LANGUAGE ASPECTS

1.0 Standard Formal Language Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation. Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language. The following features are common in academic written texts: Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, lexical complexity, nominalization, attributive adjectives, adjectival groups as complements. For example: Article 3 1) We must encourage our kids to go for piano lessons. Have been changed into formal language:Parents should encourage their kids to go for piano lessons. Article 2 2) Achieve these goals we must learn to stay focused and study each note, measure and phrase to understand how to play the song.

Have been changed into formal language:-

To achieve these goals, students must learn to stay focused and study each note, measure and phrase to understand how to play the song.

2.0 Correct Grammar And Spelling In everyday conversation and in informal writing, we use the personal pronoun you both to address our listener or reader and to make statements impersonal. For example, the statement You said I could borrow your car is clearly addressed at a particular individual; on the other hand, You never know how things will turn out illustrates the impersonal use of you, the meaning being No-one knows how things will turn out. In academic writing, however, we avoid both uses of you. So, in the sentence below, the more informal 'give you' has been replaced with provide: In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive and intellectual abilities. (Article 3) In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can provide cognitive and intellectual abilities. In the following sentence, the informal as you can see has been replaced by the more formal passive voice form: as can be seen. As you can see each new piece of music a student learns requires a specific set of skills and playing habits. (Article 2) As can be seen each new piece of music a s student learns requires a specific set of skills and playing habits.

3.0 Sentence Structure The second sentence contains two nominalizations. (A nominalization is a noun phrase derived from another word class; usually a verb. .Nominalizations is useful in academic writing because they convey an objective, impersonal tone. Nominalizations can also make the text more concise because they can pack a great deal of information in a few words. Example: (Article 3) In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive and intellectual abilities. Playing piano, in other words, makes us smarter. In addition to the proven benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive and intellectual abilities which led us to be smarter. (Article 2) Piano lessons help children learn how to stay focused and achieve goals. Piano lessons help children set specific goals and then work towards reaching these goals. Piano lessons help children learn how to stay focused and achieve goals which led them to set specific goals and then work towards reaching it.

4.0 Vocabulary Improving academic vocabulary skills is an important aspect of any language study at university level. Academic vocabulary can be seen everywhere: in textbooks, journals, lecture handouts, exam papers, essays, assignments, etc. However, vocabulary skills do not improve simply through a natural, effortless process; one has to be as 'active' as possible in dealing with vocabulary, right from the start. So the rewards from studying vocabulary are considerable. There have been many attempts to define what exactly academic vocabulary is. Many people think that academic vocabulary is more 'difficult' than general English vocabulary. However, academic vocabulary is not necessarily 'difficult vocabulary'; using academic words is more a question of finding appropriate language, in a suitable style, than anything else. Examples: 1) Perspective (Article 2) 2) Accomplish (Article 2) 3) Concludes (Article 3) 4) Broadest range (Article 1)

5.0 Punctuation There are various tools of punctuation which divide the sentence itself into parts. By interrupting the flow of reading, they draw the reader's attention to the different parts of the sentence and how they work together to convey its main idea. The comma is the most frequently used form of punctuation and signals a break in the flow of the sentence. Perhaps because the reasons for breaking the sentence flow may be quite complex, there is a range of views on when it is appropriate to use the comma. You may find that this contributes further to your uncertainty. However, it is relatively safe to say that in academic writing, commas can be used to:

~ separate extra information from the main idea of the sentence ~ separate linking words from the main idea of the sentence ~ separate conditions from a possible outcome ~ list things, concepts, events, ideas, etc. ~ resolve ambiguity Brackets (sometimes called parentheses) share one of the functions of the comma, in that they are used to indicate information that is somehow extra to the main idea of the sentence. Brackets enclose words which are marginal to the main idea, and so have the least force in interrupting the flow of the sentence. For many students, perhaps the most common use of brackets is for referencing (using the Harvard system). In this case, the year of publication, or both the name of the author and the year of publication, are placed between brackets. One common use of the apostrophe is to show that two words have been contracted into one and some letters have been omitted (e.g. can't, haven't, they've). Many academic staff still considers these words inappropriate for formal academic writing, so exercise care when you use them. Expanded versions may be safer to use (e.g. cannot, have not, they have).

The apostrophe is also used to indicate 'possession' i.e. that something is possessed, or somehow connected to or associated with something or someone else. The apostrophe is used at the end of the word, and an s is added. When the word is a plural (i.e. more than one) and the last letter of the word is an s, then no extra s is needed. Examples: 1) However, as Yoda explained to Luke Skywalker, the objective isn't just trying itself, but accomplishing the desired goal -- "Do or do not, there is no try!" (Article 2) 2) ..their fine motor skills, memory and speech. . Dr. Frances Rauscher (a psychologist at the University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh) and Gordon Shaw (a physicist at of the University of California at Irvine) tested preschoolers. (Article 1)

6.0 Paraphrase Change the structure Begin by starting at a different place in the passage and/or sentence(s), basing your choice on the focus of your paper. This will lead naturally to some changes in wording. Some places you might start in the passage above are "The mother's main charge," "Among the . . . poor or working class," "Working for and organizing household subsistence," or "The emotional and intellectual nurture." Or you could begin with one of the people the passage is about: "Mothers," "A mother," "Children," "A child." Focusing on specific people rather than abstractions will make your paraphrase more readable. Change the words Use synonyms or a phrase that expresses the same meaning. Leave shared language unchanged. It's important to start by changing the structure, not the words, but you might find that as you change the words, you see ways to change the structure further. Example: 1) In order to compose their own music, they have to learn the needed skills. (Article 2) 2) Due to the lack of piano lessons, surely children unable to develop courage in themselves. (Article 2)