms of the adjoint variables as follows:
dy
1
o
0
do
0
y
2
o
0
Similarly, dierentiating the dierential equation (4.31) gives

d ox
2
o
0
_
ox
1
0
_ _
do
0
Pe
ox
2
o
0
ox
1
0
PeD
a
ox
2
1
o
0
ox
1
0
which gives
dy
2
o
0
do
0
Pe y
2
o
0
_ _
PeD
a
ox
2
1
o
0
ox
1
o
0
ox
1
o
0
ox
1
0
giving
dy
2
o
0
do
0
Pe y
2
o
0
_ _
PeD
a
2x
1
o
0
_ _
ox
1
o
0
ox
1
0
Further simplication gives
dy
2
o
0
do
0
Pe y
2
o
0
_ _
PeD
a
2x
1
o
0
_ _
y
1
o
0
The nal form is

dy
2
o
0
do
0
Pe y
2
o
0
_ _
2PeD
a
x
1
o
0
y
1
o
0
The two adjoint equations are thus given as

dy
1
o
0
do
0
y
2
o
0
4.35
dy
2
o
0
do
0
Pe y
2
o
0
_ _
2PeD
a
x
1
o
0
y
1
o
0
4.36
The boundary conditions at o
0
0 for these adjoint equations are
y
1
0
ox
1
0
ox
1
0
1 4.37
y
2
0
ox
2
0
ox
1
0
0 4.38
The reader can use model equations (4.30)(4.33) and these adjoint
equations (4.35)(4.38) to establish the iteration procedure as discussed
earlier.
TM
Solved Example 4.2
Two CSTRs in series are operated isothermally. The reaction is rst order
and the two tanks have equal volumes.
(a) Formulate a steady-state mathematical model for this process.
(b) Choose volumes of the two reactors and temperatures (isother-
mal and equal for both CSTRs) so that the conversion from the
second CSTR is 0.78. The feed concentration is given as 0.45 mol/
m
3
, and the rst-order reaction rate constant k is given by
k k
0
e
E,RT
, where k
0
2.9 10
7
h
1
and E,R 5300 K.
(c) Formulate a steady-state mathematical model for the process
when the second reactor is a distributed system (tubular, plug
ow unit).
(d) Find the process exit concentration for part (c), with all para-
meters being the same as part (b).
(e) Derive an unsteady-state model for case (a) (two CSTRs).
Consider the reaction as
A ! B
with the generalized rate of reaction as
r
0
j
k
0
e
E,RT
j
C
A
j
where j 1 and 2 (the two reactors).
Part (a)
The steady-state mathematical model is
n
A
1
n
A
f
s
A
V
1
r
0
1
4.39
n
A
2
n
A
1
s
A
V
2
r
0
2
4.40
Figure 4.14 Mass ow diagram for CSTRs in series.
TM
Part (b)
Given
V
1
V
2
V and T
1
T
2
T
and
r
0
1
k
0
e
E,RT
1
C
A
1
and r
0
2
k
0
e
E,RT
2
C
A
2
From Eqs (4.39) and (4.40), we get
q C
A
1
q C
A
f
V k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
1
4.41
q C
A
2
q C
A
1
V k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
2
4.42
Given k
0
2.9 10
7
h
1
and E,R 5300K, the overall conversion is
x
A

C
A
f
C
A
2
C
A
f
On substituting the given values, we get
0.78
0.45 C
A
2
0.45
Thus,
C
A
2
0.099 mol,m
3
Equations (4.41) and (4.42) can be rewritten respectively as
q C
A
1
q 0.45 V 2.9 10
7
_ _
e
5300,T
C
A
1
4.43
q 0.099 q C
A
1
V 2.9 10
7
_ _
e
5300,T
0.099 4.44
Note that these are two equations and the number of unknowns is four
q. C
A
1
. V. T
_ _
; thus, the degrees of freedom are 2. It means that we can
choose two of the four unknowns and use the two equations to get the
other two unknowns. The choice of the two unknowns depends on our
engineering judgment. As an example, choose T 300 K and V 2 m
3
.
Then, on solving Eqs. (4.43) and (4.44) simultaneously, we get q 1.093 m
3
and C
A
1
0.2115 mol,m
3
.
Part (c) (see Fig. 4.15)
The mass balance equation for the CSTR at steady state is,
n
A
1
n
A
f
s
A
V
1
r
0
and for the plug ow reactor (PFR) it is
TM
dn
A
dV
s
A
r
0
The above two equations can be rewritten as
q C
A
1
q C
A
f
V k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
1
4.45
q
dC
A
dV
k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
4.46
with the initial condition at V 0
C
A
C
A
1
[note that the value of C
A
1
here is the same as C
A
1
in part (b)].
Part (d)
C
A
is the same as C
A
1
in part (b). Now, we have to simply integrate Eq.
(4.46) with the initial conditions to get the value of concentration at the exit
of the PFR (volume of the PFR is equal to 2 m
3
):
dC
A
dV
k
0
e
E,RT
,q
.,,.
aconstant
C
A
with initial condition at V 0
C
A
j
t0
0.2115
It becomes
dC
A
dV
oC
A
On integration, we get
ln C
A
oV M
Figure 4.15 Mass ow diagram for CSTR followed by a plug ow reactor.
TM
where M is the constant of integration and its value can be found using the
initial condition. We get M 1.5535; thus, we get
ln C
A
oV 1.5535
To get the exit concentration after the PFR, we substitute V 2 into the
above relation to get
ln C
A
2
0.56395 2 1.5535
where o 0.56395. On calculation, we get
C
A
2
0.068 mol/m
3
Part (e)
The unsteady-state model for the arrangement is shown in Figure 4.14. For
the rst CSTR,
dn
A
1
dt
.,,.
Unsteady-
state term
n
A
1
n
A
f
s
A
V
1
r
0
1
V
dC
A
1
dt
q C
A
1
q C
A
f
V k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
1
4.47
Similarly for the second CSTR,
V
dC
A
2
dt
q C
A
2
q C
A
1
V k
0
e
E,RT
C
A
2
4.48
The initial conditions at t 0 are
C
A
1
C
A
1
0 and C
A
2
C
A
1
0 .
PROBLEMS
Problem 4.1
The hydrogenolysis of low-molecular-weight parans takes place in a tub-
ular ow reactor. The kinetics of the propane reaction may be assumed to be
rst order in propane in the regime of interest. From the data given in Table
P4.1, determine the reaction rate constants at the indicated temperatures
and the activation energy of the reaction.
Feed ratio H
2
,C
3
H
8
2.0 in all cases
Reactor pressure 7.0 MPa in all cases
TM
For this problem, the stoichiometry of the main reaction may be considered
to be of the form
H
2
C
3
H
8
! CH
4
C
2
H
6
Problem 4.2
Consider the following homogeneous gas-phase reaction:
A B ! C D
The reaction is essentially irreversible and the rate of production of com-
ponent A in a constant-volume batch reactor is given by
R
A
kC
A
C
B
At the temperature of interest, k 100 m
3
/mol s. Compounds A and B are
available in the o-gas stream from an absorption column at concentrations
of 21 mol/m
3
each. 15 m
3
/s of this uid is to be processed in a long iso-
thermal tubular reactor. If the reactor is assumed to approximate a plug
ow reactor, what volume of pipe is required to obtain 78% conversion of
species A?
Problem 4.3
Many of the techniques used by chemical engineers are also helpful in the
food processing industry. For example, consider the problem of sterilizing
food after it has been placed in cylindrical cans. Normally, it is assumed that
all harmful bacteria will be killed if the food temperature is raised to some
value T
1
. The heating process is accomplished by placing the can in a
sterilization bath that is maintained at a high temperature T
0
. Develop an
equation for the sterilization time. Also, by selecting various values for the
Table P4.1 Experimental Data
Temperature,
T8C
Space time
(s)
Fraction propane
converted
538
593
0
42
98
171
40
81
147
0
0.018
0.037
0.110
0.260
0.427
0.635
TM
system parameters, see if you can determine whether or not it is necessary to
consider the resistance to heat transfer in a stagnant lm surrounding the
can.
Problem 4.4
It would be possible to use a double-pipe heat exchanger as a reactor. For a
single, irreversible, exothermic reaction, this unit would have the great
advantage that the heat generated by the reaction could be used to raise
the temperature of the reacting material, which would eliminate the need for
any heating uid. Derive a dynamic model for the system.
Problem 4.5
A simple rst-order reaction
A ! B
takes place in a homogeneous tubular reactor. The reactor is isothermal and
axial dispersion is important, with a Peclet number Pe 20.0.
(a) Find the value of the Damkohler number D
a
so that the exit
conversion is 0.8. Note that the equation and its two-point
boundary-value conditions are linear and therefore can be solved
analytically (to get the characteristic equation, eigenvalues, etc.).
You should be careful to note that this is a design equation, not a
simulation one. Therefore, although the equations are linear, you
will need some nonlinear iterations to obtain the solution at the
end.
(b) Construct the numerical solution procedure using Foxs method
when the reaction is second order for the same numerical value of
the Damkohler number you obtained in part (a).
(c) Repeat the same you did in part (a) but for the Peclet number
going once to zero and once to innity. Compare and discuss
both results.
Problem 4.6
Under appropriate conditions, compound A decomposes as follows:
A ! B ! C
The desired product is B and the rate constant for the rst and second
reactions are equal to the following values:
k
1
0.1 min
1
k
2
0.05 min
1
TM
The feed ow rate is 1000 L/h, and the feed concentration of the reactant A
is equal to C
Af
1.4 mol/L, whereas C
Bf
C
Cf
0.
(a) What size of PFR will maximize the yield of B, and what is the
concentration of B in the euent stream from this optimum
reactor? What will be the eect of axial dispersion if the Peclet
number is equal to 10.0, and what is the eect when the Peclet
number is equal to 500.0?
(b) What size of CSTR will maximize the yield of B, and what is the
concentration of B in the euent stream from this optimized
CSTR?
(c) Compare and comment on the results of previous two parts.
(d) What will be the eect if the reactors are nonisothermal, adia-
batic, and both the reactions are exothermic.
Problem 4.7
A consecutive reaction takes place in dierent reactor congurations. Both
reactions are rst order. The rate constant for the rst reaction is equal to 5
min
1
, and for the second reaction, it is equal to 2 min
1
. The feed is pure
reactant. Calculate the following:
(a) For a batch reactor, the optimum operating time and maximum
yield of the intermediate desired product
(b) For a CSTR, the optimum residence time and the maximum yield
of the intermediate desired product
(c) For a tubular reactor, the optimum residence time and maximum
yield of the intermediate desired product. What is the eect of
axial dispersion when the Peclet number is equal to 0.1 and when
it is equal to 1000.0?
(d) Compare the results obtained in previous parts and comment.
(e) Redo parts (a)(d) if both the reactions follow second-order
kinetics.
Problem 4.8
One approximate way to obtain the dynamics of a distributed system is to
lump them into a number of perfectly mixed sections. Prove that a series of
N mixed tanks is equivalent to a distributed system as N goes to innity.
Problem 4.9
In an isothermal batch reactor, 70% of a liquid reactant is converted in 13
min. What space time and space velocity are needed to eect this conversion
in a plug ow reactor?
TM
Problem 4.10
Assuming a stoichiometry A ! R for a rst-order gas reaction, we calculate
the size of plug ow reactor needed to achieve a required conversion of 99%
of pure A feed to be 32 liters. In fact, however, the reaction stoichiometry is
A ! 3R. With this corrected stoichiometry, what is the required reactor
volume?
Problem 4.11
Consider the packed-bed tubular reactor whose schematic diagram is shown
in Figure P4.11. It is a hollow cylindrical tube of uniform cross-sectional
area A, packed with solid catalyst pellets, in which the exothermic reaction
A ! B is taking place. The packing is such that the ratio of void space to the
total reactor volumethe void fractionis known; let its value be repre-
sented by e. The reactant ows in at one end at constant velocity v, and the
reaction takes place within the reactor. Obtain a theoretical model that will
represent the variation in the reactant concentration C and reactor tempera-
ture T as a function of time and spatial position z. Consider that the tem-
perature on the surface of the catalyst pellets T
S
is dierent from the
temperature of the reacting uid and that its variation with time and posi-
tion is also to be modeled.
Use the following assumptions:
1. The reacting uid ows through the reactor with a at velocity
prole (implying that there are no temperature, concentration, or
velocity variations in the radial direction).
Figure P4.11 Schematic diagram of problem 4.11.
TM
2. Transfer of material and energy in the axial (i.e., z) direction is by
convective forces only; there is no diusion in this direction.
3. The rate of reaction is rst order with respect to the reactant
concentration, with a rate constant k. It does not depend expli-
citly on position along the reactor; it only depends on reactant
concentration and temperature. The heat of reaction may be
taken as H.
4. The heat transfer from the solid catalyst to the uid is assumed to
follow Newtons law of cooling; the area over which this heat
transfer takes place is assumed to be a known constant A
S
.
5. The uid density r and specic heat capacity C
p
are constant; the
solid catalyst particles are all assumed to be identical, with iden-
tical density r
S
and identical specic heat capacity C
pS
.
6. The catalyst packing is assumed to be uniform, so that across any
cross section of the reactor, the number and arrangement of
particles are identical. (This allows the use of arbitrarily located
microscopic element for developing the model).
7. There are no heat losses to the atmosphere.
If you need to make any additional assumptions, state them clearly.
Problem 4.12
A plug ow reactor is to be designed to produce the product D from A
according to the following reaction:
A ! D. rate R
D
60C
A
mol/L s
In the operating condition of this reactor, the following undesired reaction
also takes place:
A ! U. rate R
U

0.003C
A
1 10
5
C
A
mol/L s
The undesired product U is a pollutant and it costs $10/mol U to dispose of
it, whereas the desired product D has a value of $35/mole D. What size
reactor should be chosen in order to obtain an euent stream at its max-
imum value?
Pure reactant A with volumetric ow rate of 15 L/s and molar ow
rate of 0.1 mol/s enters the reactor. Value of pure A is $5/mole A.
Problem 4.13
The vapor-phase cracking of acetone, described by the endothermic reaction
CH
3
COCH
3
! CH
2
COCH
4
TM
takes place in a jacketed tubular reactor. Pure acetone enters the reactor at a
temperature of T
0
1030 K and a pressure of P
0
160 kPa, and the tem-
perature of the external gas in the heat exchanger is constant at
T
e
1200 K. Other data are as follows:
Volumetric ow rate: q 0.003 m
3
,s
Volume of the reactor: V
R
1.0 m
3
Overall heat transfer
coecient: U 110 W,m
2
K
Total heat transfer area: A 160 m
2
,m
3
reactor
Reaction constant: k 3.56 e
34200 1,10301,T
s
1
Heat of reaction: H
R
80700 6.7 T 298
5.7 10
3
T
2
298
2
_ _
1.27 10
6
T
3
298
3
_ _
J,mol
Heat capacity of acetone: C
P
A
26.65 0.182T 45.82
10
6
T
2
J,mol K
Heat capacity of ketene: C
P
K
20.05 0.095T 31.01
10
6
T
2
J,mol K
Heat capacity of methane: C
P
M
13.59 0.076T 18.82
10
6
T
2
J,mol K
Determine the temperature prole of the gas along the length of the reactor.
Assume constant pressure throughout the reactor.
Problem 4.14
Formulate steady-state and dynamic models for the tubular heat exchanger
shown in Figure P4.14 (Hint: We will get a partial dierential equation for
the dynamic model).
Figure P4.14 Tubular heat exchanger.
TM
The following nomenclature is to be used:
Q amount of heat transferred from the steam to the liquid per unit
time and per unit of heat transfer area
A cross-sectional area of the inner tube
v average velocity of the liquid (assumed to be constant)
D external diameter of the inner tube
List all of the assumptions made to derive the model and suggest an
algorithm to solve the problem numerically.
TM
5
Process Dynamics and Control
5.1 VARIOUS FORMS OF PROCESS DYNAMIC MODELS
The more logical manner to formulate dynamic mathematical models is to
formulate it in terms of real time. However, sometimes it is convenient to
express these dynamic models in a domain other than the real physical time
domain. These situation arise either due to ease of solution and equation
manipulation in another domain (the Laplace domain) or due to online
measurement and control, as is shown in this chapter.
Therefore, the dierent dynamic models can be classied on a dierent
basis than the previous classication.
A useful and interesting classication is the following:
1. State-space models
The main characteristics of these physical/rigorous models are as
follows:
. The state variables occur explicitly along with the input and
output variables.
. The models are physically formulated from the process rst
principles.
2. Inputoutput models
. They strictly relate only the input and output variables.
TM
. They can occur in the Laplace or z-transform domain, or in
the frequency domain as well as in the time domain.
. In the Laplace or z-transform domain, these inputoutput
models usually occur in what is known as the transform
domain transfer function form; in the frequency domain,
they occur in the frequency-response (or complex vari-
able) form; in the time domain, they occur in the
impulse-response (or convolution) form.
. Inputoutput models can be obtained from the transforma-
tions of the state-space models, but they can also be
obtained directly from inputoutput data correlations.
The above two main classications can be further detailed into the following:
1. The state-space (dierential equations or dierence equations)
form
2. The transform-domain (Laplace or z-transform) form
3. The frequency-response (complex variable) form
4. The impulse-response (convolution) form
The four forms are related to each other as shown in the following sections.
5.2 FORMULATION OF PROCESS DYNAMIC MODELS
5.2.1 The General Conservation Principles
In the previous chapters, we presented the general material and heat balance
design equations in full detail and have shown the assumptions that reduce
these equations into a simple form. Here, we will use the simplied form
directly.
We can express the balance equation as follows:
What remains accumulated within the boundaries of a system is
the dierence between
. What was added (input)
. What was taken out (output)
. What was generated by internal production, or disappeared by
internal consumption
In other, shorter terms, it is
Accumulation Input Output Internal production or
consumption
We can also express this in terms of rate:
The rate of accumulation of a conserved quantity q within the
boundaries of a system is the dierence between the rate at which
TM
this quantity is being added to the system and the rate at which it is
being taken out (removed) plus the rate of internal production, or
minus the rate of consumption.
Rate of accumulation of q
Rate of input of q Rate of
output of q Rate of
production of q
_
_
_
5.2.2 Conservation of Mass, Momentum, and Energy
Such balances could be made over the entire system, to give overall or
macroscopic balances, or they could be applied to portions of the system
of dierential size, giving dierential or microscopic balances.
Mass Balance
We can write the conservation of mass equation as
Rate of accumulation of mass
Rate input of mass Rate output
of mass Rate generation of
mass Rate depletion of mass
.,,.
net rate of generation of mass
If there are n components, one can formulate a mass balance for each
component (n equations) plus one overall mass balance equation, but
from the n 1 equations, only n equations are independent.
Note: The total mass balance equations will not have any generation/de-
pletion terms, these will always be zero (as long as we do not have a nu-
clear reaction changing mass into energy). Of course, the same does not
apply to the molar balance equations when there are chemical reactions
associated with a change in the number of moles, as shown earlier.
Momentum Balance
Momentum balance is based on Newtons second law equation:
Rate of accumulation
or momentum
Rate input of momentum Rate output

of momentumRate of forces acting on
the volume element
.,,.
net rate of generation of momentum
Generation of momentum must be due to forces acting on the volume
element (over which the balance is carried out), and this is done at a rate
equal to the total sum of these forces.
TM
Energy Balance
Energy balance is based on the rst law of thermodynamics:
Rate of accumulation of energy
Rate input of energy Rate
output of energy Rate of
generation of energy Rate of
expenditure of energy
.,,.
net rate of generation of energy
5.2.3 Constitutive Equations
The next step after the conservation equations is the introduction of explicit
expressions for the rates that appear in the balance equations. The following
are the most widely used:
1. Equations of the properties of matter. Basic denitions of mass,
momentum, and energy in terms of physical properties such as r,
C
P
, T, and so forth.
2. Transport rate equations
. Newtons law of viscosity (for momentum transfer)
. Fouriers heat conduction law (for heat transfer)
. Ficks law of diusion (for mass transfer)
3. Chemical kinetic rate equations
. Law of mass action
. Arrhenius expression for temperature dependence of reac-
tion rate constants
4. Thermodynamic relations
. Equations of state (e.g., ideal gas law, van der Waals equa-
tion)
. Equations of chemical and phase equilibria
Example of Mathematical Model
Consider the heating (with no chemical reaction) tank shown in Figure 5.1.
The unsteady mass balance equation is given by
n
i
dn
i
dt
n
if
TM
with no chemical reaction. The general heat balance equation is given by
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
n
i
H
i
H
ir

d
i
_ _
dt
We can introduce the following assumptions:
1. The tank is well mixed T
0
T
_ _
.
2. r (uid density), C
p
(uid specic heat), and z (heat of vaporiza-
tion of the steam in the heating coil) are constant.
3. All of the heat of condensation of steam is given to the liquid (no
heat accumulation in coils, stirrers, walls of tank, etc.).
4. There are negligible heat losses to the atmosphere.
5. There is no change of phase inside the tank.
Mass balance
Accumulation of mass is given by
d
dt
rV
Which can be simplied as
r
dV
dt
(for constant density)
Mass input is given by
F
i
rq
i
Figure 5.1 Continuous heating tank.
TM
where q
i
is the input volumetric ow rate. Mass output is given by
F rq
where q is the output volumetric ow rate. Thus,
r
dV
dt
rq
i
rq
which can be reduced to give
dV
dt
q
i
q
For q
i
q, we get dV,dt 0, which means that V is constant.
Energy balance
. Change in kinetic and potential energies is negligible.
. T
is the reference temperature.

The rate of accumulation of energy is given by
rC
p
d
dt
V T T

The rate of heat input (feed) is equal to
rq
i
C
p
T
i
T

The rate of heat output (outlet stream) is given by
rqC
p
T T

The rate of heat input (heating coil) is equal to
zr
s
q
s
where q
s
is the steam volumetric ow rate in the steam heating coil and r
s
is
the steam density and z is the latent heat of steam. Thus, the overall energy
balance will be given by
rC
p
d
dt
V T T
rq
i
C
p
T
i
T
zr
s
q
s
rqC
p
T T

For q
i
q, and V constant, the above equation becomes
rVC
p
dT
dt
rqC
p
T
i
T zr
s
q
s
This equation can be put in the following form:
dT
dt

rqC
p
rVC
p
T
i
T
zr
s
rVC
p
q
s
TM
Now, we dene the following normalized parameters:
y
V
q
Residence time and b
zr
s
rVC
p
Thus, the equation can be put in the following form:
dT
dt

1
y
T bq
s
1
y
T
i
5.1
The steady-state relation is given by
0
1
y
T
S
bq
sS
1
y
T
iS
Exercise
1. Solve the above equation for certain values of T
iS
and q
sS
to
obtain T
S
; the subscript S denotes steady state.
2. Calculate the eect of the change in b, y, T
iS
, and q
sS
on the
steady-state temperature T
S
.
Deviation Variables
Equation (5.1) can be written in terms of the deviation variables (deviation
from the steady state equations) in the following form
y T T
S
u q
s
q
sS
d T
i
T
iS
Thus,
dy
dt

1
y
y bu
1
y
d 5.2
If the process is initially at steady state, then y 0 0.
5.2.4 The Laplace Transform Domain Models
Laplace transformation is a simple mathematical technique that transforms
dierential equations from the time domain t to the Laplace domain s .
Some detail about Laplace transformation is given later in this chapter. One
of the main characteristics of Laplace transformation is to transform deri-
vatives in the time domain t to algebraic form in the Laplace domain [i.e.,
dy t ,dt )s y s . Using this property, we nd that the Laplace transforma-
tion of Eq. (5.2) gives
sy s
1
y
y s bu s
1
y
d s
TM
Rearranging to put the output y s on one side of the equation gives
s
1
y
_ _
y s bu s
1
y
d s
Again, on rearranging, we obtain the following inputoutput relation:
y s
by
1 ys
_ _
u s
1
1 ys
_ _
d s
Now, we introduce the following denition of what we call transfer func-
tions [g
u
s and g
d
s :
by
1 ys
_ _
g
u
s
and
1
1 ys
_ _
g
d
s
Finally, we get,
y s g
u
s u s g
d
s d s
This is called the transfer-function model, where the output y s is related
to the inputs u s and d s through a relation involving the transfer functions
g
u
s and g
d
s . This is the basis of block diagram algebra, which will be
discussed in a later section.
5.2.5 The Frequency-Response Models
This is still a transfer-function model, but in the frequency domain, where
we introduce
s jo
where o is the frequency and j
1
p
. If we put jo instead of s in g
u
s , the
Laplace transform becomes a Fourier transform g
u
jo and we can convert
the transform domain model to a frequency-response model as shown in
Table 5.1 for both g
u
s and g
d
s . Therefore, the frequency-domain model
becomes
yjo g
u
jou jo g
d
jodjo
5.2.6 Discrete Time Models
The linear discrete single-input, single-output (SISO) processes are described
by xk, uk, dk, and yk, which are the state, control, disturbance, and
TM
output variables, respectively, at the discrete time instant t
k
kt, where
t is the sampling interval. Thus, the model is given by
xk 1 axk buk gdk
and
yk cxk
The multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) version is
Xk 1 A Xk B uk dk
and
Yk C Xk
Table 5.1 The Transfer Function in the Frequency Domain
The g
u
s transfer function The g
d
s transfer function
Simply substitute s by jo to get
g
u
o
[y
jyo 1
It can be arranged in the form
g
u
o
[y1 jyo
jyo 1 1 jyo
which gives
g
u
o
[y1 jyo
1 jyo jyo j
2
y
2
o
2
g
u
o
[y jy
2
o[
1 y
2
o
2
and, nally, can be divided into
the real part (Re) and the Imaginary
part (Im) to give
Re g
u
o
[y
1 yo
2
Im g
u
o
[oy
2
1 yo
2
Simply substitute s by jo to get
g
d
o
1
jyo 1
It can be arranged in the form
g
d
o
1 jyo
jyo 1 1 jyo
g
d
o
1 jyo
1 y
2
o
2
and, nally, can be divided into the
real part Re and the Imaginary part
Im to give
Re g
d
o
1
1 yo
2
Im g
d
o
oy
1 yo
2
TM
The nonlinear discrete model is
Xk f Xk. uk. dk
and
Yk h Xk
The state-space models are used most frequently in dynamic analysis
because of the following:
. They give real-time behavior, suitable for computer simulation of
process behavior.
. They are used almost exclusively for the analysis of nonlinear
systems behavior.
. Another important use of state-space models is in representing
processes in which some states are not measured.
All the other model forms are based on input/output relationships so that
any aspect of the process not manifested as either input or measured output
is not likely to be represented.
5.2.7 SISO and MIMO State-Space Models
The state-space models (in terms of real time) can be classied as follows:
Linear Lumped SISO Processes
One input variable u t , one disturbance d t , and one state variable x t are
modeled by
dxt
dt
axt but gdt
Note: The output is not necessarily x t [it can be yt], but is related to
x t through the linear relation
yt cxt
Linear Lumped MIMO Processes
The MIMO processes can be two dimensional (the simplest MIMO case), as
in the following simple example:
dx
1
t
dt
a
11
x
1
t a
12
x
2
t b
11
u
1
t b
12
u
2
t g
11
d
1
t g
12
d
2
t
TM
dx
2
t
dt
a
21
x
1
t a
22
x
2
t b
21
u
1
t b
22
u
2
t g
21
d
1
t g
22
d
2
t
and the single output is,
yt c
1
x
1
t c
2
x
2
t
In the matrix form, this can be rewritten as
d
dt
x
1
x
2
_ _
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_ _
x
1
x
2
_ _
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_ _
u
1
u
2
_ _
g
11
g
12
g
21
g
22
_ _
d
1
d
2
_ _
and
yt c
1
c
2
_ _ x
1
x
2
_ _
or in more general form for any n-dimensional system, we can write
dX
dt
A X B u d
and
Yt C X
where
X
n1

x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
. A
nn

a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
B
nn

b
11
b
12
b
1n
b
21
b
22
b
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
b
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
nn

g
11
g
12
g
1n
g
21
g
22
g
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
g
n1
g
n2
g
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
C
mn

c
11
c
12
c
1n
c
21
c
22
c
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
c
m1
c
m2
c
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
. u
n1

u
1
u
2
.
.
.
u
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
TM
d
n1

d
1
d
2
.
.
.
d
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
. Y
m1

y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Nonlinear Lumped Systems
dX
dt
f X. u. d
where f X. u. d are nonlinear functions, and the output vector is given by
Yt h Xt
Distributed Systems
These are systems where the state variables vary with one or more of the
state coordinates.
One-dimensional model
oT
ot
v
oT
oz

UA
S
rAC
P
T
S
T
This partial dierential equation describes one side of the steam-
heated shell and tube heat exchanger.
High-dimensional models
oX
ot
f X. u. rX. r
2
X. . . .
_ _
r is the Laplacian operator representing the vector of partial deriva-
tive operators in the spatial directions.
5.2.8 SISO and MIMO Transform Domain Models
SISO
The SISO linear model will be represented after applying Laplace transfor-
mation as
ys g
u
sus g
d
sds
where ys is the process output, g
u
s is the process transfer function (in the
transform domain), us is the process input, g
d
s is the disturbance transfer
function (in the transfer domain), and ds is the process disturbance.
TM
MIMO
The MIMO linear model will be represented after applying the Laplace
transformation as
Ys G
u
sus G
d
sds
where
Ys
n1

y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
G
u
s
nm

g
u
11
g
u
12
g
u
1m
g
u
21
g
u
22
g
u
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
g
u
n1
g
u
n2
g
u
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
G
d
s
nl

g
d
11
g
d
12
g
d
1l
g
d
21
g
d
22
g
d
2l
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
g
d
n1
g
d
n2
g
d
nl
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
us
m1

u
1
u
2
.
.
.
u
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
. ds
l1

d
1
d
2
.
.
.
d
l
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Here, G
u
s and G
d
s are the matrix transfer functions.
5.2.9 SISO and MIMO Frequency-Response Models
For continuous time systems, we have the following.
SISO
yjo g
u
joujo g
d
jodjo
where g
u
jo and g
d
jo are frequency-response transfer functions. Also
gjo Re go jIm go
MIMO
Y jo G
u
joujo G
d
jodjo
TM
5.2.10 SISO and MIMO Discrete Time Models
SISO
It relates the z-transform of the sampled point signal to that of the output
signal by the following relation:
^ yyz ^ gg
u
z ^ uuz ^ gg
d
z
^
ddz
where ^ gg
u
z and ^ gg
d
z are the z-transform functions of the discrete time
system.
MIMO
^
YYz
^
GG
u
z ^ uuz
^
GG
d
z
^
ddz
where
^
GG
u
z and
^
GG
d
z are the transfer-function matrices. Transform-
domain transfer functions are used extensively in process dynamics and
control.
Figure 5.2 shows the interrelationship between the discussed process
model forms in a nice, concise manner. Uses of the three dierent types of
models are as follows
1. State space: Real-time simulation of process behavior, nonlinear
dynamic analysis.
2. Transform domain: Linear dynamic analysis involving well-
characterized input functions; control system design.
3. Frequency response: Linear nonparametric models for processes
of arbitrary mathematical structure; control system design.
Continuous and Discrete Time Models
The conversion of continuous-time models to discrete-time form is achieved
by discretizing the continuous process model. This will be discussed in some
detail later.
5.3 STATE-SPACE AND TRANSFER DOMAIN
MODELS
These are the most important types of model. Most process models formu-
lated from rst principles occur in the state-space form, but the preferred
form for dynamic analysis and controller design is the transfer domain form.
However, after dynamic analysis and controller design, the task of control
system simulation and real-time controller implementation are carried out in
the time domain, requiring the state-space form again. The interrelation
TM
between state-space and transfer domain models is shown in Figure 5.3. The
SISO process is given by
dxt
dt
axt but gdt
and
yt cxt
Figure 5.2 Interrelationship between process model forms.
Figure 5.3 Interrelation between state-space and transform domain models.
TM
Laplace transformation gives
sxs axs bus gds 5.3
and
ys cxs 5.4
Equation (5.3) can be rewritten as
s axs bus gds
On rearrangement, it gives
xs
b
s a
us g
ds
s a
Consider the following more general inputoutput Laplace transform
model:
ys g
u
sus g
d
sds
where
g
u
s
K
u
t
u
s 1
and g
d
s
K
d
t
d
s 1
The solution (realization) is given by
ys
K
u
t
u
s 1
_ _
us
K
d
t
d
s 1
_ _
ds 5.5
We can write ys in terms of x
1
s and x
2
s in a simple form as follows:
ys x
1
s x
2
s 5.6
Note:
ys C
T
xs
where
C
T
1
1
_ _
Now, x
1
s is given by
x
1
s
K
u
t
u
s 1
_ _
us
The above relation, on rearrangement, gives
t
u
sx
1
s x
1
s K
u
us
TM
x
2
s is given by
x
2
s
K
d
t
d
s 1
_ _
ds
t
d
sx
2
s x
2
s K
d
ds
Thus, realization in the time domain gives
t
u
dx
1
dt
x
1
K
u
ut
and
t
d
dx
2
dt
x
2
K
d
dt
together with
yt x
1
t x
2
t
at t 0, x
1
0 0, and x
2
0 0. This is one possible realization, and it is
not unique.
Realization is one of the more popular names for this process of transferring
from Laplace domain to the time domain. It actually uses inverse transfor-
mation from the Laplace domain to the time domain. An even simpler
example will make this process very clear. Consider the following very
simple inputoutput relation in the Laplace domain:
ys gsus
where
gs
K
ts 1
Thus, we can write
ys
K
ts 1
_ _
us
ts 1 ys Kus
ts ys ys Kus
TM
Inverse Laplace transformation of the above relation gives
t
dy
dt
yt Kut
The nonuniqueness (it is a linear nonuniqueness in contrast to nonlinear
nonuniqueness discussed in Chapter 7) can be shown in a more general
form:
y s g
u
s u s g
d
s d s
where
g
u
s
K
u
t
u
s 1
and g
d
s
K
d
t
d
s 1
Now, we can write
y s c
1
x
1
s c
2
x
2
s 5.7
and
x
1
s
a
1
u s
t
u
s 1
and x
2
s
a
2
d s
t
d
s 1
On substituting the values of x
1
s and x
2
s in Eq. (5.7), we get
y s
a
1
c
1
t
u
s 1
_ _
u s
a
2
c
2
t
d
s 1
_ _
d s
Now,
a
1
c
1
t
u
s 1
K
u
t
u
s 1
and
a
2
c
2
t
d
s 1
K
d
t
d
s 1
which gives
K
u
a
1
c
1
and K
d
a
2
c
2
This shows that the degree of freedom is equal to 2.
Thus, there is an innite combination of a
1
c
1
and a
2
c
2
that satisfy the
above equations. This is the linear nonuniqueness.
A special case: For the inputoutput Laplace transform model,
ys
K
u
t
u
s 1
_ _
us
K
d
t
d
s 1
_ _
ds
If we consider the special case of t
u
t
d
t, we get
ys
1
ts 1
K
u
us K
d
ds
TM
ts 1 ys K
u
us K
d
ds
and inverse transformation to the time domain gives
t
dyt
dt
yt K
u
ut K
d
dt
We can set yt xt and write
t
dxt
dt
xt K
u
ut K
d
dt
and
yt xt
5.4 INTRODUCTORY PROCESS CONTROL CONCEPTS
In this part of the chapter, we present in a very condensed/simple manner
the basic process control concepts.
5.4.1 Denitions
The process control system is the entity that is charged with the responsi-
bility for the following important tasks: monitoring outputs, making deci-
sions about how best to manipulate inputs so as to obtain desired output
behavior, and eectively implement such decisions on the process. Thus, it
demands that three dierent tasks be done:
1. Monitoring process output variables by measurements
2. Making rational decisions regarding what corrective action is
needed on the basis of the information about the current (output
variables) and the desired (set point) state of the process
3. Eectively implementing these decisions on the process
It can have dierent levels of sophistication as follows:
. The simplest are, of course, the manual control systems.
. More advanced are the automatic control systems.
. The most advanced are the digital control systems.
The control hardware elements are as follows:
1. Sensors. Sensors are also called measuring devices or primary
elements. Examples are the following:
. Thermocouples
. Dierential pressure cells (for liquid level measurements)
. Gas/liquid chromatographs (for analysis of gas samples)
TM
2. Controllers. The controller is the decision-maker or the heart of
the control system. It requires some form of intelligence.
Controllers can be of the following types:
. Pneumatic (now almost obsolete)
. Electronic (more modern)
. Digital (for more complex operations, they are some kind
of a special-purpose small digital computer)
Currently, the rst two types of controller (pneumatic and elec-
tronic) are limited to simple operations.
3. Transmitters. Examples are pneumatic (air pressure), electrical
signals, and digital signals.
4. Final control elements
. They implement the control command issued by the con-
troller.
. They are mostly control valves [usually pneumatic (i.e.,
air driven)]
. Other types include variable-speed fans, pumps, compres-
sors, conveyors, relay switches, and so forth.
5. Other hardware elements
. Transducers: to convert an electric signal from an electronic
controller to a pneumatic signal needed for a control valve.
. A/D and D/A converters (for computer devices): A/D is
analog to digital and D/A is for digital to analog. They
are needed simply because the control system operates on
analog signals (electric voltage or pneumatic pressures),
whereas the computer operates digitally (giving out and
receiving only binary numbers).
Figure 5.4 shows a typical sequential setup for the control system compo-
nents.
Some additional process control terminologies are as follows:
Set point: The value at which the output is to be maintained, fed to the
controller to compare with the measurement, and make decisions.
Regulatory control: This is used when it is required to keep the process
at a specic xed set point.
Servo control: This is used when it is required to make the output
track a changing set point.
TM
5.4.2 Introductory Concepts of Process Control
We will illustrate the basic concepts of process control using a typical gen-
eric chemical process as shown in Figure 5.5. A typical chemical process can
be a petrochemical plant, a renery (or a section of it), a biochemical plant,
and so forth. Let us consider it to be a part of a renery (the fractionating
part). It will typically consist of the following:
1. Processing units. Typically these are the following:
. The storage tanks
. The furnaces
. The fractionation towers
and their auxiliary equipments.
Figure 5.4 Logical representation of the control system components.
Figure 5.5 A typical chemical process.
TM
2. Raw materials. These usually include the following:
. Crude oil
. Air
. Fuel gas
3. Finished products. A fractionating unit will produce a wide range
of products such as the following:
. Naphtha
. Light gas oil
. Heavy gas oil
. High-boiling residues
4. Heat input. It is mainly the furnace generated heat.
5. Heat output. It is usually the heat removed from the condenser.
Basic Principles Guiding the Operation of Processing Units
1. It is desirable to operate the processing unit safely (including
environmental safety).
2. Specic production rates must be maintained.
3. Product quality specications must be maintained.
Process dynamics and control is that aspect of chemical engineering
which is concerned with the analysis, design, and implementation of control
systems that facilitate the achievement of specied objectives of process
safety, production rate, and product quality.
Here, we examine a typical industrial process control problem.
Consider the furnace shown in Figure 5.6, where crude oil is preheated
to be fed to the fractionating column. The crude oil feed ow rate uc-
tuates considerably, however we need to supply it to the fractionator at a
constant temperature T
. Consider T
m
to be the highest safe temperature
for the type of metals used for the heating tubes and T
t
is the tube
temperature.
Control Problem Statement
Deliver crude oil feed to the fractionator at a constant temperature T

and ow rate F
0
regardless of all factors potentially capable of causing the
furnace outlet temperature T to deviate from this desired value, making
sure that the temperature of the tube surfaces within the furnace does not
exceed the value T
m
at any time.
In short, keep T T
, F F
0
, and T
t
- T
m
(where T
t
is the tube
temperature).
TM
A dialogue between the plant engineer (PE) and the control engineer
(CE) regarding this problem involves the following phases:
Phase 1. Keep the outlet temperature T at the desired value T
. This is
to be achieved through a controller (e.g., PIDproportional integral
derivative, as discussed in the next part of this chapter) which measures
the output temperature using a thermocouple and compares it with the
desired temperature (set point, T
) and then the deviation is used to con-

trol the furnace heating fuel gas. If T > T
, then we decrease the fuel gas

ow rate, whereas if T - T
, then we increase the fuel gas ow rate, and,

nally, if T T
then we keep the fuel gas ow rate constant. This is

what we call a feedback control system. Its main advantage is that it can
compensate for the deviation of T from T
regardless of the cause of

this deviation. Its disadvantage is that it takes action only after the
disturbance(s) has (have) caused measurable deviation of T from T
. This
feedback control system is shown in Figure 5.7.
Phase 2. Suppose that we cannot tolerate the time lag associated with
the effect of the input disturbance(s) appearing as deviation in T. In this
case, we can use what we call the feed-forward control system. This is
based on measuring the input ow rate, and as soon as this ow rate devi-
ates from the design value F
0
, we take control action to manipulate the
fuel gas ow rate before the effect of disturbance in F appears as a devia-
tion in T. The advantage of feed-forward control is that the control ac-
Figure 5.6 Preheater furnace for crude oil.
TM
tion is performed before the disturbance starts to cause the deviation in
the output variables. However, the main disadvantages are as follows:
1. There has to be some relation to relate feed ow rate to fuel gas
feed rate.
2. The control system will not respond to input disturbances other
than F.
The feed-forward control arrangement for this process is shown in Figure
5.8.
Phase 3. The two types of feedback and feed-forward can be combined
as shown in Figure 5.9 (the feed-forward controller sets the setpoint for
the feedback controller) or the cascade system as shown in Figure 5.10.
5.4.3 Variables of a Process
It is important to distinguish the dierent types of variables of a process.
There are many classications for these variables.
Process variables. Process variables include variables such as tempera-
ture, ow rate in/out, pressure, concentration, and so forth. These
can be divided into two types:
1. Input variables: These are capable of inuencing the process con-
ditions.
Figure 5.7 Feedback control system.
TM
Figure 5.8 Feed-forward control system.
Figure 5.9 The feed-forward controller sets the set point for the feedback
controller.
TM
2. Output variables: These provide information about the process
conditions.
State variables versus output variables
State variables. They are the minimum set of variables essential for
completely describing the internal state (or condition) of a process.
In other words, they are the variables which describe the state of the
system (e.g., temperature, concentration, pH, etc.)
Output variables. They are some measurements, either of a single state
variable or a combination of state variables at the outlet of the
process.
Input variables. They can be divided into two main types:
. Manipulated or control variables (we can have control over
them)
. Disturbance variables (we do not have control over them)
Measured and unmeasured variables. Output variables which are char-
acterized by the fact that we need to take samples for analysis are
not called measured variables because they are not measured on-
line.
Figure 5.10 Cascade control.
TM
Figure 5.11 shows a typical process, where the input is divided into
two types: manipulated variables and input disturbances. Input disturbances
can be divided further, into measured and unmeasured disturbances.
The output variables to be controlled are also divided into measured and
unmeasured variables.
Examples
Stirred heating tank process. The input variables are as shown in Figure
5.12 include the feed ow rate F
i
and feed temperature T
i
, whereas the
output variables are F and T. The steam ow rate Q is the input manipu-
lated variable.
A furnace. The input disturbances for this furnace are the input ow rate
F
i
, the input temperature T
i
, the fuel supply pressure P
F
, and the feed
heat content z
F
. The manipulated variables are airow rate Q
A
and fuel
ow rate Q
F
, whereas F and T are the output variables. (see Fig. 5.13).
5.4.4 Control Systems and Their Possible Congurations
In this subsection, the reader is introduced to a number of the more typical
control system congurations (briey discussed earlier for a specic exam-
ple).
1. Feedback control. For this conguration, the control action is
taken after the eect; that is, for any disturbance entering the
process, no control action is taken except after the eect of the
disturbance appears in the output (see Fig. 5.14).
Figure 5.11 Types of inputoutput variables.
TM
Figure 5.12 Variables of a stirred heating tank.
Figure 5.13 Variables of a furnace.
TM
2. Feed-forward control. For this conguration action is taken
before the eect (i.e., before the process is aected). The main
advantage is that the decision of the controller is taken using a
model for the process. The model relates the input disturbance
and output variables in order to calculate the input changes that
compensates for the disturbances to keep the output at its desired
value.
The disadvantages are as follows:
. The negative eects associated with inaccuracy of models
used.
. The choice of the disturbances to be measured and the
possible eect of the unmeasured disturbances. It does
not act to compensate for any unmeasured disturbances.
. The controller has no information about the conditions
existing at the process output.
A typical feed-forward control conguration is shown in Figure 5.15.
3. Open-loop control. Open-loop control is where the set point to
the controller is pre-programmed to follow a certain path (servo
control) as shown in Figure 5.16.
Other control congurations, such as cascade control have been shown
earlier in the book.
Figure 5.14 Typical feedback control system.
TM
5.4.5 Overview of Control Systems Design
Here, we will present a preliminary introduction to the design of control
systems using a very simple example.
General Principles Involved in Designing a Control System
Step 1. Assess the process and dene the control objectives to answer
the following questions:
1. Why is there a need for control?
Figure 5.15 Typical feed-forward control arrangement.
Figure 5.16 Open-loop control arrangement.
TM
2. Can the problem be solved only by control, or there is another
alternative (such as redesigning part of the process)?
3. What is the control of the process expected to achieve?
Step 2. Selection of the process variables (output and manipulated
variables as well as disturbances in the case of feed-forward control)
in order to answer the following questions:
1. What is the crucial output variables to be measured (for feedback
control)?
2. What are the most serious disturbances, and which ones are
measurable (for the feed-forward control)?
3. Which inputs to be chosen as the input manipulated variables
(for both feed-forward and feed-backward controls).
Step 3. Selection of the control structure, whether open-loop, feed-
back, feed-forward, or a combination of feed-backward and feed-
forward control is required.
Step 4. Design of the controller(s) may have dierent degrees of com-
plexity, but it basically involves the formulation of a control law
which utilizes as much information as possible from the process.
This control law is used to produce a control decision to be used
to adjust the manipulated variables.
Process control engineers must have a good understanding of
the process and its dynamics. They must also understand the steady-state
characteristics of the process.
Example
We will follow the above four steps and apply them to a very simple exam-
ple. This example is the lling/emptying of a liquid tank with valves at both
the inlet and outlet, as shown in Figure 5.17.
For the process model without control, it is very easy to write the
dierential equations (the mathematical model) describing the dynamic
behavior of the tank. It will be
A
C
dh
dt
F
i
F 5.8
with the initial conditions at t 0, h h
0
. F and F
i
should be certain con-
stant values or functions of h. For example, F C
h
p
, where C is called the
valve coecient, and F
i
B, where B is some constant value. Thus, Eq.
(5.8) can be rewritten
TM
A
C
dh
dt
B C
h
p
5.9
Let us consider the following steady-state situation: At steady state,
dh,dt 0 (there is no height change with time). So,
B C
h
SS
_
which gives
h
SS
_

B
C
Therefore, the steady-state height h
SS
is given by
h
SS

B
C
_ _
2
The dynamic behavior is described by Eq. (5.9).
Equation (5.9) is a nonlinear dierential equation. It can be solved
numerically by using any of the well-known subroutine packages such as
Polymath, MathCAD, IMSL libraries, and so forth. However, can we use
some transformations to solve this equation analytically? Yes, it can be done
as follows. Let
B C
h
p
y
Thus, we can write
h
p

B y
C
Figure 5.17 Continuously lling and emptying tank.
TM
On dierentiation of y with respect to h, we get
dy
dh
C
1
2
h
1,2
_ _
5.10
We can also write
dy
dt

dy
dh
dh
dt
Therefore,
dy
dt

C
2
h
1,2
_ _
dh
dt
5.11
Rearranging gives,
dh
dt

2
h
p
C
_ _
dy
dt
Substituting the value of
h
p
gives,
dh
dt

2
C
2
B y
dy
dt
5.12
Substitution from Eq. (5.12) into Eq. (5.9), gives
A
C

2
C
2
B y
_ _
dy
dt
B C
B y
C
_ _
Rearranging gives
2A
C
C
2
.,,.
a
y B
dy
dt
y
y B
y
dy
1
a
dt 5.13
where
a
2A
C
C
2
(a constant value)
Rearrangement of Eq. (5.13) gives
1
B
y
_ _
dy
1
a
dt
TM
y Bln y
1
a
t C
1
Boundary condition is at t 0. y y
0
, where y
0
B C
h
0
_
. So we get the
value of constant of integration as
C
1
y
0
Bln y
0
Using this value of the constant of integration, we obtain the solution
y Bln y
1
a
t y
0
Bln y
0
which can be rearranged in the following form:
y y
0
Bln
y
y
0
_ _
1
a
t 5.14
We can easily nd the change of y with t using this simple equation.
Obviously, we can transfer y back to h very easily. This completes the
example.
Let us now look at the eect of dierent control-loop congurations
on the model equations and the behavior of the system.
First conguration
The rst conguration we look at is the simple feedback-level control using
the tank level h as the measured variable and the output ow rate F as the
control (or manipulated) variable as shown in Figure 5.18, where F
i
is the
input variable (disturbance), F is the output variable (control or manipu-
lated variable), and h is the output variable (liquid-level measurement). The
model equation is given by
A
C
dh
dt
F
i
F 5.15
At steady state, we can write
F
iSS
F
SS
0 5.16
We can write Eq. (5.15) at steady state as
A
C
dh
SS
dt
F
iSS
F
SS
0 5.17
To convert the variables into deviation variables, subtract Eq. (5.17)
from Eq. (5.15) to get
A
C
d h h
SS

dt
F
i
F
iSS
F F
SS
5.18
TM
Dene the deviation variables as
y h h
SS

d F
i
F
iSS

u F F
SS

Thus Eq. (5.18) can be rewritten in terms of deviation variables as
A
C
dy
dt
d u
The above equation can be rearranged to give
dy
dt

1
A
C
d
1
A
C
u 5.19
The simple control law is a proportional control on F; that is
F F
SS
K h h
SS
5.20
where K is the proportional controller gain. Equation (5.20) can be re-
arranged as
F F
SS
K h h
SS

Note: Notice that this linear formulation is restricted by the fact that
when K 0, then F F
SS
, regardless of the height inside the tank, mean-
ing that h increases to innity for any positive disturbance.
Figure 5.18 Feedback-level control.
TM
The above control law equation can be written in terms of deviation
variables as
u Ky
Let us suppose that F
i
increases from F
iSS
to F
i
F
iSS
x, then we have
d F
iSS
x F
iSS
x
dy
dt

1
A
C
x
1
A
C
Ky 5.21
with the initial condition at t 0, y 0 (which means that at t 0, the
system is at its steady state). If x is a constant, then we can write
x
A
C
a
1
and
K
A
C
a
2
dy
dt
a
1
a
2
y 5.22
dy
a
1
a
2
y
dt
On integrating the above equation, we get
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
y t C
1
We obtain the value of constant C
1
from the initial condition at t 0, y 0,
Therefore the value of integration constant is equal to
C
1

1
a
2
ln a
1

and we get
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
y t
1
a
2
ln a
1

1
a
2
ln a
1
ln a
1
a
2
y t
TM
ln
a
1
a
1
a
2
y
_ _
a
2
t
Alternatively, we can rearrange it as
ln
a
1
a
2
y
a
1
_ _
a
2
t
After some simple manipulations, we get
y
a
1
a
2
1 e
a
2
t
_ _
5.23
With Eq. (5.23), we can compute the value of y for any value of t.
Substituting the values of a
1
and a
2
in Eq. (5.23) gives
y t
x
A
C
A
C
K
1 e
K,A
C
t
_ _
y t
x
K
1 e
K,A
C
t
_ _
5.24
Note: We cannot put K 0 in this solution, as it will give us the 0,0
form, which is indeterminate. Thus, if K 0 a
2
0 , then there is no
control. For this case, Eq. (5.22) reduces to
dy
dt
a
1
which actually is
dy
dt

x
A
C
The above equation can be integrated to give
y
x
A
C
t C
1
with initial condition at t 0. y 0. The constant of integration C
1
0 for
this initial condition. So we get the solution as
y
x
A
C
t (for no control)
Figure 5.19 shows the behavior of system with and without the con-
trol. Note that the no control (by putting K 0) means that the valve is
TM
not aected by the change in height of liquid in the tank as explained earlier.
Of course, this is not the real situation when there is no control. When there
is no control, the ow output will increase (proportional to the square root
of the height of liquid in the tank) until the system reaches a new steady
state.
Second conguration
The second conguration we look at is the simple feed-forward-level control
with the input ow rate F
i
as the measured variable and the output ow rate
F as the control variable, as shown in Figure 5.20. If inow is equal to
outow, then whatever happens to F
i
, F follows and, therefore, h remains
constant. Thus, the control law is
F F
i
Thus,
A
C
dh
dt
0
where h constant, depending on the accuracy of measurement, regulators,
and dierent time lags.
Third conguration
The third conguration (Fig. 5.21) is feedback control strategy, but it is
dierent from the rst feedback conguration. The inow F
i
is used as
the control variable rather than the outlet ow, but still measuring the
level h, which is an output variable. This is the reason it is still a feedback
strategy.
Figure 5.19 Behavior of system with and without control.
TM
Here, F
i
lost its status as a disturbance variable and became a control
(or manipulated) variable, whereas F was solely dependent upon h (which,
in turn, depends on the C value of the valve coecient) and lost its identity
as a control (or manipulated) variable. Thus, the output variable h is the
measured variable and the input variable F
i
is the control (or manipulated)
variable.
Figure 5.20 Feed-forward control.
Figure 5.21 Special type of feedback conguration.
TM
For simplicity of illustration, let us consider
F Ch
(instead of F C
h
p
). This is done just for the simplicity of handling a
linear dierential equation rather than a nonlinear dierential equation.
Thus, the dynamic model equation for the controlled tank system is
A
C
dh
dt
F
i
Ch 5.25
Using the deviation variables
y h h
SS
u F
i
F
iSS
gives the following simple deviation equation for Eq. (5.25):
A
C
dy
dt
u Cy
The above dierential equation can be rearranged as
dy
dt

C
A
C
_ _
y
1
A
C
u 5.26
If this system is originally at steady state, then the initial condition will be at
t 0, h h
SS
or, in terms of deviation variable, y 0. Now, if we use
proportional control, the control law equation will be
F
i
F
iSS
K h h
SS

Consider the following physical implications for K > 0:
. If h > h
SS
, then F
i
> F
iSS
and, therefore, h continues to increase.
. If h - h
SS
, then F
i
- F
iSS
and, therefore, h continues to decrease.
This is obviously the opposite of control; thus, we either must have K - 0,
or a much better choice is the control law
F
i
F
iSS
K h
SS
h
Then,
F
i
F
iSS
K h h
SS

which can be rewritten in a more simplied form as deviation variables:
u Ky
Dierential Eq. (5.26) becomes
TM
dy
dt

C
A
C
_ _
y
1
A
C
Ky 5.27
dy
dt

C K
A
C
_ _
.,,.
a
y
and can be thus written in the very simple form
dy
dt
ay
With the initial condition at t 0. y 0. On integration of the dierential
equation, we obtain
ln y at ln B
where B is the constant of integration. On rearrangement we get,
ln
y
B
_ _
at
y Be
at
To get the value of integration constant B, the initial condition is used to get
B 0
Thus, the solution of the dierential equation is thus
y 0
This means that the system is always at the steady state (except for the eect
of delays in the control loop).
Because of this integration constant problem (it is not really a pro-
blem, it is actually correct), we go back to the original Eq. (5.25):
A
C
dh
dt
F
i
Ch
At steady state, the equation is
A
C
dh
SS
dt
F
iSS
Ch
SS
0
This gives the steady-state height as
h
SS

F
iSS
C
TM
Introduction of the proportional controller gives
F
i
F
iSS
K h
SS
h or F
i
F
iSS
K h h
SS

Thus, we get
A
C
dh
dt
F
iSS
K h h
SS
Ch 5.28
At steady state,
A
C
dh
SS
dt
F
iSS
K h
SS
h
SS
Ch
SS
0
From the dynamics point of view for this special feedback control loop, we
have
dh
dt

F
iSS
A
C
1
A
C
Kh Kh
SS
Ch
dh
dt

F
iSS
Kh
SS
A
C
_ _
.,,.
a
1
K C
A
C
.,,.
a
2
h
The above equation can be written in a simplied form as
dh
dt
a
1
a
2
h 5.29
where
a
1

F
iSS
Kh
SS
A
C
_ _
a
2

K C
A
C
with the initial condition at t 0. h h
SS
. We can write the dierential Eq.
(5.29) as
dh
a
1
a
2
h
dt
Integration gives
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
h t C
1
5.30
where C
1
is the constant of integration and the initial condition is at
t 0. h h
SS
. Thus, we obtain the integration constant C
1
as
TM
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
h
SS
C
1
On substituting the value of C
1
, the solution of dierential equation
becomes
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
h t
1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
h
SS

1
a
2
ln a
1
a
2
h
SS
ln a
1
a
2
h t
Further rearrangement yields
ln
a
1
a
2
h
a
1
a
2
h
SS
_ _
a
2
t
After some manipulations, we get
h
a
1
a
2
a
1
a
2
h
SS
a
2
_ _
e
a
2
t
5.31
Now, we calculate the following and substitute these values in Eq. (5.31):
a
1
a
2
F
iSS
Kh
SS
A
C
A
C
K C

F
iSS
Kh
SS
K C
and
a
1
a
2
h
SS
a
2
F
iSS
Kh
SS
K C
h
SS
F
iSS
Ch
SS
0
Thus, the solution (5.31) can be written in following form:
h
F
iSS
Kh
SS
K C
F
iSS
Ch
SS

.,,.
equal to zero
e
a
2
t
which gives
h
F
iSS
Kh
SS
K C
_ _
and this can be rearranged to give
h
Ch
SS
Kh
SS
K C

K C
K C
_ _
h
SS
which basically gives
h h
SS
TM
Thus, with this feed-forward control strategy and with F linearly dependent
on h together with the assumption that all loop delays are neglected, then h
remains at h
SS
all the time.
Some Concluding Remarks
1. Note that we used a simplifying assumption, F Ch, and not
F C
h
p
, just for the simplicity of using linear dierential equa-
tion.
2. Modeling errors. Intrinsic (inherent) degree of errors in mathe-
matical models are unavoidable and, of course, they aect the
control policy.
3. Implementation problems. These include the following:
. Time delays
. Imperfect measurements
. Inaccurate transmission
. Control valve inertia (leading to inaccurate valve actuation)
4. Complicated process control structure. Consider the example
shown in Figure 5.22. A number of elementary questions arise
with regard to this relatively complicated control structure. For
example, how did we choose that the hot stream is not the eec-
tive control (manipulated) variable for the control of the level
(rather than the control of the temperature)? In more general
Figure 5.22 A relatively complicated control structure.
TM
terms, which control variable should be manipulated (regulated/
controlled) to control which output variable (T, level) to achieve
maximum eectiveness? Assuming that the shown input/output
pairing is the proper one, the question still remains, can the cold
stream regulate the liquid level without upsetting the hot streams
task of regulating the liquid temperature, and vice versa? This
mutual interference is called interaction and it is very essential for
MIMO design.
5.5 PROCESS DYNAMICS AND MATHEMATICAL
TOOLS
In this section, we discuss some basic ideas associated with process
dynamics. Consider the process shown in Figure 5.23. A number of possible
responses [output variable change with time y t ] to a step change in input
variable u t depending on the characteristic of the system or the process are
shown in Figure 5.24.
5.5.1 Tools of Dynamic Models
Process Model and Ideal Forcing Functions
The inputoutput relation of the process can be obtained by disturbing the
input and recording the corresponding output. However this is expensive,
time-consuming, and, most importantly, assumes that the unit does exist
and is not in the design stage. To avoid these main three limitations, we
should use mathematical models. This is a task which can be stated in a
clearer form as follows: Given some form of mathematical representation of
the process, investigate the process response to various input changes; that
is, given a process model, nd yt in response to inputs ut and dt. This
task needs (1) a process model and (2) well-characterized input functions
(forcing functions).
Figure 5.23 Input-output process (response to step input disturbance).
TM
Mathematical Tools
The mathematical tools available for this task include the following:
. Dynamic mathematical models: usually in the form of dierential
equations (ordinary and partial, linear, and nonlinear).
. Laplace transform: used in the development of transfer functions,
which are the most widely used model form in process control
studies. The Laplace transform converts an ordinary dierential
equation (ODE) to an algebraic equation and, likewise, converts a
partial dierential equation (PDE) into an ordinary dierential
equation (ODE).
. For a nonlinear dierential equation, either numerical solutions or
linearization in the neighborhood of a certain state is used.
Figure 5.24 Some of the dierent forms of response.
TM
. The z-transform may be used to convert a dierence equation to
an algebraic equation (it is used in digital control, which is the
dominant form of control for last three to four decades).
. Multivariable systems utilize the short-hand methods of matrices.
Digital computers are used to obtain numerical solutions for systems
which are described by equations that cannot be solved analytically.
5.6 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
As we mentioned earlier, some transformations are useful in handling pro-
cess dynamics and control problems. The most popular for linear (or
linearized) systems is the Laplace transformation. The basic denition of
Laplace transformation is
f s
_
1
0
e
st
f t dt L f t
_ _
where s is a complex variable. Laplace transformation is a mapping from the
t-domain (time domain) to the s-domain (Laplace domain). Later, f s is
used instead of f s for easier representation.
5.6.1 Some Typical Laplace Transforms
If f t 1, then
f s L f t
_ _
L 1 f g
_
1
0
e
st
1 dt
1
s
e
st
_ _
1
0

1
s
e
1
e
0
_ _

1
s
0 1
giving
L 1 f g
1
s
If f t e
at
then
f s L f t
_ _
L e
at
_ _
_
1
0
e
st
e
at
dt
_
1
0
e
sa t
dt
1
s a
e
sa t
_ _
1
0
1
s a
e
1
e
0
_ _
1
s a
0 1
TM
nally giving
L e
at
_ _
1
s a
We usually use tables and some properties to get the Laplace transforms. A
table of the most important Laplace transforms is given in Appendix D. In
order to cover a wider range of functions using a limited table like the one in
Appendix D, we must utilize some important properties of the Laplace
transformation. The main properties of Laplace transform are as follows:
1. All functions necessary in the study of process dynamics and
control have Laplace transforms.
2. f s has no information for t - 0, because the integral starts at
t 0. However, this fact practically represents no problem,
because t is always time and we are interested in t > t
0
, where
t
0
is the initial time that can arbitrarily be set to zero (for t - 0,
we can put f t 0.
3. It is not possible for two dierent functions f t and gt to have
the same Laplace transform. f t and f s are called the transfer
pair and this transfer pair is unique.
4. The Laplace transform operation is linear:
L C
1
f
1
t C
2
f
2
t
_ _
C
1
L f
1
t
_ _
C
2
L f
2
t
_ _
5.6.2 The Inverse Laplace Transform
The inverse Laplace formula is
f t L
1
f s
_ _
1
2j
_
C
e
st
f s ds
which is a complex contour integral over the path represented by C (called
the Bromwich path). Tables of the inverse transform are also available (see
Appendix D).
5.6.3 The Transform of Derivatives
Because
L f t
_ _
_
1
0
e
st
f t dt 5.32
TM
we have
L
df t
dt
_ _
_
1
0
e
st
df t
dt
_ _
dt sf s f 0
.,,.
at t0
Simple proof. Let
e
st
f t y
Then,
dy
dt
se
st
f t e
st
df t
dt
Rearranging gives
df t
dt

1
e
st
dy
dt
se
st
f t
_ _
5.33
Substituting Eq. (5.33) into Eq. (5.32) gives
_
1
0
e
st
df t
dt
_ _
dt
_
1
0
e
st
1
e
st
dy
dt
se
st
f t
_ _
dt
_
1
0
dy
dt
_ _
dt s
_
1
0
e
st
f t dt
_
1
0
dy s
_
1
0
e
st
f t dt
y1 y0 sf s
Because
y1 e
1
f 1 0
y0 e
0
f 0 f 0
we have
L
df t
dt
_ _
sf s f 0
.,,.
at t0
Similarly, we can obtain the Laplace transformation for higher derivatives:
L
d
2
f t
dt
2
_ _
s
2
f s sf 0 f
1
0
TM
where
f
1
0
df t
dt
t0
The general form is
L
d
n
f t
dt
n
_ _
s
n
f s s
n1
f 0 s
n2
f
1
0 s
n3
f
2
0 f
n1
0
5.34
where
f
n1
0
d
n1
f t
dt
n1
t0
Equation (5.34) can also be written in the form
L
d
n
f t
dt
n
_ _
s
n
f s
n1
k0
s
k
f
n1k
0
where f
i
0 is the ith derivative of f t at t 0 and f
0
0 is the function f t
at t 0.
If all the initial conditions of f t and its derivatives are zero (distur-
bance variables), then
L
d
n
f t
dt
n
_ _
s
n
f s
n1
k0
s
k
f
n1k
0
.,,.
each term equal to zero
And, therefore, the Laplace transformation of the derivatives is given by
L
d
n
f t
dt
n
_ _
s
n
f s
The transforms of integrals is
L
_
t
0
f t
0
dt
0
_ _
1
s
f s
Proof: Reader is advised to see the proof in any elementary mathematics
text.
5.6.4 Shift Properties of the Laplace Transform
If
L f t
_ _
f s
TM
then
L e
at
f t
_ _
_
1
0
e
at
e
st
f t dt
_
1
0
e
sat
f t dt
f s
0
f s a
where
s
0
s a
that is to say,
L e
at
f t
_ _
f s a
Thus, the s variable in the transform has been shifted by a units.
A more important result is the shift with regard to the inverse of the
Laplace transform:
L
1
f s a
_ _
e
at
f t
Let us use a very simple example:
f t 1
then
f s L 1 f g
1
s
Find
L
1
1
s a
_ _
The solution is
L
1
1
s a
_ _
f t e
at
The shift in time is given by
L f t a
_ _
e
as
f s
The proof is as follows:
L f t a
_ _
_
1
0
e
st
f t a dt
Dene
t a t
0
TM
which gives dt dt
0
. For the limit t 0, we get t
0
a; for t 1, we get
t
0
1. Thus, we can write,
L f t a
_ _
_
1
a
e
s t
0
a

f t
0
dt
0
_
1
a
e
st
0
e
as
f t
0
dt
0
e
as
_
0
a
e
st
0
f t
0
dt
0
.,,.
equal to zero
_
1
0
e
st
0
f t
0
dt
0
.,,.
f s
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
It is always assumed that f t
0
for t
0
- 0 is equal to zero. Thus
L f t a
_ _
e
as
f s
Figure 5.25 shows the change in the behavior of a function due to the shift in
time.
5.6.5 The Initial- and Final-Value Theorems
These theorems relate the limits of t !0 and t !1in the time domain to
s !1 and s !0, respectively, in the Laplace domain.
Initial-value theorem
lim
t!0
f t lim
s!1
sf s
_ _
Figure 5.25 Behavior due to shift in time.
TM
Final-value theorem
lim
t!1
f t lim
s!0
sf s
_ _
5.6.6 Use of Laplace Transformation for the Solution of
Differential Equations
The condensed information regarding the Laplace transformation in the
previous sections is sucient to utilize it in solving linear dierential equa-
tions, as shown in the following subsection.
Consider the following dierential equation:
t
dy
dt
y Kut 5.35
For ut 1, y0 0. we get, by Laplace transformation,
tsys ys
K
s
ts 1 ys
K
s
ys
K
s ts 1
5.36
Using partial fractions, we can write the right-hand side of Eq. (5.36) in the
form
K
s ts 1
a
s
b
ts 1
We can start to obtain the constants a and b by putting the equation in the
form
K
s ts 1
a ts 1 bs
s ts 1
which gives
K at b s a
On equating the coecients, we get
a K
b Kt
TM
Thus, we can write
ys
K
s

Kt
ts 1
In a more simplied form,
ys
K
s

K
s 1,t
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of the two parts, we get
yt K Ke
t,t
yt K 1 e
t,t
_ _
5.37
This is the solution of our dierential equation.
The reader is advised to solve the same dierential equation using the
operator method (see Appendix C).
Solution of Higher-Order ODE by Laplace Transformation
Consider the second-order ODE for which y
00
represents the second deriva-
tive of y and y
0
represents the rst derivative of y:
y
00
t 5y
0
t 6yt f t 5.38
with
f t 1. y0 1.0. y
0
0 0
The Laplace transformation of the dierential Eq. (5.38) gives
s
2
ys sy0 y
0
0
_ _
5 sys y0 6ys
1
s
For y0 1.0 and y
0
0 0, this equation becomes,
s
2
ys s 0 5 sys 1 6ys
1
s
Further simplication yields
s
2
ys 5sys 6ys
1
s
s 5
Rearrangement gives
s
2
5s 6
_ _
ys
1
s
s 5
TM
From the above equation, we can obtain the expression for ys as
ys
1,s s 5
s
2
5s 6
which nally simplies to,
ys
1 s
2
5s
s s
2
5s 6
_ _ 5.39
Using partial fractions and employing the fact that
s
2
5s 6 s 3 s 2
we can write the right-hand side of Eq. (5.39) as
1 s
2
5s
s s
2
5s 6
_ _
A
s

B
s 3
C
s 2
5.40
Rearrangement gives
1 s
2
5s
s s 3 s 2
A s 3 s 2 Bs s 2 Cs s 3
s s 3 s 2
From the above equation, we get
1 s
2
5s A s
2
5s 6
_ _
B s
2
2s
_ _
C s
2
3s
_ _
1 s
2
5s s
2
A B C s 5A 2B 3C 6A
Equating the coecients give
6A 1
A B C 1
5A 2B 3C 5
On solving the above three linear algebraic equations in terms of A, B, and
C, we get
A
1
6
. B
5
3
. C
5
2
Using the inverse Laplace transformation on Eq. (5.40), we get the solution
of the dierential equation as
y t
1
6
5
3
e
3t
5
2
e
2t
TM
5.6.7 Main Process Control Applications of Laplace and
Inverse Transformations
Figure 5.26 shows a ow diagram for the Laplace transformation and
inverse transformation. It is clear that the main function of the Laplace
transformation is to put the dierential equation (in the time domain)
into an algebraic form (in the s-domain). These s-domain algebraic equa-
tions can be easily manipulated as inputoutput relations.
5.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL FORCING
FUNCTIONS
The ideal forcing functions are the following:
1. Ideal step function (Fig. 5.27)
ut
0 for t - 0
A for t > 0
_
or
ut AHt
Figure 5.26 Laplace transformation and the inverse transformation.
TM
where Ht is the Heaviside function defined as
Ht
0 for t - 0
1 for t > 0
_
The Laplace transformation of the step function is
us
A
s
2. Dirac delta function (Fig. 5.30). It is the limit of the rectangular
pulse function (Fig. 5.28). Let
A
1
b
Thus,
A b
1
b
b 1
So, as b !0. A !1.
The Dirac delta function is a rectangular-pulse function of zero
width and unit area:
L dt
_ _
_
1
0
e
st
d t dt
_
e
e
e
st
d t dt
e
0
Thus,
L dt
_ _
1
Figure 5.27 Ideal step function.
TM
For any function f t
_
t
0
e
t
0
e
d t t
0
f t dt f t
0

Here, d t t
0
is the general shifted delta function (zero every-
where except at t t
0
). For t
0
0, we get
_
e
e
d t f t dt f 0
For f t A
_
e
e
d t Adt A
3. The ideal rectangular-pulse function (Fig. 5.29)
u t
0 for t - 0
A for 0 - t - b
0 for t > b
_
_
_
Ht b
0 for t - b
1 for t > b
_
So
u t A H t H t b
Thus
u s A
1
s
e
bs
1
s
_ _
A
s
1 e
bs
_ _
Figure 5.28 Ideal rectangular pulse function which becomes Dirac as b !1.
TM
4. Ideal impulse function (Dirac delta function) (Fig. 5.30)
u t Ad t
It is innite at the point t 0 and zero elsewhere,
dt
1 for t 0
0 elsewhere
_
and
_
1
1
d t dt
_
e
e
d t dt 1
u s L u t
_ _
A
Figure 5.29 Ideal rectangular-pulse function.
Figure 5.30 Ideal impulse function.
TM
The Dirac delta function is the derivative of the unit step (or
Heaviside function) (Fig. 5.31). H t is the unit step function:
d H t
dt
d t
It is not possible to implement it exactly experimentally.
5. The ideal ramp function (Fig. 5.32)
ut
0 for t - 0
At for t > 0
_
The Laplace transformation is
u s L u t
_ _
A
s
2
6. The ideal sinusoidal function (Fig. 5.33)
ut
0 for t - 0
Asin ot for t > 0
_
The Laplace transformation is
u s L u t
_ _
Ao
s
2
o
2
It is dicult to implement exactly experimentally. However, the
response to a theoretical sinusoidal function is very useful in
process dynamics and design of controllers.
Figure 5.31 Unit step function.
TM
Realization of Ideal Forcing Functions
If the input of interest is the steam ow rate (Figure 5.34), then,
1. Step input. Open the steam valve a given percentage at t 0 such
that Q changes by A units.
2. Pulse input. Open the steam valve at t 0, hold at the new value
for a duration of b time units, and then return to the old value.
3. Impulse (impossible to realize perfectly). Open the steam valve
(wide open) at t 0 and instantaneously (or as soon as possible
thereafter) return to the initial position.
4. Ramp input. Gradually open the steam valve such that Q
increases linearly. Ramp ends when the steam valve is fully open.
5. Sinusoidal input. The only practical way to achieve this is to con-
nect a sine-wave generator to the steam valve. Realizing high-
frequency sinusoidal input may be limited by the valve dynamics.
Figure 5.32 Ideal ramp function.
Figure 5.33 Ideal sinusoidal function.
TM
Important Highlights
Process Model
. The idea of utilizing a collection of mathematical equation as a
surrogate for a physical process is at once ingenious as well as
expedient. More importantly, however, this approach has now
become indispensable to proper analysis and design of process
control systems (and also design of equipment).
. Classical control theory concentrates on the transfer-function
model in the s-domain (whether it is obtained from Laplace trans-
formation of rigorous models, or from empirical tting to the Bode
diagram of the rigorous model, or from tting to experimental
responses).
Mathematical Description of Chemical Process
. Process control requires understanding of process dynamics.
. The main use of the mathematical model is as a convenient sur-
rogate for the physical system, making it possible to investigate
system response under various input conditions, both rapidly and
inexpensively without necessarily tampering with the actual entity.
. It is usually not the exact equivalent of the process (but we can
make it so, and we should use optimum degree of sophistication).
Figure 5.34 Variables of a stirred heating tank.
TM
. Note the title lumped/distributed parameter systems (models) is
not correct because it is not the parameter that is distributed, it
is the state variable in fact.
Process Characteristics and Process Models
. Dependent variables: all inputs, output, disturbances, and so forth.
. Independent variables: time and space
. Linear and nonlinear systems.
. Lumped (ODEs) and distributed (PDEs) systems
. Discrete-time system
Even though the tacit assumption is that the variables of a process do
not ordinarily change in jumps, that they normally behave as smooth
continuous functions of time (and position), there are situations in which
output variables are deliberately sampled and control action implemented
only at discrete points at time. The process variables then appear to change
in a piecewise constant fashion with respect to the now discretized time.
Such processes are modeled by dierence equations and are referred to as
discrete-time systems.
5.8 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BLOCK DIAGRAMS,
CONTROL LOOPS, AND TYPES OF CLASSICAL
CONTROL
Laplace transformation is the best way to handle classical linear control
problems using P (proportional), I (integral), and D (derivative) controllers.
The controller is activated by the error e t (the dierence between the
measured variable and the set point) to give its output signal y t . The
relation between e t and y t depends on the type of controller used. It is
much easier to handle this relation in the Laplace domain. In the Laplace
domain, e t becomes
~
EE s and y t becomes
~
YY s and they are related to
each other through the transfer function G s .
Types of Classical Control (Fig. 5.35)
Proportional Controller
For this type of control, the time domain relation between the input and
output is
y t K
C
e t
In the Laplace domain, the relation becomes
~
YY s K
C
~
EE s
TM
Thus, the transfer function G
C
is given by G
C
K
C
for a proportional
controller.
Integral Controller
For this type of controller, the inputoutput relation in the time domain is
y t K
I
_
t
0
e t dt
In the Laplace domain, it becomes
~
YY s
K
I
s
~
EE s
Thus, G
C
K
I
,s for an integral controller.
Note that the integral relation in the time domain has changed into an
algebraic relation in the Laplace domain.
Derivative Controller
In the time domain, the inputoutput relation is
y t K
D
de t
dt
In the Laplace domain, it is
~
YY s K
D
s
~
EE s
Thus, G
C
K
D
s for a derivative controller.
Note that the dierential relation in the time domain has changed into
an algebraic relation in the Laplace domain.
Three-Mode Controller (PID: Proportional, Integral, and Derivative)
The inputoutput proportional-integral-derivative relation in the time
domain is
y t K
C
e t K
I
_
t
0
e t dt K
D
de t
dt
In the Laplace domain, the above relation becomes an algebraic relation:
Figure 5.35 Inputoutput relation.
TM
~
YY s K
C
~
EE s
K
I
s
~
EE s K
D
s
~
EE s
which can be rearranged in the simpler form
~
YY s K
C
K
I
s
K
D
s
_ _
~
EE s
Thus,
G
C
K
C
K
I
s
K
D
s
_ _
for a PID controller.
A Very Simple Example
Consider the tank shown in Figure 5.36. The unsteady-state mass balance
equation is given by the dierential equation
A
dh
dt
q
i
q
0
5.41
where A is the cross-sectional area of the tank and h is the liquid height
inside the tank.
Figure 5.36 Filling tank with feedback proportional controller.
TM
With the initial condition (at steady state) given by t 0, h h
SS
. q
i

q
iSS
. q
0
q
0SS
which means that at t 0, the system is at steady state.
We dene deviation (or hat) variables as follows:
^
hh h h
SS
^ qq
i
q
i
q
iSS
^ qq
0
q
0
q
0SS
Thus, the dierential Eq. (5.41) becomes
A
d
^
hh
dt
^ qq
i
q
iSS
^ qq
0
q
0SS

A
d
^
hh
dt
^ qq
i
^ qq
0
q
iSS
q
0SS

.,,.
zero
Thus, the above equation simplies to give
A
d
^
hh
dt
^ qq
i
^ qq
0
5.42
with the initial condition at t 0.
^
hh 0. ^ qq
i
0, and ^ qq
0
0, which means
that all deviation (hat) variables are equal to zero at initial time.
The Laplace transform of Eq. (5.42) gives
As
~
hh s ~ qq
i
s ~ qq
0
s
~
hh s
1
As
~ qq
i
s
1
As
~ qq
0
s 5.43
This is the open-loop equation (without the eect of feedback control)
in the Laplace domain.
We can put the equation in the form of the shown open-loop block
diagram in Figure 5.37,
Closed Loop (Including the Effect of the Feedback Control)
Consider a proportional controller relating
~
hh s to ~ qq
0
s . In time scale, we
consider a very simple proportional controller making the ow rate out of
the tank proportional to the height in the tank (this is an approximation to
explain the steps without the lengthy linearization steps):
q
0
K
C
h
TM
Note: We consider q
0
/ h rather than q
0
/
h
p
for simplicity of illustra-
tion. We will discuss the nonlinear case and the associated linearization
process later.
Using deviation variables, we can write
q
0
q
0SS
K
C
h K
C
h
SS
In terms of deviation (hat) variables,
^ qq
0
K
C
^
hh
Taking the Laplace transform of the above equation gives
~ qq
0
s K
C
~
hh s .
Because ^ qq
0
0 0 and
^
hh 0 0 (5.44)
We can represent this in a block diagram as shown in Figure 5.38.
From equations (5.43) and (5.44), we get
~
hh s
1
As
~ qq
i
s
1
As
K
C
~
hh s 5.45
Figure 5.37 Block diagram for the open-loop system.
Figure 5.38 Block diagram for the closed-loop control.
TM
Closed-Loop Block Diagram
From Eq. (5.45), we can construct the following closed-loop (feedback)
block diagram as shown in Figure 5.39. We can also rearrange Eq. (5.45)
into the following form:
~
hh s 1
K
C
As
_ _
1
As
~ qq
i
s
The above equation can be reduced to
~
hh s
1,As
1 K
C
,As
~ qq
i
s
~
hh s G
C
s ~ qq
i
s 5.46
where
G
C
s
1,As
1 K
C
,As
Equation (5.46) can be drawn as shown in Figure 5.40.
A more general form for the closed loop (feedback) controlled process
can be drawn as in Figure 5.41.
Figure 5.39 Alternate block diagram for the closed-loop control.
TM
The transfer functions for the dierent parts can be written as follows:
Process, Open-Loop Equation
X s G
d
s D s G
P
s C s 5.47
Controller Equation
C s G
C
s X s 5.48
From relations (5.47) and (5.48), we obtain
X s G
d
s D s G
P
s G
C
s X s
which can be rearranged in the form
X s 1 G
P
s G
C
s G
d
s D s
Figure 5.40 Block diagram for Eq. (5.46).
Figure 5.41 A more general block diagram.
TM
Finally, we get the relation between the output X s and the disturbance
D s :
X s
G
d
s
1 G
P
s G
C
s
D s
Of course, this relation can be written as
X s G s D s
where G s is the overall transfer function given by
G s
G
d
s
1 G
P
s G
C
s
For the Tank Problem
G
d
s
1
As
and
G
P
s
1
As
For the proportional controller,
G
C
s K
C
C
SS
K
C
. where C
SS
is the valve coefficient and
K
C
is the proportional gain of the controller)
so we get
X s
.,,.
~
hh s
1,As
1 K
C
1,As
D s
.,,.
~ qq
i
s
Response to a Step Input in the Feed
Figure 5.42 shows the step change in input ow rate q
i
to the tank and its
eect on the deviation variable ^ qq
i
q
i
q
iSS
. For this step function, we have
in term of the deviation variable ^ qq
i
:
For t - 0, ^ qq
i
0.
For t ! 0. ^ qq
i
A
The Laplace transformation for ~ qq
i
s D s is given by
D s
A
s
TM
Therefore, X s
~
hh s is given by
X s
1,As
1 K
C
1,As
A
s

1
As
1
1 K
C
1,As
A
s
A
A
1
s
1
s
1
As K
C
,As
A
A
1
s
2
As
As K
C
Thus, after some simple manipulations, X s is given by
X s A
1
s K
C
As
_ _ 5.49
Using partial fractions, we get
1
s K
C
As
_ _
a
1
s

a
2
K
C
As
a
1
K
C
As
_ _
a
2
s
s K
C
As
_ _
a
1
K
C
Aa
1
a
2
s
s K
C
As
_ _
From the above relation, we get
a
1
K
C
1
giving
a
1

1
K
C
Figure 5.42 Step change in input ow rate and corresponding change in deviation
variable (not to scale).
TM
and
a
1
A a
2
0. leading to
a
2

A
K
C
Thus, we can write
1
s K
C
As
_ _
1,K
C
s

A,K
C
K
C
As
Therefore, relation (5.49) becomes
X s
1
K
C
1
s 0
1
K
C
1
s K
C
,A
_ _
_ _
A 5.50
Taking the inverse Laplace transformation of Eq. (5.50), we get
X t
^
hh t
A
K
C
e
0t
e
K
C
,At
_ _
5.51
Let us say
K
C
A

1
t
We get
^
hh t
A
K
C
1 e
t,t
_ _
5.52
Does
^
hh t go to zero as t !1 (i.e., h !h
SS
?
The answer is no; there is an oset which decreases as K
C
increases,
^
hh 1
A
K
C
offset
Thus, as K
C
increases, the oset decreases, as can be seen in Figure 5.43.
Note that at steady state, the deviation variables (after the step increase in ^ qq
i
and without controller) will be given by the simple relation
^ qq
i
A C
SS
h
SS
new
h
SS
_ _
Thus, the new steady state due to the input increase (without controller) will
be
h
SS
new
h
SS

^
hh
SS
new

A
C
SS
TM
Now, when we have a proportional controller with a proportional
gain K
C
, we get
q
0
C
SS
h K
C
h h
SS

Here K
C
is the controller proportional gain. When h h
SS
(at steady state),
we have
q
0SS
C
SS
h
SS
Using the above two equations, we get the deviation variable
^ qq
0
C
SS
K
C

^
hh K
C
^
hh
Thus, as K
C
increases, K
C
increases over C
SS
. The response becomes faster
and the oset smaller, as seen in Figure 5.44.
If K
C
0, then K
C
C
SS
. Note that in all of the above calculations,
we have used the relation q
0
Ch for simplicity to illustrate the main ideas
(in fact, we should have used q
0
C
h
p
). For K
C
> 0, it goes toward
^
hh 1 A,K
C
offset . As K
C
increases, the oset decreases. When
K
C
)1.0, then the system tends to
^
hh 0, which is the original steady
state or the set point.
What if the Controller Is PI?
In this case, the controller transfer function is given by
G
C
s K
C
K
I
s
_ _
Therefore,
X s
.,,.
~
hh s
1,As
,..,
G
d
s
1 1,As
.,,.
G
P
s
K
C
K
I
,s
_ _
.,,.
G
C
s
D s
.,,.
~ qq
i
s
5.53
Figure 5.43 Eect on oset.
TM
For a step input, ~ qq
i
s A,s
Thus, from Eq. (5.53), we get
~
hh s
1,As
1 1,As K
C
K
I
,s
_ _
A
s
5.54
On simplication, Eq. (5.54) gives
~
hh s
A
As
2
As
2
K
C
s K
I
As
2
_ _
1
A
As
2
K
C
s K
I
5.55
Using partial fractions for Eq. (5.55), we get
~
hh s
A
s z
1
s z
2

a
1
s z
1
a
2
s z
2
a
1
s a
1
z
2
a
2
s a
2
z
1
s z
1
s z
2

a
1
a
2
0
thus giving a
1
a
2
, and
a
1
z
2
a
2
z
1
A
which gives a
1
A,z
2
z
1
. From the above two equations, we obtain
a
1

A
z
2
z
1
and a
2

A
z
1
z
2
Now, to calculate z
1
and z
2
,
z
1.2

K
C
K
2
C
4AK
I
_
2A
Figure 5.44 Eect of controller.
TM
So,
z
1
z
2

1
2A
K
C
K
2
C
4AK
I
_
K
C
K
2
C
4AK
I
_ _ _
giving
z
1
z
2

1
A
K
2
C
4AK
I
_ _ _
To have real values, choose 4AK
I
- K
2
C
. Thus,
z
1
z
2

1
A
K
2
C
4AK
I
_ _ _
and z
2
z
1

1
A
K
2
C
4AK
I
_ _ _
On taking the inverse Laplace transformation of
~
hh s
a
1
s z
1

a
2
s z
2

we get
^
hh t a
1
e
z
1
t
a
2
e
z
2
t
Substitution of the values of a
1
and a
2
gives
^
hh t
A
z
2
z
1
e
z
1
t
A
z
1
z
2
e
z
2
t
^
hh t
A
z
1
z
2
e
z
2
t
e
z
1
t
_ _
5.56
If both z
1
and z
2
are negative, then the closed-loop control system is stable,
and as t !1, the value of
^
hh t !0, as can be observed from Eq. (5.56).
What is the condition that z
1
and z
2
are negative? It is that K
C
> 0
and 4AK
I
> 0 (and the condition of 4AK
I
- K
2
C
is also satised) which is, of
course, always satised. Thus, it is clear that the integral control action
always prevents the oset, since z
1
and z
2
are always negative.
Another Example: Feedback Control of a CSTR
Consider the rst-order irreversible chemical reaction
A !B
with rate of reaction equal to r kC
A
taking place in the continuous-stirred
tank reactor (CSTR) shown in Figure 5.45. The CSTR is assumed to be
isothermal.
TM
Open Loop, Uncontrolled
We start by looking at the open-loop (uncontrolled) case. The rst step is to
develop the dynamic model. The dynamic mass balance equation is given by
the relation
n
i
dn
i
dt
n
if
Vo
i
r
Considering a constant ow rate and constant volume, we get
n
i
qC
i
. n
if
qC
if
.
dn
i
dt
V
dC
i
dt
Writing the balance for component A gives
qC
Af
VkC
A
qC
A
V
dC
A
dt
The above equation can be rewritten as
V
q
_ _
.,,.
t
,..,
residence
time
dC
A
dt
C
Af
C
A
_ _
Vk
q
_ _
.,,.
a
C
A
Figure 5.45 Continuous-stirred tank reactor.
TM
where
t
V
q
a
Vk
q
In terms of normalized parameters, it can be written as
t
dC
A
dt
C
Af
C
A
_ _
aC
A
5.57
For the control problem the initial condition is at t 0 and C
A
C
A
SS
. We
obtain the steady state C
A
SS
from the steady-state equation
C
Af
1 a C
A
SS
C
A
SS

C
Af
1 a
C
Af
1 Vk,q
qC
Af
q Vk
Subtracting
V
dC
A
dt
q C
Af
C
A
_ _
VkC
A
from
V
dC
A
SS
dt
q C
Af
SS
C
A
SS
_ _
VkC
A
SS
to get the unsteady-state equation in terms of deviation variables, we get the
following equation in terms of deviation variables:
V
d
^
CC
A
dt
q
^
CC
Af

^
CC
A
_ _
Vk
^
CC
A
5.58
where
^
CC
A
C
A
C
A
SS
^
CC
Af
C
Af
C
Af
SS
with initial condition at t 0,
^
CC
A
0 and
^
CC
Af
0.
Laplace transformation of Eq. (5.58) gives
Vs
~
CC
A
s q
~
CC
Af
s q Vk
~
CC
A
s
The above equation can be rearranged as
~
CC
A
s Vs q Vk q
~
CC
Af
s
TM
Finally, the relation between the output
~
CC
A
s and the input
~
CC
Af
s is given by
~
CC
A
s
q
Vs q Vk
~
CC
Af
s 5.59
Equation (5.59) can be put in the form of a block diagram, as shown in
Figure 5.46.
Now, if
q Vk
q
a
0
we get
~
CC
A
s
V
q
.,,.
t
s
q Vk
q
.,,.
a
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
~
CC
Af
s
Thus, the above equation becomes
~
CC
A
s
1
ts a
0
~
CC
Af
s 5.60
Therefore, the inputoutput relation in the Laplace domain is given by
~
CC
A
s
1
a
0
ts
~
CC
Af
s 5.61
Consider a step function in the feed concentration; thus
~
CC
Af
s
A
s
where A is the size of the step. So, for this input, we get the following
response (output) using Eq. (5.61):
~
CC
A
s
1
a
0
ts
A
s
TM
~
CC
A
s
A
t
1
s a
0
,t s 0
_ _
Using partial fractions, we get
1
s a
0
,t
.,,.
g
_
_
_
_
s 0
a
1
s g
a
2
s

a
1
s a
2
s a
2
g
s g s
where
g
a
0
t
a
2
g 1
therefore,
a
2

1
g
and
a
1
a
2
0
so it gives
a
1

1
g
Thus, we get the response (still in the Laplace domain but rearranged for the
ease of inversion)
~
CC
A
s
A
t
1,g
s g
1,g
s 0
_ _
5.62
On taking the inverse Laplace transformation of Eq. (5.62), we get
~
CC
A
t
A
a
0
1 e
a
0
,tt
_ _
5.63
Old Steady State (for
^
CC
Af
=0 and New Steady State (for
^
CC
Af
=A)
The old steady state
^
CC
A
SS
old
_ _
is given for the following conditions:
^
CC
Af
0 and
^
CC
A
SS
0
TM
The new steady state
^
CC
A
SS
new
_ _
(Fig. 5.47) can be obtained from the
steady state equation
0 q
^
CC
Af
.,,.
A
^
CC
A
SS
new
_
_
_
_
_
_
Vk
^
CC
A
SS
new
which gives
q Vk
^
CC
A
SS
new
Aq
thus giving the new steady state as
^
CC
A
SS
new

Aq
q Vk
Of course, the same can be obtained by setting t !1 in Eq. (5.63).
What if we apply a feedback control?
. Deviations of C
A
from C
A
SS
are used to manipulate q (assume
that the ow rate response is constant, with no time delays, i.e.,
q
in
q
out
q always and the volume V is also constant).
. Note that as the ow rate increases, C
A
increases and vice versa. In
other words, when we want to compensate for an increase in C
A
,
we should decrease q.
Thus, for proportional control,
q q
SS
K C
A
SS
C
A
_ _
because when C
A
is higher than C
A
SS
, we want to decrease C
A
, of course, and
in order to decrease it, we should decrease q and vice versa. Thus, the
dynamic equation with the feedback controller becomes,
Figure 5.47 Attainment of new steady state.
TM
q
SS
K C
A
SS
C
A
_ _ _ _
.,,.
q
c
C
Af
VkC
A
V
dC
A
dt
C
A
q
SS
K C
A
SS
C
A
_ _ _ _
.,,.
q
c
5.64
Note the weak nonlinearity resulting from the control in the left-hand side
as well as the last term of the equation on the right-hand side.
The Steady-State Equation
The open-loop steady state is obtained by putting C
A
SS
C
A
0 in Eq.
(5.64):
q
SS
C
Af
SS
VkC
A
SS
V
dC
A
SS
dt
q
SS
C
A
SS
5.65
The closed-loop (controlled) steady-state equation is given by
q
SS
C
Af
K C
A
SS
C
A
_ _
C
Af
VkC
A
V
dC
A
dt
q
SS
C
A
K C
A
SS
C
A
_ _
C
A
5.66
Subtract Eq. (5.65) from Eq. (5.66) and dene the following deviation vari-
ables:
^
CC
A
C
A
C
A
SS
^
CC
Af
C
Af
C
Af
SS
Equation (5.66) in terms of deviation (or hat) variables becomes
q
SS
^
CC
Af
K C
Af
^
CC
A
.,,.
a
Vk
^
CC
A
V
d
^
CC
A
dt
q
SS
^
CC
A
K C
A
^
CC
A
.,,.
b
^
CC
A
0 and
^
CC
Af
0. Note that we have two
nonlinear terms a and b . For linear analysis, we need to linearize them.
For nonlinear analysis, we can solve numerically and we do not need to
linearize them.
5.9 LINEARIZATION
For the term labeled a in the above equation,
C
Af
^
CC
A
C
Af
C
A
SS
C
A
_ _
C
Af
C
A
SS
.,,.
linear in C
Af
C
Af
C
A
.,,.
nonlinear
To linearize the nonlinear term (last term of the above relation), we use the
Taylors series expansion (and neglecting the higher-order terms), we get
TM
C
Af
C
A
C
Af
SS
C
A
SS

o C
Af
C
A
_ _
oC
A
SS
C
A
SS
C
A
_ _
o C
Af
C
A
_ _
oC
Af
SS
C
Af
SS
C
Af
_ _
Thus, the nonlinear term a is given in the following linearized form:
C
Af
C
A
C
Af
SS
C
A
SS
C
Af
SS
^
CC
A
C
A
SS
^
CC
Af
.,,.
linearized form of C
Af
C
A
5.67
Therefore, using Eq. (5.67), we get the expression of C
Af
^
CC
A
a as follows,
C
Af
^
CC
A
C
Af
C
A
SS
.,,.
linear in C
Af
C
Af
C
A
.,,.
non-linear
C
Af
C
A
SS
C
Af
SS
C
A
SS
.,,.
^
CC
Af
C
A
SS
C
Af
SS
^
CC
A
C
A
SS
^
CC
Af

^
CC
Af
C
A
SS
C
Af
SS
^
CC
A
C
A
SS
^
CC
Af
2
^
CC
Af
C
A
SS
C
Af
SS
^
CC
A
Thus, the nonlinear term a has been linearized.
The reader is encouraged to do the same for the other nonlinear term
(b) and analyze the resulting linear dierential equation.
The reader should show the conditions for the stability of the system
also show the eect of the proportional controller gain on stability, speed of
response, and oset.
5.10 SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
Second-order models are usually used to empirically represent some pro-
cesses (D.J. Cooper, Control Station for WindowsA Software for Process
Control Analysis, Tuning and Training. http://www.ControlStation.com).
Consider a typical second-order system described by the following
second-order dierential equation:
a
2
d
2
y
dt
2
a
1
dy
dt
a
0
y bf t 5.68
Here, y is the state variable, t is an independent variable (time), f t is the
forcing function (nonhomogeneous term), and a
0
, a
1
, a
2
and b are the para-
meters. Usually, the typical dierential Eq. (5.68) for second-order systems
is written in a dierent form:
TM
t
2
d
2
y
dt
2
2xt
dy
dt
y K
P
f t 5.69
where
t
a
2
a
0
_
x
a
1
2

a
0
a
2
p
K
P

b
a
0
The physical signicance of the above parameters are as follows: t is the
natural period of oscillation of the system [the autonomous system when
f t 0], x is damping factor, and K
P
is static (steady state) gain of the
system
If Eq. (5.69) is in terms of deviation variables (or the hat variables) and
^ yy 0 0.
d ^ yy 0
dt
0. and
d
2
^ yy 0
dt
2
0
then the Laplace transformation of Eq. (5.69) gives
t
2
s
2
~ yy s 2xts ~ yy s ~ yy s K
P
~
ff s
which can be arranged in the following input
~
ff s and output ~ yy s form:
~ yy s
K
P
t
2
s
2
2xts 1
_ _
.,,.
transfer functionGS
~
ff s 5.70
The transfer function is given by
G s
K
P
t
2
s
2
2xts 1
_ _
5.71
Response to Unit Step Input
For a unit step input,
~
ff s is given by
~
ff s
1
s
So, using Eq. (5.70), we get the output ~ yy s in the form
~ yy s
K
P
t
2
s
2
2xts 1
_ _
1
s
TM
Using the partial fractions (or Heaviside theorem), we can obtain the inverse
Laplace transform.
Suppose the roots of t
2
s
2
2xts 1 are z
1
and z
2
; we can write
~ yy s
K
P
s 0 s z
1
s z
2

and
z
1
. z
2

2xt
4x
2
t
2
4t
2
_
2t
2
which gives
z
1

x
t
x
2
1
_
t
and z
2

x
t
x
2
1
_
t
It is clear that the character of z
1
and z
2
will depend on the value of x:
1. For x > 1.0, both z
1
and z
2
are real (the system is called over-
damped).
2. For x 1.0, z
1
and z
2
are equal to x,t (the system is called
critically damped). These are repeated roots, so the reader is
advised to be careful while taking the inverse transform.
3. For x - 1.0, z
1
and z
2
are complex in nature (the system is called
underdamped or oscillatory).
5.10.1 Overdamped, Critically Damped, and Underdamped
Responses
The reader is advised to do the complete analytical manipulation for the
three cases.
. x > 1.0, distinct real roots
. x 1.0, repeated real roots
. x - 1.0, complex roots
The typical responses for the above-mentioned cases are shown in Figure
5.48.
5.10.2 Some Details Regarding the Underdamped Response
As an example for the reader, some analysis of the underdamped system is
given here (refer to Figure 5.49). Note the following:
. o radian frequency (radians per unit time)
. f cyclic frequency (cycles per unit time)
. T period of one cycle 1,f
. o 2f 2,T
TM
The main characteristics of the response are as follows:
1. Overshoot
A
B
exp
x
1 x
2
_
_ _
2. Decay ratio
C
A
exp
2x
1 x
2
_
_ _
overshoot
2
Figure 5.48 Typical overdamped, critically damped, and underdamped systems.
Figure 5.49 Typical underdamped system.
TM
3. Period of oscillation
T
2t
1 x
2
_
2
o
.
where o
1 x
2
_
,t
4. Natural period of oscillation
T
natural
T when x 0 i.e., T
natural
2t
5. Response time: When the system approaches 5% of its nal
value, it is considered that the system has reached practically
the steady state and the time elapsed is the response time.
6. Rise time: It is the time when the response curve cuts the hori-
zontal steady-state line for the rst time.
5.11 COMPONENTS OF FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOPS
Figure 5.50 shows the typical components found in a control loop. It can be
seen that there are four main components involved: process, measuring
device, controller, and the nal control element. The controller mechanism
gets the value of the set point and directs the nal control element to carry
out the actions. Disturbances enter the system through the process, which
aect the process variables.
Figure 5.50 Typical components of a control loop.
TM
Example 1: Pressure control
Figure 5.51 shows an example of a tank pressure control mechanism. It can
be seen that the measured variable is the pressure inside the tank. The
controller mechanism receives the pressure value and its set point and
accordingly directs the control valve to either open or close to keep the
pressure constant inside the tank.
Example 2: Temperature control
Figure 5.52 shows the control loop for a heat exchanger. The outlet tem-
perature of the uid to be heated is the measured variable and it is sent to
the controller mechanism to be compared with the temperature set point.
Based on the error, the controller takes action to either increase or decrease
the steam ow rate into the heat exchanger.
5.12 BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA
5.12.1 Typical Feedback Control Loop and the Transfer
Functions
In this subsection, we present the typical control loop (as shown in Fig. 5.53)
with its transfer functions, inputsoutputs, and their relations. It is also a
simple introduction to block diagram algebra.
Figure 5.51 Typical tank pressure control loop.
TM
The process: The input variables [m s and d s ] enter the process and
the transfer functions are related through the relation
y s G
P
s m s G
d
s d s
The measuring device: The input, output, and transfer function of the
measuring instrument are related through the relation
y
m
s G
m
s y s
Figure 5.52 Typical temperature control loop for heat exchanger.
Figure 5.53 Typical control loop with transfer functions and inputoutput
variables.
TM
Controller mechanism: The controller is formed of the following two
parts:
Comparator: This part has the following relation producing the error
between the measured variable and the set point:
e s y
sp
s y
m
s
Controller: This part produces the controller action C s from the error
e s , where G
c
s is the transfer function of the controller depending
on the mode of the controller, as shown earlier:
C s G
c
s e s
Final control element: The relation for the nal control element is given
by (usually the nal control element is a valve)
m s G
f
s C s
5.12.2 Algebraic Manipulation of the Loop Transfer
Functions
Backward substitution into the process equation gives
m s G
f
s G
c
s e s
Substitution of the e s value gives
m s G
f
s G
c
s y
sp
s y
m
s
_ _
Substitution of y
m
s gives
m s G
f
s G
c
s by
sp
s G
m
s y s c
Substituting into the process equation gives the relation
y s G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s y
sp
s G
m
s y s
_ _ _ _
G
d
s d s
which is further expanded to give
y s G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s
_ _
y
sp
s G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s G
m
s
_ _
y s G
d
s d s
Rearrangement of the above equation gives
y s 1 G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s G
m
s
_ _
G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s
_ _
.,,.
G s
y
sp
s G
d
s d s
5.72
The forward path overall transfer function is equal to
G s G
P
s G
f
s G
c
s
TM
Thus, Eq. (5.72) can be written as
y s 1 G s G
m
s G s y
sp
s G
d
s d s
y s
G s
1 G s G
m
s
_ _
.,,.
G
sp
s
y
sp
s
G
d
s
1 G s G
m
s
_ _
.,,.
G
load
s
d s
Now, we dene
G
sp
s
G s
1 G s G
m
s
and G
load
s
G
d
s
1 G s G
m
s
Thus, we get
y s G
sp
s y
sp
s G
load
s d s 5.73
Equation (5.73) can be illustrated as a block diagram, as shown in Figure
5.54.
Two types of closed-loop controls use the following:
1. The disturbance does not change, it is the set point which changes
d s 0
_ _
. This is called the servo problem and the process
equation becomes
y s G
sp
s y
sp
s
2. The set point is constant y
sp
s 0
_ _
, but the disturbance
changes. This is called the regulatory problem and the process
equation becomes
y s G
load
s d s
TM
Example: Control of the Liquid Level in a Tank
In this example, the liquid level inside a tank is controlled using a DPC
(dierential pressure cell). The DPC sends out the measured variable to the
comparator, where it is compared with the set point. Based on the error, the
control action is transmitted to the nal control element (a control valve) in
order to either increase or decrease the outow rate of liquid from the tank,
as shown in Figure 5.55.
5.12.3 Block Diagram and Transfer Functions
These are related to the model equations shown earlier and are repeated
again here (see Fig. 5.56).
The transfer functions in the process part of the loop G
p
and G
d
: The dy-
namic equation can be simply written as
A
dh
dt
q
i
q
0
5.74
In terms of deviation variables
A
d
^
hh
dt
^ qq
i
^ qq
0
5.75
with initial condition, at t 0,
^
hh 0, ^ qq
i
0, and ^ qq
0
0. Taking the Laplace
transformation of Eq. (5.75) yields
As
~
hh s ~ qq
i
s ~ qq
0
s
Figure 5.55 Liquid-level control in a tank.
TM
and rearrangement gives
~
hh s
1
As
~ qq
i
s
1
As
~ qq
0
s 5.76
The transfer function for the measuring instrument G
m
s : The measuring
device is a DPC. It will be described in most cases by a second-order
system as follows:
t
2
d
2
h
m
dt
2
2xt
dh
m
dt
h
m
K
P
P K
P
ah 5.77
After Laplace transformation, Eq. (5.77) can be put in the following form:
~
hh
m
s
~
hh s
aK
P
t
2
s
2
2xts 1
G
m
s 5.78
Comparator:
~ ee s
~
hh
m
s
~
hh
sp
s 5.79
The transfer function for the controller (PI controller):
~
CC s
~ ee s
K
C
1
1
t
I
s
_ _
G
C
s 5.80
where
t
I
K
C
1
K
I
gives
K
C
t
I
K
I
Figure 5.56 Block diagrams and transfer functions.
TM
Control valve (nal control element) for a rst-order system
~ qq
0
s
~
CC s
K
V
1 t
I
s
G
f
s 5.81
Algebraic manipulations: Equation (5.76) can be rewritten as
~
hh s
1
As
.,,.
G
d
s
~ qq
i
s
.,,.
d
i
s
1
As
.,,.
G
p
s
~ qq
0
s
Making use of relations (5.78)(5.81), we get
~
hh s G
d
s
~
dd
i
s G
p
s G
f
s C s
G
d
s
~
dd
i
s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s ~ ee s
G
d
s
~
dd
i
s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s
~
hh
m
s
~
hh
sp
s
G
d
s
~
dd
i
s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s G
m
s
~
hh s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s
~
hh
sp
s
Rearrangement gives
1 G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s G
m
s
_ _
~
hh s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s
.,,.
G s
~
hh
sp
s G
d
s
~
dd
i
s
Set
G s G
p
s G
f
s G
c
s
to get
1 G s G
m
s
~
hh s G s
~
hh
sp
s G
d
s
~
dd
i
s
Rearranging gives
~
hh s
G s
1 G s G
m
s
.,,.
G
sp
s
~
hh
sp
s
G
d
s
1 G s G
m
s
.,,.
G
load
s
~
dd
i
s 5.82
In shorter notation
~
hh s G
sp
s
~
hh
sp
s G
load
s
~
dd
i
s 5.83
The above relation can be drawn as shown in Figure 5.57.
Servo problem:
~
dd
i
s 0
TM
Regulatory control:
~ yy
sp
s 0
For the regulatory problem
~
hh s
~
dd
i
s
G
d
s
1 G s G
m
s
Substitution of the values of G
d
s , G s , and G
m
s gives
~
hh s
~
dd
i
s
1
As
_ _
1
1
As
K
C
1
1
t
I
s
_ _
K
V
1 t
V
s
_ _
aK
p
t
2
p
s
2
2xt
p
s 1
_ _ _ _
1
5.84
5.13 SOME TECHNIQUES FOR CHOOSING THE
CONTROLLER SETTINGS
There are a wide range of techniques for nding the optimal settings of
controllers. With the advent of digital control, most of these techniques
are now obsolete; however, some of them are still used as guidelines. We
give a very brief idea regarding these techniques in this section.
5.13.1 Choosing the Controller Settings
Many criteria can be used to nd the optimal controller settings. Some of
them are based on the time response and others on the frequency response.
We will give an example of the time response criteria. The dierent
performance criteria that can be used include the following:
1. Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible.
2. Achieve short settling times.
Figure 5.57 Block diagrams and transfer functions for Eq. (5.83).
TM
3. Minimize the integral of the errors until the process settles down
to the desired set point.
4. And others depending on the process and its requirements.
How does one achieve that? It may be through the following:
1. Certain limit on overshoot.
2. Criterion for rise time and/or settling time.
3. Choosing an optimal value for the decay ratio.
4. Some characteristics for the frequency response.
5. Other techniques not covered here.
Sometimes, a combination of a number of dierent criteria is used.
Figure 5.58 shows the response of system to a unit step change in load
for dierent controllers, namely proportional (P), integral (I) and derivative
(D).
Example
We will illustrate one of the techniques using the tank problem. For the tank
problem explained earlier, take G
m
G
f
1.0 and look at the servo
problem d
i
s 0
_ _
; we substitute the values of G s and G
m
s to get
y s
t
I
s 1
t
2
s
2
2xts 1
y
sp
s 5.85
where
t
t
I
t
p
K
P
K
C
_
and x
1
2
t
I
t
p
K
P
K
C
_
1 K
P
K
C

Figure 5.58 Response to unit step change in load.
TM
A step response of y s for a unit step input in y
sp
s gives that the decay
ratio is equal to
Decay ratio
C
A
exp
2x
1 x
2
_
_ _
C
A
exp
2
1
2
t
I
,t
p
K
P
K
C
1 K
P
K
C

_
1
1
4
t
I
,t
p
K
P
K
C
_ _
1 K
P
K
C

2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ 5.86
One of the most widely used criterion is that
C
A
1
4
5.87
Using criterion (5.87) together with Eq. (5.86) and after some manipula-
tions, we get
2
t
I
4t
p
K
P
K
C
t 1 K
P
K
C

2
_
_
_
_
_
1 K
P
K
C
ln
1
4
_ _
5.88
For a given process, generally t
p
and K
P
are known (e.g., take t
p
10 and
K
P
0.1). Now, we have an equation in t
I
and K
C
, and for each value of K
C
,
we will get a corresponding value of t
I
, as shown in Table 5.2. The nal choice
depends upon good chemical engineering understanding of the process.
5.13.2 Criteria for Choosing the Controller Settings from
the Time Response
Mainly time integral performance criteria are used:
e t y
sp
t y t or y t y
sp
t
The following are typical examples:
1. Minimize the integral of the square error (ISE)
ISE
_
1
0
e
2
t dt
Table 5.2 Different Values of t
I
and K
C
K
C
1.0 10.0 30.0 50.0 100.0
t
I
0.127 0.12 0.022 0.007 0.001
TM
2. Minimize the integral of the absolute value of the error (IEA)
IEA
_
1
0
e t
dt
3. Minimize the integral of the time-weighted absolute error (ITAE)
ITAE
_
1
0
t e t
dt
Which one of the above criterion has to be chosen? Again, it depends on the
process characteristics.
5.13.3 Cohen and Coon Process Reaction Curve Method
This is one of popular techniques for choosing controller settings. From
Figure 5.59,
~ yy
m
s
~
CC s
G
f
G
p
G
m
.,,.
G
PRC
where
G
PRC
G
f
G
p
G
m
Thus
~ yy
m
s G
PRC
s
~
CC s
For a step input in
~
CC s A,s (where A is the amplitude of the step input),
we get a response like the one shown in Figure 5.60.
Figure 5.59 Block diagram.
TM
G
PRC
s can be approximated by
G
PRC
s
~ yy
m
s
~
CC s
Ke
t
d
s
1 ts
where
K
B
A
and t
B
S
Choosing the Controller Setting According to COHEN and COON
1. For proportional (P),
G
PRC
s K
C

1
K
t
t
d
1
t
d
3t
_ _
2. For proportional-integral (PI),
where,
G
PRC
s K
C
1
1
t
I
s
_ _
K
C

1
K
t
t
d
0.9
t
d
12t
_ _
Figure 5.60 Response to a step input.
TM
And,
t
I
t
d
30 3t
d
,t
9 20t
d
,t
_ _
3. For proportionalintegraldierential PID .
G
PRC
s K
C
1
1
t
I
s
t
D
s
_ _
and we get,
K
C

1
K
t
t
d
4
3
t
d
4t
_ _
where,
t
I
t
d
32 6t
d
,t
13 8t
d
,t
_ _
for G
c
s K
C
K
I
s
K
D
s
and
t
D
t
d
4
11 2t
d
,t
_ _
This empirical technique can also be used without development of
a model, through obtaining the response curve experimentally.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Solved Example 5.1
Figure 5.61 shows an underground tank used for storing gasoline for sale to
the public. Recently, engineers believe that a leak has developed, which
Figure 5.61 Schematic diagram for Solved Example 5.1.
TM
threatens the environment. Your supervisor has assigned you the task of
modeling the height in the tank as a function of the supply ow F
1
, the sales
ow F
2
, and the unmeasured leakage F
3
. It is assumed that this leakage is
proportional to the height of liquid in the tank (i.e., F
3
bh). The tank is a
cylinder with constant cross-sectional area A. The density of gasoline is r
and assumed to be constant. Find the transfer-function model for the level
in the tank as a function of the supply ow and the sales ow. Which of
these input variables would you describe as a control variable and which you
describe as a disturbance variable?
Solution
. We have to get the relation between h, F
1
, and F
2
[i.e., h f F
1
. F
2
.
. Unmeasured leakage F
3
bh; usually, it is F
3
b
h
p
. However, to
keep equation linear we use this linear relation.
. Density and area of the cross section of the tank are constant.
We write the generalized mass balance as
n
i
dn
i
dt
n
if
Reaction
.,,.
zero
Thus, we get
n
2
n
3
dn
dt
n
1
Because the density and molecular weight of gasoline coming in and going
out are same, we get
F
2
F
3
dV
dt
F
1
and we can write
V Ah
where A constant. On dierentiation, we get
dV
dt
A
dh
dt
Also,
F
3
bh
Thus, we get
A
dh
dt
F
1
F
2
bh
TM
with initial condition at t 0, h h
0
. The disturbance variable will be F
1
and the control variable is h.
Note 1: You can have the control variable as F
2
also, because you can
have control over the pumping out of gasoline. Also, if you have a mea-
surement of h, you can use F
2
as the manipulated variable to keep h close
to the value you want.
Note 2: If we x the leakage, then F
3
0, and the model equation be-
comes
A
dh
dt
F
1
F
2
with initial condition, at t 0, h h
0
.
The steady state of the tank is when the dierential term is equal to
zero; hence, we get
F
1SS
F
2SS
bh
SS
0
Let us dene the following deviation variables:
^
hh h h
SS
^
FF
1
F
1
F
1SS
^
FF
2
F
2
F
2SS
Thus, the unsteady-state equation can be written in terms of deviation
variables as follows:
A
d
^
hh
dt

^
FF
1
^
FF
2
b
^
hh
^
hh 0.
Taking the Laplace transforms of the above equation and rearrange-
ment gives the required transfer-function model:
~
hh s
~
FF
1
s
As b
~
FF
2
s
As b
Or we can write
~
hh s
1,b
~
FF
1
s
A,bs 1

1,b
~
FF
2
s
A,bs 1
Solved Example 5.2
(a) Figure 5.62 shows a system for heating a continuous-ow water
kettle using a hot plate. Assuming that the hot-plate temperature
TM
can be changed instantaneously by adjusting the hot-plate rate of
heat input and assuming uniform water kettle temperature, show
that the following is a reasonable model for the process:
rVC
p
dT
1
dt
c T
2
T
1
FrC
p
T
0
FrC
p
T
1
where r is the density of water (a constant value), C
p
is the heat
capacity of water (a constant value), c is a constant, and F the
volumetric ow rate in and out of the kettle.
(b) If the heat capacity of the hot-plate material is assumed uniform
and given as C
p2
and its mass and eective lateral area for heat
transfer to the atmosphere are given as m and A
c
, respectively,
obtain a second modeling equation that adequately describes the
dynamics of T
2
, the hot-plate temperature, in response to changes
in Q, the rate of heat input. It may be assumed that the atmo-
spheric temperature is T
a
, a constant; the heat transfer coecient
may also be taken as a constant value equal to h.
Solution
Part a. The assumptions are as follows:
. r and C
p
are constant over the operating range.
. T
water
T
1
(ideal mixing inside the kettle).
Figure 5.62 Schematic diagram for Solved Example 5.2.
TM
. The instantaneous change in hot-plate temperature and the energy
input from plate to kettle is directly proportional to T
2
T
1
.
. Heat losses to the atmosphere are negligible.
. The heat capacity of heating plate is neglected.
n
if
H
if
H
ir
_ _
Q
n
i
H
i
H
ir
0
.,,.
no reaction
d n
i
H
i
_ _
dt
Because we have only one component (water), the above equation becomes
n
f
H
f
H
r
_ _
Q n H H
ir

d nH
_ _
dt
Now, if there is no change in phase
H
f
H
r

_
T
0
T
r
C
pM
dT
Note: Here, C
pM
is the molar heat capacity, (i.e., the heat capacity per
mole of water).
As it has been assumed that the value of C
p
is constant within the
operating range, we get
H
f
H
r
C
pM
T
0
T
r

Similarly,
H H
r
C
pM
T
1
T
r

The heater duty (the heating plate rate of heat supply, where the heating
plate is at temperature T
2
) is given by
Q c T
2
T
1

The last term on the right-hand side of the heat balance equation can be
changed in terms of temperature as follows:
d nH
_ _
dt
n
dH
dt
n
d H H
r
_ _
dt
and
H H
r
_ _
_
T
1
T
r
C
pM
dT C
pM
T
1
T
r

TM
Thus, we get
n
d H H
r
_ _
dt
C
pM
d T
1
T
r

dt
C
pM
dT
1
dt
Thus, our heat balance equation becomes
n
f
C
pM
T
0
T
r
c T
2
T
1
nC
pM
T
1
T
r
nC
pM
dT
1
dt
Because there is no chemical reaction,
n n
f
Thus, we get
nC
pM
T
0
T
r
c T
2
T
1
nC
pM
T
1
T
r
nC
pM
dT
1
dt
nC
pM
T
0
T
1
c T
2
T
1
nC
pM
dT
1
dt
Let the mass ow rate of water be m
; then,
nC
pM
m
C
p
Similarly, for the contents (if the mass content of the tank is m), we can write
nC
pM
mC
p
C
p
is per unit mass)
Thus, the heat balance equation becomes
m
C
p
T
0
T
1
c T
2
T
1
mC
p
dT
1
dt
Obviously
m
Fr and m Vr
where F is the volumetric ow rate, r is the density of water, and V is the
volume of the tank contents.
Then, the heat balance equation becomes
FrC
p
T
0
T
1
c T
2
T
1
VrC
p
dT
1
dt
which on rearrangement, gives
VrC
p
dT
1
dt
c T
2
T
1
FrC
p
T
0
FrC
p
T
1
with initial condition, at t 0, T
1
T
1
0 .
TM
Part b. Take into consideration the heating capacity of the heating plate.
There is no ow of material; hence,
n
if
H
if

n
i
H
i
0
and we get
Q Qc T
2
T
1
A
c
h T
2
T
a

where Q is the heat coming into the plate, c T
2
T
1
is the heat lost to the
water, and A
c
h T
2
T
a
is the heat lost to the surrounding air, We then
have
Q
d n

H
dt
mC
p2
dT
2
dt
(as shown in part a)
Thus, the equation for the plate becomes
mC
p2
dT
2
dt
Qc T
2
T
1
A
c
h T
2
T
a

with initial condition at t 0, T
2
T
2 0
.
Solved Example 5.3
The water heater as shown in Figure 5.63 is a well-mixed, constant-volume
V
l
tank through which uid ows at a constant mass ow rate w (or r
l
F
whereas F is the volumetric ow rate and r
l
is the liquid density); the specic
heat capacity of the uid is C
pl
. Because the incoming uid temperature T
i
is
subject to uctuations, an electric coil to which a simple proportional con-
Figure 5.63 Schematic representation of the Solved Example 5.3.
TM
troller is used to regulate the temperature of the liquid in the heater. To
facilitate the design of this controller, it is desired to obtain a theoretical
process model.
The electrical coil is made of a metal whose specic heat capacity is C
p
,
with a surface area A and mass m
c
; the overall heat transfer coecient is
given as U. The temperature controller is provided with information about
the tank temperature T, through a thermocouple probe; it is designed to
supply energy to the coil at a rate of
Q
c
K
c
T
d
T
where K
c
is a predetermined constant and T
d
is the desired tank tempera-
ture.
Develop a theoretical model for the water heater. You may wish to
make use of the following assumptions:
1. The agitation is assumed perfect, so that the temperature within
the heater may be considered uniform.
2. The coil temperature T
c
is also assumed uniform at any instant,
but dierent from the boiler liquid temperature T.
3. The physical properties of all the components of the process are
assumed constant.
4. There are no heat losses to the atmosphere.
Cast your model in terms of deviation variables, and present in the state-
space form.
Solution
A reasonable theoretical model for the water heater based on the given
assumptions is obtained from the heat balances for the tank and for the coil.
The overall tank heat balance (using similar principles as in Example 5.2) is
V
l
r
l
C
pl
dT
dt
UA T
c
T wC
pl
T
i
T
wC
pl
T T

where T
is some reference temperature. The above equation simplies to

give
V
l
r
l
C
pl
dT
dt
UA T
c
T wC
pl
T
i
T
with initial condition at t 0, T T 0 .
TM
The overall heat balance for the coil is as follows. Using principles similar to
those used in Example 5.2, we get
m
c
C
p
dT
c
dt
K
c
T
d
T UAT
c
T
with initial condition at t 0, T
c
T
c
0 . The two dierential equations are
coupled and must be solved simultaneously.
Let us dene the following deviation (or hat variables):
^
TT T T
SS
^
TT
c
T
c
T
cSS
^
TT
i
T
i
T
iSS
^
TT
d
T
d
T
dSS
Also, let us dene the following parameters:
a
1

UA
r
l
V
l
C
pl
a
2

w
r
l
V
l
b
1

UA
m
c
C
pc
b
2

K
c
m
c
C
pc
Then, using the above-dened deviation variables and parameters, the
dierential equations for the tank and coil become
d
^
TT
dt
a
1
a
2

^
TT a
1
^
TT
c
a
2
^
TT
i
d
^
TT
c
dt
b
1
b
2
_ _
^
TT b
1
^
TT
c
b
2
^
TT
d
with initial conditions at t 0,
^
TT 0 and
^
TT
c
0. Because the tank tem-
perature is the sole measured variable, we have the complete water heater
model in terms of deviation variables in state-space form.
TM
Solved Example 5.4
The process shown in Figure 5.64 is a continuous stirred mixing tank used to
produce F
B
L/min of brine solution of mass concentration C
B
g/liter. The
raw materials are fresh water, supplied at a ow rate of F
w
L/min, and a
highly concentrated brine solution (mass concentration C
Bf
g/L) supplied at
a ow rate of F
Bf
L/min. The volume of the material in the tank is V L, the
liquid level in the tank is h m, and the tanks cross-sectional area A m
2
_ _
is
assumed to be constant.
(a) Assuming that the tank is well mixed, so that the brine concen-
tration in the tank is uniformly equal to C
B
, and that the ow rate
out of the tank is proportional to the square root of the liquid
level, obtain a mathematical model for this process.
(b) If the process is redesigned to operate at constant volume, obtain
a new process model and compare it with the one obtained in part
(a).
Solution
Part a. An appropriate mathematical model may be obtained for this
process by carrying out material balances on salt and on water as follows.
The salt material balance is
d
dt
VC
B
F
Bf
C
Bf
F
B
C
B
Figure 5.64 Schematic diagram for Solved Example 5.4
TM
and because,
V Ah. A constant
F
B
k
h
p
we get
A
d
dt
hC
B
F
Bf
C
Bf
k
h
p
C
B
The above dierential equation can be rewritten as
A C
B
dh
dt
h
dC
B
dt
_ _
F
Bf
C
Bf
C
B
k
h
p
The water material balance is obtained as follows. Assume that mixing
x g of salt with L of water does not alter appreciably the volume of the
resulting mixture. This implies that F
Bf
L of brine contains F
Bf
L of water:
d
dt
r
W
V
_ _
r
W
F
Bf
F
w
_ _
r
W
F
B
where r
W
is the constant density of water. Thus, we get
A
dh
dt
F
Bf
F
w
k
h
p
5.89
Using the above dierential equation to substitute the expression for dh,dt
in the salt material balance, we get
A C
B
F
Bf
F
w
k
h
p
A
_ _
h
dC
B
dt
_ _
F
Bf
C
Bf
C
B
k
h
p
dC
B
dt

1
Ah
C
B
F
Bf
F
w
_ _
F
Bf
C
Bf
_ _
5.90
with initial conditions at t 0, C
B
C
B
0 and h h 0 (5.91)
Thus, Eq. (5.89) along with Eq. (5.90) and initial conditions (5.91) give the
mathematical model of this system.
Notes about this model:
. It is a set of two coupled nonlinear ODEs, even though the
coupling is oneway, C
B
is aected by changed in h, but h does
not depend on C
B
.
TM
. At steady state, Eq. (5.90) indicates that
C
B
SS

F
Bf
C
Bf
F
Bf
F
w
which is consistent with well-known mixing rules.
Part b. By redesigning the process to operate at constant volume, h be-
comes constant and the process model simplies to only one equation:
dC
B
dt
a C
B
F
Bf
F
w
_ _
F
Bf
C
Bf
_ _
5.92
where
a
1
Ah
constant
If the constant volume is achieved by xing F
Bf
and F
w
, and manipulating
only C
Bf
, then observe that Eq. (5.92) will now be a linear ODE. If, on
the other hand, constant volume is achieved by allowing both F
Bf
and F
w
to vary but in such a way that F
Bf
F
w
F
B
, then Eq. (5.92) will be non-
linear.
PROBLEMS
Problem 5.1
Linearize the following nonlinear functions:
(a) f x
ax
1 a 1 x
, where a is a constant.
(b) f T e
A,TB
, where A and B are constants.
(c) f v K v
0.8
, where K is a constant.
(d) f h K h
3
2
, where K is a constant.
Problem 5.2
Linearize the following ODEs, which describe a nonisothermal CSTR with
constant volume. The input variables are T
f
, T
J
, C
Af
, and F.
V
dC
A
dt
F C
Af
C
A
_ _
VkC
A
VrC
p
dT
dt
FrC
p
T
f
T
_ _
zVkC
A
UA T T
J

TM
where
k k
0
e
E,RT
Problem 5.3
Solve the following dierential equations using Laplace transforms:
(a)
d
2
x
dt
2
3
dx
dt
x 1 with x 0
dx
dt
t0
0
(b)
d
2
q
dt
2

dq
dt
t
2
2t with q 0 0 and
dq
dt
t0
2
Problem 5.4
Obtain y t for the following,
(a) y s
s
2
2s
s
4
(b) y s
2s
s 1
3
Problem 5.5
The function f t has the Laplace transformation
^
ff s
1 2e
s
e
2s
s
2
Obtain the function f t and plot its graph (its variation with t).
Problem 5.6
Given a system with the transfer function
y s
x s
T
1
s 1
T
2
s 1
nd y t if x t is a unit-step function. If T
1
,T
2
5, sketch y t versus t,T
2
.
Show the numerical minimum, maximum, and ultimate values that may
occur during the transient.
Problem 5.7
Simplied equations can describe a rst-order, irreversible, exothermic reac-
tion in a CSTR containing a heating coil to illustrate many of the principles
of process dynamics. However, these equations neglect the possibility of
TM
dynamic eects in the heating coil. Assuming plug ow in the coil and no
wall capacitance or resistance of the wall, derive an appropriate set of
equations that includes the coil dynamics. Linearize the equations and
obtain the transfer functions relating changes in the hot uid inlet tempera-
ture and velocity to the reactor composition. Discuss the eect of this mod-
ication on the nature of characteristic equation and the stability of the
system.
Problem 5.8
Derive a transfer function relating the tube outlet temperature to the shell
inlet temperature for a two-tube-pass, single-shell-pass heat exchanger.
Problem 5.9
When chemists undertake a laboratory study of a new reaction, they often
take data in a batch reactor at conditions corresponding to complete con-
version or thermodynamic equilibrium. If the process economics appear
promising, a pilot plant might be constructed to study the reaction in a
continuous system. Normally, data are gathered at several steady-state oper-
ating conditions in an attempt to ascertain the most protable operating
region.
Are any of these basic laboratory data useful if we are interested in
establishing the dynamic characteristics of a process? If you were in charge
of the whole project, what kind of experiments would you recommend? How
would you try to sell your approach to top management? How would you
expect the cost of your experimental program to compare to the conven-
tional approach?
Problem 5.10
A simple model for a pair of exothermic parallel reactions, A !B and
A !C, in a CSTR containing a cooling coil might be written as
V
dC
A
dt
qC
Af
C
A
k
1
VC
2
A
k
2
VC
A
V
dC
B
dt
qC
B
k
1
VC
2
A
VC
p
r
dT
dt
qC
p
rT
f
T H
1
k
1
VC
2
A
H
2
k
2
VC
A
UA
c
Kq
c
1 Kq
c
T T
c

TM
(a) See if you can list the assumptions implied by these equations.
(b) Describe a procedure for calculating the steady-state composi-
tions and temperature in the reactor.
(c) Linearize these equations around the steady-state operating
point.
(d) Calculate the characteristic roots of the linearized equations.
Problem 5.11
You have measured the frequency response of an industrial furnace and
found that the transfer function relating the temperature of the euent
stream to the pressure supplied to a pneumatic motor valve on the fuel
line could be represented by
~
TT
~
PP
40e
20s
900s 1 25s 1
8C
psi
Also, the response of the outlet temperature to feed temperature change is
~
TT
~
TT
f
e
600s
60s 1
where the time constants are given in seconds.
If a fast-acting temperature-measuring device is available, which has a
gain of 0.2 psi,8C, select the gains for various kinds of pneumatic controllers
that use air pressure for the input and output signals. Then, calculate the
response of the closed-loop systems to a 208C step change in the feed tem-
perature.
Problem 5.12
A step change of magnitude 3 is introduced into the following transfer
function
y s
x s
10
2s
2
0.3s 0.5
Determine the overshoot and frequency of the oscillation.
Problem 5.13
The ow rate F of a manipulated stream through a control valve with equal
percentage trim is given by
F C
V
a
x1
TM
where F is ow in gallons per minute and C
V
and a are constants set by the
valve size and type. The control valve stem position x (fraction wide open) is
set by the output signal [ of an analog electronic feedback controller whose
signal range is 420 mA. The valve cannot be moved instantaneously. It is
approximately a rst-order system:
t
v
dx
dt
x
[ 4
16
The eect of the ow of the manipulated variable on the process tempera-
ture T is given by
t
p
dT
dt
T K
p
F
Derive one linear ordinary dierential equation that gives the dynamic
dependence of process temperature on controller output signal [.
Problem 5.14
An isothermal, rst-order, liquid-phase, reversible reaction is carried out in
a constant-volume, perfectly mixed continuous reactor:
A,
k
1
k
2
B
The concentration of product B is zero in the feed, and in the reactor, it is
C
B
. The feed rate is equal to F.
(a) Derive a mathematical model describing the dynamic behavior of
the system.
(b) Derive the steady-state relationship between C
A
and C
Af
. Show
that the conversion of A and the yield of B decrease as k
2
increases.
(c) Assuming that the reactor is at this steady-state concentration
and that a step change is made in C
Af
to C
Af
C
Af
, nd the
analytical solution that gives the dynamic response of C
A
t .
Problem 5.15
Process liquid is continuously fed into a perfectly mixed tank in which it is
heated by a steam coil. The feed rate F is 50,000 lb
m
/h of material with a
constant density r of 50 lb
m
/ft
3
and heat capacity C
p
of 0.5 Btu/lb
m
o
F.
Holdup in the tank V is constant at 4000 lb
m
. The inlet feed temperature
T
f
is 80
o
F.
TM
Steam is added at a rate S lb
m
/h that heats the process liquid up to
temperature T. At the initial steady state, T is 190
o
F. The latent heat of
vaporization z
S
of the steam is 900 Btu/lb
m
.
(a) Derive a mathematical model of the system and prove that
process temperature is described dynamically by the ODE
t
dT
dt
T K
1
T
f
K
2
S
where
t
V
F
K
1
1
K
2

z
S
C
p
F
(b) Solve for the steady-state value of steam ow S
SS
.
(c) Suppose a proportional feedback controller is used to adjust the
steam ow rate,
S S
SS
K
c
190 T
Solve analytically for the dynamic change in T t for a step
change in inlet feed temperature from 80
o
F down to 50
o
F.
What will be the nal values of T and S at the new steady state
for a K
c
of 100 lb
m
/h/8F?
Problem 5.16
(a) Design of a water supply tank: You are required to design a
cylindrical tank to supply a chemical plant with a constant
water feed of 50 m
3
/h.
(b) Design of feedback control loop: The feed to this tank is suering
from some uctuations with time, whereas the feed to the plant
needs to be constant at 50 m
3
/h. Introduce the necessary feedback
control loop using a PI (proportionalintegral) controller. Derive
the unsteady-state model equations for the closed-loop system
(including the dynamics of controller, measuring instrument
(DPCdierential pressure cell) and nal control element (pneu-
matic control valve). Obtain the transfer functions (and their
constants) for the DPC and control valve from the literature.
Put the equations in linear form using Taylor series expansion,
then use Laplace transformation to put the equations in the form
TM
of transfer functions. Find the optimal controller settings (gains)
using the following techniques:
(a) The
1
4
decay ratio criterion
(b) Cohen and Coon reaction curve method
(c) Evaluation of controller performance: Using the nonlinear model
for the closed loop and solving the equations numerically, com-
pare the performance of the nonlinear system with the controller
settings obtained using the above two methods.
Problem 5.17
You are required to design two cylindrical tanks in series to supply a
chemical plant with a constant water feed of 35 m
3
/h. The feed to the rst
tank keeps uctuating, whereas the feed to the plant needs to be constant at
35 m
3
/hr. Design a suitable control loop (PI control action) for this system.
Draw appropriate block diagrams for both the open- (uncontrolled) and
closed- (controlled) loop cases. Find the optimal control settings (gains)
using the
1
4
decay ratio criterion, and the Cohen and Coon criterion and
compare the results of both methods.
TM
6
Most real chemical and biochemical systems are heterogeneous. What do we
mean by heterogeneous? We mean that the system is formed of more than
one phase, with strong interaction between the various phases.
. Distillation is a heterogeneous system formed of at least a gas and
a liquid. Distillation is not possible except when at least two phases
are present (packed-bed distillation columns are formed of three
phases, taking into consideration the solid packing phase).
. Absorption is another gasliquid system (two phases). Packed-bed
absorbers have three phases when taking into consideration the
solid packing of the column.
. Adsorption is a solidgas (or solidliquid) two-phase system.
. Fermentation is at least a two-phase system (the fermentation
liquid mixture and the solid micro-organisms catalyzing the fer-
mentation process). Fermentation can also be a three-phase system
because aerobic fermentation involves gaseous oxygen which is
bubbled through the fermentor. Immobilized packed-bed aerobic
fermentors are formed of four phases; two of them are solid (the
micro-organism and the solid carrier), one is liquid, and one is a
gaseous phase.
. Gassolid catalytic systems are two-phase systems involving a
solid catalyst with reactants and products in the gas phase.
433
TM
It is easily noticed that, in the earlier parts of this book, when dealing with
one-phase systems, the emphasis was mainly on reacting systems. The
reason was simply that for one-phase systems, the nonreacting cases are
almost trivial (e.g., mixers and splitters).
However, in the present chapter dealing with heterogeneous systems,
the nonreacting systems are as nontrivial as the reacting systems.
6.1 MATERIAL BALANCE FOR
HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS
6.1.1 Generalized Mass Balance Equations
Let us rst remember the generalized mass balance equations for a one
phase system. (see Fig. 6.1). The generalized mass balance relation is
given by
K
k1
n
i
k

L
l1
n
if
l

N
j1
s
ij
r
j
6:1
where r
j
is the overall generalized rate of reaction for reaction j and s
ij
is the
stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j.
The design equation for a lumped system is given by,
K
k1
n
i
k

L
l1
n
if
l
V
N
j1
s
ij
r
0
j
6:2
where r
0
j
is the generalized rate of the jth reaction per unit volume of
reactor.
Figure 6.1 Material balance for homogeneous systems.
TM
Let us, for simplicity, start by the simple single inputsingle output,
single reaction mass balance which can be represented as shown in Figure
6.2. Now, we will move from the homogeneous one-phase system (as shown
in Fig. 6.2) to the corresponding heterogeneous system.
6.1.2 Two-Phase Systems
If the system is formed of two phases, we can draw the mass balance
schematic diagram as in Figure 6.3. The interaction between the two phases
is usually some kind of mass transfer from phase I to phase II or vice-versa
(also, it can be in one direction for one component and in the opposite
direction for another component). The easiest way is to make the balance
in one direction, as shown in Figure 6.4, and the sign of the driving force for
each component determines the direction of mass transfer for the specic
component. Therefore, the mass balance equations can be written as
n
i
RM
i
n
if
s
iI
r
I
6:3
and
n
i
RM
i
n
if
s
iII
r
II
6:4
Note that Eqs. (6.3) and (6.4) are coupled through the term RM
i
, the overall
rate of mass transfer of component i.
Let us take a simpler case with no reaction for which Eqs. (6.3) and
(6.4) will become
n
i
RM
i
n
if
and
n
i
RM
i
n
if
For constant ow rates, we can write
q
I
C
i
RM
i
q
I
C
if
Figure 6.2 Mass balance for single-input, single-output, and single reaction
system.
TM
and,
q
II
C
i
RM
i
q
II
C
if
where q
I
and q
II
are the constant volumetric ow rates in phases I and II,
respectively.
Then, RM
i
should be expressed in terms of C
i
and C
i
as follows:
RM
i
a
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
where a
m
is the total area for mass transfer between the two phases and K
g
i
is the mass transfer coecient (for component i).
Therefore, we have
q
I
C
i
a
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
I
C
if
6:5
Figure 6.3 Interaction between two phases.
Figure 6.4 Interaction between dierent phases with the interaction in one direc-
tion.
TM
and
q
II
C
i
a
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
II
C
if
6:6
Therefore, for given values of q
I
; q
II
; a
m
; k
g
i
; C
if
; and C
if
, we can com-
pute the values of C
i
and C
i
from the Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6).
The countercurrent case: For countercurrent ow streams, we have the
situation as shown in Figure 6.6. The two equations remain the same:
q
I
C
i
a
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
I
C
if
6:5
and
q
II
C
i
a
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
II
C
if
6:6
The dierence between cocurrent and countercurrent ows does not appear
in a single lumped stage. It appears in a sequence of stages (or in a distrib-
uted system) as shown later.
6.1.3 The Equilibrium Case
For a system in which the contact between the two phases is long and/or the
rate of mass transfer is very high, the concentrations of the dierent com-
ponents in the two phases reach a state of equilibrium (a state where no
further mass transfer is possible). More details regarding equilibrium states
have been covered in thermodynamics courses. The equilibrium relations
relate the concentrations in the two phases, such that for example,
C
i
f
i
C
i
6:7
In certain narrow regions of concentration, we can use linear relations like
the following:
C
i
K
i
C
i
6:8
where K
i
is the equilibrium constant for component i. In this case, we
neither know nor need the rates of mass transfer. The simple and systematic
approach is to add Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6) for both the cocurrent case and the
Figure 6.5 Cocurrent ow of streams.
TM
countercurrent case (as the mass balance equations are same for both ow
cases).
Cocurrent case (Fig. 6.5): Adding Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6) gives
q
I
C
i
q
II
C
i
q
I
C
if
q
II
C
if
6:9
This is a single algebraic equation with two unknowns (C
i
and C
i
), but the
equilibrium relation (6.7) can be used to make the equation solvable:
q
I
C
i
q
II
f
i
C
i
q
I
C
if
q
II
C
if
6:10
and as soon as Eq. (6.10) is solved and the value of C
i
is obtained, it is
straightforward to obtain the value of C
i
from the equilibrium relation (6.7).
Countercurrent case (Fig. 6.6): Adding Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6) gives
q
I
C
i
q
II
C
i
q
I
C
if
q
II
C
if
6:11
Again, we can replace C
i
using relation (6.7) to get
q
I
C
i
q
II
f
i
C
i
q
I
C
if
q
II
C
if
6:12
As evident, there is no dierence in the equations [compare Eqs. (6.10) and
(6.12)] for the cocurrent and countercurrent cases. There will be evident
dierences when we have more than one stage of cocurrent or countercur-
rent operations, or a distributed system.
6.1.4 Stage Efciency
For many mass transfer processes (e.g., distillation, absorption, extraction,
etc.) which are multistage (in contradistinction to continuous, e.g., packed-
bed columns), each stage (whether a cocurrent or countercurrent process)
can be considered at equilibrium. These stages are usually called the ideal
stages. The deviation of the system from this ideality or equilibrium is
compensated for by using what is called stage eciency, which varies
between 1.0 (for an ideal stage) and 0 (for a useless stage). Usually,
stage eciencies are in the range 0.60.8, but they dier widely for dierent
Figure 6.6 Counter-current ow of streams.
TM
processes, components, and designs (specially retention time) for a particu-
lar stage.
However, in some cases, the concept of stage eciency can cause
problems and unacceptable inaccuracies may arise. The rate of mass transfer
between the phases should be used in both the mass balance and the design
equations, except when we are sure that equilibrium is established between
the two phases.
It is clear from the above that the main concepts used in the mass
balance for the one-phase system can be simply extended to heterogeneous
system by writing mass balance equations for each phase and taking the
interaction (mass transfer) between the phases into account. The same
applies when there are reactions in both phases. Only the rate of reaction
terms must be included in the mass balances of each phase, as shown
earlier for homogeneous (one phase) systems.
6.1.5 Generalized Mass Balance for Two-Phase
Systems
For the sake of generality, let us write the most general mass balance equa-
tions for a two-phase system, where each phase has multiple inputs and
multiple outputs, with each phase undergoing multiple reactions within its
boundaries.
Figure 6.7 presents the generalized mass balance for a heterogeneous
system; i represents all the components in the two phases (reactants, pro-
ducts and inerts).
Now the mass balance equations can be written as follows:
Phase I
K
k1
n
i
k
RM
i

L
l1
n
if
l

N
j1
s
ij
r
j
6:13
where
RM
i
overall rate of mass transfer of component i from phase I to
phase II
r
j
overall generalized rate of reaction for reaction j in phase I
s
ij
stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j in phase I
K total number of output streams for phase I
Ltotal number of input streams for phase I
Ntotal number of reactions in phase I
TM
Phase II
K
k1
n
i
k
RM
i

L
l1
n
if
l
N
j1
s
ij
r
j
6:14
where
r
j
overall generalized rate of reaction for reaction j in phase II
s
ij
stoichiometric number of component i in reaction j in phase II
K total number of output streams for phase II
Ltotal number of input streams for phase II
N total number of reactions in phase II
To change the above mass balance equations into design equations, we just
replace r
j
by Vr
0
j
and r
j
by Vr
0
j
, where r
0
j
and r
0
j
are the rates of reaction per
unit volume of reaction mixture (or per unit mass of catalyst for catalytic
reactions, etc.). More details about the design equations is given in the
following sections. Note that these terms can also be V
I
r
0
j
(where V
I
is
the volume of phase I and r
0
j
is the rate of reaction per unit volume of
phase I) and V
II
r
0
j
(where V
II
is the volume of phase II and r
0
j
is the rate
of reaction per unit volume of phase II).
Figure 6.7 A two-phase heterogeneous system with multiple inputsmultiple out-
put, and multiple reactions in each phase and mass transfer between the two phases.
TM
6.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS (STEADY-STATE
MODELS) FOR ISOTHERMAL,
HETEROGENEOUS LUMPED SYSTEMS
For simplicity and clarity, let us consider a two-phase system. Each phase
has single input and single output with a single reaction taking place in each
phase (see Fig. 6.8.)
The mass balance equations can be written as
n
i
RM
i
n
if
s
i
r (for phase I) 6:15
and
n
i
RM
i
n
i
s
i
r (for phase II) 6:16
where
n
i
molar ow rate of component i out of phase I
n
i
molar ow rate of component i out of phase II
n
if
molar ow rate of component i fed to phase I
n
if
molar ow rate of component i fed to phase II
r generalized rate of the single reaction in phase I
s
i
stoichiometric number of component i in the reaction in phase I
r generalized rate of the single reaction in phase II
s
i
stoichiometric number of component i in the reaction in phase II
RM
i
overall mass transfer rate of component i from phase I to
phase II
Now, in order to turn these mass balance equations into design equations,
we just turn all of the rate processes (r, r, and RM
i
) into rates per unit
volume of the process unit (or the specic phase). For example, let us con-
sider the following denitions for the rates:
Figure 6.8 A two-phase heterogeneous system with single inputsingle output and
single reaction in each phase.
TM
r
0
rate of reaction in phase I per unit volume of the process unit
r
0
rate of reaction in phase II per unit volume of the process unit
RM
0
i
is the rate of mass transfer of component i from phase I to
phase II per unit volume of the process unit
V volume of the process unit ( V
I
V
II
)
Thus, Eqs. (6.15) and (6.16) can be rewritten as
n
i
VRM
0
i
n
if
Vs
i
r
0
(for phase I) 6:17
and
n
i
VRM
0
i
n
i
Vs
i
r
0
(for phase II) 6:18
For example, consider the case of rst-order irreversible reactions in both
phases with constant ow rates (q
I
in phase I and q
II
in phase II) and
concentrations in phase I are C
i
0 s and in phase II are C
i
0 s. The rate of
reactions are given by
r
0
kC
A
; A ! B in phase I)
and
r
0
k C
B
; B ! C in phase II)
Note that i 1; 2; 3; . . . A; . . . B; . . . . Thus, Eqs. (6.17) and (6.18) become
q
I
C
i
Va
0
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
I
C
if
Vs
i
kC
A
6:19
q
II
C
i
Va
0
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
q
II
C
if
Vs
i
k C
B
6:20
where a
0
m
is the area of mass transfer per unit volume of the process unit and
K
g
i
is the coecient of mass transfer of component i between the two
phases.
Simple Illustrative Example
Let us consider an example where the ow rates and rates of reactions are as
shown in Figure 6.9. Note that C
A
f
is fed to phase I while C
B
f
and C
C
f
are
equal to zero. For phase II, C
B
f
is fed while C
A
f
and C
C
f
are equal to zero.
The design equations are as follows:
Phase I: For component A,
q
I
C
A
Va
0
m
K
g
A
C
A
C
A
_ _
q
I
C
A
f
VkC
A
6:21
TM
For component B,
q
I
C
B
Va
0
m
K
g
B
C
B
C
B
_ _
q
I
C
B
f
.,,.
equal to zero
VkC
A
6:22
For component C,
q
I
C
C
Va
0
m
K
g
C
C
C
C
C
_ _
q
I
C
C
f
.,,.
equal to zero
6:23
Phase II: For component A,
q
II
C
A
Va
0
m
K
g
A
C
A
C
A
_ _
q
II
C
A
f
.,,.
equal to zero
6:24
For component B;
q
II
C
B
Va
0
m
K
g
B
C
B
C
B
_ _
q
II
C
B
f
Vk C
B
6:25
For component C,
q
II
C
C
Va
0
m
K
g
C
C
C
C
C
_ _
q
II
C
C
f
.,,.
equal to zero
Vk C
B
6:26
The above six equations are the design equations for this two-phase isother-
mal system when both phases are lumped systems.
Figure 6.9 Mass ow diagram for a two-phase system.
TM
6.3 DESIGN EQUATIONS (STEADY-STATE
MODELS) FOR ISOTHERMAL, DISTRIBUTED
HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS
As explained in detail earlier for the homogeneous system, the distributed
system includes variation in the space direction, and, therefore for the design
equations, we cannot use the overall rate of reaction (rate of reaction per
unit volume multiplied by the total volume) and the overall rate of mass
transfer (the mass transfer per unit area of mass transfer multiplied by the
area of mass transfer, where the area of mass transfer is treated as the
multiple of the area per unit volume of the process unit multiplied by the
volume of the process unit).
In the case of distributed systems, we need to take the balance on an
element; then, we take the limit when the size of element goes to zero, and so
forth, as was detailed earlier for a distributed homogeneous system. As an
illustration, let us consider a case with a single reaction
A ! B
taking place in phase I (no reaction is taking place in phase II) and we con-
sider that mass transfer between the two phases takes place (see Fig. 6.10).
Thus, the balance for phase I (the design equation) is
n
i
n
i
VRM
0
i
n
i
Vs
i
r
0
6:27
and for phase II, it will be (for the cocurrent case),
n
i
n
i
VRM
0
i
n
i
0 6:28
Figure 6.10 A distributed heterogeneous system.
TM
because there is no reaction in this phase.
Arranging Eq. (6.27) gives
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i
s
i
r
0
6:29
and rearranging Eq. (6.28) gives
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i
0 6:30
Both are dierential equations with the initial conditions (for the cocurrent
case) at V 0, n
i
n
if
and n
i
n
if
.
If the ow rate is constant and the reaction is rst order (r
0
kC
A
), we
can write Eqs. (6.29) and (6.30) in the following form:
q
dC
i
dV
a
0
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
s
i
kC
A
6:31
and,
q
dC
i
dV
a
0
m
K
g
i
C
i
C
i
_ _
0 6:32
and the initial conditions (for the cocurrent case) are at V 0; C
i
C
if
and
C
i
C
if
, where, i A and B. Specically, for the two components
A and B, we can write the following:
Phase I
q
dC
A
dV
a
0
m
K
g
A
C
A
C
A
_ _
kC
A
6:33
and
q
dC
B
dV
a
0
m
K
g
B
C
B
C
B
_ _
kC
A
6:34
Phase II
q
dC
A
dV
a
0
m
K
g
A
C
A
C
A
_ _
6:35
and
q
dC
B
dV
a
0
m
K
g
B
C
B
C
B
_ _
6:36
with the initial conditions (for the cocurrent case) at V 0; C
A
C
A
f
, C
B

C
B
f
; C
A
C
A
f
and C
B
C
B
f
:
TM
Generalized Form
Now, we develop the very general equation, when there are N (the counter is
j) reactions taking place in phase I and N (the counter is j) reactions taking
place in phase II. (Refer to Fig. 6.11.)
Then, the design equations for the cocurrent case are as follows:
Phase I
n
i
n
i
VRM
0
i
n
i
V
N
j1
s
ij
r
j
0
which, after the usual manipulation, becomes
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i

N
j1
s
ij
r
j
0
6:37
Phase II
Similarly for phase II, the design equation is,
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i

N
j1
s
ij
r
j
0
6:38
The initial conditions are (for cocurrent case), at V 0; n
i
n
if
and
n
i
n
if
.
Note that for distributed systems, the multiple-input problem corre-
sponds to adding an idle-stage (with no reaction or mass transfer) mass
balance at the input for each phase, as shown in Figure 6.12, which is a
very simple problem. The same applies to multiple outputs.
Figure 6.11 Mass ow for the heterogeneous distributed system.
TM
There are cases in which one of the phases is distributed and the other
phase is lumped. In such cases, the distributed phase will contribute its mass
and/or heat transfer term to the lumped phase through an integral, as shown
later with regard to the modeling of a bubbling uidized bed.
For the countercurrent case, the equation of phase II will simply be
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i

N
j1
s
ij
r
j
0
6:39
with the boundary conditions at V V
t
; n
i
n
if
, where V
t
is the total
volume of the process unit.
6.4 NONISOTHERMAL HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEMS
Based on the previous chapters, it should be quite easy and straightforward
for the reader to use the heat balance and heat balance design equations
developed earlier for homogeneous systems and the principles we used for
Figure 6.12 Multiple inputs can be combined together as a single feed.
TM
developing the mass balance and mass balance design equations for hetero-
geneous systems. We will, as usual, start with the lumped system.
6.4.1 Lumped Heterogeneous Systems
Let us rst remember how we rigorously developed the heat balance equa-
tions and nonisothermal design equations for homogeneous systems. The
lumped homogeneous system is schematically shown in Figure 6.13.
We have the following heat balance equation (developed earlier):
n
if
H
if
Q
n
i
H
i
6:40
and then we remember that we transformed this enthalpy equation into an
enthalpy dierence equation as follows (using enthalpy of each component
at reference condition H
i
r
):
n
if
H
if
n
if
H
i
r

n
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
n
i
H
i
r

n
i
H
i
r
From this equation, we can rearrange to obtain
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r

n
i
H
i
r
n
if
H
i
r
_
6:41
As we did earlier in Chapter 2, from the mass balance we get
n
i
n
if
s
i
r
which can be rewritten as,
n
i
n
if
s
i
r
Now, we can write,
n
i
n
if
_ _
H
i
r

s
i
rH
i
r
6:42
Thus, relation (6.42) can be rewritten as r
s
i
H
i
r
, and this can be nally
rewritten as rH
r
. Thus the heat balance equation becomes, as shown in
Chapter 2,
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r
rH
r
_
6:43
Figure 6.13 Heat balance for a homogeneous system.
TM
In order to convert the equation into nonisothermal (heat balance) design
equation, we just do the single step we did several times before: We replace r
with r
0
V, where r
0
is the rate of reaction per unit volume and V is the volume
of the reactor. Thus, Eq. (6.43) becomes
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r
Vr
0
H
r
_
6:44
Note that the basis of r
0
and V depends on the type of process. For example, if
we are dealing with a gassolid catalytic system, we will usually dene r
0
as per
unit mass of the catalyst and replace V with W
S
(the weight of the catalyst).
We do not need to repeat the above for multiple reactions (N reac-
tions); Eq. (6.44) will become
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r
V
N
j1
r
0
j
H
rj
where H
rj
is the heat of reaction for reaction j.
The Heterogeneous System
For the heterogeneous system, the problem is very simple. We just write the
above equation for each phase, taking into account Q as the heat transfer
between the two phases. For a nonadiabatic system, the heat added from
outside, Q
external
(which is the Q in Eq. (6.44)], will be added to the phase
receiving it, or distributed between the two phases if it is added to both
phases (this will depend very much on the conguration and knowledge
of the physical system as will be shown with the nonadiabatic bubbling
uidized-bed catalytic reactor example).
Now, let us consider an adiabatic two-phase system with each phase
having one reaction, as shown schematically in Figure 6.14. Here, Qis the heat
transfer between the two phases. For phase I, the heat balance equation is
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r
r
I
H
r
I
_
6:45
Figure 6.14 Heat balance for a two-phase lumped system.
TM
and for phase II, it is
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
Q
n
i
H
i
H
i
r
r
II
H
r
II
_
6:46
To turn these heat balance equations into the nonisothermal heat balance
design equations, we just dene the rate of reaction per unit volume (or per
unit mass of the catalyst depending on the system) and the heat transfer is
dened per unit volume of the process unit (or per unit length, whichever is
more convenient). Thus, Eqs. (6.45) and (6.46) become as follows:
For phase I,
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
VQ
0

n
i
H
i
H
i
r
Vr
0
H
r
I
_
6:47
and for phase II, it is
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
VQ
0

n
i
H
i
H
i
r
Vr
0
H
r
I
_
6:48
The rate of heat transfer per unit volume of the process unit Q
0
is given by
Q
0
a
0
h
h T T
_ _
6:49
where a
0
h
is the area of heat transfer per unit volume of the system, h is the
heat transfer coecient between the two phases, T is the temperature of
phase II, and T is the temperature of phase I.
Obviously, for multiple reactions in each phase, the change in the
equations is straightforward, as earlier. For N reactions (counter j) in
phase I and N reactions (counter j) in phase II, the equations become as
follows:
For phase I,
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
_ _
Va
0
h
h T T
_ _

n
i
H
i
H
i
r
_ _
V
N
j1
r
j
0
H
r
j
6:50
For phase II, it is
n
if
H
if
H
i
r
_ _
Va
0
h
h T T
_ _

n
i
H
i
H
i
r
_ _
V
N
j1
r
j
0
H
r
j
6:51
Now, the whole picture is almost complete; what is remaining is the heat
balance design equation for the distributed two-phase system and the
dynamic terms in heterogeneous systems.
TM
6.4.2 Distributed Systems (see Fig. 6.15)
For phase I with one reaction,
n
i
H
i
V
RM
0
i
H
i
VQ
0

n
i
H
i
n
i
H
i
6:52
Equation (6.52) becomes
d n
i
H
i

dV
Q
0

RM
0
i
H
i
n
i
dH
i
dV

H
i
dn
i
dV
Q
0

RM
0
i
H
i
6:53
From the mass balance design equation [Eq. 6.37], when written for a single
reaction we get
dn
i
dV
RM
0
i
s
i
r
0
6:54
Substituting for dn
i
=dV from Eq. (6.54) into Eq. (6.53) gives
n
i
dH
i
dV

H
i
s
i
r
0
RM
0
i
_ _
Q
0

RM
0
i
H
i
which gives
n
i
dH
i
dV
r
0
H Q
0
6:55
Figure 6.15 Heat balance for a heterogeneous distributed system.
TM
For phase II, it will be (for cocurrent operation)
n
i
dH
i
dV
r
0
H Q
0
6:56
If the change is only sensible heat, we can use an average constant C
P
for the
mixture. Then, as shown earlier for the homogeneous system, we can write
Eqs. (6.55) and (6.56) as,
qrC
P
dT
dV
r
0
H a
0
h
h T T
_ _
for Phase I 6:57
and
q rC
P
dT
dV
r
0
H a
0
h
h T T
_ _
for Phase II 6:58
with the initial conditions (for the cocurrent case) at V 0, T T
f
and
T T
f
.
For the countercurrent case,
qrC
P
dT
dV
r
0
H a
0
h
h T T
_ _
for Phase I 6:59
Note that the equation for phase I for countercurrent case is the same as for
cocurrent case. For phase II the equation is:
q rC
P
dT
dV
r
0
H a
0
h
h T T
_ _
for Phase II 6:60
with the following two-point split boundary conditions:
At V 0; T T
f
:
At V V
t
; T T
f
.
6.4.3 Dynamic Terms for Heterogeneous Systems
The dynamic terms for heterogeneous systems will be exactly the same as for
the homogeneous systems (refer to Chapters 2 and 3), but repeated for both
phases. The reader should take this as an exercise by just repeating the same
principles of formulating the dynamic terms for both mass and heat and for
both lumped and distributed systems. For illustration, see the dynamic
examples later in this chapter.
TM
6.5 EXAMPLES OF HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEMS
6.5.1 Absorption Column (High-Dimensional
Lumped, Steady-State, and Equilibrium Stages
System)
Let us consider the absorption column (tower), multistage (multitrays), and
all stages as equilibrium stages (ideal stages). Component A is absorbed
from the gas phase to the liquid phase.
Y
j
mole fraction of component A in the gas phase leaving the jth
tray
n
j
molar ow rate of component A in the gas phase leaving the jth
tray
X
j
mole fraction of component A in the liquid phase leaving the jth
tray
n
j
molar ow rate of component A in the liquid phase leaving the jth
tray
where,
n
j
n
t
j
Y
j
where n
t
j
is the total molar ow rate of the gas phase leaving the jth tray
n
j
n
t
j
X
j
where n
t
j
is the total molar ow rate of the liquid phase leaving the jth tray
The molar ow streams at tray j are shown in Figure 6.16. The molar
ow balance on the jth tray gives
n
t
j1
X
j1
n
t
j1
Y
j1
n
t
j
X
j
n
t
j
Y
j
6:61
Figure 6.16 Molar ow across the jth tray.
TM
For simplicity, we assume that the total molar ow rates of liquid and gas
phases remain constant; that is,
n
t
j
L and n
t
j
V
Based on the above-stated assumption, Eq. (6.61) becomes
LX
j1
V Y
j1
LX
j
V Y
j
6:62
For the equilibrium stage, we can write, in general,
Y
j
F X
j
_ _
where F X
j
_ _
is a function in terms of X
j
only. For a linear case, we can write
Y
j
a X
j
b
On using the above-mentioned linear relation in Eq. (6.62), we get
LX
j1
V a X
j1
b
_ _
LX
j
V a X
j
b
_ _
which gives
LX
j1
V a X
j1
L V a X
j
LX
j1
L V a
.,,.
a
X
j
V a
.,,.
b
X
j1
0
Thus, we get
LX
j1
a X
j
b X
j1
0 6:63
Figure 6.17 is the schematic diagram of the absorption column with the
molar ow rates shown for each tray.
Note: The numbering can be reversed in order; it is up to the reader.
Looking at Eq. (6.63), for the rst tray j 1 we get
LX
0
aX
1
bX
2
0
aX
1
b X
2
0 X
3
0 X
4
0 X
N
LX
0
For j 2,
LX
1
aX
2
bX
3
0 X
4
0 X
5
0 X
N
0
For j 3,
0 X
1
LX
2
aX
3
bX
4
0 X
5
0 X
N
0
TM
Figure 6.17 Absorption column.
TM
Similarly, for j N 1,
0 X
1
0 X
2
0 X
3
LX
N2
aX
N1
bX
N
0
and for j N,
0 X
1
0 X
2
0 X
3
0 X
N2
LX
N1
a X
N
b X
N1
0
0 X
1
0 X
2
0 X
3
0 X
N2
LX
N1
a X
N
bX
N1
In order to write these equations in a matrix form, dene the vector of
the state variables
X
X
1
X
2
.
.
.
X
N1
X
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
and the matrix of coecients as
A
a b 0 0 0 0
L a b 0 0 0
0 L a b 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 L a b
0 0 0 0 L a
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
The above matrix is a tridiagonal matrix of the following form:
A
a b 0
L
.
.
.
b
0 L a
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Note: X
0
and X
N1
are not state variables, they are input variables.
Dene the input vector matrix as (input vector I is usually denoted by m), so
we get
I
X
0
X
N1
_ _
m
TM
The input coecient matrix is given by
B
L 0
0 0
0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 b
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Thus, the mass balance equations for the absorption column in matrix form
can be written as,
AX Bm 6:64
and its solution is given by (see Appendix A)
X A
1
Bm 6:65
Degrees of Freedom
Example: If all parameters and inputs are dened, then A, B, and m and
m are dened. In such a case, we have N unknowns X
1
; X
2
; X
3
; . . . ; X
N

and N equations; thus, the degrees of freedom is equal to zero, and the
problem is solvable.
If the equilibrium relation is not linear,
LX
j1
V F X
j1
_ _
LX
j
V F X
j
_ _
where F X
j
_ _
is a function in terms of X
j
only. In this case, the formulation
gives a set of nonlinear equations to be solved numerically (iteratively,
using, for example, the multidimensional NewtonRaphson or other mod-
ied gradient techniques; see Appendix B).
Nonequilibrium Stages
The overall molar balance we used will not be adequate because the equili-
brium relation between the two phases cannot be used. In the present case of
nonequilibrium stages, we must introduce the mass transfer rate between the
two phases, as shown in Figure 6.18. In the gure, the term RMT is the rate
of mass transfer of the component A from the vapor phase. It can be
expressed as,
RMT K
g
j
a
m
j
driving force
TM
where K
gj
is the mass transfer coecient and a
m
j
is the area of mass transfer
for tray j. Assuming the tray to be perfectly mixed with respect to both
liquid and gas phases, we get
RMT K
g
j
a
m
j
Y
j
a X
j
b
_ _ _ _
where
a X
j
b
_ _
Y
j
which is the gas-phase mole fraction at equilibrium with X
j
.
The molar balance for the gas phase is given by
V Y
j1
V Y
j
K
g j
a
m
j
Y
j
a X
j
b
_ _ _ _
V K
gj
a
m
j
_ _
.,,.
a
j
Y
j
V Y
j1
K
gj
a
m
j
a
_ _
.,,.
b
j
X
j
K
gj
a
m
j
b
.,,.
g
j
0
thus giving
a
j
Y
j
V Y
j1
b
j
X
j
g
j
0 6:66
where
a
j
V K
gj
a
mj
b
j
K
gj
a
mj
a
g
j
K
gj
a
mj
b
Using Eq. (6.66), we have the following:
For j 1,
a
1
Y
1
V Y
2
b
1
X
1
g
1
0
Figure 6.18 Mass transfer on a nonequilibrium stage.
TM
For j 2,
0 Y
1
a
2
Y
2
V Y
3
b
2
X
2
g
2
0
For j N 1,
0 Y
1
0 Y
2
0 Y
3
0Y
N2
a
N1
Y
N1
V Y
N
b
N1
X
N1
g
N1
0
For j N,
0 Y
1
0 Y
2
0 Y
3
0 Y
N1
a
N
Y
N
V Y
N1
b
N
X
N
g
N
0
The above equation can be rearranged as
0 Y
1
0 Y
2
0 Y
3
0 Y
N1
a
N
Y
N
b
N
X
N
g
N
V Y
N1
In order to write these equations in a matrix form, we dene the matrix of
coecients as
A
Y

a
1
V 0 0 0
0 a
2
V 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 a
N1
V
0 0 0 0 a
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
The above matrix is a bidiagonal matrix of the form,
A
Y

a
1
V 0
.
.
.
V
0 a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
and vectors of the state variables are,
X
X
1
X
2
.
.
.
X
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
and Y
Y
1
Y
2
.
.
.
Y
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Also, we get
B
X

b
1
0
b
2
.
.
.
0 b
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
and g
g
1
g
2
.
.
.
g
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
TM
with
B
Y

0 0
0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 V
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
and m
Y

0
Y
N1
_ _
Thus, we get
A
Y
Y b
X
X g
Y
B
Y
m
Y
6:67
Similarly, for the molar balance on liquid phase, we get
LX
j1
K
gj
a
m
j
Y
j
a X
j
b
_ _ _ _
LX
j
j 1; 2; . . . ; N 6:68
Putting Eq. (6.68) in matrix form gives
A
X
X b
Y
Y g
X
B
X
m
X
6:69
The reader should dene A
X
; B
X
; g
X
, and m
X
.
The matrix Eqs. (6.67) and (6.69) can be solved simultaneously to get
the solution, through the following simple matrix manipulation:
Matrix manipulation
X A
1
X
g
X
B
X
m
X
b
Y
Y 6:70
A
Y
Y b
X
A
1
X
g
X
B
X
m
X
b
Y
Y
_ _ _ _
g
Y
B
Y
m
Y
Some simple manipulation gives
A
Y
b
X
A
1
X
b
Y
_ _
.,,.
C
Y B
Y
m
Y
g
Y
b
X
A
1
X
g
X
B
X
m
X
_ _ _ _
.,,.
M
where
C A
Y
b
X
A
1
X
b
Y
M B
Y
m
Y
g
Y
b
X
fA
1
X
g
X
B
X
m
X
g
Thus, we get
CY M 6:71
Matrix Eq. (6.71) can be easily solved for vector Y as
Y C
1
M 6:72
TM
Thus, we obtain the vector Y from matrix Eq. (6.72), and using the solved
vector Y with matrix Eq. (6.70), we can compute the vector X.
6.5.2 Packed-Bed Absorption Tower
Packed-bed absorption towers are distributed systems and Figure 6.19
shows the molar ow rates across a small element l of one of these towers.
We consider the absorption of component A from the gas (vapor) phase to
the liquid phase. The rate of mass transfer from the vapor phase to the
liquid phase is given by the relation
RMT a
m
K
g
Y a X b 6:73
where a
m
is the specic area (mass transfer area per unit volume of column)
and a X b Y
is the gas-phase mole fraction at equilibrium with X.

Molar balance on gas phase over a small element l gives
V Y V Y Y Al a
m
K
g
Y a X b
where V is the total molar ow rate of the gas phase (assumed constant), Y
is the mole fraction of component A in the gas phase, and X is the mole
Figure 6.19 Schematic diagram of a packed-bed absorption tower.
TM
fraction of component A in the liquid phase. By simple manipulation and
rearrangement, we get
V
Y
l
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b
Taking the limit value as l ! 0, we get
V
dY
dl
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b 6:74
with initial condition, at l 0; Y Y
f
.
Molar balance on the liquid phase over a small element l gives
LX L X X Al a
m
K
g
Y a X b
where L is the total molar ow rate of the liquid phase (assumed constant).
By simple manipulation and rearrangement, we get
L
X
l
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b
Taking the limit value as l ! 0, we get
L
dX
dl
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b 6:75
with boundary condition at l H
t
; X X
f
, where, H
t
is the total height of
the absorption column.
Note that the set of dierential equations
V
dY
dl
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b with initial condition l 0;
Y Y
f
L
dX
dl
Aa
m
K
g
Y a X b with boundary condition l H
t
;
X X
f
form a set of two-point boundary-value dierential equations.
However because of the simplicity of this illustrative problem we can actually
reduce it to one equation. How? Is it at all possible?
Subtracting Eq. (6.74) and (6.75), we get
V
dY
dl
L
dX
dl
0
TM
It can be rewritten as
d V Y LX
dl
0
V Y LX C
1
6:76
at l 0; Y Y
f
and X X
e
, where X
e
is the mole fraction of component
A in the liquid phase at the exit (at the bottom). Thus, using the initial
condition in Eq. (6.76), we get
V Y
f
LX
e
C
1
So, we have obtained the value of the constant of integration C
1
.
Now, on substituting the value of C
1
back in Eq. (6.76), we get
V Y LX V Y
f
LX
e
Thus,
V Y L X X
e
V Y
f
Y
L
V
X X
e
Y
f
6:77
On substituting the value of Y from Eq. (6.77) into Eq. (6.75), we get
L
dX
dl
Aa
m
K
g
L
V
X X
e
Y
f
a X b
_ _
6:78
with boundary condition at l L; X X
f
.
Equation (6.78) is a single equation which, when solved for every l,
gives the value of X; we can use this value of X to obtain the corresponding
Y by simple substitution into the algebraic Eq. (6.77). However, the pro-
blem is still some kind of a two-point boundary-value dierential equation
because X
e
at l 0 (unknown) is on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.78).
The same relation [Eq. (6.77)] can be obtained by mass balance. Mass
balance over the shown boundary in Figure 6.20 gives the following relation:
LX VY
f
LX
e
VY
This gives
V Y L X X
e
V Y
f
TM
thus giving
Y
L
V
X X
e
Y
f
The above equation is the same as the one obtained by subtracting the two
dierential equations [Eq. (6.77)].
6.5.3 Diffusion and Reaction in a Porous Structure
(Porous Catalyst Pellet)
Consider a spherical particle and a simple reaction
A ! B
with rate of reaction equal to
r
A
kC
A
mol
g catalyst min
where k is the reaction rate constant and C
A
is the concentration of com-
ponent A (in mol=cm
3
.
As the considered particle is spherical in shape, it is symmetrical
around the center. The concentration prole inside the catalyst pellet is
shown in Figure 6.21. Molar balance on component A over the element
r (here, r is the radial position from the center of the pellet [in cm]) gives
Figure 6.20 Mass balance over the region shown by the dashed lines.
TM
4pr
2
N
A
4p r r
2
N
A
N
A
4pr
2
r
_ _
r
C
kC
A
where N
A
is the diusion ux of component A and r
C
is the catalyst density,
r
2
N
A
r
2
2rr r
2
_ _
N
A
N
A
r
2
rr
C
kC
A
Further simplication and neglecting higher powers of r and rN
A
gives
0 r
2
N
A
2rN
A
r r
2
rr
C
kC
A
On dividing the equation with r and taking the limits as r ! 0 and
N
A
! 0, we get
0 r
2
dN
A
dr
2rN
A
r
2
r
C
kC
A
6:79
On using the simple Ficks law,
N
A
D
e
A
dC
A
dr
6:80
Figure 6.21 Elemental molar balance inside a catalyst pellet.
TM
For diusion in porous structures,
D
e
A

D
A
e
t
where D
A
is the molecular diusivity of component A, e is the pellets
porosity, and, t is the tortuosity factor.
On assuming D
e
A
dN
A
dr
D
e
A
d
2
C
A
dr
2
6:81
Substituting the expressions of N
A
from Eq. (6.80) and dN
A
=dr from Eq.
(6.81) into Eq. (6.79) gives
0 r
2
D
e
A
d
2
C
A
dr
2
2rD
e
A
dC
A
dr
r
2
r
C
kC
A
Rearrangement gives
D
e
A
d
2
C
A
dr
2

2
r
dC
A
dr
_ _
r
C
kC
A
6:82
Dividing and multiplying the left-hand side of Eq. (6.82) by R
2
P
(where R
P
is
the pellets radius) gives
D
e
A
R
2
P
d
2
C
A
d r
2
=R
2
P
_ _
2
r=R
P

dC
A
d r=R
P

_ _
r
C
kC
A
6:83
Dening the dimensionless terms
o
r
R
P
and
x
A

C
A
C
A
ref
Eq. (6.83) can be written as
D
e
A
R
2
P
d
2
x
A
do
2

2
o
dx
A
do
_ _
r
C
kx
A
6:84
which is
r
2
x
A
f
2
x
A
6:85
TM
where
r
2
d
do
2

a
o
d
do
f
2
r
C
kR
2
P
D
e
A
(Thiele modulus)
The value of a depends on the shape of the particle as follows:
a 2 for the sphere
a 1 for the cylinder
a 0 for the slab
Boundary Conditions
At the center, due to symmetry, we have that at o 0,
dx
A
do
0
At the surface r R
P
, the mass transfer at the surface of catalyst pellet is
shown in Figure 6.22. Balance at this boundary condition gives
4pR
2
P
k
g
A
C
A
B
C
A
rR
P
_ _
4pR
2
P
N
A
rR
P
0
k
g
A
C
A
B
C
A
rR
P
_ _
N
A
rR
P
Since from Ficks law,
N
A
D
e
A
dC
A
dr
Figure 6.22 Mass transfer across the boundary at the surface of a catalyst pellet.
TM
we obtain
k
g
A
C
A
B
C
A
rR
P
_ _

D
e
A
R
P
_ _
dC
A
d r=R
P

rR
P
We dene
x
A
B

C
A
B
C
ref
and get the equation
dx
A
do
o1:0
R
P
k
g
A
D
e
A
_ _
.,,.
Sh
A
x
A
B
x
A
o1:0
_ _
where
R
P
k
g
A
D
e
A
_ _
Sh
A
the Sherwood number for component A. Thus, the second boundary con-
dition at o 1:0 is
dx
A
do
Sh
A
x
A
B
x
A
_ _
The Limiting Case
When the external mass transfer resistance is negligible (k
g
A
is large, leading
to Sh
A
! 1), we can write the boundary condition at o 1:0 as
1
Sh
A
dx
A
do
x
A
B
x
A
As Sh
A
! 1 we get
x
A
j
o1:0
x
A
B
(corresponding to negligible external mass transfer
resistance)
For both cases of limited Sh
A
and Sh
A
! 1, we get a two-point boundary-
value dierential equation. For the nonlinear cases, it has to be solved
iteratively (we can use Foxs method, as explained for the axial dispersion
model in Chapter 4 or orthogonal collocation techniques as explained in
Appendix E).
As the above discussed case is linear, it can be solved analytically. How?
TM
Analytical solution
The second-order dierential equation for the catalyst pellet is given by
d
2
x
A
do
2

2
o
dx
A
do
f
2
x
A
It can be rewritten as
o
d
2
x
A
do
2
2
dx
A
do
f
2
x
A
o 6:86
We dene the following new variable:
y x
A
o 6:87
Dierentiation of Eq. (6.87) gives
dy
do
o
dx
A
do
x
A
6:88
The second dierential of Eq. (6.88) gives
d
2
y
do
2
o
d
2
x
A
do
2

dx
A
do

dx
A
do
o
d
2
x
A
do
2
2
dx
A
do
6:89
d
2
y
do
2
f
2
y 6:90
We can write Eq. (6.90) in the operator form as
D
2
y f
2
y 0
The characteristic equation for the above equation is
2
f
2
0
which gives the eigenvalues as
1
f and
2
f
Thus, the solution of Eq. (6.90) is given by
y C
1
e
fo
C
2
e
fo
6:91
C
1
and C
2
can be calculated using the boundary conditions and the com-
plete analytical solution can be obtained.
The reader is advised to carry out the necessary calculations to get the
complete analytical solution as an exercise.
TM
For nonlinear cases, the nonlinear two-point boundary-value dieren-
tial equation(s) of the catalyst pellet can be solved using the Foxs iterative
method explained for the axial dispersion model in Chapter 4 or the ortho-
gonal collocation technique as explained in Appendix E.
6.6 DYNAMIC CASES
6.6.1 The Multitray Absorption Tower
Consider the equilibrium tray (jth tray) as shown schematically in Figure
6.23. The holdup V
t
on the tray will have two parts: V
L
and V
G
. So we can
write
V
t
V
L
V
G
Thus, we can write the dynamic molar balance equation as
V
L
dX
j
dt
V
G
dY
j
dt
LX
j1
VY
j1
_ _
LX
j
VY
j
_ _
6:92
For equilibrium,
Y
j
aX
j
b
V
L
dX
j
dt
V
G
a
dX
j
dt
LX
j1
V aX
j1
b
_ _ _ _
LX
j
V aX
j
b
_ _ _ _
It can be further simplied to get
V
L
V
G
a
.,,.
a
dX
j
dt
LX
j1
V aX
j1
b
_ _ _ _
LX
j
V aX
j
b
_ _ _ _
Figure 6.23 Molar ow on the tray.
TM
The reader can arrange the above equation into matrix form, as we did
earlier for the steady-state case; it becomes a matrix dierential equation:
a
dX
dt
AX Bm 6:93
with initial condition at t 0, X X
0
, where X
0
is the initial conditions
vector.
If the equilibrium relation is not used, then we carry out an unsteady
molar balance for each phase with mass transfer between the two phases.
The reader should do that as an exercise.
6.6.2 Dynamic Model for the Catalyst Pellet
For the same parameters and reaction as the steady-state case discussed
earlier, unsteady-state molar balance on component A gives
4pr
2
N
A
4p r r
2
N
A
N
A
4pr
2
r
_ _
r
C
kC
A
4pr
2
re
_ _
@C
A
@t
4pr
2
r 1 e
_ _
r
S
@C
AS
@t
where, C
A
S
is the concentration of the adsorbed (chemisorbed) A on the
surface of the catalyst and is expressed in terms of gmol/g catalyst.
On some rearrangement, we get
r
2
N
A
r
2
2rr r
2
_ _
N
A
N
A
r
2
rr
C
kC
A
r
2
re
_ _
@C
A
@t
r
2
r 1 e
_ _
r
S
@C
AS
@t
Further simplication and neglecting higher powers of r and rN
A
gives
0 r
2
N
A
2rN
A
r r
2
rr
C
kC
A
r
2
re
_ _
@C
A
@t
r
2
r 1 e
_ _
r
S
@C
AS
@t
On dividing the equation by r and taking the limits as r ! 0 and
N
A
! 0, we get
0 r
2
@N
A
@r
2rN
A
r
2
r
C
kC
A
r
2
e
_ _
@C
A
@t
r
2
1 e
_ _
r
S
@C
AS
@t
Dividing the entire equation by r
2
gives
0
@N
A
@r

2
r
N
A
r
C
kC
A
e
@C
A
@t
1 e r
S
@C
AS
@t
6:94
TM
On using the simple Ficks law,
N
A
D
e
A
@C
A
@r
6:95
Assuming D
e
A
@N
A
@r
D
e
A
@
2
C
A
@r
2
6:96
Substituting Eqs. (6.95) and (6.96) into Eq. (6.94) and after some manipula-
tions, we obtain
D
e
A
@
2
C
A
@r
2

2
r
@C
A
@r
_ _
r
C
kC
A
e
@C
A
@t
1 e r
S
@C
AS
@t
6:97
If the chemisorption is at equilibrium and the chemisorption isotherm
is assumed to be linear, then the relation between C
A
and C
AS
is given by
C
AS
K
A
C
m
_ _
C
A
6:98
where K
A
is the equilibrium chemisorption constant and C
m
is the concen-
tration of active sites on the catalyst surface. Thus,
D
e
A
@
2
C
A
@r
2

2
r
@C
A
@r
_ _
r
C
kC
A
e
@C
A
@t
1 e r
S
K
A
C
m
@C
A
@t
Dening the dimensionless variables
o
r
R
P
and
x
A

C
A
C
A
ref
we get
1 e r
S
K
A
C
m
.,,.
a
S
e
.,,.
a
g
_
_
_
_
@C
A
@t

D
e
A
R
2
P
@
2
C
A
@ r=R
P

2

2
r
R
P
@C
A
@ r=R
P

_ _
r
C
kC
A
where, 1 e r
S
K
A
C
m
a
S
is the catalyst solid surface capacitance and
e a
g
is the catalyst pore capacitance (usually negligible). Thus, we obtain
R
2
P
D
e
A
a
S
a
g
_ _
@x
A
@t

@
2
x
A
@o
2

2
o
@x
A
@o
_ _
r
C
kR
2
P
D
e
A
_ _
x
A
6:99
TM
Le
S
Le
g
_ _
@x
A
@t
r
2
x
A
f
2
x
A
6:100
where
r
2
d
do
2

a
o
d
do
; f
2
r
C
kR
2
P
D
e
A
(Thiele modulus)
and
Le
S

a
S
R
2
P
D
e
A
is the Lewis number for the solid catalyst surface and
Le
g

a
g
R
2
P
D
e
A
is the Lewis number for the catalyst gas voidage. The boundary conditions
and initial condition are as discussed earlier: at t 0, x
A
o x
A
o
o . At the
center, due to symmetry, we have, at o 0, dx
A
=do 0. At the surface
r R
P
, at o 1:0;
dx
A
do
Sh
A
x
A
B
x
A
_ _
For the limiting case, when Le
S
>>> Le
g
, we can neglect Le
g
and call
Le
S
Le; Eq. (6.100) becomes
Le
@x
A
@t
r
2
x
A
f
2
x
A
6:101
with the same initial and boundary conditions as given earlier.
6.7 MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND
SIMULATION OF FLUIDIZED-BED REACTORS
When a ow of gas stream is passed through a bed of ne powder put in a
tube (as shown in Fig. 6.24), we can observe the following:
1. In a certain range of ow, we will have a xed bed (i.e., ow
through porous medium).
2. The minimum uidization condition is a condition at which P
across the bed is equal to the bed weight; a slight expansion
occurs in this case (Fig. 6.24). The bed properties will be very
similar to liquid properties (e.g., it can be transferred between
two containers).
TM
3. Freely bubbling uidized bed: With higher ow rate of gas than
the minimum uidization limit, we will reach a case in which
there will be three phases: solid, gas in contact with solid, and
gas in bubbles.
The two-phase theory of uidization is applied: Almost all the gas in excess
of that necessary for minimum uidization will appear as gas bubbles (Fig.
6.25).
6.7.1 Advantages of Freely Bubbling Fluidized Beds
1. Perfect mixing of solids due to the presence of bubbles (isotherm-
ality).
2. Good heat transfer characteristics (high heat transfer coecient).
3. Intraparticle as well as external mass and heat transfer resistances
are negligible (so it can be neglected in modeling). (See Fig. 6.26.)
4. All of the advantages of minimum uidization conditions.
Figure 6.24 Fine powder entrained in a tube starting to uidize due to gas ow.
Figure 6.25 Fluidized bed.
TM
6.7.2 Disadvantages of Fluidized Beds
1. Bypassing of bubbles through the bed.
2. Bubble explosion on surface causes entrainment.
3. Dicult mechanical design [e.g., industrial uid catalytic crack-
ing (FCC) unit has to handle 7000 tons of solid].
Notes:
. Bypassing of bubbles is compensated partially by diusion
between dense and bubble phases
. There is a solid exchange among the wake, cloud, and the dense
phase. It is accounted for in three-phase models.
. Although the dense phase is perfectly mixed, the bubble phase is
almost in plug ow condition.
. It is possible to break the bubbles using baes or redistributors.
Stirrers are not recommended because of vortex formation.
6.7.3 Mathematical Formulation (Steady State)
For illustration, consider a simple reaction
A ! D
Refer to Figure 6.27, where C
A
6 f
1
h , which means that it is perfectly
mixed condition, and C
A
B
f
2
h , which means that it is plug ow
condition. Here, C
A
is the concentration of component A in the dense
phase and C
A
B
is the concentration of component A in the bubble
phase.
Figure 6.26 Diagram showing the main mass and heat transfer regions around the
bubble.
TM
Modeling of the Dense Phase
Molar balance on the dense phase gives
n
Af
+ Exchange with bubble phase n
A
Vr
For constant volumetric ow rate G
I
, we can write the above equation as
G
I
C
Af

_
H
0
K
gA
a C
AB
C
A
A
C
dh G
I
C
A
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
6:102
where
r
b
bulk density of solid at minimum fluidization conditions
a
cm
2
external surface area of bubbles
cm
3
volume of bubble phase
K
gA
mass transfer coefficient between bubble and dense phase
Figure 6.27 Schematic diagram of a uidized bed.
TM
Modeling of the Bubble Phase
Molar balance on an element of the bubble phase gives (it is the plug ow
mode and assumed to have negligible rate of reaction; see Fig. 6.28),
G
C
C
AB
G
C
C
AB
C
AB
K
gA
a C
AB
C
A
A
C
h
With some manipulation and taking the limits as C
A
B
! 0 and h ! 0,
we get
G
C
dC
AB
dh
K
gA
a
.,,.
Q
E
A
C
C
AB
C
A
6:103
with initial condition at h 0; C
AB
C
A
f
: Thus, the balance gives the
following two equations:
Dense phase (an integral equation)
G
I
C
A
f
C
A
_ _
Q
E
A
C
_
H
0
C
AB
C
A
dh A
I
H r
b
k C
A
6:102
Bubble phase (a dierential equation which can be solved analytically)
G
C
dC
AB
dh
Q
E
A
C
C
AB
C
A
6:103
at h 0; C
AB
C
A
f
.
Figure 6.28 Mass ow in bubble phase.
TM
Analytical Solution of Differential Equation (6.103)
By separation of variables, we get
dC
AB
C
AB
C
A
.,,.
constant
_
_
_
_

Q
E
A
C
G
C
_ _
dh
ln C
AB
C
A

Q
E
A
C
G
C
_ _
h C
1
To get the value of constant of integration C
1
, we use the initial condition at
h 0,
C
1
ln C
A
f
C
A
_ _
Thus, we get
ln
C
AB
C
A
C
A
f
C
A
_ _

Q
E
A
C
G
C
_ _
.,,.
a
h
Rearrangement gives
C
AB
C
A
C
A
f
C
A
e
a h
Finally, we get the solution of the dierential equation as
C
AB
C
A
C
A
f
C
A
_ _
e
a h
6:104
Substitution of this value (6.104) in the integral Eq. (6.102) of the dense
phase gives
G
I
C
A
f
C
A
_ _
Q
E
A
C
C
A
f
C
A
_ _
_
H
0
e
ah
dh A
I
H r
b
k C
A
Because
_
H
0
e
a h
dh
1
a
1 e
aH
_ _
and
a
Q
E
A
C
G
C
TM
we get
G
I
C
Af
C
A
_ _
G
C
C
Af
C
A
_ _
1 e
aH
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
In a more simplied and organized form
G
I
G
C
1 e
aH
_ _ _ _
.,,.
G
C
Af
C
A
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
6:105
where
G G
I
G
C
1 e
aH
_ _
the modied volumetric ow rate.
Notes
1. Analogy between the above equations and the continuous-stirred
tank reactor (CSTR) model can be easily realized, and from this
analogy, we can dene the modied ow rate with the following
physical signicance:
. At very high Q
E
, G G
I
G
C
G; thus, we approach
CSTR.
. At Q
E
0, G G
I
; thus, we have complete segregation.
2. Output concentration of A is calculated by the relation G
I
C
A

G
C
C
A
B
hH
GC
A
out
Heat Balance Design Equations for the Fluidized-Bed Reactors (see
Fig. 6.29)
For a reaction
A ! D
where r kC
A
and k k
0
e
E=RT
Heat balance in the dense phase gives
G
I
T T
f
_ _
rC
P
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
H
_
H
0
h
B
aA
C
T
B
T dh UA
J
T T
J

6:106
Note that the heat supply/removal coil is considered to be with the dense-
phase balance, where
T
B
bubble phase temperature (varies with height)
T
J
jacket temperature
T dense phase temperature (constant with height)
TM
U heat transfer coecient between the jacket and dense phase
A
J
jacket area available for heat transfer
Heat balance in the bubble phase gives (it is assumed to be in plug ow
mode and with negligible rate of reaction), (see Fig. 6.30)
G
C
r C
P
T
B
G
C
rC
P
T
B
T
B
h
B
a A
C
h T
B
T
which, after some rearrangements and taking the limits as T
B
! 0 and
h ! 0, gives
G
C
r C
P
dT
B
dh
h
B
a A
C
T T
B
6:107
Analytical Solution of Eq. (6.107)
On separating the variables of dierential Eq. (6.107), we get
dT
B
T T
B
b dh
where
b
h
B
a A
C
G
C
rC
P
Figure 6.29 Heat transfer in the uidized bed.
TM
ln T T
B
b h C
1
The integration constant C
1
can be calculated using the initial condition at
h 0, T
B
T
f
. Thus, we get
C
1
ln T T
f
_ _
On substituting the value of constant of integration, we get
ln
T T
B
T T
f
_ _
bh
T T
B
T T
f
e
bh
We can use the above relation in the heat balance for the dense phase (6.106)
in order to calculate the heat transfer integral; we get
Figure 6.30 Heat ow in the bubble phase.
TM
G
I
rC
P
T T
f
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
k
0
e
E=RT
C
A
H h
B
aA
C
T T
f
_ _
_
H
0
e
bh
dh UA
J
T T
J

Because
_
H
0
e
b h
dh
1
b
1 e
b H
_ _

G
C
rC
P
h
B
a A
C
1 e
bH
_ _
Thus, we can write
G
I
rC
P
G
C
rC
P
1 e
bH
_ _ _ _
T T
f
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
k
o
e
E=RT
C
A
H
UA
J
T T
J

For a uidized bed without chemical reaction, the heat transfer equation
will be
rC
P
G
I
G
C
1 e
bH
_ _ _ _
T T
f
_ _
UA
J
T T
J
6:108
6.8 UNSTEADY-STATE BEHAVIOR OF
HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS: APPLICATION
TO FLUIDIZED-BED CATALYTIC REACTORS
In the mass balance equation, an accumulation term will be added as
follows:
G
I
G
C
1 e
Q
E
A
C
=G
C
H
_ _ _ _
C
Af
C
A
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
Accumulation or depletion with time
6:109
where
Accumulation or depletion with time The unsteady state
dynamic term
and we can write the holdup of any component (e.g., component A) as
n
A
A
I
HeC
A
A
I
Hr
b
C
AS
6:110
where
C
A
is the gas-phase concentration of component A
C
AS
solid phase (chemisorbed) concentration of component A
n
A
number of moles of component A in the uidized bed reactor
(component A holdup)
TM
r
b

g catalyst
cm
3
bed
r
S
1 e
r
S

g catalyst
cm
3
catalyst
On dierentiation of n
A
[in Eq. (6.110)], we get
dn
A
dt
A
I
H e
dC
A
dt
r
b
dC
AS
dt
_ _
Accumulation or depletion with time
6:111
Substituting Eq. (6.111) into Eq. (6.109) gives
G
I
G
C
1 e
Q
E
A
C
=G
C
H
_ _ _ _
C
Af
C
A
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
A
I
H e
dC
A
dt
r
b
dC
A
S
dt
_ _
6:112
Thus, we get a dierential equation in which two variables C
A
and C
AS
are
functions of time. How do we handle putting C
AS
(the chemisorbed con-
centration of A) in terms of C
A
(the gas phase concentration of A)? The
simplest approach is the one given as follows:
Chemisorption mechanism
We give some detail regarding the relation between C
A
and C
AS
.
Reactions:
A ! D
A S , AS at equilibrium
AS ! DS
where S is the active site
Thus, we can write
K
A

C
AS
C
A
C
0
S
where,
C
0
S
C
m
C
AS
; where C
0
S
is the concentration of free active sites.
and, C
m
is the total concentration of active sites. Thus, so we get,
K
A
C
A
C
m
C
AS
_ _
C
AS
Thus,
C
AS

K
A
C
m
C
A
1 K
A
C
A
TM
This is a Langmuir isotherm. Considering the low concentration of C
A
(i.e.,
linear relation between C
A
and C
AS
), we get
C
AS
K
A
C
m
_ _
C
A
(as earlier) 6:113
On dierentiation of Eq. (6.113) and assuming that K
A
and C
m
are constant,
we get
dC
AS
dt
K
A
C
m
_ _
dC
A
dt
6:114
Thus, the nal mass balance equation derived earlier [Eq. (6.112)] becomes
G
I
G
C
1 e
Q
E
A
C
=G
C
H
_ _ _ _
C
Af
C
A
_ _
A
I
Hr
b
kC
A
A
I
H e K
A
C
m
r
b
_ _
dC
A
dt
6:115
Note: It is always difcult to nd the values of K
A
and C
m
, except for
very common processes.
Utilizing the nonlinear isotherm will complicate this dynamic term as
follows. Because
C
AS

K
A
C
m
C
A
1 K
A
C
A
dierentiating gives
dC
AS
dt
K
A
C
m
1 K
A
C
A

1
dC
A
dt
C
A
1 1 K
A
C
A

2
K
A
dC
A
dt
_ _
Thus, we get
dC
AS
dt
K
A
C
m
1
1 K
A
C
A
K
A
C
A
1 K
A
C
A

2
_ _
dC
A
dt
6:116
For the nonisothermal case, the heat balance equation is
g T T
f
_ _
A
I
Hk
0
e
E=RT
r
b
C
A
H UA
J
T T
J

dQ
dt
6:117
where
Q A
I
Her
g
C
P
g
T
g
A
I
Hr
b
C
PS
T
S
6:118
is the heat content of the uidized bed reactor and
g G
I
rC
P
G
C
rC
P
1 e
bH
_ _ _ _
TM
Assuming negligible heat transfer resistances between the gas and solid, we
get
T
g
T
S
T
On dierentiating Eq. (6.118), we get
dQ
dt
A
I
H er
g
C
P
g
.,,.
negligible
r
b
C
PS
_
_
_
_
_
_
dT
dt
Thus, we get
dQ
dt
A
I
Hr
b
C
P
S
dT
dt
6:119
The expression for dQ=dt from Eq. (6.119) can be substituted in Eq. (6.117)
to get the nal unsteady heat balance equation
gT T
f
A
I
Hk
0
e
E=RT
r
b
C
A
H UA
J
T T
J
A
I
Hr
b
C
PS
dT
dt
6:120
Note: For the case of the linear isotherm, we can dene a Lewis number
for the process as follows:
Heat capacitance term
Mass capacitance term

A
I
Hr
b
C
PS
A
I
H e K
A
C
m
r
b
_ _
r
b
C
PS
e K
A
C
m
r
b
_ _
Lewis number Le
6.9 EXAMPLE: SIMULATION OF A BUBBLING
FLUIDIZED-BED CATALYTIC REACTOR
A consecutive reaction
A ! B ! C
is taking place in a bubbling uidized-bed reactor with both reactions being
exothermic and of rst order. The intermediate product B is the desired
product.
Figure 6.31 shows the a schematic representation of this two-phase
uidized-bed reactor with a simple proportional control. It should be noted
that the proportional control is based on the exit temperature (the average
between the dense-phase and the bubble-phase temperatures), which is the
measured variable, and the steam ow to the feed heater is the manipulated
variable.
TM
As we have shown in the previous sections, the dynamics of the dense
phase are described by nonlinear ordinary dierential equations (ODEs) on
time having an integral term for the mass and heat transfer between the
dense and the bubble phases. The bubble phase is described by pseudo-
steady state linear ODEs on height. The linear ODEs of the bubble phase
are solved analytically and the solution is used to evaluate the integrals in
dense-phase equations. The reader should do this as practice to reach the
dimensionless model equations given next.
The dynamic equations describing this uidized bed after the above-
described manipulations are the following nonlinear ODEs in terms of
dimensionless variables and parameters:
1
Le
A
dX
A
dt
B X
Af
X
A
_ _
a
1
e
g
1
=Y

X
A
1
Le
B
dX
B
dt
B X
Bf
X
B
_ _
a
1
e
g
1
=Y

X
A
a
2
e
g
2
=Y

X
B
dY
dt
B Y
f
Y
_ _
a
1
b
1
e
g
1
=Y

X
A
a
2
b
2
e
g
2
=Y

X
B
where X
j
is the dimensionless dense-phase concentration of the component
j j A; B; C and Y is the dimensionless dense-phase temperature. The
Figure 6.31 Simulation model for two-phase uidized-bed reactor with propor-
tional control.
TM
dimensionless feed temperature (after neglecting the dynamics of the feed
heater) is given by
Y
f
Y
f
K Y
m
Y
The base values for Y
f
is Y
f 0
and B is the reciprocal of the eective residence
time of the bed given by
B
G
I
G
C
1 e
a

A
I
H
The yield of the reactor is given by
y
G
I
X
B
G
C
X
BH
G
I
G
C
X
Af
where
X
BH
X
B
X
Bf
X
B
_ _
e
a
and
a
Q
E
HA
C
G
C
The dimensionless parameters are dened as follows:
a
i
dimensionless pre-exponential factor for the reaction i
r
S
1 e k
oi
b
i
dimensionless exothermicity factor for the reaction i
H
i
C
ref
r
f
C
Pf
T
ref
g
i
dimensionless activation energy for the reaction i
E
i
RT
ref
t normalized time (time/heat capacity of the system)
Le
j
Lewis number of component j
=
C
PS
K
j
C
m
C
Pf
r
f
where
r
S
solid catalyst density
C
PS
specic heat of the catalyst
e voidage occupied by the gas in the dense phase
H
i
heat of reaction for reaction i
k
0
i
pre-exponential factor for reaction i
TM
C
ref
reference concentration
T
ref
reference temperature
r
f
density of the gas
C
Pf
specic heat of the gas
E
i
activation energy for reaction i
K
j
= chemisorption equilibrium constant for component j
C
m
= concentration of active sites in the catalyst
The values of parameters used in this simulation are tabulated in Table
6.1.
Figure 6.32 shows that the desired steady state (corresponding to the
highest yield of intermediate desired product B) corresponds to a middle
unstable steady state. In order to stabilize this desired steady state, the use of
a simple proportional controller is proposed and the behavior is studied for
dierent values of the proportional gain K , as shown in Fig. 6.32B. It can
Table 6.1 Data Used for the Simulation
Bed cross-section area, A 3000 cm
2
Supercial gas velocity (based on unit cross section of the
whole bed), U
2
10.0 cm/s
Minimum uidization velocity (based on unit cross section
of the whole bed), U
mf
0.875 cm/s
Voidage of the dense phase 0.4
Bed height, H 100 cm
Normalized pre-exponential factor for the reaction A ! B 10
8
Normalized pre-exponential factor for the reaction B ! C 10
11
Dimensionless overall thermicity factor for the reaction
A ! B
0.4
Dimensionless overall thermicity factor for the reaction
B ! C
0.6
Dimensionless activation energy for the reaction A ! B 18.0
Dimensionless activation energy for the reaction B ! C 27.0
Lewis number of component A, Le
A
1.0
Lewis number of component B, Le
B
2.2
Feed concentration of component A, X
Af
1.0
Feed concentration of component B, X
Bf
0.0
Feed concentration of component C, X
Cf
0.0
Dimensionless feed temperature to the reactor (base value),
Y
f
0.553420765035
Set point for the controller, Y
m
0.929551298359
TM
be observed that a K value of at least 3.5 is necessary to stabilize this
unstable saddle-type steady state.
The dynamic behavior of this three-dimensional system is quite rich
and complicated. The reader can nd the detailed study in the paper pub-
lished by one of the authors of this book (1). A sample of the results is
shown in Fig. 6.33, in which the complex oscillations of the state variables
can be observed.
6.10 A DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER DIFFUSION
REACTION MODEL FOR THE ALCOHOLIC
FERMENTATION PROCESS
The following is an example for the development of a distributed parameter
model for the yeast oc in the alcoholic fermentation process. The model
takes into consideration the external mass transfer resistances, the mass
transfer resistance through the cellular membrane, and the diusion resis-
tances inside the oc. The two-point boundary-value dierential equations
for the membrane are manipulated analytically, whereas the nonlinear two-
point boundary-value dierential equations of diusion and reaction inside
Figure 6.32 Yield and van Heerden diagrams for the data in Table 6.1. (A) Yield
y of B versus dimensionless dense-phase temperature Y , where Y
m
is Y at the
maximum yield of B; (B) van Heerden diagram showing the heat generation function
of the system G Y and heat removal line R Y for the dierent values of K versus
the dimensionless dense-phase temperature Y.
TM
the oc are approximated using the orthogonal collocation technique
(Appendix E).
The evaluation of the necessary diusion coecients have involved a
relatively large number of assumptions because of the present limited
knowledge regarding the complex process of diusion and biochemical reac-
tions in these systems.
A comparison between the model and an experimental laboratory
batch fermentor as well as an industrial fed-batch fermentor is also presented
to the reader. The model is shown to simulate reasonably well the experi-
mental results, with the largest deviation being for the concentration of yeast.
A heterogeneous model is being developed by taking three mass trans-
fer resistances in series for both ethanol and sugar; these are as follows:
1. External mass transfer resistances that depend on the physical
properties of the bulk uid (extracellular uid) and the degree
of mixing as well as temperature.
2. Diusion through the cell membrane: A process that is not fully
understood and which is aected by many factors in a complex
way; for example, it is well known that ethanol increases the
uidity of biological membranes; in addition, ethanol causes a
Figure 6.33 Classical dynamic characteristics (time traces) for a case with
K 3:083691.
TM
change in phospholipid composition and a decrease of the lipid to
protein ratio of the membrane. At steady state, the transport of
sugar through biological membranes is considered a carrier-
mediated process, which consists of diusion and biochemical
reactions in the membrane. Glucose diusion versus concentra-
tion gradient has been beautifully simulated by Kernevez for the
glucose pump formed of articial membranes (2). However, for
the present unsteady-state model, all bioreactions are assumed to
take place inside the cell, with the assumption that no reaction is
taking place in the membrane. Therefore, Fickian diusion of
sugar is considered through the membrane with the appropriate
diusion coecient.
3. Intracellular diusion, which is dependent on the intracellular
conditions. A reasonably rigorous description of this diusion
process requires a distributed diusionreaction model. A more
rigorous description, which is not considered in this undergrad-
uate book, requires a more structured diusionreaction model.
6.10.1 Background on the Problems Associated with
the Heterogeneous Modeling of Alcoholic
Fermentation Processes
The rigorous heterogeneous modeling of alcoholic fermentation process
requires a large amount of fundamental information which is not completely
available in the literature now. However, rational mathematical models
based on the available knowledge regarding this process represent consider-
able improvement over the usual pseudohomogeneous models. Such models
also help to direct experimental investigations in a more organized manner.
The alcoholic fermentation process is quite a complex process and
involves the following main processes.
Product Inhibition
The ethanol inhibition eect is of the non-competitive type, where ethanol
concentration aects only the maximum specic growth rate. This depen-
dence of the maximum specic rate of growth of ethanol concentration
involves two main types of dependence: linear dependence and nonlinear
dependence. Jobses and Roels [3] have shown that inhibition kinetics can be
approximated by a linear relation between the specic growth rate and the
ethanol concentration up to 50 g/L ethanol. Above this level, deviation from
linearity is observed.
As discussed by Elnashaie and Ibrahim [4], many investigators
reported that produced ethanol (intracellular ethanol) is more toxic than
TM
added ethanol (extracellular ethanol) and an intermediate value of K
p
35
has been observed, which lies between K
p
105:2 g/L for added ethanol and
K
p
3:04 g/L for produced ethanol. This value is believed to represent K
p
for ethanol inhibition when using the heterogeneous model, which distin-
guishes between intracellular and extracellular uids.
Sugar Inhibition
It is well known that a high concentration of sugar inhibits the growth of
yeasts. However, the inhibitory eect of sugar is negligible below a sugar
concentration of 100 g/L [5]. The inhibitory eect of sugar is not included in
the present model; however, it can easily be added to the kinetic rate equa-
tion without any extra complications.
Cell Inhibition
In alcoholic fermentation, most kinetic models express cell growth rate as a
linear function of cell concentration. However, the experimental results of
Cysewski and Wilke [6] showed that at a high cell concentration, the linear
relationship is incorrect.
Ethanol Diffusion
The dispute in the literature regarding the diusion of ethanol has been
discussed by Elnashaie and Ibrahim [4]. The slightly more detailed diusion
reaction model for the alcoholic fermentation process presented in this sec-
tion of the book will help to throw more light on this dispute than the model
used by Elnashaie and Ibrahim [4]. However, we are certainly still quite far
from a completely rigorous representation of this rather complex diusion
reaction problem.
Flocculation of the Yeast
The occulation of the yeast aects the mass transfer rates and, thus, the
rate of fermentation considerably through the change of the exposed surface
area for mass transfer per unit mass of the micro-organism. The occulation
process has been investigated experimentally by many researchers; however,
the theoretical basis for understanding the occulation process is severely
lacking.
6.10.2 Development of the Model
The model equations are developed for the ocs with three mass transfer
resistances in series for sugar and ethanol. The present oc model is more
TM
sophisticated than the one developed earlier by Elnahsaie and Ibrahim [4],
whereas for the extracellular uid, the model does not dier from the that
used by Elnashaie and Ibrahim [4].
Single-Floc Model
The oc is formed of a number of cells. This number depends on many
factors, including the liquid-phase composition and the occulating ten-
dency of the specic strain of the yeast. The structure of the oc is quite
complex and branched, giving rise to what may be called a fractal structure.
In this undergraduate book, we use the more classical approach of reducing
the complex structure of the oc to an equivalent sphere. The geometric
dimensions of the oc fractal structure can be used instead. However, there
are certain diculties associated with the determination of the fractal
dimension f and the constant of proportionality a (needed for the calcula-
tion of the geometric dimension of the fractal structure), which are beyond
the scope of this undergraduate book. Figure 6.34 shows the idealized
equivalent sphere used in this model, where the internal oc (the equivalent
sphere) is considered a substrate sink where sugar reacts to produce ethanol.
Diusion through the cell membrane (the membrane of the oc equiva-
lent sphere) is assumed to obey Ficks law with membrane diusion coe-
cients that take into account the complex nature of the membrane. Carrier-
Figure 6.34 Schematic presentation of the proposed model of an equivalent sphere
for the microbial oc.
TM
mediated transport of sugar through the membrane is not considered because
of the unsteady-state nature of the model and the fact that the model assumes
that all of the bioreactions take place inside the cell, with no reactions taking
place in the membrane. The external mass transfer resistances are assumed to
be lumped in one hypothetical external mass transfer lm, with the mass
transfer coecient depending on the extracellular conditions.
Single-Floc Equations
A schematic diagram showing the details of the proposed model for the
equivalent sphere representing the microbial oc is presented in Figure
6.34. A number of simplifying assumptions are implicit in the lengthy
manipulation of the model equations.
Mass Balance of Ethanol Within the Membrane
If we assume that no reaction is taking place in the membrane, then the
diusion equation becomes
dN
p
do

d
do
Dp
m
o
2
dP
R
1
do
_ _
0 6:121
where
N
p
ux of intracellular ethanol (g/cm
2
s)
Dp
m
diusion coecient of intracellular ethanol in membrane
(cm
2
/s)
P intracellular ethanol concentration (g/cm
3
)
o r=R
1
(see Fig. 6.34 for R
1
)
The diusivity of ethanol through the membrane is estimated as a function
of ethanol mole fraction in the membrane x
1
by the following relation [7]:
Dp
m

a
22
x
1
m
1=3
1
1 x
1
m
1=3
2
_ _
3
6:122
where a
22
is a constant and m
i
is the viscosity of component i. Also,
x
1

P
r
w
R
M
P 1 R
M

_ _ 6:123
where r
w
is the density of the oc (g wet weight/cm
3
wet volume) 1.23
g/cm
3
and R
M
is the ratio of the molecular weight of ethanol and the
membrane lipid.
TM
Substitution of Eqs. (6.122) and (6.123) into Eq. (6.121) and integra-
tion gives
f P a
22
AP
B
d
ln c dP
A
1
d c dP
A
2
2d c dP
2
_ _
C
1

C
2
o
6:124
where,
A
b
3
d
3
B
3b
2
d
3
_ _
ad cb
A
1

3b
d
3
_ _
ad cb
2
A
2

1
d
3
_ _
ad cb
3
a R
M
r
w
b 1 R
M
c m
lipid
_ _
1=3
R
M
r
w
d m
ethanol
_ _
1=3
R
M
m
lipid
_ _
1=3
a
22
a
22
=R
1
and C
1
and C
2
are constants of integration to be tted to boundary condi-
tions.
Boundary Condition at the External Surface of the Membrane
The external surface of the membrane corresponds to r R
2
(i.e.,
o
2
R
2
=R
1
).
The boundary condition at this point is given by
dP
do
o
2
K
gp
R
1
Dp
m o
2

_ _
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:125
where K
gi
is the external mass transfer coecient for component i (cm/s) and
P
b
is the extracellular ethanol concentration (g/cm
3
). From Eq. (6.121), we
obtain
dP
do
o
2
C
2
Dp
m o
2

o
2
2
6:126
TM
Thus, from Eqs. (6.125) and (6.126), we can express the constant of integra-
tion C
2
in terms of the concentration at the point o
2
(i.e., R
2
=R
1
):
C
2

R
2
2
R
1
_ _
K
gp
p
b
p
!
2
6:127
Equation (6.124) at point o
2
can be written as
f P
o
2
_ _
a
22
AP
o
2

B
d
ln c dP
o
2
_ _
A
1
d c dP
o
2
_ _
A
2
2d c dP
o
2
_ _
2
_ _
C
1

C
2
o
2
C
1
R
2
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:128
Therefore, C
1
can also be written in terms of P
o
2
, using the above relation,
as follows:
C
1
f P
o
2
_ _
R
2
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:129
At the point o
1
R
1
=R
1
1:0
_ _
(i.e., R
1
is R
1
at the membrane side as
distinguished from R
1
, which is R
1
at the oc side). Equation (6.124) can
be rewritten using Eqs. (6.127) and (6.129) in the following form:
f P
o
1
_ _
C
1

C
2
o
1
f P
o
2
_ _
R
2
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
R
2
2
R
1
_ _
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
Thus,
f P
o
1
_ _
f P
o
2
_ _
R
2
K
gp
1
R
2
R
1
_ _
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:130
At the interface between the membrane and the oc (the point o
1
), we have,
Dp
f
dP
do
1
Dp
m
dP
do
1
6:131
Similar to Eq. (6.126), we have
dP
m
do
C
2
o
1
_ _
C
2
6:132
Thus, from Eqs. (6.131), (6.132), and (6.127), we get
Dp
f
dP
do
R
2
2
R
1
_ _
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:133
TM
If we use the one internal collocation point approximation for the diusion
reaction equation inside the oc as shown in the next section, then the left-
hand side of Eq. (6.133) can be approximated using the orthogonal colloca-
tion formula (refer to Appendix E for orthogonal collocation method), and,
thus, Eq. (6.133) becomes
Dp
f
o
1
A
21
P
c
A
22
P
o
1
_ _

R
2
2
R
1
_ _
K
gp
P
b
P
o
2
_ _
6:134
where A
11
and A
22
are collocation constants for the spherical shape
A
21
3:5; A
22
3:5 and c indicates the internal collocation point for
the oc.
Ethanol Mass Balance Inside the Floc
For unsteady-state mass balance inside the oc, considering that all of the
reactions producing ethanol and consuming sugar is taking place inside the
oc, we obtain the following parabolic partial dierential equations:
@P
@t

m
m
r
d
Y
P
m
0
Y
C
1
r
2
_ _
@
@r
Dp
f
r
2
@P
@r
_ _ _ _
6:135
where
Y
P
yield factor for ethanol (g ethanol produced/g sugar consumed)
Y
C
yield factor for yeast (g yeast produced/g sugar consumed)
r
d
dry density of oc (g dry wt/cm
3
wet vol.) 0.2 g/cm
3
m
m
maximum specic growth rate (s
1
)
Putting the above equation in dimensionless coordinate, o 2 0; 1 ,
o r=R
1
, we obtain the following equation:
R
2
1
@P
@t

m
m
r
d
Y
P
m
0
R
2
1
Y
C
1
o
2
_ _
@
@o
Dp
f
o
2
@P
@o
_ _ _ _
6:136
Applying the orthogonal collocation technique (refer to Appendix E for
orthogonal collocation method) using one internal collocation point at o
c
,
at the internal collocation point we obtain the following dierential equation:
R
2
1
dP
c
dt
B
11
Dp
f
c
P
c
_ _
B
12
Dp
f
o
1
P
o
1
_ _
2
S
Y
P
m
0
S
c
P
c
6:137
where B
11
10:5, B
12
10:5, S
c
is the sugar concentration at the internal
collocation point (g/cm
3
), and
2
S

m
m
r
d
R
2
1
Ds
f
Y
C
Equations (6.130), (6.134), and (6.137) are two algebraic equations and one
dierential equation in four variables, namely P
o
1
, P
o
1
, P
o
1
, and P
c
; thus,
TM
one equation is missing. This extra equation can be furnished by the equili-
brium relation between P
o
1
and P
o
1
, which has the following form:
P
o
1
K
1
P
o
1
6:138
where K is the equilibrium partition constant for the oc side of the mem-
brane
Equations (6.130), (6.134), (6.137), and (6.138) can now be solved to
obtain four variables at every time during the fermentation process, pro-
vided that at these times, the concentration of sugar at the collocation point
is known (the necessary equations are derived in the next section) and the
bulk (extracellular) concentrations are known (the extracellular equations
are exactly the same as in Ref. 4; however, for the benet of the reader, we
will present those equations again in a later section). We will also discuss the
solution algorithm to be employed to solve this complex set of equations.
Mass Balance for Sugar Inside the Membrane
We assume that no reaction is taking place inside of the membrane and also
assume a pseudo-steady-state for the membrane. Furthermore, we assume
constant sugar diusivity through the membrane. Based on these assump-
tions, the sugar material balance inside the membrane becomes
r
2
S 0 6:139
where
r
2
d
2
do
2

2
o
_ _
d
do
_ _
and o
r
R
1
The boundary condition at the outer surface of the membrane o
2
(i.e.,
R
2
=R
1
) is given by
dS
do
o
2
Sh
S
S
b
S
o
2
_ _
6:140
where
Sh
S

Kg
s
R
1
Ds
m
and Kg
s
is the external mass transfer coecient for sugar (cm/s) and Ds
m
is
the diusion coecient of sugar in membrane phase (cm
2
/s).
The boundary condition at the inner surface of the membrane o
1
(i.e.,
R
1
=R
1
1:0) is given by
Ds
f
dS
do
1
Ds
m
dS
do
1
6:141
TM
The general equation of Eq. (6.139) is given by
S C
0
1

C
0
2
o
6:142
After some manipulation, we obtain S
o
2
in terms of S
o
1
as follows,
S
o
2

S
o
1
Sh
Sm
S
b
1 R
1
=R
2

1 Sh
Sm
1 R
1
=R
2

6:143
where
Sh
Sm
Sh
S
R
2
R
1
_ _
2
The boundary condition in Eq. (6.141) coupled with the oc dierential
equation after simplifying it using the one-internal orthogonal collocation
point approximation, gives the following relation among S
o
1
, S
o
1
, and the
concentration of sugar at the internal collocation point S
c
:
S
o
Sh
Sf
S
b
S
o
1
_ _
A
22
1 Sh
Sm
1 R
1
=R
2

A
21
A
22
_ _
S
c
6:144
where
Sh
Sf
Sh
Sm
Ds
m
Ds
f
_ _
The change of sugar concentration at the internal collocation point is given
by the following nonlinear dierential equation:
R
2
1
Ds
f
_ _
dS
c
dt
B
11
S
c
B
12
S
o
2
S
m
0
S
c
P
c
6:145
where
2
S

m
m
r
d
R
2
1
Ds
f
Y
C
m
0

K
p
S 1 X=X
m

N
K
p
P
_ _
K
S
S
K
0
p
K
0
p
P
K
p
is the inhibition constant (g/cm
3
), K
0
p
is the rate constant (g/cm
3
), X is the
biomass concentration (g dry wt/cm
3
), and X
m
is the maximum biomass
concentration (g dry wt/cm
3
). In addition, we assume the validity of the
equilibrium relation between S
o
1
and S
o
1
written as
S
o
1
K
2
S
o
1
6:146
TM
where K
2
is the equilibrium partition constant for the oc side of the mem-
brane.
The Extracellular Balance Equation
For the batch fermentor case, the extracellular mass balance equations are
the same as those in Ref. 4; these are as follows:
For sugar,
dS
b
dt

3XKg
S
r
d
X
_ _
R
2
_ _
S
b
S
o
2
_ _
6:147
For ethanol,
dP
b
dt

3XKg
p
r
d
X
_ _
R
2
_ _
P
o
2
P
b
_ _
6:148
For micro-organisms,
dX
dt
m
m
m
0
X 6:149
where, Kg
i
is the external mass transfer coecient for component i
(cm/s).
Equations (6.130), (6.134), (6.137), (6.138), and (6.143)(6.149) are the
model equations that are to be solved together with the physical properties,
external mass transfer, and diusivities correlations to obtain the change of
sugar, ethanol, and micro-organism concentrations with time.
Note: The physical properties, external mass transfer, and diffusivity cor-
relations can be obtained from Ref. 4.
6.10.3 Solution Algorithm
For the given initial bulk conditions at t 0,P
b0
, S
b0
, and the initial con-
ditions for P
c
and S
c
the solution algorithm is as follows:
1. Equations (6.130), (6.134), and (6.138) together with the relations
for physical properties and diusivities [7] are solved to obtain
the values of P
o
2
, P
o
1
, and P
o
1
.
2. Equations (6.143), (6.144), and (6.146) together with the relations
for physical properties and diusivities [7] are solved to obtain
the values of S
o
2
, S
o
1
, and S
o
1
.
3. The dierential Eqs. (6.137) and (6.145) for the concentration at
the internal collocation point are integrated using a fourth-order
TM
RungeKutta routine with automatic step size (to ensure accu-
racy) to obtain the values of P
c
and S
c
for the next time step.
4. The dierential Eqs. (6.147), (6.148), and (6.149) are integrated
using the same routine to obtain the values of P
b
, S
b
, and X for
the next time step.
5. Repeat steps 14 until you reach the nal time of fermentation.
6.10.4 Comparison Between the Model and
Experimental/Industrial Data
The model has been solved using the algorithm discussed in Section 6.10.3,
the physical parameters estimations are given in Ref. 7, and the kinetic and
physical parameters are given in Ref. 4. The thickness of the membrane is
taken as 10
6
cm for the two simulated cases. The results of the present
model are compared with the experimental and industrial results.
Figure 6.35 shows an example of the results of the experimental
intracellular ethanol concentration prole versus time together with the
prole predicted by the above-discussed distributed parameter model
(DPM) at the internal collocation point. The results of the present DPM
model give the nonmonotonic shape of the intracellular ethanol concentra-
tion and the prole as a whole follows the same experimental trend.
Figure 6.36 shows the prole of the extracellular sugar concentration.
The results of the DPM are very close to the experimental results.
Figure 6.35 Intracellular ethanol concentration versus time (*: experimental; :
DPM for an experimental batch fermentor).
TM
Figure 6.37 shows the extracellular ethanol concentration proles
where the DPM predicts ethanol concentrations that are very close to the
experimental results.
This discussion of the development of a DPM of the fermentation
process gives the reader a good overview and the necessary understanding
Figure 6.36 Extracellular sugar concentration versus time (*: experimental; :
Figure 6.37 Extracellular ethanol concentration versus time (*: experimental; :
TM
for the development of mathematical models for industrial biochemical
processes.
REFERENCES
1. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H., Harraz, H. M., and Abashar, M. E. Homoclinical chaos
and the period-adding route to complex non-chaotic attractors in uidized bed
catalytic reactors. Chaos Solitons Fractals 12, 17611792, 2001.
2. Kernevez, J. P. Control, optimization and parameter identication in immobi-
lized enzyme systems. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Analysis
and Control of Immobilized Enzyme Systems. (Thomas, D. and Kernevez, J. P,
eds.). North Holland/American Elsevier, 1976, pp. 199225.
3. Jobses, I. M. L and Roels, J. A. The inhibition of the maximum specic growth
and fermentation rate of Zymomonas mobilis by ethanol. Biotechnol. Bioeng.
28(4), 554563, 1986.
4. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. and Ibrahim, G. Heterogeneous modeling for the alcoholic
fermentation process. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 19(1), 71101, 1988.
5. Ciftci, T., Constantinides, A., and Wang, S. S. Optimization of conditions and
cell feeding procedures for alcohol fermentation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 25(8),
20072023, 1983.
6. Cysewski, G. R. and Wilke, C. R. Process design and economic studies of
alternative fermentation methods for the production of ethanol. Biotechnol.
Bioeng., 20(9), 14211444, 1978.
7. Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. and Ibrahim, G. A distributed parameter diusion
reaction model for the alcoholic fermentation process. Appl. Biochemi.
Biotechnol. 30(3), 339358, 1991.
8. Garhyan, P. and Elnashaie, S. S. E. H. Exploitation of static/dynamic bifurca-
tion and chaotic behavior of fermentor for higher productivity of fuel ethanol.
AIChE Annual Meeting, 2001.
PROBLEMS
Problem 6.1
Derive the steady-state mass balance equations for a one-component two-
plate absorption tower with ideal (equilibrium) stages; that is, the concen-
trations of the transferable component in the liquid and gas leaving each
plate are at equilibrium according to the linearized equilibrium relation
Y
j
aX
j
b
where a 0:72 and b 0:0, and Y
j
and X
j
are weight fractions of the solute
(the transferable component) to inerts in the gas and liquid phases. The mass
ow rate of the gas and liquid (based on inerts) are G 66:7 lbs inerts/min
and L 40:8 inerts/min. Solve for the steady-state plate composition when
the liquid feed is pure and the gas feed has a concentration of 0.3 lb solute/lb
inerts.
TM
What is the eect of relaxing the assumption of equilibrium stages.
Derive the steady-state mass balance equations for this case of nonideal
stages and express the solution vectors in terms of the dierent coecient
matrices and input vectors.
Problem 6.2
Flooded condensers are sometimes used in distillation columns. The liquid
level runs up in the condenser, covering some of the tubes. Thus, a variable
amount of heat transfer area is available to condense the vapor. The column
pressure can be controlled by changing the distillate (or reux) draw-o
rate.
Write equations describing the dynamics of the condenser.
Problem 6.3
Derive the unsteady-state mass balance equations for a countercurrent
absorption column with N plates, where a single component is absorbed
from the vapor phase into the liquid phase as shown in Figure P6.3. Assume
ideal stages and that the liquid and gas on each plate are perfectly mixed and
that the liquid and gas molar ow rate from one plate to the other are
constant (dilute system). Assume linear equilibrium relations. Put the result-
ing equation in a matrix form. Deduce the steady-state matrix equation
from the unsteady-state matrix equation.
Problem 6.4
A mixture of two immiscible liquids is fed to a decanter. The heavier liquid
A settles to the bottom of the tank. The lighter liquid B forms a layer on the
top. The two interfaces are detected by oats and are controlled by manip-
ulating the two ows F
A
and F
B
(m
3
/h) according to the relations
F
A
K
A
h
A
and F
B
K
B
h
A
h
B

Figure P6.3 Schematic diagram for Problem 6.3.
TM
where h
A
is the height of the interface above the bottom of the tank and h
B
is
the height of the light liquid B above the interface. The controllers increase
or decrease the ows as the level rise or fall.
The total feed rate is W
o
(kg/h). The weight fraction of liquid A in
the feed is X
A
, and the two densities r
A
and r
B
(kg/m
3
) are constant. Write
the equations describing the dynamic behavior of the system; also express
the steady-state height of both phases in terms of other parameters.
Problem 6.5
For the partial oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide,
C
2
H
4

1
2
O
2
! C
2
H
4
O
the catalyst consists of silver supported on alumina, and although it is
reasonably specic, appreciable amounts of CO
2
and H
2
O are also formed.
Over the range of interest, the yield of ethylene oxide is relatively constant,
so that for present purposes, we may regard the reaction stoichiometry as
C
2
H
4
1:5O
2
! 0:6C
2
H
4
O0:8CO
2
0:8H
2
O
The rate of reaction may be expressed as
r 1:23 10
6
e
9684=T
P
0:323
C
2
H
4
P
0:658
O
2
where the partial pressures are expressed in atmospheres, temperature is
expressed in degrees Kelvin, and the rate of reaction r is expressed in
pound moles per pound of catalyst per hour.
If
1
8
-in. catalyst pellets are packed in 1-in.-inner-diameter tubes, which,
in turn, are immersed in a liquid bath that maintains the tube walls at 2408F,
consider the eects of varying the feed temperature and of diluting the feed
with N
2
to moderate the thermal eects accompanying the reaction.
Consider inlet temperatures from 3508F to 4808F and N
2
=C
2
H
4
ratios
from 0 to 5.0.
Your analysis will be governed by the following constraints:
(a) If the temperature at any point in the reactor exceeds 5508F, the
conditions will be inappropriate in that explosions may occur in
this regime.
(b) If the temperature decreases as the mixture moves down the
reactor, the reaction must be regarded as self-extinguishing.
(c) If the pressure drop exceeds 14 atm, the calculations must be
terminated.
TM
Determine the range of satisfactory performance and the resultant yields for
various reactor lengths for the following operating specications:
1. Inlet gas pressure 15 atm
2. Inlet C
2
H
4
=O
2
ratio (moles) 4:1.
3. Supercial mass velocity 9000 lb/h ft
2
.
4. Bulk density of catalyst 81.9 lb/ft
3
.
External heat and mass transfer eects are to be neglected in your analysis,
but you should estimate the potential magnitudes of these eects.
Problem 6.6
Before ethylene feedstocks produced by thermal cracking can be used
chemically for most applications, it is necessary to remove the traces of
acetylene present in such streams. This purication can be accomplished
by selective hydrogenation of acetylene to ethylene. The process involves
adding sucient hydrogen to the feedstock so that the mole ratio of hydro-
gen to acetylene exceeds unity. Using a palladium-on-alumina catalyst
under typical reaction conditions (25 atm, 502008C), it is possible to
achieve extremely high selectivity for the acetylene hydrogenation reaction.
As long as acetylene is present, it is selectively adsorbed and hydrogenated.
However, once it disappears, hydrogenation of ethylene takes place. The
competitive reactions may be written as
C
2
H
2
H
2
! C
2
H
4
(desired)
C
2
H
4
H
2
! C
2
H
6
(undesired)
The intrinsic rate expressions for these reactions are both rst order in
hydrogen and zero order in acetylene or ethylene. If there are diusional
limitations on the acetylene hydrogenation reaction, the acetylene concen-
tration will go to zero at some point within the core of the catalyst pellet.
Beyond this point within the central core of the catalyst, the undesired
hydrogenation of ethylene takes place to the exclusion of the acetylene
hydrogenation reaction.
(a) In the light of the above facts, what do the principles enunciated
in this chapter have to say about the manner in which the reactor
should be operated and the manner in which the catalyst should
be fabricated?
(b) It is often observed that the catalysts used for this purpose in
commercial installations do not achieve maximum selectivity
until they have been on stream for several days. How do you
explain this observation?
TM
Problem 6.7
Show that the equilibrium relationship y mx b reduces to the equation
Y mX if we let Y y b= 1 m and X x b= 1 m .
Problem 6.8
A dynamic model for a plate absorber was developed in the chapter for the
case of unit-plate eciency (ideal stages). In order to make the model more
realistic, we could assume that the plate eciency is constant throughout the
column and is given by the relation,
E
y
n
y
n1
y
n
y
n1
In this expression y
n
is the vapor composition in equilibrium with liquid
mixture of composition x
n
, so that the equilibrium relationship becomes
y
n
mx
n
b
Develop a dynamic model of a plate absorption column using these assump-
tions.
Problem 6.9
Consider the dynamics of an isothermal CSTR followed by a simple (single
stage) separating unit (e.g., an extractor, crystallizer, or a settler). The reac-
tion is reversible, A ,B, and the euent stream from the separator, which
is rich in unreacted material, is recycled. It is assumed that the reaction rate
is rst order, the equilibrium relationship for the separator is linear, and the
rate of mass transfer between the phases in the separator could be written in
terms of mass transfer coecient and a linear driving force. Making certain
that you dene all your terms carefully, show that the dynamic model for
the plant can be put into the following form:
Reactor
V
dC
A
dt
qC
Af
QC
A2
q Q C
A
V k
1
C
A
k
2
C
B

V
dC
B
dt
QC
B2
q Q C
B
V k
1
C
A
k
2
C
B

Lean phase in separator
H
dC
A2
dt
q Q C
A
QC
A2
k
gA
a
v
_ _
C
A2
m
1
C
A1

H
dC
B2
dt
q Q C
B
QC
B2
k
gB
a
v
_ _
C
B2
m
2
C
B1

TM
Rich phase in separator
h
dC
A1
dt
k
gA
a
v
_ _
C
A2
m
1
C
A1
qC
A1
h
dC
B1
dt
k
gB
a
v
_ _
C
B2
m
2
C
B1
qC
B1
Problem 6.10
If we consider a plate gas absorption unit containing only two trays for a
case where the equilibrium relationship is linear, we can write a dynamic
model for this unit as
H
dx
1
dt
L
1
Vm x
1
L
2
x
2
Vmx
0
H
dx
2
dt
Vmx
1
L
2
Vm x
2
where x
0
is the liquid composition in equilibrium with the vapor stream
entering the bottom of the column. For the simplest case, we might hope
that the liquid ow rate was constant, so that L
1
L
2
L. However, there
are situations in which the liquid rate is observed to be time dependent, and
we often model the tray hydraulics with the simple equations
t
dL
1
dt
L
1
L
2
t
dL
2
dt
L
2
L
3
where L
3
is the liquid rate entering the top plate.
First consider the case of constant ow rates:
(a) Find the steady-state solutions of the material balance expres-
sions.
(b) Linearize the equations around this steady-state operating point.
(c) Determine the characteristic roots of the linearized equations.
Next, try to reproduce parts (a)(c) for the case of variable ow rates.
At what point does the procedure fail. Why?
Problem 6.11
Derive a dynamic model that can be used to describe an adsorption or ion-
exchange column. If you desire, consider a particular case where benzene is
TM
being removed from an airstream by passing through a bed packed with
silica gel. Carefully dene your terms and list your assumptions.
What is the meaning of steady-state operation in this kind of unit?
How does the model change as you change one or more of the assumptions?
Problem 6.12
Show that the dynamic model for a double-pipe, countercurrent heat
exchanger can have the same form as the model of a packed absorber.
Discuss the assumptions inherent in both the heat exchanger and absorber
models which might lead to signicant dierences in the kinds of equations
used to describe each system.
Problem 6.13
Derive a dynamic model for a packed-bed extraction unit that includes an
axial dispersion term for the dispersed phase. Give an appropriate set of
boundary conditions for the model.
Problem 6.14
In the contact process for manufacturing sulfuric acid, sulfur is burned to
SO
2
, the SO
2
is reacted with oxygen over a catalyst to produce SO
3
, and the
SO
3
gas is absorbed in a packed tower by concentrated sulfuric acid. The
particular concentration of acid fed to the absorber is a critical design vari-
able, for the heat eects can be so large that there might be signicant
amount of mist formation. Derive a dynamic model describing an SO
3
absorber. Carefully dene your terms and list your assumptions. How
would you decide whether you could neglect the accumulation of energy
in the packing?
Problem 6.15
Heat regenerators are encountered in a number of large-scale industrial
processes, such as open-hearth furnaces, liquefaction of a vapor, and the
separation of its components in the liquid state. A hot gas, possibly leav-
ing a reactor, is passed through a checkwork of bricks, or even a bed of
stones, so that the heat is removed from the gas and stored in the solid.
Then, a cold gas is passed through this bed, normally in the opposite
direction, so that the gas is preheated before it enters the reactor.
Derive a dynamic model for the system. Carefully dene your terms and
list your assumptions.
TM
Problem 6.16
The catalytic dehydrogenation of butane is important both in the manufac-
ture of butadiene and as one step in the synthetic manufacture of gasoline. It
has been reported that the principal reaction and important secondary reac-
tion are as follows:
C
4
H
10
! C
4
H
8
H
2
(principal reaction)
C
4
H
8
! C
4
H
6
H
2
(secondary reaction)
In the high-temperature range of interest, an appreciable amount of the
reactions occurred by pyrolysis in the homogeneous phase, as well as by
the catalytic path. Also, it was observed that a large number of other reac-
tions were taking place, including the following:
(a) The dealkylation or cracking of butane to form methane, ethane,
ethylene and propylene
(b) The dealkylation of butanes to form methane, ethane, propane,
ethylene, propylene and coke
(c) The dimerization of butadiene to form 4-vinyl cyclohexane-1
(d) The decomposition of butadiene to form hydrogen, methane,
ethylene, acetylene, and coke
Obviously, a complete determination of the reaction kinetics, both homo-
geneous and catalytic, of this process would be extremely dicult. Hence,
for gasoline manufacture, it was suggested to use the following simplied
reaction model:
C
4
H
10
! C
4
H
8
H
2
C
4
H
10
! 0:1C
4
H
8
0:1H
2
1:8 (dealkylation products)
C
4
H
8
! 0:1H
2
1:8 (dealkylation products)
with the rate equations
r
A

C P
A
P
R
P
S
=K
1 K
A
P
A
K
Rs
P
Rs

2
(main dehydrogenation reaction)
r
B
kP
A
r
C
kP
R
where,
r
A
rate of reaction (moles/kg catalyst h)
C overall rate constant (moles/kg catalyst h atm)
TM
K overall gas phase equilibrium constant (atm)
K
A
effective adsorption equilibrium constant of butane (1/atm)
K
Rs
effective average adsorption constant of hydrogen and butene
P
Rs

1
2
P
R
P
s
average partial pressure of hydrogen and butene
r
B
; r
C
rate of cracking reactions (moles/kg catalyst h)
P
A
; P
R
partial pressures of butane and butene
P
S
partial pressure of hydrogen
k cracking reaction rate constant
Using this simplied kinetic model, develop a dynamic model for a
nonisothermal xed-bed, catalytic reactor. Include the possibility of feeding
steam to the bed to act as a dilutent. Carefully dene your terms and list
your assumptions.
Problem 6.17
The reaction-rate expressions for heterogeneous, catalytic reactions are
based on the assumption that the rates of the individual steps taking place
in the overall reaction are equal; that is, an equality exists among the rate of
diusion of reactants through a stagnant lm of gas surrounding the cata-
lyst particle, the rate of adsorption of reactants on the surface of the cata-
lyst, the rate of surface reaction; the rate of desorption of the products from
the surface, and the rate of diusion of products across the stagnant lm
back into the bulk of the gas stream owing through the catalyst bed. A
further modication must be made if the catalyst particle is porous and if
the rate of diusion into the pores is important.
Normally, the equations we obtain based on this assumption are so
complicated that they are unmanageable. Hence, we often attempt to sim-
plify the approach by assuming that one of the steps is rate controlling and
that the others are at equilibrium. The nal form of the rate expression, as
well as the values of the unknown constants, is usually obtained by compar-
ing the model predictions with experimental data from isothermal reactors
operated at steady-state conditions.
Discuss, in detail, the applicability of these rate expressions in dynamic
models.
Problem 6.18
Fluid catalytic cracking is one of the most important processes in the pet-
roleum rening industry. The process cracks gas oil to produce high-octane-
number gasoline. The Type IV industrial design consists of two bubbling
uidized beds with continuous catalyst circulation between the two vessels;
TM
the reactor and the regenerator. In the reactor gas oil cracks to produce
high-octane-number gasoline; overcracking also occurs, giving rise to light
gases and deposition of carbon on the catalyst that causes catalyst deactiva-
tion. The simplest representation of the reaction scheme is the following
consecutive reaction network using pseudocomponents,
A ! B ! C Light gases
where, A is the gas oil, B is the gasoline, and C is the carbon.
The cracking reactions are endothermic. In the regenerator, the carbon
deposited on the catalyst is burned o using air and, thus, the catalyst is
regenerated. This regeneration reaction is highly exothermic. The catalyst is
recirculating continuously between the reactor and the regenerator.
(a) Develop a dynamic model for this process.
(b) Is multiplicity of the steady states possible for this process?
Explain your answer.
(c) Discuss the possible sources of instability for this process and
suggest/discuss suitable control loops to stabilize the process.
(d) Suggest a simple PI feedback control loop to improve the
performance of your unit. Explain the procedure for the design
of this control loop.
Problem 6.19
A rst-order reversible reaction
A ,B
takes place in a nonisothermal porous spherical catalyst pellet. The forward
reaction rate is given by
r
f
k
f
C
A
and k
f
k
f 0
e
E
f
=RT

The backward reaction rate is given by
r
b
k
b
C
A
and k
b
k
b0
e
E
b
=RT
The equilibrium constant of the reaction is independent of temperature and
is equal to 16.5. The dimensionless activation energy for the forward reac-
tion is equal to 18, the net dimensionless exothermicity factor is equal to 0.7,
and the external mass and heat transfer resistances are negligible.
Use bulk phase gas concentration and temperature as the reference
values, such that your X
AB
1:0, X
BB
0:0 and Y
B
1:0.
(a) Use a value of the Thiele modulus for the forward reaction that
gives multiple steady states (if possible).
TM
(b) Compute the eectiveness factor(s) for the steady state(s) using
the orthogonal collocation technique.
(c) Use both integral and derivative formulas for the calculation of
the eectiveness factor(s) and comment on your results.
Problem 6.20
Jobses and Roels (3) proposed a four-dimensional model to simulate the
oscillatory behavior of ethanol fermentation using Zymomonas mobilis.
Four state variables in the model are X (micro-organisms), e (an internal
key component related to the rate of growth of micro-organism), S (sub-
strate; i.e., sugar), and P (product; i.e., ethanol). The rates of formation of
these variables obtained in batch experiments are
r
e
k
1
k
2
C
P
k
3
C
2
P
_ _
C
S
C
e
K
S
C
S
_ _
r
X

C
S
C
e
K
S
C
S
r
S

1
Y
SX
_ _
C
S
C
e
K
S
C
S
_ _
m
S
C
X
r
P

1
Y
PX
_ _
C
S
C
e
K
S
C
S
_ _
m
P
C
X
Parameter values are as follows:
k
1
h
1
16:0; k
2
m
3
=kg h 4:97 10
1
; k
3
m
6
=kg
2
h 3:83 10
3
;
m
S
kg=kg h 2:16; m
P
kg=kg h 1:1; Y
SX
kg=kg 2:44498 10
2
;
Y
PX
kg=kg 5:26315 10
2
; K
S
kg=m
3
0:5
Initial conditions are as follows:
C
e
0 0:06098658 kg=m
3
; C
X
0 1:1340651 kg=m
3
;
C
P
0 58:24388 kg=m
3
C
S
0 45:89339 kg=m
3
(a) Formulate a dynamic model for a continuous-stirred tank
fermentor (CSTF) of an active volume V
F
. Assume that the
inlet and outlet ow rates remain constant and are equal to q.
(b) Using the given values of the parameters, solve the dynamic
model and comment on the dependence of dynamic behavior
on the dilution rate (in the range 0.00.1 h
1
) and inlet substrate
feed concentration (in the range 140200 kg/m
3
). Assume that the
feed to CSTF is pure sugar.
TM
Problem 6.21
As the ethanol produced in fermentation acts as an inhibitor for the process,
continuous ethanol removal is generally used to improve the productivity/
yield of the fermentation process. Garhyan and Elnashaie (8) modeled a
continuous-membrane fermentor with in situ removal of ethanol produced
using a sweep liquid as shown in Figure P6.21. The rate of ethanol removal
is considered to be proportional to the ethanol concentration gradient
across the membrane and area of permeation.
Extend the four-dimensional model of Problem 6.20 to model this
continuous-membrane fermentor. List all of the assumptions you make
and justify them.
Figure P6.21 Schematic diagram for Problem 6.21
TM
7
Practical Relevance of Bifurcation,
Instability, and Chaos in Chemical
and Biochemical Systems
Multiplicity phenomenon in chemically reactive systems was rst observed
in 1918 (1) and in the Russian literature in 1940 (2). However, it was not
until the 1950s that the great interest in the investigation of this phenom-
enon started, inspired by the Minnesota school of Amundson and Aris (35)
and their students (612). The Prague school also had a notable contribu-
tion to the eld (1316). Since then, this phenomenon has been high on the
agenda of chemical engineering research, in general, and chemical reaction
engineering research, in particular. The fascination with this phenomenon
has also spread widely to the biological and biochemical engineering litera-
ture where it is referred to as short-term memory (17,18). The mathema-
tical literature has also caught up with the fascination of this phenomenon,
where it is treated in a more general and abstract terms under bifurcation
theory (19).
A major breakthrough with regard to the understanding of this phe-
nomenon in the eld of chemical reaction engineering was achieved by Ray
and co-workers (20,21) when, in one stroke, they uncovered a large variety
of possible bifurcation behaviours in nonadiabatic continuous-stirred tank
reactors (CSTRs). In addition to the usual hysteresis-type bifurcation,
Uppal et al. (21) uncovered dierent types of bifurcation diagrams, the
most important of which is the isola, which is a closed curve disconnected
from the rest of the continuum of steady states.
515
TM
Isolas were also found by Elnashaie et al. (2224) for enzyme systems
where the rate of reaction depends nonmonotonically on two of the systems
state variables (substrate concentration and pH), a situation which was
shown to be applicable to the acetylcholinesterase enzyme system.
Later development in the singularity theory, especially the pioneering
work of Golubitsky and Schaeer (19), provided a powerful tool for the
analysis of bifurcation behavior of chemically reactive systems. These tech-
niques have been used extensively, elegantly, and successfully by Luss and
his co-workers (711) to uncover a large number of possible types of bifur-
cation. They were also able to apply the technique successfully to complex
reaction networks as well as distributed parameter systems.
Many laboratory experiments were also designed to conrm the exis-
tence of bifurcation behavior in chemically reactive systems (2529) as well
as in enzyme systems (18).
Multiplicity (or bifurcation) behavior was found to occur in other
systems such as distillation (30), absorption with chemical reaction (31),
polymerization of olens in uidized beds (32), char combustion (33,34),
heating of wires (35), and, recently, in a number of processes used for the
manufacturing and processing of electronic components (36,37).
Although the literature is rich in theoretical investigations of the bifur-
cation behavior and laboratory experimental work for the verication of the
existence of the bifurcation behavior, it is extremely poor with regard to the
investigation of this phenomenon for industrial systems. In fact, very few
articles have been published that address the question of whether this phe-
nomenon is important industrially or is only of theoretical and intellectual
interest. Research in this eld has certainly raised the intellectual level of
chemical engineering and helped tremendously in the development of a more
advanced and rigorous approach to the modeling of chemical engineering
processes. Moreover, in addition to the intellectual benets of bifurcation
research to the engineering level of thinking and simulation of dicult
processes, it seems that the phenomenon is also of great importance and
relevance to certain industrial units. Elnashaie et al. (38) found, using het-
erogeneous models, that an industrial TVA ammonia converter is operating
at the multiplicity region. The source of multiplicity in this case is the
countercurrent ow of reactants in the catalyst bed and the cooling tubes
and heat exchanger. Multiplicity of the steady states in TVA ammonia
converters had been observed much earlier by using a simple pseudohomo-
geneous model (39,40). The uid catalytic cracking (FCC) units for the
conversion of heavy gas oil to gasoline and light hydrocarbons not only
exhibit a complex bifurcation behavior but also operate mostly in the middle
unstable steady state (4144). For these systems, the stable high- and low-
temperature steady states both give very low gasoline yield.
TM
Despite the extensive interest in the bifurcation behavior of chemical
reactors manifested in the chemical engineering literature, the industrial inter-
est in this phenomenon is extremely limited. It seems that the industrial phi-
losophy is to avoid these troublesome regions of operating and design
parameters which are characterized by instabilities, quenching, ignition,
and so forth, where design and control can be quite dicult. This conservative
philosophy was quite justiable before the great advances achieved during the
last decades in the development of rigorous models for chemical reactors and
the revolutionary advancement achieved in computer power and digital com-
puter control. The present state of aairs indicates that industrial philosophy
should change more and more into the direction of exploring the possible
opportunities available with regard to higher conversion, higher yield, and
selectivity in this region of operating and design parameters. In fact, in the last
two decades, many outstanding academic researchers have demonstrated the
possibility of exploiting these instabilities for higher conversions, selectivities,
and yields (4556). In the Russian literature, Matros and co-workers (5759)
demonstrated the advantage of operating catalytic reactors deliberately under
unsteady-state conditions to achieve higher performance. Industrial enter-
prises in the West are showing great interest in the concept. Although this
deliberate unsteady-state operation is not directly related to the bifurcation
phenomenon and its associated instabilities, it, nevertheless, demonstrates a
denite change in the conservative industrial attitude.
7.1 SOURCES OF MULTIPLICITY
Catalytic reactors are exceptionally rich in bifurcation and instability pro-
blems. These can come from many sources, as summarized in the following
subsections.
7.1.1 Isothermal Multiplicity (or Concentration Multiplicity)
This is probably the most intrinsic source of multiplicity in catalytic reactors
because it results from the nonmonotonic dependence of the intrinsic rate of
reaction on the concentration of reactants and products. Although a decade
ago nonmonotonic kinetics of catalytic reactions were considered the excep-
tional cases, nowadays it is clear that nonmonotonic kinetics in catalytic
reactions is much more widespread than previously thought. Readers can
learn more about various examples from a long list of catalytic reactions
exhibiting nonmonotonic kinetics (6065). However, nonmonotonic kinetics
alone will not produce multiplicity. It has to be coupled with some diusion
process, either a mass transfer resistance between the catalyst pellet surface
and the bulk gas or within the pores of the pellets. For if the ow conditions
and the catalyst pellets size are such that diusional resistances between the
TM
bulk gas phase and the catalytic active centers are negligible (the system in
this case is described by a pseudohomogeneous model) and the bulk gas
phase is in plug ow, then multiplicity is not possible. However, for such a
pseudohomogeneous reactor, if the bulk phase ow conditions are not in
plug ow, then multiplicity of the steady states is possible (66,67). The range
of deviations from plug ow which gives multiplicity of the steady states
corresponds to shallow beds with small gas ow rates, a situation not applic-
able to most industrial reactors.
A word of caution is necessary. Isothermal multiplicity resulting
from nonmonotonic kinetics occurs only when the nonmonotonic kinetic
dependence of the rate of reaction on species concentration is sharp
enough. For at nonmonotonic behavior, multiplicity can occur only for
bulk-phase concentrations, which are too high to be considered of much
practical relevance.
7.1.2 Thermal Multiplicity
This is the most widespread and extensively investigated type of multiplicity.
It is associated with exothermic reactions. In fact, this type of multiplicity
results from some sort of nonmonotonic behavior associated with the
change of the rate of reaction under the simultaneous variation of reactants
concentration and temperature accompanying the reactions taking place
within the boundaries of the system (the reactor). For the case of exothermic
reactions, as the reaction proceeds, the reactants deplete, which tends to
cause a decrease in the rate of reaction, while heat release increases the
temperature and thus causes the rate of reaction to increase through the
Arrhenius dependence of the rate of reaction upon temperature. These two
conicting eects on the rate of reaction associated with the conversion of
reactants lead to a nonmonotonic dependence of the rate of reaction on the
reactant concentration. This, in turn, leads to the possibility of multiple
steady states. However, similar to the isothermal case, multiplicity will not
occur in xed-bed catalytic reactors due to this eect alone; there has to be
some diusional mechanism coupled with the reaction in order to give rise
to multiplicity of the steady states. Therefore, for a xed-bed catalytic reac-
tor where the ow conditions are such that external mass and heat transfer
resistance between the surface of the catalyst pellets and the bulk gas phase
are negligible, the catalyst pellet size, pore structure, and conductivity are
such that intraparticle heat and mass transfer resistances are also negligible
(a system that can be described by a pseudohomogeneous model), the bulk
gas phase is in plug ow, and the system is adiabatic or cooled cocurrently,
then multiplicity of the steady states is usually not possible. If the bulk ow
conditions is not in plug ow, then multiplicity is possible. However, as
TM
indicated earlier, this situation is very unlikely in industrial xed-bed cata-
lytic reactors. Therefore, the main source of multiplicity in xed-bed cata-
lytic reactors is through the coupling between the exothermic reaction and
the catalyst pellet mass and heat transfer resistances.
Isothermal (concentration) multiplicity and thermal multiplicity may
coexist in certain systems, when the kinetics are nonmonotonic, the reaction
is exothermic, and the reactor system is nonisothermal.
7.1.3 Multiplicity Due to the Reactor Conguration
Industrial xed-bed catalytic reactors have a wide range of dierent cong-
urations. The conguration of the reactor may give rise to multiplicity of the
steady states when other sources are not sucient to produce the phenom-
enon. The most well known is the case of catalytic reactors where the gas
phase is in plug ow and all diusional resistances are negligible; however,
the reaction is exothermic and is counter-currently cooled (68). One of the
typical examples for this case is the TVA-type ammonia converter.
7.2 SIMPLE QUANTITATIVE DISCUSSION OF THE
MULTIPLICITY PHENOMENON
Consider three very simple lumped systems, each one described by similar
algebraic equations:
1. CSTR (continuous-stirred tank reactor)
2. Nonporous catalyst pellet
3. Cell with permeable membrane containing an enzyme
A reaction is taking place in each system with a rate of reaction r f C
A
,
where f C
A
is a nonmonotonic function.
Figure 7.1 shows that for a certain combination of parameters, the
supply line oC
Af
C
A
intersects the consumption curve f C
A
in three
points, giving rise to multiple steady states.
For all the three cases in Table 7.1 [see Eqs. (7.1)(7.3)]
oC
Af
C
a
f C
A
where
o
q
V
(for CSTR)
o
a
p
K
g
W
p
(for catalyst pellet)
TM
o
a
C
P
A
EV
C
(for cell)
7.3 BIFURCATION AND STABILITY
In the multiplicity region of operating and design parameters, the stability
characteristics of the system are quite dierent from those in the uniqueness
region of parameters for the same system. It is also important to note that
for systems showing multiplicity behavior over a certain region of para-
meters, even when the system is operating in the region of unique steady
state, the existence of the multiplicity region will have its implications on the
behavior of the system in the face of external disturbances that may move
the system into this multiplicity region.
7.3.1 Steady-State Analysis
The full appreciation of the stability characteristics of any system requires
dynamic modeling and analysis of the system. Detailed dynamic modeling
Figure 7.1 Hysteresis curve for concentration multiplicity.
TM
Table 7.1 Multiplicity of the Steady States for Three Chemical/Biochemical Systems
CSTR Nonporous catalyst pellet cell containing an enzyme
qC
Af
C
A
Vf C
A
7.1 a
p
K
g
C
Af
C
A
W
p
f C
A
7.2
a
C
P
a
C
Af
C
A

"
EEV
C
f C
A
7.3
where where where
q volumetric ow rate a
p
surface area of pellet a
C
surface area of cell
V reactor volume W
p
mass of pellet V
C
volume of cell
C
Af
feed concentration K
g
mass transfer coecient P
A
permeability of cell membrane
C
A
effluent concentration of reactant C
Af
concentration of reactant in bulk
uid
"
EE weight of enzyme per unit
volume cell
f C
A
reaction rate based on unit
volume of reaction mixture
C
A
concentration of reactant on pellet
surface
C
Af
concentration of reactant in
bulk uid
f C
A
volume of reaction mixture
C
A
concentration of reactant
inside the cell
f C
A
mass of enzyme
T
M
C
o
p
y
r
i
g
h
t

n

2
0
0
3

b
y

M
a
r
c
e
l

D
e
k
k
e
r
,
I
n
c
.
A
l
l

R
i
g
h
t
s

R
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.
TM
and analysis is beyond the scope of this book; however, a considerable
amount of insight into the stability and dynamic characteristics of the sys-
tem can be extracted from steady-state analysis as shown in this section. In
Section 7.3.2, a simple and brief introduction to the dynamical side of the
picture is given.
A simple and almost obvious illustration of this point is that when it is
found from steady-state analysis that the system is operating in the multi-
plicity region, then global stability for any of the steady states is not possi-
ble. Every steady state will have its region of asymptotic stability (RAS) or,
in the more modern terminology of dynamical systems theory, a basin of
attraction. This fact has very important implications for the dynamic beha-
vior, stability, and control of the system. Also, it will be shown that the
initial direction of the dynamic trajectory can be predicted from steady-state
arguments. Of course, there remains qualitative and quantitative dynamic
questions that need to be answered and which can only be answered through
dynamic modeling and analysis of the system.
To illustrate the above points, let us consider a simple homogeneous
CSTR, where a consecutive exothermic reaction
A !
k
1
B !
k
2
C
is taking place, and the reactor is at steady-state conditions, as shown in
Figure 7.2.
The mass and heat balance equations for the model are given in
dimensionless form as follows:
X
Af
X
A
o
1
e
y
1
,y
X
A
7.4
X
Bf
X
B
o
2
e
y
2
,y
X
B
o
1
e
y
1
,y
X
A
7.5
y y
f
o
1
[
1
e
y
1
,y
X
A
o
2
[
2
e
y
2
,y
X
B
"
K K
c
y
c
y 7.6
Figure 7.2 Schematic diagram of a CSTR.
TM
where the following dimensionless variables are used:
X
A

C
A
C
ref
X
Af

C
Af
C
ref
X
B

C
B
C
ref
X
Bf

C
Bf
C
ref
y
T
T
ref
y
c

T
c
T
ref
The following dimensionless parameters are also used:
o
i

Vk
i0
q
,
i

E
i
R
G
T
ref
[
i

H
i
C
ref
,C
p
T
ref
"
KK
c

UA
H
q,C
p
Note:
i 1. 2
For the special case of adiabatic operation, we set
"
KK
c
0.0 7.7
in Eq. (7.6).
The equations of the adiabatic case also represent the case of non-
porous catalyst pellets with external mass and heat transfer resistances and
negligible intraparticle heat transfer resistance but with dierent meanings
to the parameters.
Equations (7.4)(7.6) can be solved simultaneously for a certain set of
parameters in order to obtain the values X
A
, X
B
, and y (the concentrations
TM
and temperature at the exit of the reactor for the CSTR case (and the surface
of the catalyst pellet for the nonporous catalyst pellet case). However, it is
possible to reduce Eqs. (7.4)(7.6) to a single nonlinear equation in y,
together with two explicit linear equations for the computation of X
A
and
X
B
once y has been determined. The single nonlinear equation (for X
Bf
0
can be written as
Ry y y
f

"
KK
c
y
c
y
o
1
[
1
e
y
1
,y
X
Af
1 o
1
e
y
1
,y

o
2
[
2
e
y
2
,y
o
1
e
y
1
,y
X
Af
1 o
1
e
y
1
,y

1 o
2
e
y
2
,y
Gy 7.8
The right-hand side is proportional to the heat generation and will be
termed the heat generation function, Gy, whereas the left-hand side is
proportional to the heat removal due to the ow and the cooling jacket
and will be termed the heat removal function:
Ry 1
"
KK
c

y y
f

"
KK
c
y
c

7.9
Equation (7.8) can be solved using any of the standard methods (bisectional,
NewtonRaphson, etc.); however, it is more instructive to solve it graphi-
cally by plotting Gy and Ry versus y, as shown in Figure 7.3 for a case
with parameters corresponding to three steady states.
The slope of the heat removal line is
b 1
"
KK
c
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram for the heat generation function Gy and the heat
removal function Ry, for a case with maximum number of steady states equal to 3.
TM
and the intersection with the horizontal axis is at
a
y
f

"
KK
c
y
c
1
"
KK
c
7.10
For the adiabatic case with
"
KK
c
0, we get
b
ad
1 7.11
and
a
ad
y
f
7.12
For the case shown in Figure 7.3, three steady states are possible: y
1
, y
2
, and
y
3
. Some information regarding the stability of the three steady states and
the dynamic behavior can be obtained from this static diagram. The steady-
state temperatures y
1
, y
2
, and y
3
correspond to points where the heat gen-
eration and heat removal are equal (steady states). If the reactor is disturbed
to a point " yy
4
that is not a steady state, then it is easy from this static diagram
to determine the direction of temperature change, because at this point, it is
clear that the heat generation is higher than the heat removal and, therefore,
the temperature will increase. Of course, the full behavior of the tempera-
turetime trajectory can only be determined through the dynamic model of
the system.
With regard to this limited steady-state test of stability, let us examine
y
3
using the above argument. Suppose that we disturb y
3
by an innitesimal
amount oy, which is positive; in this case, we notice from Figure 7.3 that the
heat removal is higher than the heat generation and the system cools down
toward y
3
. If oy is negative, the heat generation is higher than the heat
removal and, therefore, the system will heat up toward y
3
. This indicates
that y
3
is stable. However, this is only a necessary condition for stability, but
it is not sucient. Other stability conditions should be checked through the
computation of the eigenvalues of the dynamic model (69).
If we do the same experiment for y
1
, we nd that it also satises the
necessary condition for stability. However, if we check the intermediate
temperature y
2
, we nd that if oy is positive, then the heat generation is higher
than the heat removal and, therefore, the system will heat up away from y
2
.
On the other hand, if oy is negative, the heat removal is higher than the heat
generation and, therefore, the system will cool down away from y
2
, comput-
ing the eigenvalues of the dynamic model is not necessary because violation
of the necessary condition for stability is a sucient condition for instability.
The shape of the bifurcation diagram can be easily concluded from
this simple heat generationheat removal diagram. Let us take, for simpli-
city, the adiabatic case with y
f
as a bifurcation parameter. If we plot y versus
the bifurcation parameter y
f
, we obtain the S-shaped hysteresis curve shown
TM
in Figure 7.4. The points y
fL
and y
fL
are the two limit points which are the
boundaries for the multiplicity region; thus, multiplicity of the steady states
exists for values of y
f
lying in the region
y
fL
y
f
y
fL
7.13
The curves shown in Figures 7.3 and 7.4 are not the only possible
cases; another case with another set of parameters is shown in Figure 7.5.
In this case, ve steady states are possible. With regard to static stability, y
1
is stable, y
2
is unstable, y
3
is stable, y
4
is unstable, and y
5
is stable. The
bifurcation diagram for this case is shown in Figure 7.6. In this case, the
diagram can be divided into the following regions:
Unique low-temperature steady state for the region
y
f
y
fL1
7.14
Three steady states for the region
y
fL1
y
f
y
fL2
Five steady states in the region
y
fL2
y
f
y
fL3
Three steady states in the region
y
fL3
y
f
y
fL4
Unique high-temperature steady state in the region
y
f
! y
fL4
Figure 7.4 Bifurcation diagram for a case with three steady sates (two limit points).
TM
Figure 7.5 Heat generation and heat removal functions for a case with ve steady
states.
Figure 7.6 Schematic bifurcation diagram with ve steady states (four limit points).
TM
For some cases, the maximum yield of the desired product corre-
sponds to the middle steady state, which is unstable, as shown in Figure
7.7. In these cases, ecient adiabatic operation is not possible and nonadia-
batic operation is mandatory. However, the choice of the heat transfer
coecient U, the area of heat transfer A
H
, and the cooling jacket
temperature are critical for the stable operation of the system. The value
of the dimensionless heat transfer coecient
"
KK
c
should exceed a critical
value
"
KK
c.crit
in order to stabilize the unstable middle steady state. The value
of
"
KK
c.crit
corresponds to line 4 in Figure 7.7.
The increase in
"
KK
c
increases the slope of the removal line because the
slope is given by 1
"
KK
c
. If a bifurcation diagram is drawn for this non-
adiabatic case with
"
KK
c
as the bifurcation parameter and the jacket cooling
temperature is the temperature of the middle steady state y
m
, we get the
pitchfork-type bifurcation diagram shown in Figure 7.8.
In Figure 7.8, for
"
KK
c
0 the three steady states y
H
, y
m
, and y
L
are
those of the adiabatic case. For
"
KK
c
-
"
KK
c.crit
, y
H
and y
L
change, but y
m
remains the same because it is the jacket temperature. However, y
m
in this
Figure 7.7 Schematic diagram for the case where the maximum yield of B corre-
sponds to a middle unstable steady state.
TM
region is a middle unstable steady state. At
"
KK
c.crit
, the multiplicity disap-
pears, giving rise to a unique steady state y
m
. From a static point of view,
this steady state is stable. However, dynamically it may be unstable for a
certain range of
"
K K
c
>
"
KK
c.crit
, giving rise to limit cycle behavior in this region
(69). If the cooling jacket is not y
m
, we get imperfect pitchfork
(43,44,77,78).
7.3.2 Dynamic Analysis
The steady states which are unstable using the above-discussed static ana-
lysis are always unstable. However, steady states that are stable from a static
point of view may prove to be unstable when the full dynamic analysis is
performed. In other words branch 2 in Figure 7.8 is always unstable,
whereas branches 1, 3, and 4 can be stable or unstable depending on the
dynamic stability analysis of the system. As mentioned earlier, the analysis
for the CSTR presented here is mathematically equivalent to that of a
catalyst pellet using lumped models or a distributed model made discrete
by a technique such as the orthogonal collocation technique (see Appendix
E). However, in the latter case, the system dimensionality will increase con-
siderably, with n dimensions for each state variable, where n is the number
of internal collocation points.
For simplicity of presentation, we consider a two-dimensional system
with one bifurcation parameter:
dX
1
dt
f
1
X
1
. X
2
. j 7.15
Figure 7.8 Pitchfork bifurcation diagram y
"
KK
c
).
TM
and
dX
2
dt
f
2
X
1
. X
2
. j 7.16
The steady state of this system is given by
f
1
X
1
. X
2
. j 0 and f
2
X
1
. X
2
. j 0 7.17
We will consider that Eq. (7.17) has a simple hysteresis-type static bifurca-
tion as shown by the solid lines in Figures 7.9A7.9C. The intermediate
static branch is always unstable (saddle points), whereas the upper and
lower branches can be stable or unstable depending on the eigenvalues of
the linearized forms of Eqs. (7.15) and (7.16). The static bifurcation dia-
grams in Figures 7.9A7.9C have two static limit points each; these are
usually called saddle-node bifurcation points
The stability characteristics of the steady-state points can be deter-
mined from the eigenvalue analysis of the linearized version of Eqs. (7.15)
and (7.16) which will have the following form:
d ^ xx
1
dt
g
11
^ xx
1
g
12
^ xx
2
7.18
Figure 7.9 Bifurcation diagram for Eqs. (7.15)(7.17). (A) A case with two Hopf
bifurcation points; (B) a case with two Hopf bifurcation points and one periodic limit
point; (C) a case with one Hopf bifurcation point, two periodic limit points, and one
homoclinical orbit (innite period bifurcation point). Solid curve: stable branch of
the bifurcation diagram; dashed curve: saddle points; lled circles: stable limit cycles;
open circles: unstable limit cycles; HB Hopf bifurcation point; PLP periodic
limit point.
TM
d ^ xx
2
dt
g
21
^ xx
1
g
22
^ xx
2
7.19
where
^ xx
i
x
i
x
iss
and
g
if

of
i
ox
j
ss
Figure 7.9 Continued
TM
where x
iss
x
i
at steady state. The eigenvalues of Eqs. (7.18) and (7.19) are
the roots of the characteristic equation
z
2
tr A det A 0 7.20
where
A
g
11
g
12
g
21
g
22
!
tr A g
11
g
22
det A g
11
g
22
g
12
g
21
7.21
The eigenvalues for this two-dimensional system are given by
z
1.2

tr A
tr A
2
4det A
q
2
7.22
The most important dynamic bifurcation is the Hopf bifurcation point,
when z
1
and z
2
cross the imaginary axis into positive parts of z
1
and z
2
.
This is the point where both roots are purely imaginary and at which
tr A 0, giving
z
1.2
i
det A
p
7.23
At this point, periodic solutions (stable limit cycles) come into exis-
tence, as shown in Figure 7.9AC. This point is called Hopf bifurcation.
The case in Figure 7.9A shows two Hopf bifurcation points with a branch
of stable limit cycles connecting them. Figure 7.10 is a schematic diagram
of the phase plane for this case with j j
1
. In this case, a stable limit
cycle surrounds an unstable focus and the behavior of the typical trajec-
tories are as shown. The case in Figure 7.9B has two Hopf bifurcation
points in addition to a periodic limit point (PLP) and a branch of unstable
limit cycles in addition to the stable limit cycles branch.
Figure 7.11 shows the phase plane for this case when j j
2
. In this
case, there is an unstable limit cycle surrounding a stable focus and the
unstable limit cycle is surrounded by a stable limit cycle. The behavior of
the typical trajectories is as shown in Figure 7.11.
The case of Figure 7.9C has one Hopf bifurcation point and one
periodic limit point, and the stable limit cycle terminates at a homoclinical
orbit (innite period bifurcation). For j j
3
, we get a case of an unstable
steady state surrounded by a stable limit cycle similar to the case in Figure
7.10. However, in this case, as j decreases below j
3
, the limit cycle grows
until we reach a limit cycle that passes through the static saddle point, as
TM
Figure 7.10 Phase plane for j j
1
in Figure 7.9A. Solid curve: stable limit cycle
trajectories; : unstable saddle; *: stable steady state (node or focus); *: unstable
steady state (node or focus); dashed curve: separatix.
Figure 7.11 Phase plane for j j
2
in Figure 7.9B. Solid curve: stable limit cycle
trajectories; dashed curve: unstable limit cycle; : unstable saddle; *: stable steady
state (node or focus).
TM
shown in Figure 7.12. This limit cycle represents a trajectory that starts at
the static saddle point and ends after one period at the same saddle point.
This trajectory is called the homoclinical orbit and will occur at some critical
value j
HC
. It has an innite period and, therefore, this bifurcation point is
called innite period bifurcation. For j - j
HC
, the limit cycle disappears.
This is the second most important type of dynamic bifurcation after the
Hopf bifurcation.
7.3.3 Chaotic Behavior
Limit cycles (periodic solutions) emerging from the Hopf bifurcation point
and terminating at another Hopf bifurcation point or at a homoclinical
orbit (innite period bifurcation point) represent the highest degree of com-
plexity in almost all two-dimensional autonomous systems. However,
for higher-dimensional autonomous systems such as the three-dimensional
system,
dX
1
dt
f
1
X
1
. X
2
. X
3
. j 7.24
dX
2
dt
f
2
X
1
. X
2
. X
3
. j 7.25
dX
3
dt
f
3
X
1
. X
2
. X
3
. j 7.26
Figure 7.12 Homoclinical orbit.
TM
or the nonautonomous two-dimensional system such as the sinusoidal
forced two-dimensional system,
dX
1
dt
f
1
X
1
. X
2
. j Asinot 7.27
dX
2
dt
f
2
X
1
. X
2
. j 7.28
Higher degrees of dynamic complexity are possible, including period
doubling, quasiperiodicity (torus), and chaos. Phase-plane plots are not the
best means of investigating these complex dynamics for in such cases (which
are at least three-dimensional); the three (or more)-dimensional phase plane
can be quite complex, as shown in Figures 7.13 and 7.14 for two of the most
well-known attractors, the Lorenz strange attractor (70) and the Ro ssler
strange attractor (7173). Instead, stroboscopic maps for forced systems
(nonautonomous) and Poincare maps for autonomous systems are better
suited for the investigation of these types of complex dynamic behavior.
The equations for the Lorenz model are
dX
dt
oY X
dY
dt
rX Y XZ
dZ
dt
bZ XY
7.29
Figure 7.13 Lorenz strange attractor projected on the two-dimensional xz plane
(o 10, b 8,3, r 28).
TM
The stroboscopic and Poincare maps are dierent from the phase plane in
that they plot the variables on the trajectory at specic chosen and repeated
time intervals. For example, for the forced two-dimensional system, these
points are taken at every forcing period. For the Poincare map, the interval
of strobing is not as obvious as in the case of the forced system and many
techniques can be applied. Dierent planes can be used in order to get a
deeper insight into the nature of strange attractors in these cases. A periodic
solution (limit cycle) on the phase plane will appear as one point on the
stroboscopic (or Poincare ) map. When period doubling takes place, period 2
Figure 7.14 Final trajectories of the Ro ssler attractor [73] for dierent values of
the parameter a. Left row, top to bottom: limit cycle, a 0.3; period 2 limit cycle
a 0.35; period 4, a 0.375; four-band chaotic attractor, a 0.386; Right row, top
to bottom: period 6, a 0.3904; single-band chaos, a 0.398; period 5, a 0.4;
period 3, a 0.411. In all cases b 2 and c 4. (From Ref. 71.)
TM
will appear as two points on the map, period 4 will appear as four points,
and so on. Quasiperiodicity (torus), which looks complicated on the phase
plane, will appear as an invariant close circle with discrete points on the
map. When chaos takes place, a complicated collection of points appear on
the stroboscopic map. The shapes formed have fractal dimensions and are
usually called strange attractors.
The equations for the Ro ssler model are
dX
dt
Y Z
dY
dt
X aY
dZ
dt
b ZX c
7.30
A strange attractor resulting from such a deterministic model is called
deterministic chaos to emphasize the fact that it is not a random or
stochastic variation.
This is the minimum information necessary for the interested reader to
get an appreciation of the complex bifurcation, instability, and chaos asso-
ciated with chemical and biochemical processes. Although industrial prac-
tice in petrochemical and petroleum rening and other chemical and
biochemical industries does not appreciate the importance of these phenom-
ena and their implications on the design, optimization, and control of cat-
alytic and biocatalytic processes, it is easy to recognize that these
phenomena are important because bifurcation, instability, and chaos in
these systems are generally due to nonlinearity and, specically, nonmono-
tonicity, which is widespread in catalytic reactors either as a result of
exothermicity or as a result of the nonmonotonic dependence of the rate
of reaction on the concentration of the reactant species. It is expected that in
the near future and through healthy scientic interaction between industry
and academia, these important phenomena will be better appreciated by
industry and that more academicians will turn their attention to the inves-
tigation of these phenomena in industrial systems.
For the readers interested in this eld, it is useful to recommend the
following further reading in bifurcation, instability and chaos:
1. The work of Uppal et al. (20,21) and that of Ray (46) on the
bifurcation behavior of continuous-stirred tank reactors.
2. The work of Teymour and Ray (7476) on bifurcation, instabil-
ity, and chaos of polymerization reactors.
TM
3. The work of Elnashaie and coworkers on the bifurcation and
instability of industrial uid catalytic cracking (FCC) units (42
44,77).
4. The book by Elnashaie and Elshishni on the chaotic behavior of
gassolid catalytic systems (78).
5. The interesting review article by Razon and Schmitz (79) on the
bifurcation, instability, and chaos for the oxidation of carbon
monoxide on platinum.
6. The two articles by Wicke and Onken (80) and Razon et al. (81)
give dierent views on the almost similar dynamics observed
during the oxidation of carbon monoxide on platinum. Wicke
and Onken (80) analyze it as statistical uctuations, whereas
Razon et al. (81) analyze it as chaos. Later, Wicke changed his
views and analyzed the phenomenon as chaos (82).
7. The work of the Minnesota group on the chaotic behavior of
sinusoidally forced two-dimensional reacting systems is useful
from the points of view of the analysis of the system as well as
the development of suitable ecient numerical techniques for the
investigation of these systems (8285).
8. The book by Marek and Schreiber (86) is important for chemical
engineers who want to get into this exciting eld. The book cov-
ers a wide spectrum of subjects, including the following: dier-
ential equations, maps, and asymptotic behavior; transition from
order to chaos; numerical methods for studies of parametric
dependences, bifurcations, and chaos; chaotic dynamics in experi-
ments; forced and coupled chemical oscillators; and chaos in
distributed systems. It also contains two useful appendices, the
rst dealing with normal forms and their bifurcation diagrams,
and the second, a computer program for construction of solution
and bifurcation diagrams.
9. The software package Auto 97 (87) is useful in computing
bifurcation diagrams using the ecient continuation technique
for both static and periodic branches of the bifurcation diagram.
10. The software package Dynamics (88) is useful in computing
Floquette multipliers and Lyapunov exponents.
11. Elnashaie et al. (77) presented a detailed investigation of bifurca-
tion, instability, and chaos in uidized-bed catalytic reactor for
both the unforced (autonomous) and forced (nonautonomous)
cases.
The compilation of articles on chaos in dierent elds published by
Cvitanovic (89) is also useful as an introduction to the eld.
TM
The dynamic behavior of xed-bed reactors has not been extensively
investigated in the literature. The only reaction which received close atten-
tion was the CO oxidation over platinum catalysts. The investigations
revealed interesting and complex dynamic behavior and have shown the
possibility of oscillatory behavior as well as chaotic behavior (7981). It is
easy to speculate that more emphasis on the study of the dynamic behavior
of catalytic reactions will reveal complex dynamics like those discovered for
the CO oxidation over a Pt catalyst, for most phenomena are due to the
nonmonotonicity of the rate process, which is widespread in catalytic
systems.
There are many other interesting and complex dynamic phenomena in
addition to oscillation and chaos, which have been observed but not fol-
lowed in depth both theoretically and experimentally; an example is the
wrong directional behavior of catalytic xed-bed reactors, for which the
dynamic response to input disturbances is opposite to that suggested by
the steady-state response (90,91). This behavior is most probably connected
to the instability problems in these catalytic reactors, as shown crudely by
Elnashaie and Cresswell (90).
It is needless to say that the above briey discussed phenomena (bifur-
cation, instability, chaos, and wrong directional responses) may lead to
unexpected pitfalls in the design, operation, and control of industrial
xed-bed catalytic reactors and that they merit extensive theoretical and
experimental research, as well as research directed toward industrial units.
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8
Novel Designs for Industrial
Chemical/Biochemical Systems
The material explained in this book is necessary for the development of
novel congurations that can revolutionize certain critical processes, espe-
cially in the eld of clean fuel production.
The rigorous mathematical modeling approach explained in full detail
in previous chapters can be used to examine alternative novel congurations
before (or without) the expensive pilot-plant and semicommercial units
stages. Two examples are given in this concluding chapter of the book
and the student, under the supervision of the course instructor, should get
training in using the mathematical modeling and computer simulation
approach to develop the novel congurations.
8.1 NOVEL REFORMING PROCESS FOR THE
EFFICIENT PRODUCTION OF THE ULTRACLEAN
FUEL HYDROGEN FROM HYDROCARBONS AND
WASTE MATERIALS
8.1.1 Introduction
In the United States, solid waste materials are disposed o in landlls at a
staggering annual rate of 200 million tons of municipal solid waste, 300
million scrap tires, and 15 million tons of plastic waste. Another major
TM
environmental problem results from the use of hydrocarbons as fuel and
for industrial applications, generating greenhouse gases and other pollu-
tants. There is a strategic need for the United States and other countries to
develop alternative sources of clean energy in order to mitigate dependence
on foreign crude oil importation. Chemical engineering students should
recognize that recently there has been strong recognition that hydrogen
oers signicant advantages as the ultraclean fuel of the future. The main
process for hydrogen production is the xed-bed catalytic steam reforming
of natural gas, which is inecient, highly polluting, and suers from cat-
alyst deactivation, especially when using higher hydrocarbons as feedstock.
The objective of this exercise for the student is to use the knowledge
learned in this book to develop a new process which converts a wide
range of hydrocarbons (e.g., natural gas, diesel, gasoline, etc.) as well as
solid-waste materials into hydrogen and other useful chemicals. The stu-
dents are assisted by providing them with the proposed novel congura-
tion, which is basically a fast circulating membrane-uidized bed
integrated to a novel dry reforming process. This process addresses most
of the limitations of the conventional steam reforming process for the
production of hydrogen/syngas, resulting in an ecient/compact novel
reformer for a wide range of feedstocks. This proposed process will oer
the following environmental benets:
1. Ecient production of an ultraclean fuel, H
2
, from a wide range
of feedstocks
2. Mitigation of the solid-waste problem by conversion into clean
fuel
3. Conservation of natural resources
4. A novel processing scheme which has minimum environmental
impact
Furthermore, the proposed process will provide several economic and stra-
tegic merits, as it will produce hydrogen at prices that are comparable to or
even less expensive than hydrocarbon sources. The reader is requested to use
a computer-modeling approach to develop this ultraclean and ecient pro-
cess for the conversion of solid wastes and a wide range of hydrocarbons
into hydrogen and other useful chemicals. The reader should check other
processes in the literature and should become aware of the fact that this
proposed novel process is much more ecient, exible, and cleaner than the
modern integrated bubbling uidized-bed membrane steam reformer
(BFBMST) for natural gas (e.g., Ref. 1).
TM
8.1.2 Literature Review
A preliminary literature review is given here as a starter for the reader.
However, the reader should update this literature review.
Waste Materials Pretreatment
Waste materials such as municipal solid waste, scrap tires, and waste plastics
have traditionally been placed in sanitary landlls. However, with landll
space rapidly decreasing in the United States and worldwide, an alternative
disposal method for these waste materials becomes imperative. The recy-
cling of solid wastes is a challenging problem, with both economic and
environmental constraints. Recently, two broad approaches have been
attempted to reclaim solid wastes. The rst approach relies on thermal or
catalytic conversion of waste materials into fuel and valuable chemical feed-
stocks. Examples of this approach include gasication, pyrolysis, depoly-
merization, and liquefaction. The second approach relies on the physical
recovery of valuable ingredients in the waste materials.
In spite of the experimental viability of conversion methods such as
depolymerization and liquefaction, severe technical and economic limita-
tions that prevented their commercial feasibility have been encountered
(2,3). Feedstock characteristics and variability constituted a major chal-
lenge.
Catalytic Steam Reforming of Hydrocarbons
Nickel-supported catalysts are very ecient for steam reforming of hydro-
carbons to hydrogen/syngas. The main reforming reactions are reversible
and highly endothermic as follows:
CH
4
H
2
O =CO3H
2
(H
1
= 206 kJ,mol)
COH
2
O =CO
2
H
2
(H
2
= 40 kJ,mol)
CH
4
2H
2
O =CO
2
4H
2
(H
3
= 196 kJ,mol)
Elnashaie and Elshishini (4) have shown that the rate of steam reforming is
nonmonotonic with respect to steam. Steam reforming reactions have a
strong tendency to carbon formation, causing deactivation of the catalyst
as follows:
CH
4
C 2H
2
(H = 75 kJ,mol)
2CO C CO
2
(H = 171 kJ,mol).
TM
This tendency increases with the increase in temperature and the percentage
of higher hydrocarbons in the feed, and it decreases with the increase in
steam/hydrocarbon ratio.
Fixed-Bed Reformers: The Present Generation of Reformers
Main Characteristics
Catalyst Tubes: Fixed-bed catalytic reactors with hundreds of tubes
(e.g., 100900) having diameters in the range 712 cm and length in
the range 1015 m. Large catalyst particles to avoid excessive pressure
drop, typically Rashig rings with dimensions 1.6 0.6 1.6 cm. High
steam/methane (S/M) ratio 3 : 6, to avoid carbon formation and
catalyst deactivation. S/M ratio needed increases as the percentage of
higher hydrocarbons in the feed increases. Typical feed ow rate/
catalyst tube: 3.54.5 kmol/h/catalyst tube. Typical natural gas feed
composition: 7080% CH
4
, 2025% higher hydrocarbons H
2
CO
2
N
2
. Typical feed temperature to catalyst tubes: 730770 K (850
930
F); typical feed pressure: 24002900 kPa (2429 bar).

Furnace: Huge furnace (top/side red) to supply the endothermic
heat needed for the steam reforming reactions. Typical dimensions:
21.8 35.5 13.7 m.
Typical Furnace Fuel Feed
1. Flow rate (in kmol fuel/kmol natural gas) to catalyst tubes: 0.4
0.9
2. Excess air above stoichiometry: 1015%
3. Fuel/air feed temperature: 320580
K
4. Fuel composition: 1020% CH
4
, 6575% H
2
(note the large con-
sumption of hydrogen as fuel in furnace); the rest is CO
2
and N
2
.
Main Previous Attempts to Develop an Efcient Compact Steam
Reformer
Over the past decade, signicant progress has been made toward overcom-
ing some of the limitations of conventional xed-bed reforming systems.
These trials include the following: xed-bed with hydrogen permselective
membranes (57); xed bed with/without hydrogen permselective mem-
branes using methanol feed (8); microchannel reformer for hydrogen pro-
duction from natural gas (9); catalytic oxidative steam reforming (10,11);
and bubbling uidized-bed reformer with/without hydrogen permselective
membranes (1,12,13). The most successful milestone to date involves the
bubbling uidized-bed membrane steam reformer (BFBMSR) for natural
TM
gas (1), which is more ecient than the classical xed-bed conguration.
The present proposed conguration presents a much more ecient and
exible process than the BFBMSR.
The Basic Characteristics of BFBMSRs
1. Using a powdered catalyst with j = 1.0 (1001000 times higher
rate of reaction than conventional xed-bed steam reformers).
2. Hydrogen-selective membranes break the thermodynamic
barrier, giving higher conversions at lower temperatures.
3. In situ burning of natural gas, achieving ecient heat transfer
with no large furnace. The hydrogen productivity (moles hydro-
gen/h/cm
3
of catalyst bed) for these BFBMSRs is 0.430.48 as
compared with 0.060.12 for the xed bed, which is more than a
300800% increase in hydrogen productivity.
4. The operating temperature: For the xed-bed conguration, it is
in the range 9801100 K (13051520
F), whereas for the

BFBMSR, it is in the range 780850 K (9441070
F), about
20% reduction in operating temperature.
Hydrogen Fuel (14,15)
Hydrogen is rightly often called the perfect fuel. Its major reserve on earth
(water) is inexhaustible. Steam reforming not only extracts the hydrogen
from the hydrocarbon but also extracts the hydrogen from water. It can be
used directly by fuel cells to produce electricity very eciently (> 50%) and
with zero emissions. Ultralow emissions are also achievable when hydrogen
is combusted with air to power an engine. Operating fuel cells on natural gas
(or other hydrocarbon source) will require a clean/ecient fuel processor to
provide hydrogen to the fuel cell. Total U.S. hydrogen consumption in 1997
was approximately 8.5 billion standard cubic feet per day (bscfpd) (= 20.53
million kg H
2
/day), with 40% dedicated to petroleum rening and 59% to
chemical manufacturing. The U.S. hydrogen production is increasing at a
rate of 510% per year. In most industries, hydrogen is produced using the
classical inecient xed-bed reformers.
Hydrogen Production and CO
2
Sequestration Costs (16,17)
The proposed novel conguration will not only have an appreciable posi-
tive impact on the environment but will also achieve considerable eco-
nomic advantages by making clean hydrogen energy economically
competitive. The delivered cost of H
2
transportation fuel in the New
York City/New Jersey areas varies considerably from dierent data
sources. It is reported to be in the wide range of $1540/GJ (= $0.054
TM
0.144/kWh = $1.965.23/equivalent gallon gasoline). In some other regions
of the United States (and using other sources of data), the cost of
hydrogen production is $10,GJ (= $0.036,kWh = $1.306/equivalent
gallon gasoline). The following is hydrogen cost (including reformer capi-
tal cost operating cost, purication, etc.) from another data source:
Production cost = $10,GJ (= $0.036,kWh = $1.306/equivalent gallon
gasoline) and delivered cost = $14,GJ (= $0.05,kWh = $1.83/equivalent
gallon gasoline). The strategic objective should be to develop processes
to produce hydrogen from fossil fuels, waste materials, and renewable
energy sources to meet both central and distributed production goals of
$68 per million BTUs ($0.821.09/kg H
2
, $0.91.2/gallon equivalent gaso-
line). The CO
2
removal from the exit gases during the production of
hydrogen or from other sources is an important step in decreasing the
emission of this greenhouse gas which contributes strongly to global
warming. The added cost of CO
2
separation is approximately $0.65/kg
H
2
(= $000.17/kWh). The cost of removing CO
2
from power-plant ue
gases is most typically $3060/ton CO
2
. The suggested novel CO
2
reform-
ing which is an integral part of the proposed novel conguration will
increase the H
2
productivity, improve the economics of the process, and
reduce the CO
2
emission considerably.
8.1.3 Limitations of Current Reforming Technologies
Catalytic Steam Reforming Diffusional Limitations
The eectiveness factor j of the catalyst pellets, expressing the fraction of
the intrinsic rate of reaction being exploited in the xed-bed conguration, is
extremely small (j = 10
2
10
3
). This is due to the large catalyst pellet sizes
used to avoid excessive pressure drop along the length of the reactor (18
20m). This severe limitation can be broken by using a uidized-bed reac-
tor with ne catalyst particles (eectiveness factor = 1.0); thus the full
intrinsic activity of the catalyst is utilized.
The Thermodynamic Equilibrium Barrier for Reversible Steam
Reforming
The reversible, endothermic steam reforming reactions are thermodynami-
cally limited, dictating a very high temperature for high conversion. This
thermodynamic equilibrium barrier can be broken through the continu-
ous removal of one (or more) of the products. The most promising techni-
que is the hydrogen removal using hydrogen permselective membranes.
However, it is also possible to break this thermodynamic equilibrium
TM
barrier by the continuous removal of CO
2
(21,22) using CaO as a CO
2
acceptor according to the reaction
CaO(s) CO
2
(g) =CaCO
3
(s) (7258C)
This is an exothermic reaction; therefore, it supplies part of the endothermic
heat necessary for reforming. The CaO acceptor can be recovered through
the reaction
CaCO
3
(s) =CaO(s) CO
2
(g)
The above reaction is endothermic and needs high temperature of about
975
C.
Either of the two techniques can be used or a third hybrid technique
utilizing both of them.
Carbon Formation and Catalyst Deactivation (23,24)
The reforming reactions (specially at high temperatures and for higher
hydrocarbons) have a strong tendency to deposit carbon on the catalyst,
which deactivates it. The usual technique for the solution of this problem is
to increase the steam/hydrocarbon ratio in the feed. For the proposed con-
guration, the use of membranes for the removal of hydrogen and/or CO
2
breaks the thermodynamic barrier of the reversible reforming reactions,
achieving high equilibrium conversion at low temperatures. The circulating
nature of the proposed fast uidized bed allows the continuous regeneration
of the catalyst in its way back to the bed. It is also interesting to note that
the endothermic carbon formation and the exothermic burning of carbon to
regenerate the catalyst results in a net heat supply which is higher than
oxidative reforming. For methane, this heat is accompanied by the produc-
tion of two moles of hydrogen per mole of methane, and the excess heat can
be used to carry out steam reforming simultaneously. A design challenge
using this technology is to maximize hydrogen production under autother-
mic conditions.
Supply of Heat Necessary for the Endothermic Steam Reforming
Reactions
The need to use high temperatures and the tendency for carbon formation,
which deactivates the catalyst, limits the range of hydrocarbon to be used as
feedstocks in the present generation of reformers. The heat transfer from the
furnace to the catalyst in the tubes is not very ecient, causing an excessive
amount of heat dissipation and environmental pollution. This problem is
addressed in the suggested novel conguration through simultaneous oxida-
tive reforming (and more eciently through carbon formation and carbon
TM
burning as described above). CaO acceptor, and continuous regeneration/
circulation of the catalyst.
Materials (Membrane) Limitations
The idea of breaking the thermodynamic equilibrium limitations through
the use of a selective membrane in not completely new. However, it became
practically feasible in the last decade due to the impressive advancement in
material science and the development of a new generation of highly selective
inorganic membranes (5,6,25). The reader is requested to review the
advancement in this eld to choose the most suitable membranes.
Hydrodynamic Limitations
Whenever the diusional limitation is broken through the use of ne
catalyst powder in a bubbling uidized bed, a new limitation arises related
to the hydrodynamics of the system. In the bubbling uidized bed, it is not
possible to fully exploit the very intrinsic kinetics of the powdered catalyst.
Fast uidization (transport) reactor conguration oers excellent potential
to break this limitation.
Catalyst Attrition and Entrainment
Catalytic attrition and entrainment represent a problem in bubbling ui-
dized-bed reactor, limiting the range of ow rate and dictates the use of
cyclones. In the suggested fast uidization (transport) reformer, the solid
movement is exploited to the maximum limit in an integrated circulating
conguration.
8.1.4 Main Characteristics of the Suggested Novel
Ultraclean/Efcient Reforming Process Conguration
The proposed novel reformer will utilize ve main catalytic processes,
namely steam reforming, dry reforming, oxidative steam reforming, and
carbon formation/burning in addition to a number of other noncatalytic
processes.
Catalytic Processes
1. Steam reforming: Supported nickel catalysts (e.g., 32 mol% Ni/o-
alumina, 3 mol% Ni/MgO or Mg-Ca oxide) are very ecient for
steam reforming of hydrocarbons to hydrogen/syngas.
2. Dry reforming: The main reaction is endothermic:
CO
2
CH
4
=2CO2H
2
(H = 247 kJ,mol)
TM
Suitable catalysts include Ni-, Rh-, and Ru-supported catalysts
and ZrO
2
-supported Pt catalysts promoted with cerium.
3. Oxidative steam reforming: The main reaction is highly exother-
mic:
CH
4
1
2
O
2
CO2H
2
(H = 208 kJ,mol. exothermic)
Main suitable catalysts are nickel-based catalysts, titanates-based
perovskite oxides, cobalt-containing catalysts.
4. Carbon formation:
CH
4
C 2H
2
(H = 74.8 kJ/mol, endothermic)
5. Carbon burning:
C O
2
CO
2
(H = 393.5 kJ/mol, exothermic)
Other Noncatalytic Processes
The main other noncatalytic reaction is homogeneous combustion of
hydrocarbons. In addition, when CaO is utilized as a CO
2
acceptor, two
additional noncatalytic reactions are involved, as explained earlier.
8.1.5 Components of the Suggested Novel Ultraclean
Process for the Production of the Ultraclean Fuel
Hydrogen
The exercise involves the optimization of the process not only with regard to
the design parameters and operating conditions, but also with regard to the
conguration itself. A simplied diagram of the suggested integrated novel
conguration is shown in Figure 8.1. A brief description and discussion of
the dierent components and their functions and interactions follows. They
will be the basis for the modeling exercise for the reader.
The suggested novel conguration consists of the following (see Fig.
8.1):
1. Fast-circulating uidized bed (transport reactor). The circulating
uidized bed (transport reactor) achieves a number of advantages
over the bubbling uidized bed:
(a) Breaks the hydrodynamic limitation born after the
break of the diusional limitations by using ne catalyst par-
ticles, as discussed earlier
(b) Gives near plug ow conditions which are benecial for con-
version and hydrogen selectivity
TM
(c) Allows distribution of the oxidizing agent, as detailed later
(d) Allows the exibility of using dierent conguration for the
sweep gas (26) in the membrane side
(e) Allows the continuous regeneration of catalyst by burning the
reformed carbon.
(f) Allows the continuous use and regeneration of CaO for the
continuous removal of CO
2
2. Hydrogen permselective membranes. Hydrogen permselective
membranes are used in the reformer to break the thermodynamic
equilibrium barrier of the reforming reactions and to produce
pure hydrogen in the membrane side.
3. Carbon dioxide acceptors. Addition of CaO to the catalyst cir-
culating bed to remove CO
2
, as described earlier.
4. Oxygen permselective membranes. Oxygen selective membranes
are used to supply the oxygen along the height of the reformer for
the oxidative reforming reaction.
5. The catalyst mixture in the reformer. A mixture of mainly a
steam reforming catalyst with an optimum percentage of oxida-
tive reforming catalyst will be used in the reformer in order to
Figure 8.1 Preliminary suggestion for the novel hydrogen production congura-
tion.
TM
minimize the homogeneous combustion and maximize hydrogen
production and heat integration.
6. Gassolid separation unit. The catalyst from the reformer will be
separated from the gases in a gassolid separator and the regen-
erated solid catalyst recycled to the reformer. The hydrocarbon/
steam feed will be fed in the downer pipe used for recirculating
the regenerated catalyst to make use of the residence time in this
pipe for the reforming reactions.
7. The novel reactorregenerator dry reformer. The output gas from
the steam reformer will be very poor in hydrogen and quite rich
in CO
2
due to hydrogen removal by membranes, regeneration of
catalyst, and CaCO
3
. It can be used together with a suitable
hydrocarbon in a dry reforming process (27,28). A promising
approach suggested in the present exercise is to use a novel ui-
dized-bed reactor-regenerator system that utilizes the carbon
formed on the catalyst in the reactor to supply the necessary
heat for the endothermic dry reforming reaction through the
regeneration of the catalyst in the regenerator and recycling
the hot regenerated catalyst to the reactor [Similar in a sense to
the uid catalytic cracking (FCC) process]. This part of the unit
can also be used separately as a stand-alone unit for the seques-
tration of CO
2
produced from dierent sources (e.g., power
plants), thus contributing to the national/international eorts
to control global warming.
8. Feedstocks. To simplify the exercise, natural gas is to be used as the
feedstock. However, other higher hydrocarbons can also be used.
8.1.6 Main Tasks for the Exercise
A number of extensive literature surveys will be carried out by the reader to
produce the necessary data.
Task 1: Kinetics, Catalysis, and Hydrodynamics
1. Collection of steam reforming kinetics. The kinetics of the steam
reforming of natural gas (as well as higher hydrocarbons) on a
nickel catalyst should be obtained from the literature (29,30).
2. Collection of oxidative steam reforming kinetic data. Rate equa-
tions should be obtained from the literature for the most promis-
ing oxidative reforming catalysts, including Ni-based catalysts,
Titanates-based perovskite oxides, and cobalt-containing cata-
lysts. Careful consideration will be given to the calorimetry of
TM
the reactions under oxidative conditions. Mixtures of reforming
and oxidative reforming catalysts will also be tested.
3. Collection of dry reforming kinetic data. Rate equations should
be obtained from the literature (31,32).
4. Carbon formation and catalyst regeneration. Rate equations
should be obtained from the literature (33).
5. CO
2
acceptor and regeneration. Rate equations should be
obtained from the literature (33).
6. Hydrodynamics of gassolid ow and separation. Necessary data
should be obtained from the literature and hydrodynamic models
of dierent degree of sophistication/rigor be developed.
Task 2: Separation
The permeation and selectivity of dierent commercial hydrogen and oxy-
gen selective membranes as well as membranes developed by the students
should (if possible) be determined using permeation cells and the rate of
permeation equations will be developed.
Task 3: Mathematical Modeling, Computer Simulation, and
Optimization of the Process
Rigorous static/dynamic models should be developed for the dierent
parts of the novel conguration. The models of the dierent parts should
be integrated for the entire system. The overall model should then be
utilized for the prediction of system performance, optimization of the
design and operating conditions, as well as the development and design
of optimal control strategies. This task will utilize all of the data and rate
equations collected. Because a number of reactions are exothermic and
recirculation is widely used in this novel conguration, the steady state
and dynamic models should be used to investigate the possible instability
problems associated with this conguration. The ultimate goal should be
to develop a comprehensive model of the process to be used as a CAD/
CAM tool for analysis, design, and optimization of this novel process
(34).
Important note: It is stated everywhere that all kinetics and permea-
tion parameters as well as other parameters and rate equations are to
be obtained from the literature. However, whenever the reader has
the experimental facilities to determine any of these parameters, he/
she is encouraged to obtain these parameters. This will be useful and
add to the educational benets of this mathematical modeling and
computer simulation exercise.
TM
8.2 A NOVEL FERMENTOR
This exercise involves not only novel conguration but, more essentially,
also a novel mode of operation of a fermentor.
8.2.1 Introduction
Both end-of-pipe as well as in-process modications are not sucient
means for achieving long-term economic growth while sustaining a clean
environment. It is essential to develop a new generation of technologies
that achieve pollution avoidance/prevention and produce cleaner fuels uti-
lizing abundant waste. Cellulosic biomass is an attractive feedstock for the
production of fuel ethanol by fermentation, because it is renewable and
available domestically in great abundance at low cost (in some cases, it has
a negative price). Cellulosic biomass includes tree leaves, forest products
(particularly those fast-growing energy trees), agricultural residues (e.g.,
corn cobs, corn stalks, rice straws, etc.), waste streams from agricultural
processing, municipal waste, yard and wood waste, waste from paper
mills, and so forth. It is very important for the United States and other
countries to decrease their dependence on hydrocarbons and introduce
cleaner fuels to the energy and transportation sectors. The main aim of
this exercise is to use mathematical and computer modeling to develop an
ecient and environmentally friendly process for the production of the
cleaner fuel ethanol through fermentation of the sugars resulting from
the hydrolysis of biomass and cellulosic waste and energy crops (e.g.,
switch grass). The main bottleneck in this process is associated with the
fermentation step, because the sugars produced from the hydrolysis step
are dicult to ferment.
In order to break this bottleneck an integrated multidisciplinary
system as explained in this book should be adopted (35). It consists of the
following nonlinearly interacting means:
1. Use of genetically engineered mutated micro-organisms capable
of eciently fermenting these dicult sugars (36,37).
2. The use of advanced fermentor conguration (immobilized
packed bed) with ethanol-selective membranes for the continuous
removal of ethanol from the fermentation mixture.
3. The exploitation of the oscillatory and chaotic behavior of the
system at high sugar concentrations, for higher sugar conversion
and ethanol productivity (38).
4. Control of chaos for the generation of new attractors with higher
ethanol productivity.
TM
5. Extensive utilization of reliable mathematical and computer
modeling to minimize the cost of development of novel ecient
and environmentally friendly technologies capable of achieving
Maximum ProductionMinimum Pollution (MPMP).
The synergy of the above means to radically improve the performance of
this process is expected to give considerable increases in ethanol productiv-
ity.
Mathematical modeling should be exploited in order to reach the
optimal designs and operating mode/conditions.
Both the continuous-stirred tank conguration with/without ethanol
pervaporation membrane separation as well as the packed-bed immobilized
fermentors with their dierent congurations for the membrane case (cocur-
rent, countercurrent, countercurrent with partial blinding and mixed ow)
are parts of this exercise for the reader. The kinetics of genetically engi-
neered mutated micro-organisms should be used to simulate the fermenta-
tion of sugars resulting from the hydrolysis of dierent types of biomass
and/or cellulosic waste. The biokinetic data should be obtained for the
dierent strains of micro-organisms and dierent feedstocks through exten-
sive literature survey by the reader. The eect of the membrane removal of
ethanol on the biokinetics should also be investigated. The permeation and
diusion parameters should be obtained from the literature. Reliable bio-
reaction, permeation, and diusion rate equations for use in the mathema-
tical models should be obtained from the literature. Reliable fermentor
models should be developed and used to nd the optimal design and oper-
ating condition.
8.2.2 Basic Research Description
The development and use of innovative technologies is a must in order to
develop new generation of environmentally benign technologies. This
important strategic aim requires an orchestrated eort utilizing fundamental
knowledge, maximum utilization of mathematical and computer modeling
(as discussed in this book), and extensive use of computing resources
coupled to optimally planned experimentation. This approach will be able
to minimize the cost and systemize the approach and procedure for the
development of ecient and environmentally friendly novel processes and
products.
This exercise will, of course, concentrate on the mathematical and
computer modeling part of this strategy.
TM
Continuous Ethanol Removal
It is important for ecient production to use a suitable technique for con-
tinuous removal of this inhibitory product, ethanol. There are many tech-
niques for the continuous removal of ethanol from the fermentation process.
Membranes
Membranes have been used in various congurations with integrated reac-
tion/recovery schemes. Pervaporation is most probably the most promising
technique for the ecient continuous removal of ethanol from the fermen-
tation mixture for the ecient breaking of the ethanol inhibition barrier
(39,40).
Perstraction is a similar technique; however, in this case, a solvent is
used to remove product away from the membrane surface. In situations in
which the solvent is highly toxic, even in dissolved amounts (41), the mem-
brane can act to prevent the solubilization of solvent into the aqueous phase
containing the biocatalyst. Alternatively, in situations in which contact
rather than dissolved toxicity is a concern (42), the membrane can be used
to prevent direct contact between the solvent an the biocatalyst. Supported
liquid membranes can also be used in perstraction (43).
Hollow bers
The economics of Hollow Fiber Ethanol Fermentation (HFEF) was exam-
ined (44) and the process was found to be as competitive as conventional
fermentation processes even at the high cost ($4/ft
2
) of hollow bers at the
time of that study.
Continuous extractive fermentation of high-strength glucose feeds to ethanol
Extractive fermentation using olel alcohol was used successfully to produce
9095% conversion for higher sugar concentrations (400450 g/L) (45).
Optimal Fermentor Conguration
Dierent fermentor congurations can be used, including batch, fed-batch,
continuous-stirred tank, packed bed, and so forth. Immobilization of the
micro-organism allows the use of high ow rates without facing the problem
of micro-organisms washout. However, immobilization adds an additional
mass transfer resistance. The choice of the best conguration being a con-
ceptual problem is rather dicult; in this exercise, dierent congurations
should be examined using dierent mutated micro-organisms and dierent
feedstocks. Earlier studies by Elnashaie and co-workers (46,47) suggest that
in many cases, the optimal conguration is the countercurrent conguration
with partial blinding for a membrane packed-bed immobilized fermentor.
TM
Immobilization of the micro-organisms also increases the yield of ethanol
per gram of sugar converted (48).
Exploitation of Oscillatory and Chaotic Behavior at High Sugar
Concentrations
It is interesting to note that in the fermentation process oscillations are
evident (49,50). Other investigators observed and reported these continuous
oscillations (51,52). Elnashaie and co-workers (35,38,46,47) analyzed some
of these oscillations and found that in certain regions of operating and
design parameters, the behavior is not periodic, but chaotic. They also dis-
covered that the route to chaotic behavior is through the period-doubling
mechanism. Control of chaos through external disturbances (53,54) can be
used to control the fermentor in usually unattainable regions with higher
ethanol yield and productivity.
Bruce and co-workers (55) assumed that the inhibitory eect of etha-
nol is the cause of oscillations and argued that ethanol removal using extrac-
tive fermentation stops the oscillations. Same preliminary results carried out
by the authors of this book, shown in Figures 8.2 and 8.3, support this
conclusion of Bruce and co-workers (55).
It is interesting also to note that periodic attractors may give higher
ethanol yield than the corresponding steady states. The higher productivity
Figure 8.2 Eect of membrane permeation area on stability and ethanol produc-
tion rate. A case with periodic attractor when area of permeation is 0 m
2
.
TM
of the periodic attractor over the corresponding steady state is shown in
Figure 8.2, whereas the higher productivity of the chaotic attractor over the
corresponding steady state is shown in Figure 8.3. This eect will be of
considerable importance for the above-discussed unclassical approach to
optimization and control of these bioreactors.
8.2.3 Tasks for the Exercise
Task A. Kinetics of Sugars Fermentation to Ethanol and Ethanol
Membrane Removal
The objective of this part is to collect the data regarding the kinetics of sugar
fermentation to ethanol using dierent sugars (resulting from the hydrolysis
of biomass and cellulosic waste) using dierent strains of micro-organisms
and genetically engineered mutated micro-organisms. The feedstocks are
mainly the dicult-to-ferment sugars resulting from the hydrolysis of cellu-
losic waste and energy crops. Unstructured and structured kinetic models
should be used.
Figure 8.3 Eect of membrane permeation area on stability and ethanol produc-
tion rate. A case with chaotic attractor when area of permeation is 0 m
2
.
TM
Task B. The Continuous-Stirred Tank Fermentor
This part includes modeling (46,53) for the continuous-stirred tank fermen-
tor with/without ethanol-selective membranes. It includes modeling for each
of the dierent feedstocks and each of the dierent strains of micro-organ-
isms suggested. The biokinetic models and parameters obtained from the
literature should be used in the modeling of the continuous-stirred tank
fermentor proposed in this part. The membrane ux equations and para-
meters obtained from the literature should also be used for the membrane
continuous-stirred tank fermentor.
The modeling and analysis should be carried out over a wide range of
parameters (especially feed concentrations) for the dierent feedstocks and
micro-organisms. With the basic parameters of the system obtained from
the literature, it will be wise to build the model, develop an ecient com-
puter simulation program for its solution, and investigate the expected
behavior of this continuous system over a wide range of parameters.
The reader is also advised to refer to the section on distributed para-
meter heterogeneous modeling of fermentation (Section 6.10) to obtain a
very rigorous model.
Task C. Immobilized Packed-Bed Fermentors With/Without
Membranes
In this part, the more advanced conguration of immobilized packed-bed
fermentor with/without membranes is modeled and simulated (Figure 8.4).
The micro-organisms in this conguration is immobilized using dierent
Figure 8.4 Schematic simplied diagram of the immobilized packed-bed mem-
brane fermentor (cocurrent and countercurrent congurations).
TM
types of carrier (e.g., calcium alginate) with dierent diusivities. The diu-
sion coecients of the beads will be obtained from the literature.
Rigorous heterogeneous steady-state and dynamic models for this
immobilized packed-bed fermentor with/without membranes should be
developed and used to analyze and optimize this novel conguration
(refer to the section in Chapter 6 regarding distributed modeling of fermen-
tation).
For more senior readers, the dynamic model should be used not only
to simulate the dynamic behavior of this heterogeneous distributed system
but also to investigate the possible spatio-temporal chaos associated with it.
Important note: As for the previous exercise, it is stated everywhere
that all biokinetics and permeation parameters as well as other para-
meters are to be obtained from the literature. However, whenever the
reader has the experimental facilities to determine any of these para-
meters, he/she is encouraged to obtain these values. This will be useful
and add to the educational benets of this mathematical modeling
and computer simulation exercise.
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TM
Appendix A
Matrices and Matrix Algebra
The following facts make a working knowledge of matrix methods virtually
indispensable for an engineer dealing with multivariable systems:
1. The convenience of representing systems of several equations in
compact, vector-matrix form
2. How such representations facilitate further analysis
It is perhaps useful to briey review the essential concepts here because most
readers will have encountered matrix methods previously.
A.1 DEFINITION, ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, AND
MULTIPLICATION
A matrix is an array of numbers arranged in rows and columns, written in
the following notation:
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
(A.1)
Because the above matrix A contains two rows and three columns, it is
called a 2 3 matrix. The elements a
11
. a
12
. . . . have the notation a
ij
; that
is, the element of the ith row and jth column of A.
TM
In general, a matrix with m rows and n columns is said to have dimen-
sion mn. In the special case when n = m, the matrix is said to be square;
otherwise, the matrix is said to be rectangular or nonsquare.
As in the case of scalar quantities, matrices can also be added, sub-
tracted, multiplied and so forth, but special rules of matrix algebra must
be followed.
A.1.1 Addition/Subtraction
Only matrices having the same dimensions (i.e. the same number of rows
and columns) can be added or subtracted. For example, given the matrices
A, B, and C,
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
. B =
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
_
_
_
_
_
_
C =
c
11
c
12
c
13
c
21
c
22
c
23
_ _
(A.2)
only A and C can be added or subtracted. B cannot be added or subtracted
from either A or C because its dimensions are dierent from both.
The sum of A C = D can be written as
D = A C =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
c
11
c
12
c
13
c
21
c
22
c
33
_ _
=
a
11
c
11
a
12
c
12
a
13
c
13
a
21
c
21
a
22
c
22
a
23
c
23
_ _ (A.3)
Thus, addition (or subtraction) of two matrices is accomplished by adding
(or subtracting) the corresponding elements of the two matrices. These
operations may, of course, be extended to any number of matrices of the
same order. In particular, observe that adding k identical matrices A
(equivalent to scalar multiplication of A by k) results in a matrix in which
each element is merely the corresponding element of A multiplied by the
scalar k. Thus, when a matrix is to be multiplied by a scalar, the required
operation is done by multiplying each element of the matrix by the scalar.
For example, for A given in relation (A.2),
kA = k
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
=
k a
11
k a
12
k a
13
k a
21
k a
22
k a
23
_ _
(A.4)
TM
A.1.2 Multiplication
Matrix multiplication can be performed on two matrices A and B to form
the product AB only if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of
rows in B. If this condition is satised, the matrices A and B are said to be
conformable in the order AB. Let us consider that P is an mn matrix (m
rows and n columns) whose elements p
ij
are determined from the elements of
A and B according to the following rule:
p
ij
=
n
k=1
a
ik
b
kj
i = 1. 2. . . . . m; j = 1. 2. . . . . r (A.5)
For example, if A and B are dened by Eq. (A.2), then A is a 2 3 matrix, B
a 3 3 matrix, and the product P = AB, a 2 3 matrix, is obtained as
P =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
_
_
_
_
Thus we get
P =
a
11
b
11
a
12
b
21
a
13
b
31
( ) a
11
b
12
a
12
b
22
a
13
b
32
( ) a
11
b
13
a
12
b
23
a
13
b
33
( )
a
21
b
11
a
22
b
21
a
23
b
31
( ) a
21
b
12
a
22
b
22
a
23
b
32
( ) a
21
b
13
a
22
b
23
a
23
b
33
( )
_ _
(A.6)
Unlike in scalar algebra, the fact that AB exists does not imply that BA
exists. So, in general,
AB ,= BA (A.7)
Note: In matrix algebra, therefore, unlike in scalar algebra, the order of
multiplication is very important.
Those special matrices for which AB = BA are said to commute or be
permutable.
A.2 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The transpose of the matrix A, denoted by A
T
, is the matrix formed by
interchanging the rows with columns. For example, if
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
_ _
Algebra
TM
then
A
T
=
a
11
a
21
a
12
a
22
a
13
a
23
_
_
_
_
(A.8)
Thus, if A is an mn matrix, then A
T
is an n m matrix. Observe, there-
fore, that both products A
T
A and AA
T
can be formed and that each will be
a square matrix. However, we note, again, that, in general,
AA
T
,= A
T
A (A.9)
The transpose of a matrix made up of the product of the other matrices may
be expressed by the relation
(ABCD)
T
= D
T
C
T
B
T
A
T
(A.10)
which is valid for any number of matrices, A, B, C, D, and so on.
A.3 SOME SCALAR PROPERTIES OF MATRICES
Associated with each matrix are several scalar quantities that are quite
useful for characterizing matrices in general; the following are some of the
most important.
A.3.1 Trace of a Matrix
If A is a square, n n matrix, the trace of A, sometimes denoted as Tr(A), is
dened as the sum of the elements on the main diagonal; that is,
Tr(A) =
n
i=1
a
ii
(A.11)
A.3.2 Determinants and Cofactors
Of all the scalar properties of a matrix, none is perhaps more important than
the determinant. By way of denition, the absolute value of a square
matrix A, denoted by [A[, is called its determinant. For a simple 2 2 matrix
A =
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_ _
(A.12)
the determinant is dened by
[A[ = a
11
a
22
a
21
a
12
(A.13)
For higher-order matrices, the determinant is more conveniently dened in
terms of cofactors.
TM
A.3.3 Cofactors
The cofactor of the element a
ij
is dened as the determinant of the matrix left
when the ith row and the jth column are removed, multiplied by the factor
(1)
ij
. For example, let us consider the 3 3 matrix
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
_
_
(A.14)
The cofactor, C
12
, of element a
12
is
C
12
= (1)
3
a
21
a
23
a
31
a
33
= a
21
a
33
a
31
a
23
( ) (A.15)
Similarly, the cofactor C
23
is
C
23
= (1)
5
a
11
a
12
a
31
a
32
= a
11
a
32
a
31
a
12
( ) (A.16)
A.3.4 The General n n Determinant
For the general n n matrix A whose elements a
ij
have corresponding
cofactors C
ij
, the determinant [A[ is dened as
[A[ =
n
i=1
a
ij
C
ij
(for any column j) (A.17)
or
[A[ =
n
j=1
a
ij
C
ij
(for any row i) (A.18)
Equations (A.17) and (A.18) are known as the Laplace expansion formulas;
they imply that to obtain [A[, one must do the following:
1. Choose any row or column of A.
2. Evaluate the n cofactors corresponding to the elements in the
chosen row or column.
3. The sum of the n products of elements and cofactors will give the
required determinant. (It is important to note that the same
answer is obtained regardless of the row or column chosen.)
Algebra
TM
To illustrate, let us evaluate the determinant of the 3 3 matrix given
by Eq. (A.14) by expanding in the rst row. In this case, we have that
[A[ = a
11
C
11
a
12
C
12
a
13
that is
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
= a
11
a
22
a
23
a
32
a
33
a
12
a
21
a
23
a
31
a
33
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
31
a
32
= a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
32
a
23
a
12
a
31
a
23
a
12
a
21
a
33
a
13
a
21
a
32
a
13
a
31
a
22
(A.19)
It is easily shown that the expansion by any other row or column yields the
same result. The reader should try to prove this fact.
A.3.5 Properties of Determinants
The following are some important properties of determinants frequently
used to simplify determinant evaluation.
1. Interchanging the rows with columns leaves the value of a deter-
minant unchanged. The main implications of this property are
twofold:
(a) [A[ = [A
T
[.
(b) Because rows and columns of a determinant are interchange-
able, any statement that holds true for rows is also true for
columns, and vice versa.
2. If any two rows (or columns) are interchanged, the sign of the
determinant is reversed.
3. If any two rows (or columns) are identical, the determinant is
zero.
4. Multiplying the elements of any one row (or column) by the same
constant results in the value of determinant being multiplied by
this constant factor; if, for example,
D
1
=
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
and D
2
=
ka
11
a
12
a
13
ka
21
a
22
a
23
ka
31
a
32
a
33
Then, D
2
= k D
1
.
TM
5. If for any i and j (i ,= j) the elements of row (or column) i are
related to the elements of row (or column) j by a constant multi-
plicative factor, the determinant is zero; for example,
D
1
=
ka
12
a
12
a
13
ka
22
a
22
a
23
ka
32
a
32
a
33
where we observe that column 1 is k times column 2; then,

D
1
= 0.
6. Adding a constant multiple of the elements of one row (or col-
umn) to corresponding elements of another row (or column)
leaves the value of the determinant unchanged; for example,
D
1
=
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
and D
2
=
a
11
ka
12
a
12
a
13
a
21
ka
22
a
22
a
23
a
31
ka
32
a
32
a
33
Then, D
2
= D
1
.
7. The value of a determinant that contains a whole row (or col-
umn) of zeros is zero.
8. The determinant of a diagonal matrix (a matrix with nonzero
elements only on the main diagonal) is the product of the
elements on the main diagonal. The determinant of a triangular
matrix (a matrix for which all elements below the main diagonal
or above the main diagonal are zero) is also equal to the product
of the elements on the main diagonal.
A.3.6 Minors of a Matrix
Let A be a general mn matrix with m - n. Many mm determinants
may be formed from the m rows and any m of the n columns of A. These
mm determinants are called minors (of order m) of the matrix A. We
may similarly obtain several (m1) (m1) determinants from the var-
ious combinations of (m1) rows and (m1) columns chosen from the
m rows and n columns of A. These determinants are also minors, but of
order (m1).
Minors may also be categorized as rst minor, the next highest minor
is the second minor, and so forth, until we get to the lowest-order minor, the
one containing a single element. In the special case of a square n n matrix,
there is, of course, one and only one minor of order n, and there is no minor
of higher order than this. Observe, therefore, that the rst minor of a square
matrix is what we have referred to as the determinant of the matrix. The
Algebra
TM
second minor will be of order (n 1). Note, therefore, that the cofactors of
the elements of a square matrix are intimately related to the second minors
of the matrix.
A.3.7 Rank of a Matrix
The rank of a matrix is dened as the order of the highest nonvanishing
minor of that matrix (or, equivalently, the order of the highest square sub-
matrix having a nonzero determinant). A square n n matrix is said to be of
full rank if its rank is equal to n. The matrix is said to be rank decient if the
rank is less than n.
In several practical applications of matrix methods, the rank of the
matrix involved provides valuable information about the nature of the pro-
blem at hand. For example, in the solution of the system of linear algebraic
equations by matrix methods, the number of independent solutions that can
be found is directly related to the rank of the matrix involved.
A.4 SOME SPECIAL MATRICES
A.4.1 The Diagonal Matrix
If all the elements of a square matrix are zero except the main diagonal from
the top left-hand corner to the bottom right-hand corner, the matrix is said
to be diagonal. Some examples are
A =
a
11
0
0 a
22
_ _
and B =
b
11
0 0
0 b
22
0
0 0 b
33
_
_
_
_
_
_
A.4.2 The Triangular Matrix
A square matrix in which all the elements below the main diagonal are zero
is called an upper-triangular matrix. By the same token, a lower-triangular
matrix is one for which all the elements above the main diagonal are zero.
Thus,
b
11
b
12
b
13
0 b
22
b
23
0 0 b
33
_
_
_
_
_
_
and
b
11
0 0
b
21
b
22
0
b
31
b
32
b
33
_
_
_
_
_
_
are, respectively, examples of upper- and lower-triangular matrices.
TM
A.4.3 The Identity Matrix
A diagonal matrix in which the nonzero elements on the main diagonal are
all unity is called the identity matrix, it is frequently denoted by I:
I =
1 0 0 . . . 0
0 1 0 . . . 0
0 0 1 . . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
0 0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
The signicance of the identify matrix will be obvious later, but, for now, we
note that it has the unique property that
IQ = Q = QI (A.20)
for any general matrix Q of conformable order with the multiplying identity
matrix.
A.4.4 Orthogonal Matrix
If A
T
A = I, the identity matrix, then A is an orthogonal (or orthonormal, or
unitary) matrix. For example, as the reader may easily verify,
A
3
5
_ _
4
5
_ _
4
5
_ _

3
5
_ _
_ _
is an orthogonal matrix.
A.4.5 Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
When every pair of (real) elements that are symmetrically placed in a matrix
with respect to the main diagonal are equal, the matrix is said to be a (real)
symmetric matrix; that is, for a (real) symmetric matrix,
a
ij
= a
ji
and i ,= j (A.21)
Some examples of symmetric matrices are
A =
1 3
3 4
_ _
and B =
2 1 5
1 0 2
5 2 4
_
_
_
_
Thus, a symmetric matrix and its transpose are identical; that is
A = A
T
(A.22)
Algebra
TM
A skew-symmetric matrix is one for which
a
ij
= a
ji
(A.23)
The following are some examples of such matrices:
A =
0 3
3 0
_ _
and B =
0 1 5
1 0 2
5 2 4
_
_
_
_
For skew-symmetric matrices,
A = A
T
(A.24)
By noting that a
ij
can be expressed as
a
ij
=
1
2
a
ij
a
ij
_ _
1
2
a
ij
a
ij
)
_
(A.25)
it is easily established that every square matrix A can be resolved into the
sum of a symmetric matrix A
0
and a skew-symmetric matrix A
/
; that is,
A = A
0
A
/
(A.26)
A.4.6 Hermitian Matrices
When symmetrically situated elements in a matrix of complex numbers are
complex conjugates, that is,
a
ji
= " aa
ij
(A.27)
the matrix is said to be Hermitian. For example,
3 (2 3j)
(2 3j) 5
_ _
is a Hermitian matrix. Note that the (real) symmetric matrix is a special
form of a Hermitian matrix in which the coecients of j are absent.
A.4.7 Singular Matrices
A matrix whose determinant is zero is said to be singular. A matrix whose
determinant is not zero is said to be nonsingular.
A.5 INVERSE OF A MATRIX
The matrix counterpart of division is the inverse operation. Thus, corre-
sponding to the reciprocal of a number in scalar algebra is the inverse of the
TM
matrix A, denoted by A
1
(read as A inverse). A matrix for which both
AA
1
and A
1
A give I, the identity matrix, i.e.,
AA
1
= A
1
A = I (A.28)
The inverse matrix A
1
does not exist for all matrices, it exists only if the
following hold:
1. A is square.
2. Its determinant is not zero (i.e., the matrix is nonsingular).
The inverse of A is dened as
A
1
=
C
T
[A[
=
adj(A)
[A[
(A.29)
where C is the matrix of cofactors; that is,
C =
C
11
C
12
C
1n
C
21
C
22
C
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C
n1
C
n2
C
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
as dened previously, C
ij
is the cofactor of the element a
ij
of the matrix A.
C
T
, the transpose of this matrix of cofactors, is termed the adjoint of A and
often abbreviated as adj(A).
Clearly because [A[ = 0 for singular matrices, the matrix inverse as
expressed in Eq. (A.29) does not exist for such matrices.
The following should be noted:
1. The inverse of a matrix composed of a product of other matrices
may be written in the form
(ABCD)
1
= D
1
C
1
B
1
A
1
2. For the simple 2 2 matrix, the general denition in Eq. (A.29)
simplies to a form easy to remember. Thus, given
A =
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_ _
we have that [A[ = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
, and it is easily shown that
A
1
=
1
[A[
a
22
a
12
a
21
a
11
_ _
(A.30)
Algebra
TM
A.6 LINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
Much of the motivation behind developing matrix operations is due to their
particular usefulness in handling sets of linear algebraic equations; for
example, the following three linear equations:
a
11
x
1
a
12
x
2
a
13
x
3
= b
1
a
21
x
1
a
22
x
2
a
23
x
3
= b
2
a
31
x
1
a
32
x
2
a
33
x
3
= b
3
(A.31)
The above equations contain the unknowns x
1
, x
2
, and x
3
. They can be
represented by the single matrix equation.
Ax = b (A.32)
where
A =
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
_
_
. x =
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
_
_
. b =
b
1
b
2
b
3
_
_
_
_
(A.33)
The solution to these equations can be obtained very simply by premultiply-
ing Eq. (A.32) by A
1
to yield
A
1
Ax = A
1
b
which becomes
x = A
1
b (A.34)
upon recalling the property of a matrix inverse that A
1
A = I and recalling
Eq. (A.20) for the property of the identity matrix.
There are several standard, computer-oriented numerical procedures
for performing the operation A
1
to produce the solution given in Eq.
(A.34). Indeed, the availability of these computer subroutines makes the
use of matrix techniques very attractive from a practical viewpoint.
It should be noted that the solution equation (A.34) exists only if A is
nonsingular, as only then will A
1
exist. When A is singular, A
1
ceases to
exist and Eq. (A.34) will be meaningless. The singularity of A, of course,
implies that [A[ = 0, and from property 5 given for determinants, this indi-
cates that some of the rows and columns of A are linearly dependent. Thus,
the singularity of A means that only a subset of the equations we are trying
to solve are truly linearly independent. As such, linearly independent solu-
tions can be found only for this subset. It can be shown that the actual
number of such linearly independent solutions is equal to the rank of A.
TM
Solved Example A.1
To illustrate the use of matrices in the solution of linear algebraic equations,
let us consider the following set of equations:
2x
1
2x
2
3x
3
= 1
4x
1
5x
2
6x
3
= 3
7x
1
8x
2
9x
3
= 5
which in matrix notation is given by
Ax = b
where A, b, and x are
A =
2 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
_
_
_
_
. b =
1
3
5
_
_
_
_
. x =
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
_
_
Notice that A is simply a (3 3) matrix whose inverse can be computed as
A
1
=
1 2 1
2 1 0
1
2
3

2
3
_
_
_
_
Thus, from Eq. (A.34), the solution to this set of algebraic equations is
obtained as
x = A
1
b =
1 2 1
2 1 0
1
2
3

2
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
3
5
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
1 6 5
2 3 0
1
6
3
10
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
0
1
1
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Thus, x
1
= 0, x
2
= 1, and x
3
=
1
3
is the required solution.
A.7 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
The eigenvalue/eigenvector problem arises in the determination of the values
of a constant z for which the following set of n linear algebraic equations
has nontrivial solutions:
a
11
x
1
a
12
x
2
a
1n
x
n
= zx
1
a
21
x
1
a
22
x
2
a
2n
x
n
= zx
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
x
1
a
n2
x
2
a
nn
x
n
= zx
n
(A.35)
Algebra
TM
This can be expressed as
Ax = zx
or we can write
(A zI)x = 0 (A.36)
Being a system of linear homogeneous equations, the solution to Eq. (A.35)
or, equivalently, Eq. (A.36) will be nontrivial (i.e., x ,= 0) if any only if
[A zI[ = 0 (A.37)
that is, [A zI[ is a singular matrix
Expanding this determinant results in a polynomial of order n in z:
a
0
z
n
a
1
z
n1
a
2
z
n2
a
n1
z a
n
= 0 (A.38)
This equation [or its determinant from Eq. (A.37)] is called the characteristic
equation of the n n matrix A, its n roots (z
1
. z
2
. z
3
. . . . . z
n
), which may be
real or imaginary and may not be distinct, are the eigenvalues of the matrix.
Solved Example A.2
Let us illustrate the computation of eigenvalues by considering the matrix
A =
1 2
3 4
_ _
In this case, the matrix (A zI) is obtained as
(A zI) =
1 2
3 4
_ _
z 0
0 z
_ _
=
(1 z) 2
3 (4 z)
_ _
from which the characteristic equation is obtained as
[A zI[ = (1 z)(4 z) 6 = z
2
3z 10 = 0
which is a second-order polynomial (quadratic) with the following solutions:
z
1
. z
2
= 5. 2
Thus, in this case, the eigenvalues are both real. Note that z
1
z
2
= 3 and
that z
1
z
2
= 10; also note that Tr(A) = 1 4 = 3 and [A[ = 10. Thus,
we see that z
1
z
2
= Tr(A) and z
1
z
2
= [A[.
If we change A slightly to
A =
1 2
3 4
_ _
TM
then the characteristic equation becomes
[A zI[ =
1 z 2
3 4 z
_ _
= z
2
5z 10 = 0
with roots
z
1
. z
2
=
1
2
5
15
_ _ _
j
_ _
. where j =
1
_
which are complex conjugates. Note, again, that Tr(A) = 5 = z
1
z
2
and
[A[ = 10 = z
1
z
2
.
Finally, if we make another small change in A, that is,
A =
1 2
3 1
_ _
then the characteristic equation is
[A zI[ = z
2
1 6 = 0
which has the solutions
z
1
. z
2
=
5
_
_ _
j
so the eigenvalues are purely imaginary in this case. Once again, Tr(A) = 0 =
z
1
z
2
and [A[ = 5 = z
1
z
2
.
The following are some general properties of eigenvalues worth not-
ing:
1. The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal to the trace of that
matrix:
Tr(A) =
n
j=1
z
j
2. The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal to the deter-
minant of that matrix:
[A[ =
n
j=1
z
j
3. A singular matrix has at least one zero eigenvalue.
4. If the eigenvalues of A are z
1
. z
2
. z
3
. . . . . z
n
, then the eigenvalues
of A
1
are
1,z
1
. 1,z
2
. 1,z
3
. . . . . 1,z
n
. respectively.
Algebra
TM
5. The eigenvalues of a diagonal or a triangular matrix are identical
to the elements of the main diagonal.
6. Given any nonsingular matrix T, the matrices A and
"
AA = TAT
1
have identical eigenvalues. In this case, such matrices A and
"
AA are
called as similar matrices.
Eigenvalues are essential for the study of the stability of dierent systems.
Solved Example A.3
Let us illustrate the computation of eigenvectors by considering the follow-
ing 2 2 matrix:
A =
1 2
3 4
_ _
for which eigenvalues z
1
= 5 and z
2
= 2 were calculated in the previous
example.
For z
1
,
(A z
1
I) =
6 2
3 1
_ _
and its adjoint is given by
adj(A z
1
I) =
1 2
3 6
_ _
We may now choose either column of the adjoint as the eigenvector x
1
,
because one is a scalar multiple of the other. Let us choose
x
1
=
1
3
_ _
as the eigenvector for z
1
= 5. Because the norm of this vector is
1
2
(3)
2
_
=
10
_
, the normalized eigenvector corresponding to z
1
= 5
will be
" xx
1
=
1
10
_
3
10
_
_ _
Similarly, for z
2
= 2,
(A z
2
I) =
1 2
3 6
_ _
and its adjoint is given by
adj(A z
2
I) =
6 2
3 1
_ _
TM
Thus,
x
2
=
2
1
_ _
can be chosen as the eigenvector for eigenvalue z
2
= 2. The normalized
eigenvector in this case is
" xx
2
=
2
5
_
1
5
_
_ _
The following are some useful properties of eigenvectors:
1. Eigenvectors associated with separate, distinct eigenvalues are
linearly independent.
2. The eigenvectors x
j
are solutions of a set of homogeneous linear
equations and are thus determined only up to a scalar multiplier;
that is, x
j
and kx
j
will both be a solution to the equation if k is a
scalar constant. We obtain a normalized eigenvector " xx
j
when the
eigenvector x
j
is scaled by the vector norm |x
j
|; that is
" xx
j
=
x
j
|x
j
|
3. The normalized eigenvector " xx
j
is a valid eigenvector because it is
a scalar multiple of x
j
. It enjoys the sometimes desirable property
that it has unity norm; that is,
|" xx
j
| = 1
4. The eigenvectors x
j
may be calculated by resorting to methods of
solution of homogeneous linear equations.
It can be shown that the eigenvector x
j
associated with the eigenvalue
z
j
is given by any nonzero column of adj(A z
j
I). It can also be shown that
there will always be one and only one independent nonzero column of
adj(A z
j
I).
A.8 SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS AND THE MATRIX EXPONENTIAL
It is possible to use the results of matrix algebra to provide general solutions
to sets of linear ordinary dierential equations. Let us recall a dynamic
system with control and disturbances neglected:
Algebra
TM
dx
dt
= Ax with x(0) = x
0
(A.39)
Here, A is a constant n n matrix with distinct eigenvalues, and x(t) is a
time-varying solution vector. Let us dene a new set of n variables, z(t), as
z(t) = M
1
x(t) (A.40)
so that
x(t) = Mz(t) (A.41)
Here, M is the modal matrix (having the property that matrix M
1
AM is
diagonal) formed of the eigenvectors of matrix A. Substituting Eq. (A.41)
into Eq. (A.39) gives
M
dz(t)
dt
= AMz(t) with z(0) = M
1
x
0
(A.42)
Premultiplying both sides by M
1
gives
M
1
M
dz(t)
dt
= M
1
AMz(t)
or
dz(t)
dt
= z(t) with z(0) = z
0
= M
1
x
0
(A.43)
where , = M
1
AM
Because is diagonal, these equations may now be written as
dz
1
(t)
dt
= z
1
z
1
(t) with z
1
(0) = z
10
dz
2
(t)
dt
= z
2
z
2
(t) with z
2
(0) = z
20
.
.
.
dz
n
(t)
dt
= z
n
z
n
(t) with z
n
(0) = z
n0
Thus, the transformation equation (A.41) has converted the original equa-
tion (A.39) into n completely decoupled equations, each of which has a
solution of the form
z
j
(t) = e
z
1
t
z
j0
. j = 1. 2. 3. . . . . n
This may be expressed in matrix notation as
z(t) = e
t
z
0
(A.44)
TM
where
e
t
=
e
z
1
t
0 0 0
0 e
z
2
t
0 0
0 0 e
z
2
t
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 0 e
z
n
t
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(A.45)
It is the matrix exponential for the diagonal matrix . Equation (A.44) may
be put back in terms of the original variables x(t) by using Eq. (A.40):
M
1
x(t) = e
t
M
1
x
0
or
x(t) = Me
t
M
1
x
0
(A.46)
This is often written as
x(t) = e
At
x
0
(A.47)
where the matrix e
At
is dened as
e
At
= Me
At
M
1
(A.48)
It is called the matrix exponential of At. It is very important to note that Eqs.
(A.47) and (A.48) provide the general solution to any set of homogeneous
equations (A.39) provided A has distinct eigenvalues.
Solved Example A.4
To illustrate the solution of linear constant-coecient, homogeneous dier-
ential equations, let us consider the following systems:
dx
dt
= Ax with x(0) = x
0
(A.49)
where
A =
1 2
3 4
_ _
and x
0
=
1
2
_ _
Observe that A is the same matrix we have analyzed in previous examples,
so we already know its eigenvalues (z
1
and z
2
) and modal matrix M. Thus,
we have that
=
5 0
0 2
_ _
. M=
1 2
3 1
_ _
. M
1
=
1
7

2
7
3
7
1
7
_ _
Algebra
TM
Using Eq. (A.48), we get
e
At
= Me
t
M
1
=
1 2
3 1
_ _
e
5t
0
0 e
2t
_ _
1
7

2
7
3
7
1
7
_ _
Thus, we get
e
At
=
e
5t
6e
2t
7
2e
5t
2e
2t
7
3e
5t
3e
2t
7
6e
5t
e
2t
7
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Finally, we get
x(t) =
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_ _
=
3e
5t
10e
2t
7
9e
5t
5e
2t
7
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
The extension of these ideas provides solutions for the case of nonhomoge-
neous linear dierential equations
dx(t)
dt
= Ax(t) Bu(t) !d(t) with x(t
0
) = x
0
(A.50)
The method of obtaining the solution is straightforward. Here, u(t) and d(t)
represent the control variables and disturbances, respectively. When the
matrices A, B, and ! are constant matrices, a derivation completely similar
to the one just given leads to the solution
x(t) = e
A(tt
0
)
x
0
_
t
t
0
e
A(tt)
Bu(t) !d(t) [ ] dt (A.51)
where the matrix exponentials e
A(tt
0
)
and e
A(tt)
can be evaluated using Eq.
(A.48).
Solved Example A.5
To illustrate the solution of nonhomogeneous equations using Eq. (A.51),
let us suppose we have a system equation (A.50) with A the same as the
previous example,
A =
1 2
3 4
_ _
TM
and
B =
1 0
0 1
_ _
. ! =
1
0
_ _
. x
0
=
1
2
_ _
.
u =
u
1
u
2
_ _
. d = d
1
(a scalar)
In addition, assume that u
1
= u
2
= 0, d
1
= 1 (a constant disturbance), and
t
0
= 0. In this case, Eq. (A.51) takes the form
x(t) = e
At
x
0
_
t
0
e
A(tt)
!d(t) dt
Substituting for e
At
and e
At
x
0
calculated in the previous example, we obtain
the solution as follows:
x(t) =
3e
5t
10e
2t
7
9e
5t
5e
2t
7
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
t
0
e
5(tt)
6e
2(tt)
7
3e
5(tt)
3e
2(tt)
7
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
dt
or we can write
x(t) =
x
1
(t)
x
2
(t)
_ _
=
2
5
16
35
e
5t
13
7
e
2t
21
70
48
35
e
5t
13
14
e
2t
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
For the situation where the matrices A, B, and ! can themselves be func-
tions of time, the solution requires a bit more computation. In this case,
x(t) = ((t. t
0
)x
0
((t. t
0
)
_
t
t
0
(
1
(t. t
0
) Bu(t) !d(t) [ ] dt (A.52)
Here, ((t. t
0
) is an n n time-varying matrix known as the fundamental
matrix solution, which may be found from
d((t. t
0
)
dt
= A(t)((t. t
0
) with ((t
0
. t
0
) = I (A.53)
Because A(t), B(t), and !(t) can have arbitrary time dependence, the funda-
mental matrix solution is usually obtained by numerical methods.
Nevertheless, once ((t. t
0
) is determined, the solution x(t) may be readily
calculated for a variety of control and disturbance inputs u(t) and d(t) using
Eq. (A.52).
Algebra
TM
REFERENCES
1. Kreyszig, E. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed. Wiley, New York,
1998.
2. Amundson, N. R. Mathematical Method in Chemical Engineering. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Clis, NJ. 1966.
3. Wylie, C. R. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Wiley, New York, 1966.
4. Duncan, W. J., Collar, A. R., and Frazer, R. Q. Elementary Matrices,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1963.
TM
Appendix B
Numerical Methods
Analytical solution methods are restricted to linear, low-dimensional
problems. For nonlinear problems and/or high-dimensional systems, a
numerical solution must be used.
B.1 SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC AND
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS
To nd the roots of an equation f (x) = 0, we start with a known approx-
imate solution and apply any of the following methods.
B.1.1 Bisection Method
This method consists of locating the root of the equation f (x) = 0 between a
and b. If f (x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of
opposite signs, then there is a root between a and b. For example, let f (a)
be negative and f (b) be positive. Then, the rst approximation to the root is
x
1
=
1
2
(a b).
If f (x
1
) = 0, then x
1
is a root of f (x) = 0. Otherwise, the root lies
between a and x
1
, or x
1
and b according to whether f (x
1
) is positive or
negative. Then, we bisect the interval as previously and continue the process
until the root is found to the desired accuracy.
In Figure B.1, f (x
1
) is positive and f (a) is negative; therefore, the root
lies between a and x
1
. Then, the second approximation to the root is
TM
x
2
=
1
2
(a x
1
). If f (x
2
) is negative, the root lies between x
1
and x
2
. Then, the
third approximation to the root is x
3
=
1
2
(x
1
x
2
), and so on.
B.1.2 NewtonRaphson Method
Let x
0
be an approximation root of the equation f (x) = 0. If x
1
= x
0
h is
the exact root, then f (x
1
) = 0. Therefore, expanding f (x
0
h) by Taylors
series gives
f (x
0
) hf
/
(x
0
)
h
2
2!
f
//
(x
0
) = 0
Because h is very small, neglecting h
2
and higher powers of h, we get
f (x
0
) hf
/
(x
0
) = 0 or h =
f (x
0
)
f
/
(x
0
)
(B.1)
Therefore, a closer approximation to the root is given by
x
1
= x
0
f (x
0
)
f
/
(x
0
)
Similarly, starting with x
1
, a still better approximation x
2
is given by
x
2
= x
1
f (x
1
)
f
/
(x
1
)
In general,
x
n1
= x
n
f (x
n
)
f
/
(x
n
)
Figure B.1 Bisection method.
TM
This technique is known as the NewtonRaphson formula or Newtons
iteration formula.
Geometrical Interpretation of NewtonRaphson Technique (see
Fig. B.2)
Let x
0
be a point near the root o of the equation f (x) = 0. Then, the
equation of the tangent point A
0
[x
0
. f (x
0
)] is y f (x
0
) = [ f
/
(x
0
)(x x
0
)].
This tangent cuts the x axis at x
1
= x
0
f (x
0
),f
/
(x
0
). This point is a rst
approximation to the root o. If A
1
is the point corresponding to x
1
on the
curve, then the tangent at A
1
will cut the x axis at x
2
, which is closer to o and
is, therefore, a second approximation to the root. Repeating this process, we
approach the root o quite rapidly.
B.2 SOLUTION OF LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS
Simultaneous linear equations occur in various engineering problems. The
reader knows that a given system of linear equations can be solved by
Cramers rule or by the matrix method. However, these methods become
tedious for large systems. However, there exist other numerical methods of
solution which are well suited for computing machines. The following is an
example.
Figure B.2 Geometrical interpretation of the NewtonRaphson method.
TM
Gauss Elimination Method
In this method, the unknowns are eliminated successively and the system is
reduced to an upper-triangular system from which the unknowns are found
by back substitution. The method is quite general and is well adapted for
computer calculations. Here, we shall explain it by considering a system of
three equations for sake of simplicity.
Consider the following equations,
a
1
x b
1
y c
1
z = d
1
a
2
x b
2
y c
2
z = d
2
a
3
x b
3
y c
3
z = d
3
(B.2)
Step I. To eliminate x from second and third equations. Assuming
a
1
,= 0, we eliminate x from the second equation by subtracting
a
2
,a
1
times the rst equation from the second equation. Similarly, we
eliminate x from the third equation by eliminating (a
3
,a
1
) times
the rst equation form the third equation. We thus obtain the new
system
a
1
x b
1
y c
1
z = d
1
b
/
2
y c
/
2
z = d
/
2
b
/
3
y c
/
3
z = d
/
3
(B.3)
Here, the rst equation is called the pivotal equation and a
1
is called
the rst pivot.
Step II. To eliminate y from the third equation in Eq. (B.3). Assuming
b
/
2
,= 0, we eliminate y from the third equation of Eq. (B.3), by
subtracting (b
/
3
,b
/
2
) times the second equation from the third equa-
tion. Thus, we get the new system
a
1
x b
1
y c
1
z = d
1
b
/
2
y c
/
2
z = d
/
2
c
//
3
z = d
//
3
(B.4)
Here, the second equation is the pivotal equation and b
/
2
is the new
pivot.
Step III. To evaluate the unknowns. The values of x, y, and z are
found from the reduced system (B.4) by back-substitution.
TM
Note: Clearly, the method will fail if any one of the pivots a
1
, b
/
2
, or c
//
3
becomes zero. In such cases, we rewrite the equations in a dierent order so
that the pivots are nonzero.
B.3 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS (MULTIDIMENSIONAL NEWTON
RAPHSON METHOD)
Consider the equations
f (x. y) = 0 and g(x. y) = 0 (B.5)
If an initial approximation (x
0
. y
0
) to a solution has been found by the
graphical method or otherwise, then a better approximation (x
1
. y
1
) can
be obtained as follows:
Let
x
1
= x
0
h and y
1
= y
0
k
so that
f (x
0
h. y
0
k) = 0 and g(x
0
h. y
0
k) = 0 (B.6)
Expanding each of the functions in Eq. (B.6) by the Taylors series to rst-
degree terms, we get approximately
f
0
h
of
ox
0
k
of
oy
0
= 0
g
0
h
og
ox
0
k
og
oy
0
= 0
(B.7)
where
f
0
= f (x
0
. y
0
).
of
ox
0
=
of
ox
_ _
x
0
.y
0
and so forth
Solving Eqs. (B.7) for h and k, we get a new approximation to the root:
x
1
= x
0
h and y
1
= y
0
k
This process is repeated until we obtain the values of x and y with the
desired accuracy.
Solved Example B.1
Solve the system of nonlinear equations
x
2
y = 11 and y
2
x = 7
TM
Solution
An initial approximation to the solution is obtained from a rough graph of
the given equation as x
0
= 3.5 and y
0
= 1.8. We have f = x
2
y 11 and
g = y
2
x 7, so that
of
ox
= 2x.
of
oy
= 1.
og
ox
= 1.
og
oy
= 2y
Then, NewtonRaphsons equation (B.7) will be
7h k = 0.55 and h 3.6k = 0.26
Solving the above set of algebraic equations, we get
h = 0.0855 and k = 0.0485
Therefore, the better approximation to the root is
x
1
= x
0
h = 3.5855 and y
1
= y
0
k = 1.8485
Repeating the above process, replacing (x
0
. y
0
) by (x
1
. y
1
), we obtain
x
2
= 3.5844 and y = 1.8482
This procedure is to be repeated till x and y are located to the desired
accuracy.
B.4 NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A number of numerical methods are available for the solution of nonlinear
ordinary dierential equations of the form
dY
dx
= f (x. Y) with given Y(x
0
) = Y
0
(B.8)
B.4.1 Eulers Method
Consider the equation
dy
dx
= f (x. y) with y(x
0
) = y
0
(B.9)
Its curve of solution through P(x
0
. y
0
) is shown in Figure B.3. Now, we have
to nd the ordinate of any other point Q on this curve.
Let us divide LM into n subintervals, each of width h at L
1
. L
2
. L
3
. . . .
so that h is quite small. In the interval LL
1
, we approximate the curve by the
TM
tangent at P. If the ordinate through L
1
meets this tangent in P
1
(x
0
h. y
1
),
then
y
1
= L
1
P
1
= LP R
1
P
1
= y
0
PR
1
tan = y
0
h
dy
dx
_ _
P
= y
0
hf (x
0
. y
0
)
Let P
1
Q
1
be the curve of the solution of Eq. (B.9) through P
1
and let its
tangent at P
1
meet the ordinate through L
2
in P
2
(x
0
2h. y
2
). Then
y
2
= y
1
h f (x
0
h. y
1
) (B.10)
Repeating this process n times, we nally reach an approximation MP
n
of
MQ given by
y
n
= y
n1
hf x
0
(n 1)h. y
n1
( )
This is the Eulers method of nding an approximate solution of (B.9).
Note: In Eulers method, we approximate the curve to solution by the
tangent in each interval (i.e., by a sequence of short lines). Unless h is
very small, the error is bound to be quite signicant. This sequence of
lines may also deviate considerably from the curve of solution. Hence,
there is a modication of this method, which is given in the next section.
Figure B.3 Geometrical representation of Eulers method.
TM
B.4.2 Modied Eulers Method
In Eulers method, the curve of solution in the interval LL
1
is approximated
by the tangent at P (see Fig. B.3), such that at P
1
we have
y
1
= y
0
h f (x
0
. y
0
) (B.11)
Then, the slope of the curve of solution through P
1
[i.e.,
(dy,dx)
P
1
= f (x
0
h. y
1
)] is computed and the tangent at P
1
to P
1
Q
1
is
drawn, meeting the ordinate through L
2
in P
2
(x
0
2h. y
2
).
Now, we nd a better approximation y
(1)
1
of y(x
0
h) by taking the
slope of the curve as the mean of the slopes of the tangents at P and P
1
; that
is,
y
(1)
1
= y
0
h
2
f (x
0
. y
0
) f (x
0
h. y
1
) [ ] (B.12)
As the slope of the tangent at P
1
is not known, we use y
1
as computed from
Eq. (B.11) by Eulers method and insert it on the right-hand side of Eq.
(B.12) to obtain the rst modied value of y
(1)
1
. Equation (B.11) is, therefore,
called the predictor, whereas Eq. (B.12) serves as the corrector of y
1
.
Again, a corrector is applied and we nd a still better value of y
(1)
1
corresponding to L
1
:
y
(2)
1
= y
0
h
2
f (x
0
. y
0
) f (x
0
h. y
(1)
1
)
_ _
We repeat this step until two consecutive values of y agree. This is taken as
the starting point for the next interval L
1
L
2
.
Once y
1
is obtained to the desired degree of accuracy, y corresponding
to L
2
is found from the predictor,
y
2
= y
1
hf (x
0
h. y
1
)
and a better approximation, y
(1)
2
, is obtained from the corrector,
y
(1)
2
= y
1
h
2
f (x
0
h. y
1
) f (x
0
2h. y
2
) [ ]
We repeat this step until y
2
becomes stationary. Then, we proceed to calcu-
late y
3
as above.
This is the modied Eulers method, which is a relatively simple
predictorcorrector method.
Solved Example B.2
Using the modied Euler method, nd an approximate value of y when
x = 0.3 for the following dierential equation:
TM
dy
dx
= x y and y = 1 when x = 0
Solution
Taking h = 0.1, the various calculations are arranged as shown in Table B.1,
Hence,
y(0.3) = 1.4004 approximately.
B.4.3 RungeKutta Method
The class of methods known as RungeKutta methods do not require the
calculations of higher-order derivatives. These methods agree with Taylors
series solution up to the terms in h
r
, where r diers from method to method
and is called the order of that method. The fourth-order RungeKutta
method is most commonly used and is often referred to as the Runge
Kutta method only.
Table B.1 Calculations of Solved Example B.2
x x y = y
/
Mean slope Old y 0.1 (mean slope) = new y
0.0 0 1 1.00 0.1(1.00) = 1.10
0.1 0.1 1.1
1
2
(1 1.2) 1.00 0.1(1.10) = 1.11
0.1 0.1 1.11
1
2
(1 1.21) 1.00 0.1(1.105) = 1.1105
0.1 0.1 1.1105
1
2
(1 1.2105) 1.00 0.1(1.1052) = 1.1105
0.1 1.2105 1.1105 0.1(1.2105) = 1.2316
0.2 0.2 1.2316
1
2
(1.2105 1.4316) 1.1105 0.1(1.3211) = 1.2426
0.2 0.2 1.426
1
2
(1.2105 1.4426) 1.1105 0.1(1.3266) = 1.2432
0.2 0.2 1.2432
1
2
(1.2105 1.4432) 1.1105 0.1(1.3268) = 1.2432
0.2 1.4432 1.2432 0.1(1.4432) = 1.3875
0.3 0.3 1.3875
1
2
(1.4432 1.6875) 1.2432 0.1(1.5654) = 1.3997
0.3 0.3 1.3997
1
2
(1.4432 1.6997) 1.2432 0.1(1.5715) = 1.4003
0.3 0.3 1.4003
1
2
(1.4432 1.7003) 1.2432 0.1(1.5718) = 1.4004
0.3 0.3 1.4004
1
2
(1.4432 1.7004) 1.2432 0.1(1.5718) = 1.4004
TM
Working Rule
Finding the increment k of y corresponding to an increment h of x by the
RungeKutta method from
dy
dx
= f (x. y). y(x
0
) = y
0
is as follows:
Calculate successively
k
1
= hf (x
0
. y
0
)
k
2
= hf x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
1
2
_ _
k
3
= hf x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
2
2
_ _
and
k
4
= hf (x
0
h. y
0
k
3
)
Finally, calculate
k =
1
6
k
1
2k
2
2k
3
k
4
[ ]
which gives the required approximate value y
1
= y
0
k.
Notes:
1. k is the weighted mean of k
1
, k
2
, k
3
, and k
4
.
2. One of the advantages of these methods is that the operation is
identical whether the dierential equation is linear or nonlinear.
Solved Example B.3
Apply the RungeKutta method to nd an approximate value of y for
x = 0.2 in steps of 0.1 for the following dierential equation:
dy
dx
= x y
2
and y = 1 when x = 0
Solution
Here, we have taken h = 0.1 and carry out the calculations in two steps.
TM
Step 1
x
0
= 0. y
0
= 1. h = 0.1
k
1
= hf (x
0
. y
0
) = 0.1f (0. 1) = 0.100
k
2
= hf x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
1
2
_ _
= 0.1f (0.05. 1.1) = 0.1152
k
3
= hf x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
2
2
_ _
= 0.1f (0.05. 1.1152) = 0.1168
and
k
4
= hf (x
0
h. y
0
k
3
) = 0.1f (0.1. 1.1168) = 0.1347
Finally, we have
k =
1
6
k
1
2k
2
2k
3
k
4
[ ]
k =
1
6
0.100 0.2304 0.2336 0.1347 [ ] = 0.1165
giving
y(0.1) = y
0
k = 1.1165
Step 2
x
1
= x
0
h = 0.1. y
1
= 1.165. h = 0.1
k
1
= hf (x
1
. y
1
) = 0.1f (0.1. 1.1165) = 0.1347
k
2
= hf x
1
h
2
. y
1
k
1
2
_ _
= 0.1f (0.15. 1.1838) = 0.1551
k
3
= hf x
1
h
2
. y
1
k
2
2
_ _
= 0.1f (0.15. 1.194) = 0.1576
and
k
4
= hf (x
1
h. y
1
k
3
) = 0.1f (0.2. 1.1576) = 0.1823
Finally, we have
k =
1
6
k
1
2k
2
2k
3
k
4
[ ]
k =
1
6
0.134 0.1551 0.1576 0.1823 [ ] = 0.1571
TM
giving
y(0.2) = y
1
k = 1.2736
Hence, the required approximate value of y is equal to 1.2736.
PredictorCorrector Methods
In the methods explained so far, to solve a dierential equation over an
interval (x
1
. x
i1
) only the value of y at the beginning of the interval was
required. In the predictorcorrector methods, however, four prior values are
required for nding the value of y at x
i1
. A predictor formula is used to
predict the value of y at x
i1
and then a corrector formula is applied to
improve this value. We now explain one such method.
Milnes Method
Given
dy
dx
= f (x. y). y(x
0
) = y
0
To nd an approximate value of y for x = x
0
nh by Milnes method for
the above-mentioned dierential equation, we proceed as follows:
The value y
0
= y(x
0
) being given, we compute
y
1
= y(x
0
h). y
2
= y(x
0
2h). y
3
= y(x
0
3h)
by Picards or Taylors series method. Next, we calculate
f
0
= f (x
0
. y
0
). f
1
= f (x
0
h. y
1
). f
2
= f (x
0
2h. y
2
).
f
3
= f (x
0
3h. y
3
)
Then, to nd y
4
= y(x
0
4h), we substitute Newtons forward interpolation
formula
f (x. y) = f
0
nf
0
n(n 1)
2

2
f
0
n(n 1)(n 2)
6

3
f
0

in the relation
y
4
= y
0
_
x
0
4h
x
0
f (x. y) dx
We get
y
4
= y
0
_
x
0
4h
x
0
f
0
nf
0
n(n 1)
2

2
f
0
n(n 1)(n
2
)
6

3
f
0

_ _
dx
TM
Setting x = x
0
nh and dx = h dn, we get
y
4
= y
0
h
_
4
0
f
0
nf
0
n(n 1)
2

2
f
0
n(n 1)(n 2)
6

3
f
0

_ _
dn
Thus, we get
y
4
= y
0
h 4f
0
8f
0
20
3

2
f
0
8
3
3
f
0

_ _
Neglecting fourth- and higher-order dierences and expressing f
0
,
2
f
0
,
and
3
f
0
in terms of the function values, we get
y
4
= y
0
4h
3
2f
1
f
2
2f
3
( )
which is called a predictor. Having found y
4
, we obtain a rst approximation
to f
4
= f (x
0
2h. y
4
).
Then, a better value of y
4
is found by Simpsons rule as
y
4
= y
2
h
3
f
2
4f
3
f
4
( )
which is called a corrector. Then, an improved value of f
4
is computed and,
again, the corrector is applied to nd a still better value of y
4
. We repeat this
step until y
4
remains unchanged. Once y
4
and f
4
are obtained to the desired
degree of accuracy, y
5
= y(x
0
5h) is found from the predictor as
y
5
= y
1
4h
3
2f
2
f
3
2f
4
( )
and f
5
= f (x
0
5h. y
5
) is calculated. Then, a better approximation to the
value of y
5
is obtained form the corrector as
y
5
= y
3
h
3
f
3
4f
4
f
5
( )
We repeat this step until y
5
becomes stationary and then we proceed to
calculate y
6
, and so on.
This is Milnes predictorcorrector method. To ensure greater accu-
racy, we must rst improve the accuracy of the starting values and then
subdivide the intervals.
Solved Example B.4
Apply Milnes method to nd a solution of the dierential equation dy,dx =
x y
2
in the range 0 _ x _ 1 for the initial condition y = 0 at x = 0.
TM
Solution
Using Picards method, we have
y = y(0)
_
x
0
f (x. y) dx
where f (x. y) = x y
2
. To get the rst approximation, we put y = 0 in
f (x. y), thus giving
y
1
= 0
_
x
0
xdx =
x
2
2
To nd the second approximation, we put y = x
2
,2 in f (x. y), thus giving
y
2
=
_
x
0
x
x
4
4
_ _
dx =
x
2
2

x
5
20
Similarly, the third approximation is
y
3
=
_
x
0
x
x
2
2

x
5
20
_ _
2
_
_
_
_
dx =
x
2
2

x
5
20
x
8
160
x
11
4400
(i)
Now, let us determine the starting values of the Milnes method from (i) by
choosing h = 0.2; we get
x = 0.0. y
0
= 0.0000. f
0
= 0.0000
x = 0.2. y
1
= 0.0200. f
1
= 0.1996
x = 0.4. y
2
= 0.0795. f
2
= 0.3937
x = 0.6. y
3
= 0.1762. f
3
= 0.5689
Using the predictor,
y
4
= y
0
4h
3
2f
1
f
2
2f
3
( )
we get
x = 0.8. y
4
= 0.3049. f
4
= 0.7070
and the corrector is given by
y
4
= y
2
h
3
f
2
4f
3
f
4
( )
which gives
y
4
= 0.3046. f
4
= 0.7072 (ii)
Again using the corrector, y
4
= 0.3046, which is the same as in (ii).
TM
Now using the predictor,
y
5
= y
1
4h
3
2f
2
f
3
2f
4
( )
we get
x = 1.0. y
5
= 0.4554. f
4
= 0.7926
and the corrector
y
5
= y
3
h
3
f
3
4f
4
f
5
( )
which gives
y
5
= 0.4555. f
5
= 0.7925
Again, using the corrector, y
5
= 0.4555, a value which is the same pre-
viously. Hence, y(1) = 0.4555.
B.5 SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS FIRST-ORDER
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The simultaneous dierential equations of the type
dy
dx
= f (x. y. z) and
dz
dx
= (x. y. z)
with initial condition
y(x
0
) = y
0
and z(x
0
) = z
0
can be solved by the methods discussed earlier, especially Picards or
RungeKutta methods. The method is best illustrated by the following
example.
Solved Example B.5
Using Picards method, nd the approximate value of y and z corresponding
to x = 0.1 given that
dy
dx
= x z and
dz
dx
= x y
2
with y(0) = 2 and z(0) = 1.
Solution
Here,
x
0
= 0. y
0
= 2. z
0
= 1
TM
Also,
dy
dx
= f (x. y. z) = x z and
dz
dx
= (x. y. z) = x y
2
Therefore,
y = y
0
_
x
x
0
f (x. y. z) dx and z = z
0
_
x
x
0
(x. y. z) dx
Firstly approximations are
y
1
= y
0
_
x
x
0
f (x. y
0
. z
0
) dx = 2
_
x
0
(x 1) dx = 2 x
x
2
2
z
1
= z
0
_
x
x
0
(x. y
0
. z
0
) dx = 1
_
x
0
(x 4) dx = 1 4x
x
2
2
Second approximations are
y
2
= y
0
_
x
x
0
f (x. y
1
. z
1
) dx = 2
_
x
0
x 1 4x
x
2
2
_ _
dx
= 2 x
3
2
x
2
x
3
6
z
2
= z
0
_
x
x
0
(x. y
1
. z
1
) dx = 1
_
x
0
x 2 x
x
2
2
_ _
2
_
_
_
_
dx
= 1 4x
3
2
x
2
x
3
x
4
4

x
5
20
Third approximations are
y
3
= y
0
_
x
x
0
f (x. y
2
. z
2
) dx = 2 x
3
2
x
2
x
3
2

x
4
4

x
5
20
x
6
120
z
3
= z
0
_
x
x
0
(x. y
2
. z
2
) dx = 1 4x
3
2
x
2
5
3
x
3
7
12
x
4
31
60
x
5
x
6
12
x
7
252
and so on.
TM
When
x = 0.1
y
1
= 2.015. y
2
= 2.08517. y
3
= 2.08447
z
1
= 0.605. z
2
= 0.58397. z
3
= 0.58672
Then
y(0.1) = 2.0845 and z(0.1) = 0.5867
correct up to four decimal places.
B.6 SECOND-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Consider the second-order dierential equation
d
2
y
dx
2
= f x. y.
dy
dx
_ _
By writing dy,dx = z, it can be reduced to two rst-order dierential equa-
tions:
dy
dx
= z and
dz
dx
= f (x. y. z)
These equations can be solved as explained in the previous method (for
simultaneous rst-order dierential equations).
Solved Example B.6
Using the RungeKutta method, solve the following second-order dieren-
tial equation for x = 0.2, correct up to four decimal places:
d
2
y
dx
2
= x
dy
dx
_ _
2
y
2
with initial conditions x = 0, y = 1, and dy,dx = 0.
Solution
Let
dy
dx
= z = f (x. y. z)
Then,
dz
dx
= xz
2
y
2
= (x. y. z)
TM
We have
x
0
= 0. y
0
= 1. z
0
= 0. h = 0.2
Using k
1
. k
2
. k
3
. . . . for f (x. y. z) and l
1
. l
2
. l
3
. . . . for (x. y. z), RungeKutta
formulas become (as shown in Table B.2).
Hence at x = 0.2,
y = y
0
k = 1 0.0199 = 0.9801
y
/
= z = z
0
l = 1 0.1970 = 0.803
Table B.2 Calculations of Solved Example B.6
k
1
= hf (x
0
. y
0
. z
0
)
= 0.2(0) = 0
l
1
= h(x
0
. y
0
. z
0
)
= 0.2(1) = 0.2
k
2
= hf x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
1
2
. z
0
l
1
2
_ _
= 0.2(0.1) = 0.02
l
2
= h x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
1
2
. z
0
l
1
2
_ _
= 0.2(0.999) = 0.1998
k
3
= h
f
x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
2
2
. z
0
l
2
2
_ _
= 0.2(0.0999) = 0.02
l
3
= h x
0
h
2
. y
0
k
2
2
. z
0
l
2
2
_ _
= 0.2(0.9791) = 0.1958
k
4
= hf (x
0
h. y
0
k
3
. z
0
l
3
)
= 0.2(0.1958) = 0.0392
l
4
= h(x
0
h. y
0
k
3
. z
0
l
3
)
= 0.2(0.9527) = 0.1905
k =
1
6
(k
1
2k
2
2k
3
k
4
)
= 0.0199
l =
1
6
(l
1
2l
2
2l
3
l
4
)
= 0.1970
TM
Appendix C
Analytical Solution of Differential
Equations
C.1 ANALYTICAL SOLUTION OF LINEAR ORDINARY
C.1.1 Homogeneous
d
2
y
dt
2
a
dy
dt
by = 0 (C.1)
The solution will be a linear combination (addition) of terms in the follow-
ing form:
y = e
zt
e.g., y = C
1
e
z
1
t
C
2
e
z
2
t
_ _
(C.2)
From Eq. (C.2), we get
dy
dt
= ze
zt
and
d
2
y
dt
2
= z
2
e
zt
(C.3)
Substituting Eqs. (C.2) and (C.3) in Eq. (C.1), we get
z
2
e
zt
aze
zt
be
zt
= 0
On simplifying, we get
e
zt
z
2
az b) = 0
_
TM
which gives
z
2
az b = 0
The solutions of the above quadratic equation is given by
z
1.2
=
a
a
2
4b
_
2
(C.4)
So the solution is given by
y = C
1
e
z
1
t
C
2
e
z
2
t
where C
1
and C
2
are obtained from the initial or boundary conditions.
C.1.2 Types of Roots (k
1
. k
2
)
1. z
1
and z
2
are real and distinct.
2. When a
2
4b = 0, we get repeated roots
z
1.2
=
a
2
= z
Then, the solution is given by
y = (C
1
C
2
t)e
z
2
t
3. When 4b > a
2
, we get complex roots
z
1
=
a
2
io and z
2
=
a
2
io
where
i =
1
_
o =
b
a
2
4
_
The solution is given by
y = C
1
e
((a,2)io)t
C
2
e
((a,2)io)t
On rearranging, we get
y = C
1
e
(a,2)t
e
iot
_ _
C
2
e
(a,2)t
e
iot
_ _
Recalling the complex function analysis, for a complex number
z = x iy, we can write
e
z
= e
x
(cos y i sin y)
TM
So for our case, we can write
z
1
=
a
2
t iot and z
2
=
a
2
t iot
We can also write
e
z
1
= e
(a,2)t
cos ot i sin ot ( ) e
z
1
t
and
e
z
2
= e
(a,2)t
cos ot i sin ot ( ) e
z
2
t
Thus, the solution y = C
/
1
e
z
1
t
C
/
2
e
z
2
t
becomes
y = C
/
1
e
(a,2)t
cos ot i sin ot ( )
_ _
C
/
2
e
(a,2)t
cos ot i sin ot ( )
_ _
On simplication, we get
y = e
(a,2)t
C
/
1
C
/
2
_ _
cos ot C
/
1
C
/
2
_ _
sin ot
_ _
y = e
(a,2)t
C
1
cos ot C
2
sin ot [ ] (C.5)
Thus, Eq. (C.5) is the solution of the dierential equation.
Special Cases
When a > 0, we have decaying oscillations, as shown in Figure C.1 (clearly
when a - 0, we have oscillations with increasing amplitudes).
When a = 0, we have sustained oscillations, as shown in Figure C.2. The
solution is of the form, y = C
1
cos ot C
2
sin ot.
Figure C.1 Decaying oscillations.
TM
C.2 THE TRANSFORMATION OF HIGHER-ORDER
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS INTO A SET OF
FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
For example, let us consider the following second-order dierential equa-
tion:
d
2
y
dt
2
a
dy
dt
by = 0
Let us dene
x
1
= y
from which we can write
dx
1
dt
=
dy
dt
and
x
2
=
dy
dt
from which we can write
dx
2
dt
=
d
2
y
dt
2
Thus, our main second-order dierential equation can be rewritten as
dx
2
dt
ax
2
bx
1
= 0 and
dx
1
dt
= x
2
(C.6)
Figure C.2 Sustained oscillations.
TM
The set of two rst-order dierential equations (C.6) can replace the original
second-order dierential equation. Thus, we have
dx
1
dt
= 0x
1
x
2
dx
2
dt
= bx
1
ax
2
Let us dene the following vectors and matrix:
X =
x
1
x
2
_ _
(this is the state vector, i.e., vector of state variables).
We can also write
dX
dt
=
dx
1
dt
dx
2
dt
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
and
A =
0 1
b a
_ _
In matrix form, we can write
dX
dt
= AX
with initial conditions
X(0) = X
o
=
x
1o
x
2o
_ _
C.3 NONHOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
d
2
y
dt
2
a
dy
dt
by = f (t)
The solution of the above nonhomogeneous dierential equation is of the
form
y = y
h
y
p
where y
h
is the solution of the homogeneous equation (complementary
function) and y
p
is the particular integral depending on f (t). Some of the
values of the particular integral depending on the nature of f (t) is tabulated
in Table C.1.
TM
C.4 EXAMPLES OF SOME SPECIAL CASES
Example C.1
d
2
y
dt
2
4y = 8t
2
First, we calculate for the homogeneous solution y
h
:
d
2
y
dt
2
4y = 0
We get
z
2
4 = 0
The solutions are
z
1
= 2i and z
2
= 2i
Thus, the solution is given by
y
h
= C
1
cos 2t C
2
sin 2t
Now, to calculate the particular integral y
p
. From Table C.1,
y
p
= k
2
t
2
k
1
t k
0
and we get
d
2
y
p
dt
2
= 2k
2
As y
p
must satisfy the dierential equation, we get
2k
2
4 k
2
t
2
k
1
t k
0
_ _
= 8t
2
Table C.1 Choice of y
p
f (t) Choice of y
p
ke
,t
Ce
,t
kt
n
(where n = 0. 1. 2. 3. . . .) k
n
t
n
k
n1
t
n1
k
1
t
t
k
0
k cos ot or k sinot K
1
cos ot K
2
sinot
ke
ot
cos ot or ke
ot
sin ot e
ot
(K
1
cos ot K
2
sinot)
TM
Reorganizing the equation with all the terms with same t
n
together gives
(4k
2
8)t
2
4k
1
t (2k
2
4k
0
) = 0
For the above equation to be correct for all values of t, all of the coecients
of t must be equal to zero, so we get
4k
2
8 = 0 =k
2
= 2
4k
1
0 = 0 =k
1
= 0
2k
2
4k
0
= 0 =k
0
= 1
Thus
y
p
= 2t
2
1
So the total solution is given by
y = y
h
y
p
= C
1
cos 2t C
2
sin 2t 2t
2
1
Example C.2
d
2
y
dt
2
3
dy
dt
2y = e
t
First, we calculate for the homogeneous solution y
h
,
d
2
y
dt
2
3
dy
dt
2y = 0
We get
z
2
3z 2 = 0
The solutions are
z
1
= 2 and z
2
= 1
Thus, the solution is given by
y
h
= C
1
e
t
C
2
e
2t
Now, to calculate the particular integral y
p
. From Table C.1, we usually
choose y
p
= Ce
t
, but now e
t
is a part of y
h
. So, in this case, we must choose
y
p
= Cte
t
TM
To obtain the value of C, we perform the following calculations:
dy
p
dt
= C(te
t
e
t
)
d
2
y
p
dt
2
= C(2e
t
te
t
)
Substituting the above values into the dierential equation gives
C(2e
t
te
t
) 3C(te
t
e
t
) 2Cte
t
= e
t
On reorganizing, we get
e
t
(2C 3C 1) te
t
(C 3C 2C) = 0
We nally get
C = 1
So the particular integral is equal to
y
p
= te
t
The total solution is given by
y = y
h
y
p
= C
1
e
t
C
2
e
2t
te
t
Note: Notice not to have in y
p
a term which is same as a term in y
h
(not the
same in functional form). The reader is advised to consult his mathematics
book for details.
TM
Appendix D
Table of Laplace Transforms of
Some Common Functions
Solution of dierential equations using Laplace transformation is given in
Section 5.6.6.
Table D.1 Table of Laplace Transforms
f (t)
^
ff (s)
1 1
1
s
2 t
1
s
2
3
t
n
1
(n 1)!
1
s
n
4
2
_
s
3,2
5 t
k1
(k)
s
k
(k _ 0)
6 t
k1
e
at
(k)
(s a)
k
(k _ 0)
7a e
at
1
s a
TM
f (t)
^
ff (s)
7b
1
t
e
t,t
1
ts 1
8 1 e
t,t
1
s(ts 1)
9a te
at
1
(s a)
2
9b
t
t
2
e
t,t
1
(ts 1)
2
10
1 1
t
t
_ _
e
t,t
1
s(ts 1)
2
11a
1
(n 1)!
t
n1
e
at
1
(s a)
n
(n = 1. 2. . . .)
11b
1
t
n
(n 1)!
t
n1
e
t,t
1
(ts 1)
n
(n = 1. 2. . . .)
12
1
(b a)
e
at
e
bt
_ _
1
(s a)(s b)
13
1
(b a)
be
bt
ae
at
_ _
s
(s a)(s b)
14
1
ab
1
1
(a b)
be
at
ae
bt
_ _
_ _
1
s(s a)(s b)
15 sinbt
b
s
2
b
2
16 sinh bt
b
s
2
b
2
17 cos bt
s
s
2
b
2
18 cosh bt
s
s
2
b
2
19 1 cos bt b
2
s(s
2
b
2
)
Table D.1 Continued
TM
f (t)
^
ff (s)
20 e
at
sin bt
b
(s a)
2
b
2
21 e
at
cos bt
s a
(s a)
2
b
2
22 e
at
f (t)
^
ff (s a)
23 f (t b); with f (t) = 0 for t - 0
e
bs
^
ff (s)
Figure D.1 Relation between s and t domains.
TM
Appendix E
Orthogonal Collocation Technique
The orthogonal collocation technique is a simple numerical method which is
easy to program and which converges rapidly. Therefore, it is useful for the
solution of many types of second-order boundary-value problems (it trans-
forms them to a set of algebraic equations satisfying the boundary condi-
tions), as well as partial dierential equations (it transforms them to a set of
ordinary dierential equations satisfying the boundary conditions). This
method in its simplest form as presented in the appendix was developed
by Villadsen and Stewart (1). The orthogonal collocation method has the
advantage of ease of computation. This method is based on the choice of a
suitable trial series to represent the solution. The coecients of the trial
series are determined by making the residual equation vanish at a set of
points called collocation points, in the solution domain (2).
E.1 APPLICATION OF THE SIMPLE ORTHOGONAL
COLLOCATION TECHNIQUE
When the Fickian diusion model is used, many reactiondiusion pro-
blems in a porous catalyst pellet can be reduced to a two-point boundary-
value dierential equation of the form of Eq. (E.1). This is not necessary
condition for the application of this simple orthogonal collocation techni-
que. The technique, in principle, can be applied to any number of simulta-
neous two-point boundary-value dierential equations
TM
V
2
Y F(Y) = 0 (E.1)
where
V
2
=
d
2
do
2
a
o
d
do
(E.2)
where a = 0 for a slab, a = 1 for a cylinder, and a = 2 for a sphere, with the
following boundary conditions
At o = 1,
dY
do
= o Y
B
Y ( ) (E.3a)
At o = 0.
dY
do
= 0 (E.3b)
where Y
B
is the value of Y at bulk conditions and o can be Nusselt or
Sherwood numbers depending on whether we are using the heat or mass
balance equations, respectively.
For interior collocation, the approximation function is chosen so that
the boundary conditions are satised. A suitable function is the following:
Y
(n)
= Y(1) (1 o
2
)
n1
i=1
a
(n)
1
P
i
(o
2
) (E.4)
in which P
i
(o
2
) are polynomials of degree i in o
2
, that are to be specied,
and also a
(n)
i
are undetermined constants. The even polynomials, P
i
(o
2
),
automatically satisfy the symmetry condition at the center of the pellet
[Eq. (E3.b)].
A set of (n) equations is needed to determine the collocation constants
a
i
. We note that once Y
(n)
has been adjusted to satisfy Eq. (E.1) at n collo-
cation points o
1
. o
2
. . . . . o
n
, the residual either vanishes everywhere or con-
tains a polynomial factor of degree (n), whose zeros are the collocation
points.
Villadsen and Stewart (1) pointed out that the equations can be solved
in terms of the solution at the collocation points, instead of the coecients
a
(n)
i
. This is more convenient and reduces the Laplacian and the rst-order
derivative to
TM
V
2
Y
o=o
1
=
n1
j=1
B
ij
Y(o
j
) = BY (E.5)
dY
do
o=o
1
=
n1
j=1
A
ij
Y(o
j
) = AY (E.6)
respectively, where i = 1. 2. 3. . . . . n is the number of interior collocation
points.
Integrals of the solution (which are useful for the calculation of the
eectiveness factor) can also be calculated with high accuracy via the
formula
_
1.0
0
F(Y)o
2
do =
n1
i=1
o
(n)
i
F(Y
i
) = W F(Y) (E.7)
A, B, and W can be calculated as follows:
First, the values of Y can be expressed at the collocation points by
Y
1
Y
2
.
.
.
Y
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
=
o
0
1
o
2
1
o
2n
1
o
0
2
o
2
2
o
2n
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
o
0
n
o
2
n
o
2n
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
d
1
d
2
.
.
.
d
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
Y C d
(E.8)
which can be simply written as
Y = Cd (E.9)
Then, the collocation constants are
d = C
1
Y (E.10)
On dierentiating the trial function Y, we get
TM
dY
do
_ _
o
1
dY
do
_ _
o
2
.
.
.
dY
do
_ _
o
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
=
do
0
do
_ _
o
1
do
2
do
_ _
o
1

do
2n
do
_ _
o
1
do
0
do
_ _
o
2
do
2
do
_ _
o
2

do
2n
do
_ _
o
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
do
0
do
_ _
o
n
do
2
do
_ _
o
n

do
2n
do
_ _
o
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
d
1
d
2
.
.
.
d
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.,,.
DY R d
(E.11)
or simple, we can write
DY = Rd (E.12)
From Eqs. (E.10) and (E.12), by substituting for d, we get
DY = RC
1
Y (E.13)
Let us express
DY = AY (E.14)
where,
A = RC
1
Also, let us express
V
2
Y = T d = BY (E.15)
where
T =
V
2
o
0
_ _
o
1
V
2
o
2
_ _
o
1
V
2
o
2n
_ _
o
1
V
2
o
0
_ _
o
2
V
2
o
2
_ _
o
2
V
2
o
2n
_ _
o
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
V
2
o
0
_ _
o
n
V
2
o
2
_ _
o
n
V
2
o
2n
_ _
o
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
From Eqs. (E.10) and (E.15), by substituting for d, we get
V
2
Y = T C
1
Y = BY (E.16)
Thus,
TM
B = T C
1
(E.17)
Also, let
F(Y) =
n1
i=1
C
i
o
2(i1)
(E.18)
Then,
o
2
F(Y) =
n1
i=1
C
i
o
2(i)
(E.19)
Therefore,
_
1.0
0
o
2
F(Y) do =
_
1.0
0
n1
j=1
C
i
o
2(i)
do = I.F. (E.20)
The integrated function I.F. will be
I.F. = W F C (E.21)
where
W F =
1
3
1
5

1
2
n
1
_ _
(E.22)
and
C =
C
1
C
2
.
.
.
C
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(E.23)
Also,
F(Y) = QC (E.24)
where
C =
o
0
1
o
2
1
o
2n
1
o
0
2
o
2
2
o
2n
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
o
0
n
o
2
n
o
2n
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(E.25)
From Eq. (E.24), we get
C = Q
1
F(Y) (E.26)
TM
From Eqs. (E.21) and (E.26), the integral can be expressed as
I.F. = W F Q
1
F(Y) = W F(Y) (E.27)
We can calculate W as
W = W F Q
1
(E.28)
Applying the simple case of one internal collocation point (n = 1, and o at
this collocation point is o
1
), the Laplacian at the interior collocation point
can be written as
V
2
Y
o=o
2
= B
11
Y(o
1
) B
12
Y(o
2
) (E.29)
and the derivative at the surface boundary condition (o = o
2
) takes the
form
dY
do
o=o
2
= A
21
Y(o
1
) A
22
Y(o
2
) (E.30)
and, therefore, the boundary condition can be written as
A
21
Y(o
1
) A
22
Y(o
2
) = o(Y
B
Y(o
2
)) (E.31)
Thus, we get
Y(o
2
) =
oY
B
A
21
Y(o
1
)
A
22
o
(E.32)
Substitution of Eqs. (E.29) and (E.32) into Eq. (E.1) gives
A
11
Y(o
1
) B
12
oY
B
A
21
Y(o
1
)
A
22
o
_ _
= F(Y(o
1
)) (E.33)
which is a single equation in the single variable Y(o
1
) at the collocation
point o
1
. Solution of this equation gives Y(o
1
), which can be substituted in
Eq. (E.32) to give Y(o
2
), the surface of Y. The values of Y(o
1
) and Y(o
2
)
can be used to evaluate the integral as follows:
_
1.0
0
o
2
F(Y) do = W
1
F(o
1
) W
2
F(o
2
) (E.34)
The values of B, A, and W for a single internal collocation point using the
Legendre polynomial, for a spherical catalyst pellet, are
TM
B =
10.5 10.5
10.5 10.5
_ _
A =
2.291 2.291
3.5 3.5
_ _
W =
0.2333
0.1
_ _
The values of A, B, and W for large number of collocation points are given
in a number of references (1,2).
E.2 ORTHOGONAL COLLOCATION TECHNIQUE
APPLICABLE TO PARABOLIC PARTIAL
The concept of orthogonal collocation for ordinary dierential equations
can be easily extended to solve parabolic partial dierential equations.
The dierence is that the application of orthogonal collocation method on
the two-point boundary-value dierential equation discussed earlier results
in a set of algebraic equations, whereas application of orthogonal colloca-
tion method on parabolic partial dierential equations results in a set of
ordinary dierential equations.
Let us assume the parabolic partial dierential equation to be of the
following form:
oY
ot
V
2
Y = F(Y) (E.35)
The second term of Eq. (E.35) can be replaced as shown in Eq. (E.5),
whereas the partial derivative term of Eq. (E.35) can be converted to an
ordinary derivative term at each collocation point to give the following set:
dY(o
i
)
dt

n1
j=1
B
ij
Y(o
j
) = F(Y)
o
i
(E.36)
where i = 1. 2. 3. . . . . n and n is the number of interior collocation points.
Thus, Eq. (E.36) will give a set of n ordinary dierential equations to be
solved in order to solve a parabolic partial dierential equation.
For elliptical and hyperbolic partial dierential equations, the reader is
advised to consult engineering mathematics texts (36).
Partial dierential equations can also be solved numerically using the
most commonly used method, the method of nite dierences or the
TM
CrankNicholson method. The reader is advised to consult engineering
mathematics texts (36).
For higher-order systems, nite element techniques can be used, but
this is beyond the scope of this undergraduate book. Any interested reader
can consult Refs. (36) to master those techniques.
REFERENCES
1. Villadsen, J. and Stewart, W. E. Solution of boundary-value problems by
orthogonal collocation. Chem. Eng. Sci. 22, 14831501, 1967.
2. Finlayson, B. A. The Method of Weighted Residuals and Variational Principles.
Academic Press, New York.
3. Kreysig, E. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 8th ed. Wiley, New York, 1998.
4. Masatake, M. The Finite Element Method and Its Applications. Macmillan, New
York, 1986.
5. Strikwerda, J. C. Finite Dierence Schemes and Partial Dierential Equations.
CRC Press, London, 1989.
6. Strauss, W. A. Partial Dierential Equations: An Introduction. Wiley, New
York, 1992.
TM
Appendix F
Some Software and Programming
Environments
We provide brief details of some commonly used software and program-
ming environments used for solving the mathematical models and visualiz-
ing them. We emphasize that the choice of any particular software or
programming environment depends on the user.
F.1 POLYMATH 5.X
POLYMATH (http://www.polymath-software.com) is a proven computa-
tional system, which has been specically created for educational or profes-
sional use. The various POLYMATH programs allow the user to apply
eective numerical analysis techniques during interactive problem-solving
on personal computers. Results are presented graphically for easy under-
standing and for incorporation into papers and reports. Students, engineers,
mathematicians, scientists, or anyone with a need to solve problems will
appreciate the eciency and speed of problem solution.
The main options available in POLYMATH are the following:
. LIN: Linear Equations Solver: Enter (in matrix form) and solve a
system of up to 200 simultaneous linear equations (64 with con-
venient input interface).
TM
. NLE: Nonlinear Equations Solver: Enter and solve a system of up
to 200 nonlinear algebraic equations.
. DEQ: Dierential Equations Solver. Enter and solve a system of
up to 200 ordinary dierential equations.
. REG: Data analysis and Regression. Enter, analyze, regress, and
plot a set of up to 600 data points.
F.2 MATLAB
F.2.1 Unied, Interactive Language, and Programming
Environment
The MATLAB (http://www.mathworks.com) language is designed for inter-
active or automated computation. Matrix-optimized functions let you per-
form interactive analyses, whereas the structured language features let you
develop your own algorithms and applications. The versatile language lets
you tackle a range of tasks, including data acquisition, analysis, algorithm
development, system simulation, and application development. Language
features include data structures, object-oriented programming, graphical
user interface (GUI) development tools, debugging features, and the ability
to link in C, C , Fortran, and Java routines.
F.2.2 Numeric Computing for Quick and Accurate Results
With more than 600 mathematical, statistical, and engineering functions,
MATLAB gives immediate access to high-performance numeric computing.
The numerical routines are fast, accurate, and reliable. These algorithms,
developed by experts in mathematics, are the foundation of the MATLAB
language. The math in MATLAB is optimized for matrix operations. This
means that you can use it in place of low-level languages like C and C ,
with equal performance but less programming.
MATLAB mainly includes the following:
. Linear algebra and matrix computation
. Fourier and statistical analysis functions
. Dierential equation solvers
. Sparse matrix support
. Trigonometric and other fundamental math operations
. Multidimensional data support
F.2.3 Graphics to Visualize and Analyze Data
MATLAB includes power, interactive capabilities for creating two-dimen-
sional plots, images, and three-dimensional surfaces and for visualizing
TM
volumetric data. Advanced visualization tools include surface and volume
rendering, lighting, camera control, and application-specic plot types.
F.3 MATHCAD
Mathcad (http://www.mathcad.com) provides hundreds of operators and
built-in functions for solving technical problems. Mathcad can be used to
perform numeric calculations or to nd symbolic solutions. It automatically
tracks and converts units and operates on scalars, vectors, and matrices.
The following is an overview of Mathcads computational capabilities:
. Numeric operators perform summations, products, derivatives,
integrals, and Boolean operations. Numeric functions apply trigo-
nometric, exponential, hyperbolic, and other functions and trans-
forms.
. Symbolics simplify, dierentiate, integrate, and transform expres-
sions algebraically, Mathcads patented live symbolics technology
automatically recalculate algebraic solutions.
. Vectors and Matrices manipulate arrays and perform various
linear algebra operations, such as nding eigenvalues and eigen-
vectors and looking up values in arrays.
. Statistics and Data Analysis generate random numbers or histo-
grams, t data to built-in and general functions, interpolate data,
and build probability distribution models.
. Dierential Equation Solvers support ordinary dierential equa-
tions, systems of dierential equations, and boundary-value
problems.
. Variables and Units handle real, imaginary, and complex numbers
with or without associated units. A high-performance calculation
engine provides speed and sophisticated memory management to
help nd solutions faster.
F.4 DYNAMICS SOLVER
Dynamics Solver (http://tp.lc.ehu.es/jma/ds/ds.html) solves numerically
both initial-value problems and boundary-value problems for continuous
and discrete dynamical systems:
. A single ordinary dierential equation of arbitrary order
. Systems of rst-order ordinary dierential equations
. A rather large class of functional dierential equations and sys-
tems
TM
. Discrete dynamical systems in the form iterated maps and recur-
rences in arbitrary dimensions
It is also able to draw complex mathematical gures, including many
fractals. Dynamics Solver is a powerful tool for studying dierential equa-
tions, (continuous and discrete) nonlinear dynamical systems, deterministic
chaos, mechanics, and so forth. For instance, you can draw phase space
portraits (including an optional direction eld). Poincare maps, Liapunov
exponents, histograms, bifurcation diagrams, attraction basis, and so forth.
The results can be watched (in perspective or not) from any direction and
particular subspaces can be analyzed.
Dynamics Solver is extensible: Users can add new mathematical func-
tions and integration codes. It also has all the advantages of Windows
programs, including the ease of use, the ability to open several output
windows simultaneously and a larger amount of memory, which allows
analyzing more complex problems. Moreover, there are many ways to
print and export the results.
F.5 CONTROL STATION
Control Station (http://www.ControlStation.com) is both a controller
design and tuning tool, and a process control training simulator used by
industry and academic institutions worldwide for
. control loop analysis and tuning
. dynamic process modeling and simulation
. performance and capability studies
. hands-on process control training
The Case Studies feature provides hands-on training by challenging
the user with industrially relevant process simulations. The software lets
users manipulate process and controller parameters so that they can
learn by doing as users explore the world of process control.
The Controller Library feature lets users use dierent controller set-
tings (e.g., P-only, PI, PD, PID, cascade, ratio control, and so forth). Design
Tools is a powerful controller design and analysis tool that can also incor-
porate dead times and the Custom Process feature can let users implement a
process and control architecture to their own specications.
TM

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CONSERVATION

Mass of component i in the stream

If we write the rate of consumption of A and call it R

Number of moles of A reacted

Number of moles of C produced

(for the balance of any component i in a system of N reactions), where

where i is the number of all components (reactants and products) involved

From the mass balance of a single reaction, we have

This equation can be rearranged to give

It is clear that, by denition,

Enthalpy out (above reference conditions)

By substituting the values of a, b, c, d a

which can be rewritten as

which can be rewritten as

Neglecting the negative solution, we get

In the above equation, every value is known except R. Q, and T

Take the reference temperature as

Take the reference temperature as

which can be simplied to

Take the reference temperature as

Note that all n

Finally, we can write

Then, from Eq. (2.105), we have

Reactor 1 (See Fig. 2.38) For component A, we get

which can be simplied to

Take the reference temperature as

Therefore, the above heat balance equation gives a relation between n

Figure 2.39 Mass and energy ow diagram for the exchanger.

Important notes: Note that in the batch reactor, n

For reactor design purposes, of course r should be written as Vr

We further assume adiabatic operation Q 0 and also assume that all of

We further assume an average C

We further assume that n

Grams of product produced

are very comparable; therefore, numerical instability

Similarly, dierentiating the dierential equation (4.31) gives

The nal form is

The two adjoint equations are thus given as

Rate input of momentum Rate output

is the reference temperature.

) and then the deviation is used to con-

, then we decrease the fuel gas

, then we increase the fuel gas ow rate, and,

then we keep the fuel gas ow rate constant. This is

regardless of the cause of

is some reference temperature. The above equation simplies to

is the gas-phase mole fraction at equilibrium with X.

F); typical feed pressure: 24002900 kPa (2429 bar).

F), whereas for the

where we observe that column 1 is k times column 2; then,

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