Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 6 Substructure Design

6 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN
6.1 SCOPE

Provisions of this section shall apply for the design of spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft foundations. The probabilistic LRFD basis of these Specifications, which produces an interrelated combination of load, load factor, resistance, resistance factor, and statistical reliability, shall be considered when selecting procedures for calculating resistance other than that specified herein. Other methods, especially when locally recognized and considered suitable for regional conditions, shall be used if the statistical nature of the factors given above are considered through consistent use of reliability theory and are approved by the Owner. The specification of methods of analysis and calculation of resistance for foundations herein is not intended to imply that field verification and/or reaction to conditions actually encountered in the field are not longer needed. These traditional features of foundation design and construction are still practical considerations when designing in accordance with these Specifications. 6.2 NOTATIONS

The units shown after the description of each term are suggested units. Other units that are consistent with the expressions being evaluated shall be used. B = CPT = L = Qep = Qn = QR = QT = qs = RQD = Rf = Rn = SPT = Su = V = v footing width (mm); pile group width (mm) cone penetration test length of foundation (mm) passive resistance of soil available throughout the design life of the structure (N) nominal resistance (N) factored resistance (N) maximum shear resistance between the foundation and the soil (N) unit shear resistance; nominal unit skin resistance (MPa) rock quality designation factored resistance nominal resistance standard penetration test underained shear strength (MPa) vertical component of inclined loads (N)

= angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile (DEG) = empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral earth pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile (DIM) = vertical effective stress (MPa)
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ep f T 6.3

= resistance factor = resistance factor for passive resistance = angle of internal friction of soil (DEG) = resistance factor for shear between soil and foundation FOUNDATIONS

6.3.1 LIMIT STATES AND RESISTANCE FACTORS Footings should be designed so that the pressure under the footing is as nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil or rock and the structure, and with established principles of soil and rock mechanics. Resistance Factors Resistance factors for different types of foundation systems at the strength limit state shall be taken as specified in Tables 6-1 through 6-3 below, unless regionally specific values are available. For determination of footing size and number of piles, the resistance factors, , for soil bearing pressure and for pile resistance as a function of the soil shall be as specified below: Resistance factors, , for the service limit state shall be taken as 1.0. The resistance factor for passive earth pressure associated with bearing capacity is taken as specified in Table 6-1 if a bridge component is pushed, e.g., backwall of an integral abutment, or pulled, e.g., anchor block of a deadman, into the soil. On the other hand, if passive earth pressure is used to determine force effects on other bridge components, e.g., the bending moments in components of an integral abutment, it is conservative to assume that the maximum passive resistance is available, i.e., = 1.0.

A further reduction in Pn for piles should be considered when pile driving difficulty is expected. A reduction multiplier factor of 0.875 is considered when moderate driving difficulty is expected, and a factor of 0.75 is considered when difficult driving is expected (Ref. 2). Where pile foundations are specified, the contract documents shall specify the level of field pile capacity verification required. The field verification specified shall be consistent with the value of v taken from Table 6-2. Failure by Sliding Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that support inclined load and/or are founded on slopes. For foundations on clay soils, the possible presence of a shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall be considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the shear resistance required for resisting sliding, consideration shall also be given to possible future removal of the soil in front of the foundation.
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Table 6-1 Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations

METHOD/SOIL/CONDITION Bearing Capacity and Passive Pressure Sand - Semi-empirical procedure using SPT data - Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data Rational Method using f estimated from SPT data using f estimated from CPT data

RESISTANCE FACTOR 0.45 0.55

0.35 0.45

Sliding

Clay - Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data - Rational Method using shear resistance measured in lab tests using shear resistance measured in field vane tests using shear resistance estimated from CPT data Rock Semi-empirical procedure (Ref. 3) Plate Load Test Precast concrete placed on sand if using f est. from SPT data using f estimated from CPT data Concrete cast-in-place on sand if using f est. from SPT data using f estimated from CPT data Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay when the clay shear is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and is controlled by the normal stress when the clay shear strength is greater than 0.5 times the normal stress. Clay (where shear resistance is less than 0.5 times normal pressure) - using shear resistance measured in lab tests - using shear resistance measured in field tests - using shear resistance estimated from CPT data Clay (where the resistance is greater than 0.5 times normal pressure) Soil on soil Passive earth pressure component of sliding resistance Where soil or rock properties and groundwater levels are based on laboratory or in-situ testing, shallow foundations on or near a slope evaluated for overall stability and resistance to a deepseated failure mode

0.50 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.55 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.80

0.85 0.80 0.85 1.00

0.50 0.90

Overall Stability

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Table 6-2 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in Axially Loaded Piles

METHOD/SOIL/CONDITION Ultimate Bearing Resistance of Single Piles End Bearing: Clay and Rock Clay (Ref. 4) Rock (Ref. 5) Skin Friction and End Bearing: Sand SPT-method CPT-method Wave equation analysis with assumed driving resistance Load Test Block Failure Clay

RESISTANCE FACTOR 0.70 v 0.50 v 0.45 v 0.55 v 0.65 v 0.80 v 0.65 0.35 0.45 0.80

Uplift Resistance of SPT-method Single Piles CPT-method Load Test

Group Uplift Resistance

Sand Clay

Method of controlling installation of piles and verifying their capacity during or after driving to be specified in the contract documents Pile Driving Formulas, e.g., ENR, equation without stress wave measurements during driving Bearing graph from wave equation analysis without stress wave measurements during driving Stress wave measurements on 2% to 5% of piles, capacity verified by simplified methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer Stress wave measurements on 2% to 5% of piles, capacity verified by simplified methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer, and static load test to verify capacity Stress wave measurements on 2% to 5% of piles, capacity verified by simplified methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer, and CAPWAP analyses to verify capacity Stress wave measurements on 10% to 70% of piles, capacity verified by simplified methods, e.g., the pile driving analyzer

0.55 0.55 Value of v 0.80 0.85 0.90 1.00

1.00 1.00

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Table 6-3 Resistance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit State in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts

METHOD/SOIL/CONDITION Ultimate Bearing Resistance of Single Drilled Shafts Base Resistance in Clay Side Resistance in Rock Total Stress (Ref. 6) (Ref. 3) (Ref. 7) Pressure Method (Ref. 5) Load Test

RESISTANCE FACTOR 0.55 0.55 0.65 0.50 0.80 0.65 0.50

Base Resistance in Rock Side Resistance and End Bearing Block Failure Clay Uplift Resistance of Clay Single Drilled Shafts Sand

Belled Shafts (Ref. 8) (Ref. 9) (Ref. 3) (Ref. 7) Load Test Sand Clay

Rock

Group Uplift Resistance

0.45 0.55 0.80 0.55 0.55

The factored resistance against failure by sliding, in N, shall be taken as: QR = Qn = TQT + epQep (6.1)

where: T = resistance factor for shear resistance between soil and foundation specified QT = nominal shear resistance between soil and foundation (N) ep = resistance factor for passive resistance specified above. Qep = nominal passive resistance of soil available throughout the design life of the structure (N) If the soil beneath the footing is friction-soil (cohesionless), then: QT = V tan for which: tan = tan f for concrete cast against soil = 0.8 tan f for precast concrete footing where: f = internal friction angle of soil (DEG) V = total vertical force (N) For footings that rest on clay, the sliding resistance shall be taken as the lesser of: The cohesion of the clay, or Where footings are supported on at least 150 mm of compacted granular material, one-half the normal stress on the interface between the footing and soil, as shown in
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Figure 6-1 for retaining walls. The following notation shall be taken to apply to Figure 6-1. qs QT Su 1v = = = = unit shear resistance, equal to Su or 0.5 1v, whichever is less area under qs diagram (shaded area) undrained shear strength (MPa) vertical effective stress (MPa)

Figure 6-1 Procedure for Estimating Sliding Resistance for Walls on Clay

Sliding failure occurs if the force effects due to the horizontal component loads exceed the more critical of either the factored shear resistance of the soils or the factored shear resistance at the interface between the soil and the foundation. The magnitudes of active earth load and passive resistance depend on the type of backfill material, the wall movement, and the compactive effort. In most cases, the movement of the structure and its foundation will be small. Consequently, if passive resistance is included in the resistance, its magnitude is commonly taken as 50 percent of the maximum passive resistance. The units for QR, Qn, and Qep are shown in Newton (N). For elements designed on a unit length basis, these quantities will have the units of N per unit length. 6.3.2 SPREAD FOOTINGS The depth of footings shall be determined considering the character of the foundation materials and the possibility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall be founded at a depth at least 600 mm below the maximum anticipated depth of scour as specified in the ERA Drainage Design Manual-2002, Chapter 8: Bridges, Section 8.5: Bridge Scour and Aggravation. Footings shall be designed considering the highest anticipated groundwater table. Where foundations are subjected to uplift forces, they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout and for their structural strength. In the strength limit stage the highest anticipated groundwater table or water depth for uplift shall be added with an additional 0.2 m.
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Where foundations are placed adjacent to existing structures, the influence of the existing structures on the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foundation on the existing structures, shall be investigated. Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement and horizontal lateral displacement directions shall be investigated at the service limit state. Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated where: horizontal or inclined loads are present. the foundation is placed on embankment slope, the possibility of loss of foundation support through erosion or scour exists, or bearing strata are significantly inclined. Various loads may have significant effects on the magnitude of settlements or lateral displacements of the soils. The following factors should be considered in the estimation of settlements: the ratio of sustained load to total load, the duration of sustained loads, and the time interval over which settlement or lateral displacement occurs. Spread Footings on Rock The methods used for design of footings on rock shall consider the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities, weathering profiles and other similar profiles as they apply at a particular site. The eccentricity of loading, based on factored loads, shall not exceed three-eighths of the corresponding footing dimensions B or L (=0.375*B or 0.375*L). Anchorage: Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid rock surfaces, and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant material, shall be effectively anchored by means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock removal. For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock strengths and Rock Quality Designation (RQD) shall be applicable. Competent rock shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are open not wider than 3.5 mm. For footings on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses shall be performed to account for the effects of weathering and the presence and condition of discontinuities. The nominal bearing resistance of rock shall be determined using empirical correlation with the RQD (Ref. 11). Local experience shall be considered in the use of these semiempirical procedures. The factored bearing pressure of the foundation shall not be taken greater than the factored bearing strength of the footing concrete. The nominal bearing capacity of foundations on rock shall be analytically determined using established rock mechanics principles based on the rock mass strength parameters. The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall also be considered.
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6.3.3 FOOTINGS ON PILES General Piles Piles and pile groups shall be designed to have adequate bearing and structural resistances, tolerable settlements and tolerable lateral displacements. The supporting resistance of piles should be determined by static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction or by load testing, or by the use of the pile driving analyzer, other stress-wave measurement technique, or with the CAPWAP method. The resistance of piles should be determined through a suitable combination of subsurface investigations, laboratory and/or in-situ tests, analytical methods, pile load tests, and reference to the history of past performance. Consideration shall also be given to: the difference between the resistance of a single pile and that of a group of piles, the capacity of the underlying strata to support the load of the pile group. Center to center pile spacing shall not be less than the greater of either 750 mm or 2.5 pile diameters or widths. The distance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the footing shall be greater than 225 mm. The tops of the piles shall project at least 200 mm into footings. If the pile is attached to the footing by embedded bars or strands, the pile should extend no less than 150 mm into the footing. The minimum pile length shall be 3.0 m, unless otherwise approved by ERA. Batter piles should be avoided where downdrag loads are expected. Pile foundations designed to resist uplift shall be checked both for resistance to pullout and for their ability to carry tensile stresses. Pile bearing capacity/resistance shall be obtained by using the in-situ methods SPT (Ref. 9) or CPT, both for tip bearing piles and skin friction piles. General Seismic Requirements for piles: No additional design provisions need be considered for Zone 1-3. Piles for structures in Zone 4 shall be used to resist both axial and lateral loads. The minimum depth of embedment and axial and lateral pile resistance required for seismic loads shall be determined by means of design criteria established by site-specific geological and geotechnical investigations. Concrete piles shall be anchored to the pile footing or cap by either embedment of reinforcement or anchorages to develop uplift forces. The embedment length shall not be less than the development length required for the reinforcement specified in Chapter 5.1 above. Concrete-filled pipe piles shall be anchored with at least four steel dowels with an area not less than 1.0% of the concrete gross area. Dowels shall be embedded as required for concrete piles. Timber and steel piles, including unfilled pipe piles, shall be provided with anchoring devices to develop any uplift forces. The uplift force shall not be taken to be less than 10 % of the factored axial compressive resistance of the pile.

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Precast RC Piles Regarding dimensions the precast concrete piles shall be either of uniform section or tapered. They shall have a cross-sectional area measured above the taper of not less than 84 000 mm2 (0.29*0.29 m). Concrete piles used in a saltwater environment shall have a cross-sectional area of not less than 122 000 mm2 (0.35*0.35 m). The corners of a rectangular section shall be chamfered. Longitudinal reinforcement shall consist of not less than four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the pile. The area of reinforcing steel shall not be less than 1% of the gross concrete cross-sectional area measured above the taper. The full length of longitudinal steel shall be enclosed with spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops/stirrups. Seismic requirements for Precast Reinforced Piles. For precast reinforced piles, the longitudinal steel shall not be less than 1 % of the cross-sectional area and provided by not less than four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of not less than 10 bars shall be provided at a pitch not exceeding 225 mm, except that a 75 mm pitch shall be used within a confinement length not less than 600 mm or 1.5 pile diameters below the pile cap reinforcement. The compressive strength of the pile at the time of driving shall not be less than 30 MPa. Cast-in-Place Piles Cast-in- Place Piles: Piles cast in drilled holes shall be used only where soil conditions permit. Shells for cast-in-place piles shall be of sufficient thickness and strength to hold their form and to show no harmful distortion during driving or after adjacent shells have been driven and the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The contract documents shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell need be approved by the Engineer before any driving is done. Cast-in-place concrete piles include piles cast in driven steel shells that remain in place and piles cast in unlined drilled holes or shafts. The construction of piles in drilled holes should generally be avoided in sloughing soils, where large cobblestones exist or where uncontrollable ground water is expected. The special construction methods required under these conditions increase both the cost and the probability of defects in the piles. The minimum thickness of shells should be that needed for pile reinforcement or for strength required for usual driving conditions: e.g., 3.4 mm minimum for 355 mm pile shells driven without a mandrel. Pile Dimensions: Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform section or shall be tapered over any portion if cast in shells or shall be bell-bottomed if cast in drilled holes or shafts.

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The area at the butt of the pile shall be at least 64 500 mm2 (254*254 mm). The crosssectional area at the tip of the pile shall be at least 32 300 mm2 (200 mm). For pile extensions above the butt, the minimum size shall be as specified for precast piles above. Reinforcing Steel: The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8 % of Ag, with spiral reinforcement not less than MW25 at a pitch of 150 mm. The reinforcing steel shall be extended 3.0 m below the plane where the soil provides adequate lateral restraint. Shells that are more than 3 mm in thickness shall be considered as part of the reinforcement. In corrosive environments, a minimum of 1.5 mm shall be deducted from the shell thickness in determining resistance. Seismic requirements for Cast-in-Place Piles: For cast-in-place piles, longitudinal steel shall be provided in the upper end of the pile for a length not less than either one-third of the pile length or 2400 mm, with a minimum steel ratio of 0.005 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of not less than 10 bars shall be provided at pitch not exceeding 225 mm, except that the pitch shall not exceed 75 mm within a length not less than 600 mm or 1.5 pile diameters below the pile cap reinforcement. 6.4 PIER DESIGN

GENERAL For foundations the previous subchapter shall apply. Piers shall be designed to transmit the loads from the superstructure, and the loads acting on the pier itself, onto the foundation. The loads and load combinations shall be as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements. Piers, abutments and retaining walls shall be investigated for excessive displacements at the service limit state. Surveys of the performance of bridges indicate those horizontal abutment movements less than 35 mm can be tolerated by bridge superstructures without significant damage. Piers shall also be investigated for: lateral stream forces, including debris agglomeration etc, the self weight of the pier, transversal windload, temperature and shrinkage deformation effects, and earthquake loads, as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements. Regarding stone masonry piers see Section 7.5: Arch Bridges and Stone Masonry Piers. 6.5 ABUTMENTS

6.5.1 GENERAL Abutments shall be investigated for: lateral earth pressures, including any live and dead load surcharge, the self weight of the abutment temperature and shrinkage deformation effects, and earthquake loads, as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
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Abutments shall be investigated for excessive displacements at the service limit state. Earth pressures used in design of abutments should be selected consistent with the requirement that the abutment should not move more than 35 mm laterally. Surveys of the performance of bridges indicate those horizontal abutment movements less than 35 mm can be tolerated by bridge superstructures without significant damage. Design of abutments and walls shall be investigated at the strength limit states for: Bearing resistance failure, Lateral sliding, Excessive loss of base contact, Overall instability, Pull out failure of anchors or soil reinforcements, and Structural failure. The conditions governing the design depends on: Type and function of retaining structure, Earth pressure exerted on the wall by the retained backfill, Geometry of the ground and the structure, Strength of the ground, Ground deformability, Groundwater, and Swelling pressure in clay backfills. 6.5.2 DESIGN The factored resistance, RR, calculated for each applicable limit state shall be the nominal resistance, Rn, multiplied by an appropriate resistance factor, . Abutments, piers, and retaining structures and their foundations and other supporting elements shall be proportioned for all applicable load combinations specified in Section 3.4: Load Factors and Combinations. 6.6 WINGWALL AND RETAINING WALL DESIGN

Wingwalls may either be designed as monolithic with (attached to) the abutment, or be separated from the abutment wall with an expansion joint and designed to be free standing. The wingwall lengths shall be computed using the cone and the required roadway slopes (see Section 5.6: Parts of Bridges). Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish protection against erosion. The bottom side of the attached wingwalls shall be buried at least 1.0 m under the slope surface, measured perpendicular to the slope (see Figure 5-3). The vertical stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported at the base. An expansion joint shall always be applied between RC wingwall rigidly attached to the abutment and a free standing RC retaining wall.

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6.7

CULVERTS AND OTHER BURIED STRUCTURES

6.7.1 GENERAL Buried structures and their foundations shall be designed so that they resist the factored loads given by the load combinations specified below. The factored resistance, Rf, shall be calculated for each applicable limit state as: Rf = *Rn where: Rn = the nominal resistance = the resistance factor specified in Table 6-4 below 6.7.2 SERVICE LIMIT STATE Buried structures shall be investigated at Service Load Combination I, as specified in Table 3-2, as follows: Deflection of metal structures, and Crack width in reinforced concrete structures. 6.7.3 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE Buried structures and tunnel liners shall be investigated for construction loads and at Strength Load Combinations I and II, as specified in Table 3-2, as follows: For concrete structures: flexure shear thrust radial tension For metal structures: wall area buckling seam failure flexibility limit for construction flexure of box structures only Strength Load Combinations III and IV and the extreme event limit state do not control due to the relative magnitude of loads applicable to buried structures as indicated in Section 6.3: Foundations above. Buried structures need not to be controlled by fatigue. 6.7.4 RESISTANCE FACTORS Resistance factors for buried structures shall be taken as specified in Table 6-4 below. Values of resistance factors for the soil bearing design of foundations for buried structures shall be taken as specified in subchapter 6.3: Foundations above. (6.3)

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6.7.5 FLEXIBILITY LIMITS AND CONSTRUCTION STIFFNESS Corrugated Metal Pipe and Structural Plate Structures: Flexibility factors for corrugated metal pipe and structural plate structures shall not exceed the values specified in Table 65 below. Limits on construction stiffness and plate flexibility are construction requirements that do not represent any limit state in service.

Table 6-4 - Resistance Factors for Buried Structures STRUCTURAL TYPE Metal Pipe, Arch, and Pipe Arch Structures Helical pipe with lock seam or fully welded seam: Minimum wall area and buckling Annular pipe with spot-welded, riveted, or bolted seam: Minimum wall area and buckling Minimum seam strength Structural plate pipe: Minimum wall area and buckling Minimum seam strength Long-Span Structural Plate and Tunnel Liner Plate Structures Minimum wall area Minimum seam strength Structural Plate Box Structures Plastic moment strength Reinforced Concrete Pipe Flexure Shear Redial tension Reinforced Concrete Cast-in-Place Box Structures Flexure Shear Reinforced Concrete Precast Box Structure Flexure Shear Reinforced Concrete Precast Three-Sided Structures Flexure Shear Thermoplastic Pipe PE and PVC pipe: Minimum wall area and buckling RESISTANCE FACTOR

1.00 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 1.0 0.90 0.82 0.82 0.90 0.85 1.00 0.90 0.95 0.90 1.00

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Table 6-5 - Flexibility Factor Limit TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION/ MATERIAL Steel Pipe CORRUGATION SIZE (mm) 6.35 12.7 25.4 150 x 50 Pipe FLEXIBILITY FACTOR (mm/N) 0.25 0.25 0.19 0.11

Steel Plate

REFERENCES 1. Barker, R. M., J. M. Duncan, K. B. Rojiani, P. S. K. Ooi, C. K. Tan, and S. G. Kim. Manuals for the Design of Bridge Foundations. NCHRP Report 343. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC., 1991. 2. Davisson, M. T., F. S. Manuel, R. M. Armstrong. Allowable Stress in Piles. FHWA/RD-83/059. FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, McLean, Virginia, 1983. 3. Carter, J. P., and F. H. Kulwahy. Analysis and Design of Foundations Socketed into Rock. Report No. EL-5918. Empire State Electric Engineering Research Corporation and Electric Power Research Institute, New York, 1988. 4. Skempton, A. W. The Bearing Capacity of Clays. In Vol 1, Proc. of the Building Research Congress, 1951. 5. Canadian Geotechnical Society. Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual. 2nd Ed. Bitech Publishers, Ltd.: Vancouver, British Columbia, 1985. 6. Reese, L. C., and M. W. ONeill. Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design Methods. FHWA-HI-88-042 or ADSC-TL-4, McLean, Virginia, 1988. 7. Horvath, R. G., and T. C. Kenney. Shaft Resistance of Rock Socketed Drilled Piers. In Proc., Symposium on Deep Foundations. ASCE, Atlanta, Georgia, 1979. 8. Touma, F. T., and L. C. Reese. Behavior of Bored Piles in Sand. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. GT 7, 1974. 9. Meyerhof, G. G. Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT 3, 1976. 10. Gardner, W. S. Design of Drilled Piers in the Atlantic Piedmont. In Foundations and Excavations in Decomposed Rock of the Piedmont Province, R. E. Smith, ed. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 9, ASCE, 1987.

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