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ELECTRIC POWER AND MACHINES DEPARTMENT Faculty of Engineering Cairo University
Protection Systems and Devices (Relays)
Prepared by Prof. Hany M. Amin Elghazaly
2009
Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
Protective relays are the devices that provide protection against faults, such as short circuits, and abnormal system conditions, such as low frequency, to avoid serious damage to vital pieces of equipment such as lines, transformers, and generators. The protective relay system detects the fault and sends trip signals to circuit breakers and other switchgear, while the switchgear clears the fault by interrupting it and isolating the faulty equipment. Although it is desirable to limit damage to the equipment subjected to the fault, the overriding concern is to protect the rest of the system from the fault. For example, a line subjected to a short circuit will often suffer damage if the short circuit is not promptly cleared. Relays that are fast, selective, and reliable along with fast, reliable circuit breakers will often prevent such damage, and even more importantly will prevent the damage from spreading to the substation bus and the transformer. Obviously, the protective relay system must be carefully designed to achieve the proper balance among factors such as reliability, speed, selectivity, and economics. One aspect of protection, namely transient overvoltage protection by application of surge arresters, is not covered in this course. Rather, the present topic focuses on protective relay systems for overcurrent protection and protection from other abnormal conditions. An overvoltage relay might be used to protect some apparatus from sustained overvoltage condition, but not to protect the apparatus from a transient surge due to switching or lightning.
Importance of protection
Protection of the system from damaging short circuit currents is obviously important, but to underscore its importance consider that an extensive overhead transmission system may be subject to temporary faults due to lightning-induced flashover and permanent faults due to physical damage from ice and wind loading as well as accidental destruction of poles and towers. The frequency of these faults is obviously a function of the lines' overall exposure to the damage, but faults may occur several times a day during normal conditions. In the worst cases of storm damage, hundreds of faults may occur in a few hours. Also of great importance is protection from various abnormal system conditions. For example, severe damage to steam turbine blades can occur at low system frequencies, generator step-up transformers may be overexcited at very low frequency operation as the unit starts up, certain relays may respond to transient generator swings during disturbances resulting in transmission line tripping. All these, and other, conditions must be foreseen by the protective relay engineer. Electric power equipment is designed to work under specific normal conditions. However, short circuit or failure may happen due to: Over-voltages due to switching. Over-voltages due to lightning strokes. Bridging of conductors by birds. Breakdown due to decrease of dielectric strength. Mechanical damage of the equipment.
Protective Systems
It continuously monitors the power system to ensure maximum continuity of electricity supply with minimum damage to life, equipment & properties. It consists of : 1. Battery and DC supply. 2. Circuit Breakers. 3. Relay. 4. Current Transformers and Potential Transformers.
The Protective Relay

Its a device, which detects abnormal conditions in a part of a power system and gives a signal to isolate that part from the healthy system or gives an alarm to the operator. The relays are: compact, self-contained devices, which respond to abnormal conditions.
Basic Requirements of Protective Relaying

A well designed and efficient protective relaying should have: 1. Speed: Protective relaying should disconnect a faulty element as quickly as possible to: improve power system stability. decrease the amount of damage. 2
Clearing time: It is the time interval within which a faulty system element is disconnected from the system. Fault clearing time = Relay time + Circuit breaker time Relay time: operating time of the protection relay from the instant of fault up to the closure of contacts in the trip circuit of the circuit breaker. CB time: is the time from the closing of the trip circuit up to the time when the current is interrupted (final arc extinction of the circuit breaker) Relaying Classifications: 1. Instantaneous: these relays operate as soon as a secure decision made. No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay response (1 6 cycles). 2. Time delay: an intentional time delay is inserted between the relay decision time and the initiation of the trip action. a) High speed: a relay that operates in less than a specified time. The specified time in present practice is 50 milliseconds (2 3 cycles). b) Ultra high speed: a relay that operates in 4 milliseconds or less. I) Definite time relay (Instantaneous): the time of operation is fixed and not function of the quantity causing operation. II) Inverse time lag relay: the time operation is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the quantity causing operation. The relay must separate the meaningful and significant information with the necessary degree of certainty. The relationship between the relay response time and its degree of certainty is an inverse one.
Time-current characteristics of various families of overcurrent relays
2. Selectivity, discrimination Protective relay systems that are well designed will always exhibit selectivity, which means that the fewest possible numbers of relays will operate for a given fault. To assure that the protective system is selective, relay coordination studies must be performed. Much of the time expended by the relay engineer consists of coordinating the operation of adjacent relays to ensure that the proper relays operate, but that those covering adjacent zones do not. To complicate this coordination, often-nearby relays will have a secondary role as backup protection. Much more will be said about backup protection and its coordination in the course. Selectivity is the ability of the system to determine the point at which the fault occurs and select the nearest of the circuit-breakers tripping of which will lead to clearing of fault with minimum or no damage to the system. The protective system should operate under normal conditions and abnormal conditions. It should select and disconnect only faulty part without disconnecting the remaining healthy parts.
Discrimination The protection of any zone is said to discriminate when it can distinguish between an internal fault in that zone and an external (through) fault in any other zone. The protection should trip for an internal fault but restrain from tripping for an external fault. The protection should not trip for any load current. Zones of protection: In the event of a fault in a zone, the protection of that zone should initiate the tripping of the necessary circuit breakers to isolate that zone, and only that zone, from all live supplies The zone of protection of a relay consists of that part of the system covered by the relay. One basic tenet of good protective relay practice is to maintain overlapping zones of protection over the entire system. As an example, consider a generator, its step-up transformer, a line, and a substation. Note that the zones of protection and the switchgear locations are interrelated. As in many design problems, the exact arrangement of the zones of protection will depend on the design philosophy of the engineers involved. The power system is divided into protective zones, which can adequately be protected with minimum part of the system disconnection. Any failure occurring within a given zone will cause the opening of all breakers within that zone.
The system can be divided into the following protective zones: 1. Generators. 4. Transmission lines. 2. Transformers. 5. Distribution circuits. 3. Bus bars.
The boundaries of the protective zone are decided by C.T. locations. In order to cover all power equipment by their protection systems, the zones of protection must meet these requirements: a. All power system elements must be covered by at least one zone. b. Zones of protection must overlap to prevent any system element from being unprotected. A zone of protection may be closed or open. When the zone is closed, all power elements inside the zone are protected. All the circuit breakers inside the zone must trip.
Consider a fault at F1. This fault lies in a closed zone and will cause C.B.s ( B1 ) and ( B2 ) to trip. The fault at F2, being inside the overlap between the zones of protection of the T.L. and the B.B. , will cause B1, B2, B3 & B4 to trip. Now consider a fault at F3. This fault lies in two open zones. The fault should cause B6 to trip. B5 is the backup and will trip if B6 fails to clear the fault (fails to trip). 3. Sensitivity A protective system is said to be sensitive when it will operate for very small internal fault currents. If an overhead conductor breaks and falls on dry ground or hedges, the fault current can be very small, and it is quite a problem to provide a protection sufficiently current-sensitive to detect this fault condition. Sensitivity is the smallest value of actuating quantity at which the protection starts operating in relation with the minimum value of fault current in the protected zone. Sensitivity can be defined in terms of sensitivity factor Ks where: Ks = Is or Vs Io Vo Is = minimum short circuit current in the zone Io = minimum operating current of protection The operating current should not be kept too small for the following reasons: The protection should not operate on maximum loads. 5 Where
The protection should not operate for faults somewhere else in the system.
Stability
A protective system is said to be stable when it will restrain from tripping for a large external fault current. The system i should be stable up to the maximum fault current liable to flow through the zone. A typical specification might require stability up to 20 times the rated primary current of the C. T .s. Rated stability limit is given in terms of the r.m.s. value of the symmetrical component of external fault current. The terms stability and sensitivity are relative terms. A protective system can be very sensitive but not stable enough. Ideally it should be very sensitive and very stable (up to reasonable limits) but often the conditions for achieving these two ideal states are mutually incompatible. 4. Reliability In the event of a fault in a zone, the protection of that zone should initiate the tripping of the necessary circuit breakers to isolate that zone, and only that zone, from all live supplies. If it does not do so, the protection is said to maloperate and it should be noted that, for statistical purposes, the operation is either perfectly correct, or wrong. Reliability covers the correct design, installation and maintenance of all C.T.s, V.T.s (voltage transformers), relays, a.c. and d.c. wiring; also the accidental tripping of relays due to mistakes by personnel (this is a maloperation). For the whole of the electricity supply system protection is at least 95 % reliable. Reliability is generally understood to measure the degree of certainty that a piece of equipment will perform as intended. The relays have two alternative ways in which they can be unreliable: they may fail to operate when they are expected to, or, they may operate when they are not expected to. Therefore, a reliable relaying system must be dependable and secure. Therefore, the reliability of the protective relay system has two aspects: dependability of operation and security from false operation. Dependability means that each relay sends a trip signal when a fault is present in its zone. It is defined as the measure of the certainty that the relays will operate correctly for all the faults for which they are designed to operate Security means that no relay sends a trip signal if no fault is present in its zone. It is the measure of the certainty that the relays will not operate incorrectly for any fault. Since no human invention is perfect, and the protective relay system is no exception, compromise between dependability and security are inevitable. Lack of dependability means that faults are not cleared, unless backup protection is active (which usually involves a considerable time delay to allow coordination between backup and primary relays). Lack of security means that false trips may occur, leading to unnecessary customer outages. As the relaying system becomes dependable, its tendency to become less secure increases. Thus, in the present day, there is a tendency to design relays that are more dependable at the expense of some degree of security. Much of the art of protective relaying arises because of the tension between dependability and security. A typical problem is to choose 6
between two available protection schemes, the one having better dependability and worse security, the other having better security and worse dependability. Primary and backup protection It should be obvious that some form of backup protection is needed, especially for transmission and generation levels of the system. Since protective relays do fail and since compromises in protection are sometimes required, backup relays will be necessary for any important line, transformer, or generator. Main protection is the system, which is normally expected to operate in the event of an internal fault. Back-up protection is a second (often cheaper, slower) protective system which supplements the main protection should the latter fail to operate. The trip contacts of the relays are in parallel. The failure to clear the fault could be due to some component common to both systems (e.g. the circuit breaker), so most schemes provide overall back-up to clear the fault at another circuit breaker. The primary protection is the first line of defense at which primary relays clear faults in the protected zone as fast as possible. As 100% reliability not only of the protective scheme but also of the associated C.T.s, P.T.s nad C.B.s cannot be guaranteed, some form of backup protection must be provided. The backup relay operates if the primary relay fails. Usually back up relays cover wider sections and have time delay long enough to allow the primary relay to operate. This can be accomplished by: 1. Duplication principle which the important protective devices (relays, C.B., auxiliaries, ..etc.) are duplicated. This method of back up protection can be classified as: a. Relay backup. b. Breaker backup. c. Remote backup.
2. Backup protection by time grading principle at which the tripping time at different sections are graded such that the tripping time is shorter close to the fault and longer in the sections that follows.
5. Simplicity Simplicity of construction and good quality of the relay, correctness of design and installation, simplicity of maintenance are the main factors which influence protective reliability. As a rule, the simple the protective scheme and the lesser the number of relays, circuits and contacts, the greater will be its reliability. 6. Economy and adequateness Although protective relay systems are not expensive compared to the costs of major apparatus such as transformers, switchgear, lines, generators, etc., their cost is an issue. Protective relays require considerable engineering and technical support, including proper settings and routine maintenance by skilled personnel. Protection system costs must be acknowledged, but should be traded off against the cost of service interruptions, equipment damage, and system disturbances that invariably result from inadequate protection systems. Too much protection is as bad as too little. Good engineering design compromise between practical situation and cost. The designer should consider the following: a. Rating of the system (or element to be protected). b. Location of the protected element. c. Probability of abnormal conditions. d. Cost and importance of the protected element. e. Continuity of the supply as affected by failure of this element.
Types of Relays
Relays may be classified in several ways, but here we look at their logical performance. In other words, the fundamental type of relay is determined by its function. One functional classification system is given in the table below: 1. Magnitude Relays 2. Directional Relays 3. Ratio Relays 4. Differential Relays 5. Pilot Relays Note that these types are not always mutually exclusive; for example, a relay may be a ratio relay and also be a directional relay. Despite this, these terms are commonly used and should be understood. Magnitude relays respond to the magnitude of a current or voltage. They may trip on low or high values, such as an overcurrent relay (trips when the current it senses is above its pickup setting), or an under-frequency relay (trips when the frequency is below its setting). A current magnitude relay may be combined with a directional relay to make a directional overcurrent relay.
Differential relays respond to the difference between two quantities. For example, in providing short circuit protection for a power transformer, a differential overcurrent relay will trip if the current on the primary does not balance the current on the secondary (taking into account the turns ratio), since this indicates an internal fault. An external fault will not produce a trip, since the primary and secondary currents balance regardless of the magnitude of the current. Directional relays respond to phase angle differences. Since phase angles must be measured with respect to some reference, these relays require a polarizing quantity.
Common Relay Terms

Rated value It is the value of the energizing quantity, marked on the rating plate, on which the performance of the relay is based. In the case of a current-operated relay, its rated current will normally be the rated secondary current of the C.T. to be used with the relay (i.e. 1 A or 5 A). Setting value It is the nominal value(s) (usually as a percentage of rated value), marked on the setting plug (or dials) of the relay, at which the relay is designed to operate (e.g. 40% of 5 A). Since a protective relay and its C.T. cannot be considered separately, the setting of a protective system is often quoted as a percentage of the, rated primary current of the C.T. Pick-up or operating level: the operation of a relay is called pick-up. Pick up level or operating level is the threshold value above which the relay operates and closes its contacts. Dropout or reset time: dropout is the value below which the relay resets and opens its contacts to return to its normal position. Drop-out / pick-up ratio is called Reset Ratio or Holding Ratio AC 90 95 % DC 60 65 % Flag: is a device usually operates to indicate the relay pick-up. Static relays: are electronic circuits capable of performing the control functions in a manner similar to the regular relays without using moving parts. SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition is a computer system which performs measurements, data acquisition, data transmission, operating and control functions. Differential protection: is a protective system, which responds to vector difference in phase or magnitude between two similar electrical quantities. Distance protection: is a protective system which depends on the ratio of the voltage to current (V/I) at relaying point which gives a measure of distance between relay location and fault location.
Directional protection: in which operation occurs when the applied current assumes a specific phase displacement with respect to the applied voltage. The relay operates and responds to fault flow in particular direction. Over voltage, over current, and over power relays: in which the relays operate when V, P or I rise above a preset value. Under voltage, under current and under power relays: in which the relays operate when V, P or I fall under a preset value. Over-reach: (of distance protection), operation of a relay for a fault beyond its set protection distance. For other types, the relay is over-reach when it operates at a current which is lower than its setting. Under-reach: is the failure of a distance relay to operate for a fault within its set protected distance.
Electromechanical Relays
The classic relay technology is electromechanical, usually in the form of magnetic forces or torques exerted on movable parts carrying contacts. The construction may be hinged armature, plunger, induction disk, induction cup, etc. The operation of such relays is based upon the following effect of electrical current: 1. Electromagnetic attraction (a.c. or d.c. actuation) 2. Electromagnetic induction (a.c. actuation only 3. Thermal effect (I2rt) heat generated. Some other electromechanical relays depend on the gas pressure generated due to the arc heat (ex. Buchholz Relay).
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CHAPTER 2 Types of Relays According to Theory of Operation 1. Attraction Type Relays

These are the simplest types of relays. These relays have a coil or an electromagnet energized by a coil. The coil is energized by the operating quantity which may be proportional to circuit current or voltage. These relays respond to both A.C. and D.C. currents. When the coil is energized by a current I, and saturation phenomena are neglected, the energy stored in the magnetic field is given by: E = 1/ 2 L I 2 (1) Where L is the inductance of the coil and I is the current flowing in the coil. The force that tries to pull the plunger inside the coil is given by: F = dE = K1 I2 (2) dx where K1 is a constant depending upon the constants of the electromagnetic circuit such as the number of turns, the plunger diameter, the air gap and the dimensions of the iron core. Since the relay has a restraining force ( K2 ) through a restraining spring, the force equation can be written as: F = K1 I2 K2 When the relay is on the verge of operation, F is zero, then: Ip = (3)
k k
2
(4)
This idea is used in two types of relays Plunger Type Relay & Hinged Armature Relay. The attraction armature relay can be designed to respond to over/under current and over/under voltage for both A.C. and D.C.
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Plunger-type relay. Balance Beam Relay This type consists of a horizontal beam pivoted centrally with an armature attached to both sides and a coil on each side. The beam remains in the horizontal position till operating force becomes more than the restraining force.
The net torque is given by : (5) T = K1I12 K2I22 + Ks Neglecting the spring effect, the net torque equals zero at the verge of operation, i.e. I1/I2 = k 2 k 1 = constant (6) This relay is fast and can be used to compare two currents. If one of the coils is actuated by voltage and the other by current then V/I = constant is used in impedance relay. 12
2. Induction Relays
Induction-disk type of relay Induction type relays are based upon the principle of operation of a single phase A.C. motor. Therefore, they cannot be used for D.C. currents. Two variants of these are fairly standard; one with an induction disc and the other with an induction cup. In both cases, the moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the induction motor. Induction type relays require two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the moving element may turn. The two fluxes must have a phase difference between them; otherwise no operating torque will be produced. Torque is produced in these relays when one alternating flux reacts with eddy currents induced in a rotor by another alternating flux of the same frequency but displaced in time and space. let: 1 = 1m sint 2 = 2m sin(t+) then the eddy currents (i1 and i2) produced in the disc are i1 1m cost i2 2m cos(t+) Each of the rotor currents interacts 13 with the
flux produced by the other coil produce a force. The two forces are in opposite direction with respect to the other, and the net force or, the net torque is given by: F = F2 F1 2 i 1 - 1 i 2 F 12 [ sin(t+) cost - sint cos(t+) ] F = K1m2m sin Also we can see that the net torque is T = K1 I1mI2m sin
One of the most common types of the induction relay is the shaded pole structure.
The air gap flux produced by the current flowing in the coil is split into two out of phase components by a copper shading ring which encircles part of the pole face of each pole. The two rings have current induced in them by the alternating flux of the electromagnet and the magnetic fields set up by these induced currents cause the flux in the portions of the iron surrounded by the rings to lag by 40o to 50o the flux in the unshaded portions of the poles. The torque in this case will be proportional to I12 and sine the phase difference, i.e. T = K I12 sin Since sin depends on the design then T = K1 I12
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Induction Relay (a) Watt-hour-meter (or double wound) type (b) Shaded pole type Watt-hour-Meter type Induction Relay This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used for watt-hour meters. As shown in the figure, this structure contains two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries two windings: the primary and the secondary. The primary carries the relay current I1 which induces emf in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it. With this arrangement, the leakage flux entering the disc from the upper magnet and the leakage flux entering the disc from the lower magnet are displaced sufficiently in phase and thus the two fluxes produce the driving torque in the disc. This torque is given by: T = 12 sin Where 1 & 2 are the leakage fluxes of the two coils and is the phase difference between these fluxes.
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3- Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay

In this relay the coil is free to rotate in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. A torque is produced due to the interaction between the field of the magnet and the field of the coil. This torque is given by: T = 2r NHIL Where R is the coil radius N is number of turns I is coil current L is coil length H is Magnetic field strength in the air gab
Note: This relay responds only to D.C. However it can be used with A.C. by using rectifier circuits.
Plug Setting and Time Setting of Relays

The operation of the relay requires a certain flux and ampere turns. The current settings of the relay are chosen by altering (by means of a plug setting P.S) the number of turns of the exciting coil in use: e.g. for a 5 A (rated current) earth-fault relay, 1 A in the whole coil or 2 A in half of the coil or 4 A in a quarter of the coil will create (with good design) the same ampere turns, flux, torque and operating time. Thus only one time calibration curve is given and is applicable to all settings. Most over-current relays have a range of adjustments to make them adaptable to as wide range of applications as possible. Hence, various relays are available, each having a different range of adjustment. The adjustment of plunger type relays is carried out through the restraining spring tension. The adjustment of current-actuated relays (induction type) is usually carried out by coil taps. The operation of the relay requires a certain flux and ampere turns. The current settings of the relay are chosen by altering the number of turns of the exciting coil in use. The plug setting (P.S.) can either be given directly in amperes or indirectly, as percentages of rated current. Typical settings for an earth-fault relay are 20 to 80% in steps of 10%, and for an over-current relay (phase-to-phase fault relay) are 50 to 200% in steps of 25%. Time setting is generally in the form of an adjustable back-step, which decides the arclength through which the disc travels. By reducing the length of travel, the time is reduced. The time multiplier setting is marked from 0.1 to 1, with major divisions marked in between. If a relay takes a certain time ( t ) seconds with time setting ( time multiplier setting ) = 1 , the same relay take time equals xt seconds when the time setting = x . Plug setting refers to the magnitude of current at which the relay starts to operate. This means that if a current = 100 A is injected in a relay coil which has a plug setting = 5, ( relay 16
current setting = 5 ), then the plug setting multiplier = 100 /5 = 20 . i.e. the current passing in the relay coil is 20 times the plug setting. The relay should start to operate at a current equals to the plug setting. However, due to friction, dust, .. etc. , so as to make operation of relays reliable, their actuating quantity is made at least 1.5 times the plug setting. It is important to note here that the plug setting equals the pick up current if there is no C.T. is used. If we use a C.T. , The plug setting = Pick up current x C.T. ratio As mentioned before, the current setting multiplier or (the plug setting multiplier) indicates the number of times the relay is in excess of the current setting (plug setting). Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.) The actual r.m.s. current in a relay, expressed as a multiple of the setting current is called the plug setting multiplier (P.S.M.): e.g. if a 5 A (rated current) over-current relay is set at 200% = 10 A and if the relay current is 150 A then the plug setting multiplier = 15, and if the C. T. is rated at 400 /5 A, then the fault current is 12 kA. Time Setting (Time Multiplier T.M.) The time setting of the relay marked 0 to 1 and called the time multiplier (T.M.), adjusts the position of the movable back-stop. With the time multiplier set at 1 the back-stop is as far back as it can go while with the time multiplier set at 0 the back-stop is so positioned that the relay contacts are almost closed. The time multiplier is very nearly proportional to the angle of travel of the relay contacts, but is calibrated to allow for the initial acceleration and the resetting spring. The minimum practical setting is 0.1. With any lesser setting the relay contacts might close accidentally due to vibration etc. i.e. PSM = Or Or = = Relay Current Relay setting current Primary Current x C.T. Ratio Relay setting current Primary Current Primary Setting Current
B.S. 142 gives, for the standard I.D.M. T .L. relay, the relation between the plug setting multiplier and the relay operating time for a time multiplier of 1. The data is given in Fig.2 . The relation is an inverse one except that the time tends to become constant between P.S.M. 10 and 20 (the so-called definite minimum time). A P.S.M. = 1 means that the relay current equals its setting current. Clearly the relay must not operate for a current less than its setting. The manufacturer is allowed a tolerance of 30% on the pick-up current so that the relay must operate (pick-up) between P.S.M. = 1 and P.S.M. = 1.3, and take about 30 seconds to operate. To avoid working in this uncertain region, it is usual to arrange that, for minimum fault current the P .S.M. > 2. In the case of over-current relays it is necessary to check that for maximum load currents the P .S.M. < 1 by a reasonable margin of safety, since protection is not intended to deal with temporary overloading of the system.
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I.D.M.T.L. relay characteristic

For each relay, a characteristic is plotted with multiples of plug settings (P.S.M.) as an abscissa (x axis) (log scale) and time in seconds (log scale) as an ordinate (y-axis).
Relay Characteristics Time Margin Between Relays To assure proper coordination between two relays a time margin between their operations is usually set. This margin consists of : circuit breaker total time, 0.12 second , relay errors , 0.1 second each , one fast and the other slow 0.2 second, safety margin , 0.1 second . Total 0.42 second ( 0.5 second)
4. Thermal Relays
These relays operate due to the thermal effect of the electric current. They can be made of bi-metal type or thermocouples type. The bi metal type consists of two metal strips having different coefficient of thermal expansion joined together. When the combined strip is heated, one expands more than the other causing the strip to bend. This process closes the relay contacts. The other type is employing thermocouples. A thermocouple consists of a junction of two selected materials. The junction touches a coil in which the circuit current is passing. The difference in temperature between the two materials ( as their time coefficients are different ) induces e.m.f. which is a function of the coil temperature. This e.m.f. can operate a static relay or a sensitive moving coil. 18
5. Buchholz Relay
It is a gas-actuated relay used for protecting oil immersed transformers against all types of internal faults and makes use of the fact that during faults, oil decomposes and hence generates gases. Buchholz relay consists of a cast housing containing a hinged hollow float inside of which there is a mercury switch. This float is located in the upper part of the housing. When a fault occurs inside the transformer, bubbles of gas are evolved by the heat generated and rise up to the top of the housing causing the oil level to fall and the mercury float to tilt. The mercury therefore contacts the relay switch. An alarm is actuated and the coil of the circuit breaker trips according to the design.
ON
OFF
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CHAPTER 3 Types of Relays according to their function

1. Directional Relays
1.1 The role of directional protection equipment Protection equipment has the basic role of detecting an electrical fault and disconnecting that part of the network in which the fault occurs limiting the size of the disconnected section as far as possible. Directional protection enables better discrimination of the faulty part of the network than with overcurrent protection. It is necessary to use it in the following conditions: 9 in a system with several sources, 9 in closed loop or parallel-cabled systems, 9 in isolated neutral systems for the feedback of capacitive currents, 9 to detect an abnormal direction of flow of active or reactive power (generators). Figure 1 illustrates a situation in which both power sources would be tripped if overcurrent protections were used. Directional current protection equipment is capable of only tripping the faulty incomer. The direction in which the fault occurs is detected by measuring the direction of current flow, or in other words the phase displacement between the current and voltage. Power protection equipment measures either the active or the reactive power flowing through the connection in which the current sensors are placed. The protection equipment operates if the power is greater than a set threshold and if it is flowing in a given direction. Directional power and current protection requires the current and the voltage to be measured.
Fig. 1: Illustration of an application of directional protection equipment.
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CHAPTER 4 Protection of Power System Elements

1. Feeder Protection
The various protection schemes as applied to feeder protection can be classified to: a. Time graded protection b. Differential protection. c. Distance protection. d. Carrier current protection. a. Time graded protection i) Radial feeder: Protection on radial feeder is obtained by employing fuse shunted trip coils as shown in the figure 1. If an earth fault occurs on feeder F4, the fault current will pass through the primary windings of all the CTs and so as this current will appear in each of secondary windings of CTs. If the magnitude of the fusing currents of the trip coil fuses are arranged in the decreasing order, from the power station to the remote substation correct discrimination (taken into account that the magnitude of the fault current is not so heavy as to operate all the fuses simultaneously) will be obtained and fuse No. 4 will be the first to blow off. The current, which would have so far been passing through the fuse due to its low impedance, will now pass through the trip coil to open the circuit breaker on feeder F4 and thus clear the fault. This also can be done by inverse definite time relays as shown in fig. 2 are also is set so that the minimum time of operation decreases from the power station to the remote substation. ii) Parallel feeder: Figure 3 shows a system where three feeders are connected in parallel between a power station and remote supply point. Let an earth fault develop on feeder 2 as shown in the figure. It will be seen that this fault is fed via three routes. a. directly along feeder 2 from the power source. b. from feeder 1 via the receiving end busbars, and c. from feeder 3 via the receiving end busbars. Now to clear this fault, only circuit breakers 3 and 4 should open. This is achieved by employing nondirectional relays on the supply end and directional relays operating only when fault power is feeding in the direction of the arrow on the receiving end.
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CHAPTER 5 Generator Protection

There are a number of abnormal conditions that may occur with rotating equipment such as generators. These include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Faults in the windings. Loss of excitation. Motoring of generators. Overload. Overheating. Over speed. Unbalanced operation. Out of synchronization. External faults.
Several of these conditions require prompt tripping and can cause complete failure of the generator or serious damage. 1. Faults in the windings Figure 1 shows some types of faults that may occur in the insulation system of a generators winding. These faults are identified as: a. Inter-phase short circuit. b. Inter-turn fault. c. Stator earth fault. d. Rotor earth fault. e. Inter-turn fault in rotor. a. Inter-phase short circuit A short circuit between parts of different phases of the winding such as fault #1 , results in a sever fault current within the machine. A consequence of this a distinct difference between the currents at the neutral and terminal ends of the particular winding which can be detected by a differential protection system. We usually use Biased differential protection or MerzPrice protection . Under normal operating conditions, the secondary outputs of the line current transformers are equal to the current transformer at the neutral end. Thus there is a balanced circulating current in the phase pilot wires and the relay restraining windings. Current does not flow in the operating coils or in the common return pilot. Under fault condition this balance is upset and current flows in the operating coils of these phase elements corresponding to primary phases on which the fault has occurred. If this current reaches the preset magnitude, the relay operates. Differential protection gives complete protection to generator windings against phase to phase faults. It is arranged to trip the main circuit breaker and to suppress the field.
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Desirable features of generator differential protection are: High speed operation ( about 15 ms ). Low setting. Full stability on external faults.
b. Inter turn fault:
Figure (3) Connection for a delta generator
The incidence of turn-to-turn fault in generators is rare. It can take place between turns of the same phase or between parallel coils of the same phase. In large generators we protect the system by using residual voltage method. A voltage transformer is connected between each phase terminal and the neutral of the winding. The secondary terminals are connected in an open delta to a polarized voltage relay as shown in figure 4. In the event of an inter turn fault, a voltage appears at the terminal of the open delta causes the relay to trip. During normal conditions, the residual voltage is zero, i.e. VRes = VRY + VYB + VBR = 0 Any short circuit between turns gives residual voltage of fundamental frequency, which should operate the relay. Note that VRes is essentially a zero sequence voltage.
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The relay should not operate for earth fault. Earth fault also causes zero sequence voltages of third harmonic. A low pass filter is used to offer a low resistance path to power frequency and high resistance path to 3rd harmonic currents.
c. Stator earth fault The protection against earth faults by differential protection is influenced by the grounding scheme. When the generator winding is earthed through impedance, a separate additional earth fault protection is necessary in addition to differential protection. The differential protection provides earth fault protection to about 85% of generator windings. Figure 5 shows two types of earth protection which is usually used for generators above 1 MW. It can also be used as a backup for external phase to phase faults. However it does not give satisfactory protection against internal faults.
The resistance Rg is used to limit the earth fault current. If Rg is too small (solid earthing), earth fault current is very high. Hence this method is not used for large machines (> 1 MW). Medium resistance limits the fault current to 200 A is used for generators up to 60 MW while large resistance that limits the fault current to 10 A is used for larger generators.
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As stated before, when we use differential protection only about 85% of generator winding is protected. This is a function of the impedance between neutral and ground ( Rg ), line to neutral voltage (V) and the minimum relay operating current ( Io ) in the primary of the CT which is usually between 10 20 % ( relay setting ). The %age of windings unprotected = Rg Io x 100 V
d. Rotor windings faults These are caused by mechanical and temperature stresses. The field system is not connected to earth so that a single earth fault does not give rise to any fault current. A second earth fault will short circuit part of the winding and may produce unsymmetrical field system giving unbalance force on the rotor. Such a force will cause excess pressure on bearing and shaft distortion if not cleared quickly. Rotor earth fault protection is provided for large generators. Rotor temperature indicates or alarm is employed to indicate the level of temperature. If the temperature level is higher than a preset value, an alarm will signal. Figure 7 presents a schematic diagram of rotor earth fault protection. A high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit. The centre point of this resistance is connected to earth through a sensitive relay. The relay detects the earth fault for most of the rotor circuit except the center point of the rotor.
The preferred type of protective relaying equipment is shown in figure 8. Either d.c. or a.c. voltage may be impressed between the field circuit and the ground through an over voltage relay. A single earth fault in the rotor circuit completes the circuit the fault is then sensed by the voltage relay.
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It may be necessary to provide a brush on the rotor shaft that will effectively ground the rotor. One should not rely on the path of the bearing oil to ground for two reasons: 1. The resistance of this path to ground may be high enough so that the relay would not operate at grounded fault. 2. Even very small current flowing through the bearing may pit the surface and destroy the bearings.
2. Loss of excitation When a synchronous generator losses excitation and if it is connected in parallel with other units, it can draw the magnetizing current from the bus bars and continue to run as an induction generator. It will then run above synchronous speed. Some systems depend on the rotor design (with salient poles and damper windings) can run for long time without any problem. Some systems cannot tolerate the continued operation without excitation. Automatic quick-acting protective system should be used. Undercurrent relays connected in the field circuit have been used quite extensively. The most sensitive type of loss of excitation protection is a distance relay operated from the a.c current and voltage of the main generator terminals. This application is based on the behavior of the system impedance as seen from the generator terminals for various underexcited conditions. This will not be explained in this course. 3. Motoring of generators Motoring protection is for the benefit of the prime mover and not the generator. When the input to the turbine is topped, the generator continues to run as a synchronous motor. A sensitive power directional relaying is widely used for such protection. This is called revered power protection. 4. Overload Overload protection is used to provide backup protection for bus or feeder faults than to protect the machine directly. We dont use an over current relay since the generators synchronous impedance limits the fault currents of a sustained faults to obtain the same as the maximum rated load current . A thermal relay may be used to monitor the stator winding temperature and signal an alarm if a certain limit is exceeded. 5. Overheating Bearing overheating or loss of prime mover cooling system or lubricating oil may damage the mechanical system and cause serious problems. Temperature detection is then
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important. Thermocouple system is usually inserted in the bearings and different other locations in the system to monitor the temperature and signal an alarm if necessary. 6. Over speed It is essential to incorporate safety device in turbine governing system to prevent over speeding, which may cause over voltages and increase frequency. Over speeding can occur due to sudden loss of the load before disconnecting the prime mover. To maintain the speed of the generator, the prime mover shaft is equipped by a centrifugal device or electronic sensors. It must be recognized that in practical situations when many generators are connected, over speed can not occur unless the unit is disconnected from the system. 7. Unbalanced load The unbalanced 3 phase stator currents causes negative sequence currents ( 100 Hz ) and induces double frequency current in the rotor which tends to flow on the rotor surface and in the non-magnetic rotor wedges and rings. The resulting I2R loss quickly raises the temperature and damage the rotor surface. The time for which the machine can be allowed to operate for various amounts of relative asymmetries depends on the machine design. Usually the time that a generator may be expected to operate with unbalanced stator currents without damage can be expressed in the form:
0 T
(i2 )2 dt = K
Where i2 is the instantaneous negative sequence per unit component of the stator current based on the generator rating and K is a constant = 30 for steam turbines and 40 for hydraulic turbines. If we let I22 be the average value of i22 over the time interval then the foregoing equation can be expressed in the form I 22 T = K The recommended type of relaying equipment is an inverse time over current relay operating from the output of a negative phase sequence current filter that is energized from the generator CTs. The relay time current characteristics are of the form I2 T = K , so that with the pick up and time delay adjustment, that are provided, the relay characteristic can be chosen to match closely any machine characteristic.
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8. Out of synchronization similar to loss of excitation & over speed. 9. External faults similar to overload. Example: A 6600 V , 3 phase turbo-alternator has a maximum continuous rating of 2000 kW at 0.8 p.f. and its reactance is 12.5 %. It is equipped with Merz-Prize circulating differential relay which is set to operate at fault current not less than 200 A. Find the value of the neutral earthing resistance leaving 10% of the windings unprotected. Solution: Let the earth resistance be Rg 2000 x 103 = 219 A 0.8 x 3 x 6600 the reactance per phase of the alternator = X IFL = where 12.5 = 3 X x 219 x 100 6600 x = 2.19 reactance of 10% of the winding = 0.219 voltage induced in NA = 6600 x 0.1 = 381 V 3 the protection operates at a current = 200 A 200 = 381 Rg2 + (0.219)2 Rg = 1.89
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CHAPTER 6 Busbar Protection

Busbars are important and need special attention due to: Fault level at busbars is very high. The faults at busbars cause disconnection of power to large portions of the system. Busbars faults should be cleared in very short time ( 50 ms ) to avoid damage to insulation. Stability of the system is affected by busbars faults. Its desirable to include the following in busbar protection: 1. High speed. 2. Stability for external faults. 3. Freedom from unwanted operation. 4. No operation due to CT saturation. 5. Interlock with generators for over current. 6.Use main and check protection to assure disconnection only when desirable. Methods of busbar protection 1. 2. 3. 4. Overcurrent relays of connected circuits. Directional interlock. Differential protection. Frame leakage earth fault.
1. Overcurrent Relays
The fault in bus A can be sensed by R5 and R4. In this type of protection, all the circuit breakers of the busbar zone are disconnected. These are C1, C2, C3, C4 & C5. R6 & R7 will act as backup protection if C4 and C5 do not clear the fault. For fault in bus B, R8 will sense the fault and C6, C7 and C8 will open. This type of protection is slow and evolves complicated control system to discriminate faults within the zone. Also, the zone of the busbar is not clearly identified.
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2. Directional Interlock
It uses directional relays in source circuits and over current relays in load circuits. It makes the discrimination between internal and external faults possible. The contacts of the relays are interlocked in such a way that if power flows from the busbar is sufficiently low, all the circuit breakers on the source side and the load side are tripped.
3. Differential Protection
For normal conditions, the vector sum of currents entering the bus zone is equal to the vector sum of currents leaving the bus zone. i.e. Ii = zero During internal faults, the vector sum of currents in the circuits connected to bus bar is equal to fault current, i.e. Ii = If Disadvantages: 1. Large number of circuits having different current levels. 2. Saturation of CT cores due to d.c. component in s.c. current. 3. Sectionalizing of bus makes the circuit complicated.
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4. Frame leakage Earth Fault
One of the famous connections for busbars: 2 out of 3
Only 2 of the 3 circuit breakers can operate at the same time. The circuit breakers on the transformers are normally closed but the circuit breaker in the centre of the busbar is normally open.
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CHAPTER 7 Transformer Protection

A number of fault conditions can arise within a power transformer. These include: 1. Earth fault on a transformer winding. 2. Core faults due to insulation breakdown which allow sufficient eddy current to flow causing over heating. 3. Inter-turn faults occur due to winding flashover caused by line surges. 4. Phase to phase faults. This are rare in occurrence but will result in a substantial currents of magnitude similar to earth faults. 5. Tank faults due to loss of oil which produces abnormal temperature rises. 6. External abnormal conditions such as overloading, over-voltages due to transient core losses and corresponding temperature rise. Transformer Size Fuses usually protect transformer with capacity less than 500 KVA in industry and 2500 KVA in residential areas. With ratings up to 5000 KVA in residential areas, instantaneous and time delay over current relays may be more desirable. For industrial loads greater than 1500 KVA and for transformers that are part of the bulk power system it is recommended to use differential protection or harmonic restraint percentage differential relays. Also, the higher the voltage, the more sophisticated and costly the protective device.
1. Differential Protection
The protection of transformers is usually performed by differential protection. The differential protection responds to the vector difference between two similar quantities. The C.T. connected on the transformer windings should be arranged so that the same current is flowing between the two sides. A General Rule Is To Connect The CTs On Any Star Windings In Delta and In Any Delta Windings Connect CTs in Star Two basic requirements that the relay connection must satisfy are: 1. The relay must not operate for loads or external faults. 2. The relay must operate for internal faults. Fig. 1 represents differential protection of Delta-Star transformer
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Fig. 2 shows a star-star transformer to which circulating current protection has been applied. Here it will be noted that the current transformers on both sides are connected in delta.
Fig. 3 (a) is included to show how had the current transformers been connected in star, operation of the protective relay would occur on a fault outside the protected zone which we wish to avoid while Fig 3 (b) shows how this can be avoided by connecting the current transformer secondaries in delta.
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Problems arising in differential protection applied to transformers Simple differential protection system is inadequate because the following difficulties arise: 1. Difference in length of pilot wires on either sides of relays. The difficulty is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires. These are adjusted on site to get equipotential points on pilot wires. Taps can be provided on operating coil and restraining coil of relay for adjusting the balance. 2. Difference in CT ratios due to error difference at high values of short circuit currents. Because of this difference relay operates for external faults. This difficulty is over come by using biased (percentage) differential relay. In such a relay a restraining coil is connected to pilot wires. The current flowing through the restraining coil can be taken as (I1 + I2 ) /2 . With increase in current the restraining torque increases too and the current due to the CT inaccuracy is not enough to casue the relay operation. 3. Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage ( and currents ) between HV side and LV side. Differential protection should be provided with bias (restrain) which exceeds the effect of variation in secondary current due to tap changing. 4. Magnetizing current inrush: When power transformers are switched on, initially there is no induced e.m.f., the conditions is similar to switching an inductive circuit. Since the resistance of the coil is low, a large inrush of magnetizing current takes place. The magnitude of which depend on circuit conditions and the voltage at the instant of switching. Maximum values of 6 to 8 times the rated current can flow in the winding. Usually this high current decays after few cycles to the normal current but in some cases it may take 2 4 seconds. Formerly, the relay was provided with time lag of 0.2 1 second. By this time, the inrush current would vanish and the relay does not trip unnecessary. However for many faults, the relay time lag might cause substantial damage to the transformer. Next development was the use of kick of fuses to shunt the relay coils as shown in fig. 2. These fuses are of the time limit type that do not operate in the time of switching. Under sustained fault conditions, the fuses operate and the current then passes through the relay coil and trip the C.B. This also is a slow protection and may cause some problems. It also depends on the fuse. The next development was to desensitizing the relay for a short period of 0.1 to1 sec during switching. After this time the shunt across the relay coil is removed. This method can lead to switching on a transformer for long period during faults. The latest method adopted is harmonic current restraint. Since inrush current has very high contents of 2nd and 3rd harmonic currents, which may reach 65% and 25% of the fundamental respectively, the restraining differential relay senses only the fundamental component. Because the harmonic component of the short circuit current is negligible, this relay operates at faults but not sensitive to switching current. The operating coil in these relays will receive only the fundamental component of the differential current. The harmonics are usually separated and fed back into the restraining coil.
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The overload fuses shown in fig.2 provide a form of back up protection. In the event of sustained through fault, damage may be caused to the transformer. One or more of the overload fuses will operate; leaving the relay to be fed from one of CTs and thus causing relay operation. 2. Frame leakage protection
3. Restricted earth fault protection ( differential protection )
Earth faults on secondary side are not reflected on primary side when the primary winding is delta connected or has unearthed star point. In such cases, an earth fault relay connected in residual circuit of 3 CTs on primary side operates on internal faults in primary windings only. Because earth faults on secondary side do not produce zero sequence currents on primary side, restricted earth fault protection may then be used for high speed tripping for faults on star connected earthed secondary winding of power transformers. Figure 5 shows the connections of the earth fault relays connected in the residual circuit of the line CTs. Figure 6 shows the connection of the restricted earth fault protection relay in the secondary side and earth fault protection in the primary side.
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If the fault F1 is beyond the transformer windings, I1 and I2 will flow so that the current in the earth fault relay is negligible. For earth fault within the transformer star connected windings, I2 flows and I1 is negligible. Hence I2 causes the relay to trip the circuit. When fault occurs very near the neutral point of the transformer, the voltage available for driving the earth fault current is small and the fault current would be low. If the relay is adjusted to sense such small currents, it may operate under normal unbalance conditions. It is common to set the relay to pick up at about 15% of the rated current. Such setting leaves a portion of the windings unprotected. Therefore it is called restricted.
4. Bucholoz Protection: it is frequently used in transformers. Example 1: Describe with the help of a neat diagram the connections of differential protection of a transformer. A 3-phase 33/6.6 kV star/delta connected transformer is protected by Differential system. The CTs on LT side have a ratio of 300/5. Show that the CTs on HT side will have a ratio 60 : 5/3 Solution: CTs on delta side are star connected. Hence the secondary phase currents are equal to currents in pilot wires. CTs on star connected side are delta connected hence current in secondary is equal to current in pilot wires divided by 3. Assume 300 A is flowing in the lines on LT side 3 x 6.6 x 300 = 3 x 33 x I I = 60 A ( current in HT lines ) which is primary current of CT on HT side. Current in pilot wires: On the delta side of transformers the CT secondaries are star connected. Their secondary current is 5 Amp. Hence current fed in pilot wires from LT side is 5 Amperes. Same current is fed from CT connections on HT side which are delta connected. Hence secondary current of CTs on HT side is 5 / 3 Amp. Hence CT ratio on HT side is 60 : 5/3 Example 2: A 30 MVA, 11.5 kV/ kV, star-delta power transformer to be protected by differential protection. The high voltage side phase lags behind low voltage side by 30o. Formulate the complete differential protection for the transformer by selecting CT ratios, CT connections. The continuous current carrying capacity of restraining coils of the differential
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relay should not exceed 5 Amp. CT ratio is 3000/5 on 11.5 kV side. Determine CT ratio on 69 kV side. Solution: Draw work sheet for connection of differential relays showing the main transformer, CTs, operating and restraining coils of CTs (Fig. 7). Connect the pilot wires with operating coils and restraining coils as described in the earlier section. Calculate full load current for a 30 MVA, 11.5 start/69 delta power transformer. On 11.5 kV side Ip = 30000 = 1505 A 3 x 11.5 CT ratio = 3000 / 5 = 600 ( given )
Is = 1505 = 2.51 A 600 since 11.5 kV side is star connected, CT secondaries will be delta connected. Hence current fed into pilot wires from 11.5 kV side CT secondaries is 3 x 2.51 = 4.35 A On 69 kV side 30000 = 251 A 3 x 69 Current in secondary CTs = current in pilot wires. Since 69 kV side CT secondaries are connected in star = 4.35 A hence CT ratio = 251 / 4.35 = 57.7 select CT ratio = 60 secondary current = 5 A primary current = 60 x 5 = 300 ratio on 69 kV side = 300/5 Ip =
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Example 3: Consider a delta/star connected, 15 MVA, 33/11 kV transformer with differential protection applied, for the current transformer ratios shown in figure 8. Calculate the relay currents on full load. Find the minimum relay current setting to allow 125 percent overload. Solution: The HV line current is given by Ip = The LV line current is Is = 15x106 = 787.30 A 3 3 x 11x10 15x106 = 262.43 A 3 x 33x103
The CT current on the HV side is thus ip = 262.43 ( 300/5) = 4.37 A The CT current in the LV side is is = 787.30 (5/2000) 3 = 3.41 Note that we multiply by 3 to obtain the values on the line side of the delta connected CTs. The relay current at normal load is therefore ir = ip is = 4.37 3.41 = 0.9648 A with 1.25 overload ratio, the relay setting should be Ir = 1.25 (0.948) = 1.206 A Plug Setting = 1.206/5 = 24.1 %
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CHAPTER 8 STATIC & DIGITAL RELAYS

For many years, utilities have used electromechanical relays for power system protection. The result of using electromechanical relays has been an extensive maintenance and design practice. Both the maintenance and design of protection schemes using these relays is expensive and time-consuming. Over the last ten years, static and microprocessor-based relays have come of age. Static and microprocessor-based relays offer many advantages over electromechanical relays. This unit of the course compares a typical transmission line protection scheme in terms of cost, engineering design, and maintenance. The information presented in this unit of the course shows that microprocessor-based relays offer significant savings in cost, engineering design, and maintenance. Static relay is a relay in which the comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is done by stationary network, which gives a tripping signal when the threshold condition is passed, (threshold means 'on the verge of', 'on the border of'). In simple language static relay is one, which has no moving parts except in the slave device. The static relay includes devices the output circuit of which may be electric, semiconductor or even electromagnetic. But the output device does not perform relay measurement; it is essentially a tripping device. The slave relay in output circuit may be electromagnetic type, or the trip coil may be connected directly in the output circuit.
Fig.1, Block of diagram of a static relay-simplified. Fig. 1 illustrates the essential components in the static relays. The output of CT's or PT's is rectified in a Rectifier. The rectified output is fed to the measuring unit. The measuring unit comprises comparators, level detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is initiated when input reaches the threshold value. The output of measuring unit is amplified by Amplifier. The amplified output is given to the output unit which initiates the trip coil only when relay operates.
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In conventional electromagnetic the measurement is carried out by comparing operating torque/force with restraining torque/force. The conventional relay operates when operating torque/force exceeds the restraining torque/force. The pick-up of relay is obtained by motion of moving element of the relay. Whereas static relay have static circuits which perform the measurement. A simplified block diagram of a static relay is given in Fig. 1. The figure is rather a general figure. In individual relays there is a wide variation. The entity voltage, current, etc. is rectified and measured. When the quantity to be measured reaches certain well defined value, the output device is triggered. Thereby current flows in the trip circuit of the circuitbreaker. With the inventions of semi-conductor devices like diode, transistor, thyristor, Zener diode etc. there has been a tremendous leap in the field of static relay. The development of integrated circuits has made an impact on static relays. Integrated circuits are more reliable and more compact. Furthermore, the digital computers are being increasingly used in power system protection. The static relays and static protection has grown into a special branch in its own right. This chapter covers principles and applications of static relays and static protection systems in brief.
Static Vs. Electromagnetic Relays

(a) Advantages of Static Relays
The static relays compared to the corresponding electromagnetic relay have many advantages and a few limitations. (i) Low Power Consumption. Static relays provide fewer burdens on CT's and PT's as compared to conventional relays. In other words: the power consumption in the measuring circuits of static relays is generally much lower than for their electromechanical equivalents. The consumption of 1 milli-watt is quite common in static over-current relay. Whereas, an equivalent electromechanical relay can have consumption of about 2 watts. Reduced consumption has the following merits. CT's and PT's of less VA rating The accuracy of CT's and PT's is increased Problems arising out of CT saturation are avoided Overall reduction in cost of CT's and PT's. (ii) No Moving Contacts. Solid state devices do not have moving contacts. Therefore, there are no problems of contact bounce arcing, contact erosion, etc. in the static relay circuits. There is no effect of gravity on static relays. (iii) Operating Times and Various Characteristics. As the levels increase, rapid fault clearing becomes a must. The static relays do not have moving parts in their measuring circuits, hence relay times of low values can be achieved (1 cycle, cycle, etc.). Such
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low relay times are impossible with conventional electromechanical relay systems which comprise measuring relays plus auxiliary relays. A variety of characteristics can be obtained with static relays. Thereby selectivity, stability and adequateness can be achieved. Measurement of several quantities such as negative phase sequence component, frequency, harmonics, temperature, impedance, etc. can be performed by static measuring circuits (v) Remote Back up and Monitoring. Static relays resisted by power line carrier can be used for remote back-up and network monitoring. (vi) Hardware and Space Requirements Static relays are compact. Furthermore, with use of integrated circuits, complex protection schemes can be installed on a single panel. A typical three-zone step time distance scheme consists of instantaneous tripping elements, two levels of time-delayed tripping elements for phase faults and an instantaneous tripping element, and time overcurrent element for ground faults. For this example, we shall assume that the step time distance scheme uses phase distance and directional ground overcurrent elements. Phase faults are detected using three zones of phase distance relays. Ground faults are detected using a directional ground overcurrent relay, which includes a time-overcurrent element and an instantaneous overcurrent element. The protection scheme also includes a single-shot recloser for automatic line restoration after a fault has been cleared. The electromechanical relay scheme uses three-phase distance relays. These relays may cover all fault types on a per-zone basis or all three zones on a faulted phase pair basis. This depends upon the manufacturer of the distance relays. However, in either case, three distance relays are required. A timer is also required for the time-delayed backup elements. Typically, the time delay is provided from separate timers, so if one timer fails, the entire step time distance scheme is not lost. A single directional ground overcurrent relay shall be used for ground fault detection. A single-shot reclosing relay shall also be provided for restoring the line. A non-directional overcurrent relay shall be used to supervise the distance relays. The electromechanical relay scheme panel layout is shown in Figure 2. Note that the electromechanical scheme requires nearly all of the space contained in an 84-inch by 19inch panel. The microprocessor-based scheme shall consist of a multifunction relay that provides three zones of step time distance protection, three levels of instantaneous or definite time directional ground overcurrent protection, a directional ground time-overcurrent function, and three-shot recloser. The microprocessor-based scheme shall also include a singlezone microprocessor-based relay as a backup in case of failure of the primary multi-zone relay. Figure 3 shows the panel layout for the microprocessor-based relay scheme. The space requirement for the microprocessor-based relay scheme is much less than the electromechanical relay scheme.
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Figure 2
Figure 3
Given that the cost of all the relays for the electromechanical scheme is 1 per unit (p.u.), the cost of the microprocessor-based relay scheme is 0.35 p.u. (vii) Static Relays can 'think'. Complex protection schemes employ logic circuits. ['Logic' means the process of reasoning, induction or deduction.] Suppose, several conditions are imposed on a protective system such that for certain conditions, the relay should operate, and for some other conditions, the relay should remain stable; in such cases, logic gates can he adopted. (viii) Repeated Operations Possible. Static relays can be designed for repeated operations if necessary. (ix) Effect of Vibrations and Shocks. Most of the components in static relays, including the auxiliary relays in the output stage are relatively indifferent to vibrations and shocks. The risk of unwanted tripping is, therefore, less with static relays as compared to the electromechanical relays. This aspect makes the static relays uniquely suitable for earthquake prone areas, ships, vehicles locomotives, airplanes, etc. (x) Transducers. Several non-electrical quantities can be converted into electrical quantities and then fed to static relays. Amplifiers are used wherever necessary. (XI) Easy Testing
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Installation Tests Installation tests are used to verify that the relays are set correctly and that the scheme is designed correctly for the intended application. Routine tests are performed to ensure that the relays are functioning within established specifications. A scheme designed with electromechanical relays requires a large number of tests during installation to ensure that the overall scheme is functioning properly. Each discrete relay must be tested and calibrated. For the step time distance scheme example, at least seven discrete relays must be tested. The testing of each relay requires that the relay be connected to the test equipment, the various setting adjustments are made, and the relay is tested per an established test routine. If the relay test results are outside established guidelines, the relay must be calibrated. The calibration routine can be very time-consuming. After each relay has been tested, the scheme must be "trip-checked" to ensure that all of the wiring and trip circuits are correct. Many times, trip-checking an electromechanical scheme is a simple matter of manually closing an output contact. Therefore, the trip-checks can be very simple. However, due to the many discrete devices used in the scheme, the trip-checks can be very time-consuming and, in case of an incorrect design or wiring error, require many hours of trouble shooting when searching for problems. A static or a microprocessor-based relay scheme is very simple to test and verify .A microprocessor-based relay operates using software programming. The operation of the various functions and logic has been fully verified and tested by the relay manufacturer. In many cases, the utility has also tested the relay to ensure that the relay conforms to the specifications stated by the manufacturer. Once the relay has been fully tested, the software that defines the operating characteristics of the relay has been verified. Therefore, it is not required to fully test each relay given that the relays are of the same type and software version. The installation tests for a static or a microprocessor-based relay should be designed to verify that the relay settings have been entered correctly. The test series should be designed to check the relay pick-up at critical points. For example, the distance element should be tested at the angle of maximum torque and 30 degrees off the angle of maximum torque. These test points verify the distance element settings. Overcurrent elements should also be tested using a very simple test routine. Trip checks using a static or a microprocessor-based relay are very simple due to the fact that there are fewer contacts to check and less wiring to verify .In many cases, a software command may be used to close specific output contacts. Using a software command to close relay outputs is simpler than connecting voltage and current test sources to the relay to perform fault simulations. Routine Tests Routine tests must be performed on electromechanical relays to verify that they are operating within specified guidelines. These tests may be at one to three year intervals for distance relays based upon the specific utility's practice. The routine tests performed on an electromechanical relay are very similar to those done during the installation process. The relays must be thoroughly tested to verify that all of the 6 internal components are operating 63
within specified tolerances. Routine tests also confirm that all contacts and external circuits are functioning properly. Most static and microprocessor-based relays perform routine self-checks to ensure that the critical circuitry in the relay is functioning properly. Microprocessor-based relays continuously run the same software routines. Therefore, if the relay is functioning properly, the relay algorithms shall operate correctly. Routine maintenance in a microprocessor-based relay consists of verifying that the inputs, outputs, and data acquisition system are functioning properly. If the relay is properly measuring the analog currents and voltages and the self-check status show that the relay is healthy, the relay shall function correctly. The only other checks necessary are to verify that the output contacts and logic inputs are operating correctly. Given the microprocessor-based relay includes sufficient self-checking and a common data acquisition system is used for relaying as well as metering, routine maintenance can be significantly reduced. Many utilities have extended the routine maintenance cycle of microprocessor-based relays from one and one-half to three times that used on electromechanical relays. Other Features of Static and Microprocessor-Based Relays Static and Microprocessor-based relays offer many other features that electromechanical relays do not offer such as fault locating, event reporting, advanced metering functions and control capability. Fault locating has become a standard feature in nearly all microprocessorbased relays. The fault locating information reduces patrol time on permanently faulted lines. The fault locating information can also be used to evaluate problem areas on transmission lines. The event record provides data on the internal relay element operation and the currents and voltage waveforms at the time of operation. This is similar to having a fault recorder on every breaker where a microprocessor-based relay is installed. The event data is an invaluable tool in evaluating relay and system performance. The microprocessor-based relay also provides analog metering quantities such as threephase currents, voltages, megawatts, and megavars. In many cases, analog transducers are not required. The data can also be directly interfaced digitally to the SCADA RTU .You can also send the fault locator information to the system control center for dispatching a patrol crew.
(b)Limitations of Static Relays

Static relays have certain limitations as compared to their equivalent electromechanical relays. During last seventy five years electromechanical relay technology has been developed to a satisfactory extent. Reliable and economic electromechanical protective systems are being manufactured and used in almost all countries in the world. The users have enough experience about choice, installation, maintenance, testing, etc. of such relays. Whereas static relays have been developed only during past twenty-years. Their manufacture and use has increased substantially during last twenty years. The cost of static relays is tending to become favorable, especially with the use of integrated circuits which are now used as building blocks in static relay. The disadvantages and limitations of static relays are the following: 64
(i) Auxiliary Voltage Requirement. This disadvantage is not of any importance as auxiliary voltage can he obtained from station battery supply and conveniently stepped down to suit local requirements. (ii) Voltage Transients. The static relays are sensitive to voltage spikes or voltage transients. Such voltage transients caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of CT's and PTs. Serious over voltage are also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts, etc. Such voltage spikes of small duration can damage the semiconductor components and can also cause maloperation of relays. Several relay failures were recorded during 1960's due to the above mentioned cause. The measurements showed that the voltage spikes in secondary circuits can attain an amplitude of 20 kV in rare cases and generally 12 kV. Special measures are taken in static relays to overcome this difficulty. These include, use of filter circuits in relays, screening the cable connected to the relays. (iii) Temperature Dependence of Static Relays. . The characteristics of semiconductors are influenced by ambient temperature. For example the amplification factor of a transistor, the forward voltage drop of a diode, etc., change with temperature variation. This was a serious limitation of static relays in the beginning. Accurate measurement of relay should not be affected by temperature variation. Relays should be accurate over wide range temperatures(-10oCto+50oC). This difficulty is overcome by the following measures: Individual component in circuits are used in such a way that change in characteristic of components does not affect the characteristic of the complete relay. Temperature compensation is provided by means of thermistor circuits, digital measuring techniques, etc. Thus, modern static relays are designed to suit wide o o temperatures (-10 C to +50 C).
(vi) Price. The price of static relays is higher than the equivalent electromechanical types. In advanced countries, the difference is gradually reducing now. (v) In electromagnetic relays, the pick-up of relay or reset of relays does not affect the relay characteristic since the operation is based on the comparison between operating torques. However, the static relay characteristic is likely to be affected by the operation of output device.
Reliability of Static Relays

Reliability of protective relaying is very important. Electromechanical relays have high reliability, due to (1) precision, manufacture (2) few, reliable components in their construction, (3) experience gained in, designing, manufacturing, testing, and maintenance. Relays are in early stage and have to prove their reliability. As the static relays have several discrete components such as resistors, capacitors, semi-conductors in their construction, reliability depends on reliability of these components and reliability of the total assembly.
65
Static Relays circuits

The static relay unit comprises several functional circuits such as : input circuit with main CT's, Auxiliary CT's rectifiers, smoothing circuits, filters comparator level detector amplifiers timer circuit setting device filter circuit starting relay directional unit output stage, etc. The required functional circuits or units are connected in the final assembly. Input Stage The input is derived from CT/PT. The output of CT/PT is connected to the auxiliary CT/PT. The input stage of a static relay comprise the following: CT's and or PT's. Summation units. Auxiliary CT's or PT's. Filter. Rectifiers and Smoothing Circuit In single actuating quantity relays, the quantities are rectified in a single rectifier bridge. The output of the rectifier is smoothened to remove the ripple. The output is given to the level detector. Single actuating quantity relays include overcurrent relay, under voltage relay etc. In double actuating quantity rectifier relay there are generally two rectifier bridges. The output of these bridges is compared. The output of the comparator is given to the measuring unit (level detector) after smoothing. Comparators Comparators receive the rectified inputs. After comparison the comparator output is given to the measuring unit. There are several types of comparators such as amplitude comparator, phase comparator, hybrid comparators. These are either direct (instantaneous) or integrating type. Level Detector or Measuring Unit This unit comprises a multi-stage feedback' amplifier. The feedback ensure that for values of unit above a certain level, the output power increases in a step. Hence for input below threshold value, the level detector has no output. For input above threshold value, the output is obtained. 66
The measuring unit comprises logic circuits, amplifiers and level detector circuit. The logic elements determine the conditions of various input quantities for which output is obtained. Amplifiers The output of level detector is further amplified by amplifier. The amplifier strengthens the weaker signal. The output of the amplifier is given to the starting relay or output device. Time-delay Element The time-delay element is introduced between level detector and the amplifier. The timedelay can be adjusted by changing R-C Combinations. Output Stage The output stage of static relay may have one of the following: electromagnetic relay such as permanent magnet moving coil relay. thyristor in series with trip coil and auxiliary switch. The operation of the complete relay is a team-work of these functional blocks. The manufacturers supply variety of relays of the same type but having certain modifications to suit particular applications by putting together required functional blocks. For example, a time-delay unit is added to get time delay ; a volt-ratiobox may be added to permit selection of auxiliary supply voltage ;output stage may have an electromagnetic relay or a thyristorized trip. Hence, the relay assembly is built up of various blocks, each serving certain specific function. Such blocks are called functional components of static relays. Studying these functional components first and then the block-diagrams of various relays simplify the study of static relays.
67
APPENDIX A ELECTRICAL DEVICE NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS

The devices in control and switching equipment are referred to by numbers, with appropriate suffix letters when necessary, according to the functions they perform. These numbers are based on the IEEE standard for automatic switchgear and are incorporated in American National Standard C37.2-1970.
Device No. 1 2 3
Definition and Function Master Element is the initiating device, such as a control switch, voltage relay, or float switch, which serves either directly or through such permissive devices as protective and time-delay relays to place an equipment in or out of operation. Time-Delay Starting or Closing Relay is a device that functions to give a desired amount of time delay before or after any point of operation in a switching sequence or protective relay system, except as specifically provided by device functions 48, 62, and 79. Checking or Interlocking Relay is a relay that operates in response to the position of a number of other devices (or to a number of predetermined conditions) in an equipment, to allow an operating sequence to proceed, or to stop, or to provide a check of the position of these devices or of these conditions for any purpose. Master Contactor is a device, generally controlled by device function 1 or the equivalent and the required permissive and protective devices, that serves to make and break the necessary control circuits to place an equipment into operation under the desired conditions and to take it out of operation under other or abnormal conditions. Stopping Device is a control device used primarily to shut down equipment and hold it out of operation. (This device may be manually or electrically actuated, but excludes the function of electrical lockout [see device function 86] on abnormal conditions.) Starting Circuit Breaker is a device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of starting voltage. Anode Circuit Breaker is a device used in the anode circuits of a power rectifier for the primary purpose of interrupting the rectifier circuit if an arc-back should occur. Control Power Disconnecting Device is a disconnecting device, such as a knife switch, circuit breaker, or pull-out fuse block, used for the purpose of respectively connecting and disconnecting the source of control power to and from the control bus or equipment. NOTE: Control power is considered to include auxiliary power, which supplies such apparatus as small motors and heaters. Reversing Device is a device that is used for the purpose of reversing a machine field or for performing any other reversing functions. Unit Sequence Switch is a switch that is used to change the sequence in which units may be placed in and out of service in multiple-unit equipments. Reserved for future application.
5 6 7 8
9 10 11
A-1
12 13 14 15 16 17
Over-speed Device is usually a direct-connected speed switch, which functions on machine overspeed. Synchronous-speed Device is a device such as a centrifugal-speed switch, a slip-frequency relay, a voltage relay, an undercurrent relay, or any type of device that operates at approximately the synchronous speed of a machine. Under-speed Device is a device that functions when the speed of a machine falls below a predetermined value. Speed or Frequency Matching Device is device that functions to match and hold the speed or the frequency of a machine or of a system equal to, or approximately equal to, that of another machine, source, or system. Reserved for future application. Shunting or Discharge Switch is a switch that serves to open or to close a shunting circuit around any piece of apparatus (except a resistor), such as a machine field, a machine armature, a capacitor, or a reactor. NOTE: This excludes devices that perform such shunting operations as may be necessary in the process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42, or their equivalent, and also excludes device function 73 that serves for the switching of resistors. Accelerating or Decelerating Device is a device that is used to close or to cause the closing of circuits which are used to increase or decrease the speed of a machine. Starting-to-Running Transition Contactor is a device that operates to initiate or cause the automatic transfer of a machine from the starting to the running power connection. Electrically Operated Valve is an electrically operated, controlled, or monitored valve used in a fluid line. Distance Relay is a relay that functions when the circuit admittance, impedance, or reactance increases or decreases beyond predetermined limits. Equalizer Circuit Breaker is a breaker that serves to control or to make and break the equalizer or the current-balancing connections for a machine field, or for regulating equipment, in a multiple-unit installation Temperature Control Device is a device that functions to raise or lower the temperature of a machine or other apparatus, or of any medium, when its temperature falls below, or rises above, a predetermined value. NOTE: An example is a thermostat that switches on a space heater in a switchgear assembly when the temperature falls to a desired value as distinguished from a device that is used to provide automatic temperature regulation between close limits and would be designated as device function 90T Reserved for future application. Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device is a device that operates when two a-c circuits are within the desired limits of frequency, phase angle, or voltage to permit or to cause the paralleling of these two circuits. Apparatus Thermal Device is a device that functions when the temperature of the shunt field or the amortisseur winding of a machine, or that of a load limiting or load shifting resistor or of a liquid or other medium, exceeds a predetermined value; or if the temperature of the protected apparatus, such as a power rectifier, or of any medium, decreases below a predetermined value. Undervoltage Relay is a relay that functions on a given value of undervoltage. Flame Detector is a device that monitors the presence of the pilot or main flame in such apparatus as a gas turbine or a steam boiler.
18 19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26
27 28
A-2
29 30 31 32 33 34
Isolating Contactor is a device that is used expressly for disconnecting one circuit from another for the purposes of emergency operation, maintenance, or test. Annunciator Relay is a non-automatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications upon the functioning of protective devices, and which may also be arranged to perform a lockout function Separate Excitation Device is a device that connects a circuit, such as the shunt field of a synchronous converter, to a source of separate excitation during the starting sequence, or one that energizes the excitation and ignition circuits of a power rectifier. Directional Power Relay is a device that functions on a desired value of power flow in a given direction or upon reverse power resulting from arcback in the anode or cathode circuits of a power rectifier Position Switch is a switch that makes or breaks contact when the main device or piece of apparatus which has no device function number reaches a given position. Master Sequence Device is a device such as a motor-operated multi-contact switch, or the equivalent, or a programming device, such as a computer, that establishes or determines the operating sequence of the major devices in equipment during starting and stopping or during other sequential switching operations. Brush-operating or Slip-ring Short-circuiting Device is a device for raising, lowering, or shifting the brushes of a machine, or for shortcircuiting its slip rings, or for engaging or disengaging the contacts of a mechanical rectifier. Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device is a device that operates, or permits the operation of, another device on a predetermined polarity only, or verifies the presence of a polarizing voltage in equipment. Undercurrent or Underpower Relay is a relay that functions when the current or power flow decreases below a predetermined value. Bearing Protective Device is a device that functions on excessive bearing temperature, or on other abnormal mechanical conditions associated with the bearing, such as undue wear, which may eventually result in excessive bearing temperature or failure. Mechanical Condition Monitor is a device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal mechanical condition (except that associated with bearings as covered under device function 38), such as excessive vibration, eccentricity, expansion, shock, tilting, or seal failure. Field Relay is a relay that functions on a given or abnormally low value or failure of machine field current, or on an excessive value of the reactive component of armature current in an a-c machine indicating abnormally low field excitation. Field Circuit Breaker is a device that functions to apply or remove the field excitation of a machine. Running Circuit Breaker is a device whose principal function is to connect a machine to its source of running or operating voltage. This function may also be used for a device, such as a contactor, that is used in series with a circuit breaker or other fault protecting means, primarily for frequent opening and closing of the circuit. Manual Transfer or Selector Device is a manually operated device that transfers control circuits in order to modify the plan of operation of the switching equipment or of some of the devices. Unit Sequence Starting Relay is a relay that functions to start the next available unit in a multiple-unit equipment upon the failure or nonavailability of the normally preceding unit. Atmospheric Condition Monitor is a device that functions upon the occurrence of an abnormal atmospheric condition, such as damaging fumes, explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire.
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
43 44 45
A-3
46 47 48
Reverse-phase or Phase-balance Current Relay is a relay that functions when the polyphase currents are of reverse-phase sequence, or when the polyphase currents are unbalanced or contain negative phase-sequence components above a given amount. Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay is a relay that functions upon a predetermined value of polyphase voltage in the desired phase sequence. Incomplete Sequence Relay is a relay that generally returns the equipment to the normal, or off, position and locks it out if the normal starting, operating, or stopping sequence is not properly completed within a predetermined time. If the device is used for alarm purposes only, it should preferably be designated as 48A (alarm) Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay is a relay that functions when the temperature of a machine armature or other load-carrying winding or element of a machine or the temperature of a power rectifier or power transformer (including a power rectifier transformer) exceeds a predetermined value. Instantaneous overcurrent or Rate-of-rise Relay is a relay that functions instantaneously on an excessive value of current or on an excessive rate of current rise, thus indicating a fault in the apparatus or circuit being protected. A-C Time Overcurrent Relay is a relay with either a definite or inverse time characteristic that functions when the current in an ac-circuit exceeds a predetermined value. A-C Circuit Breaker is a device that is used to close and interrupt an a-c power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. Exciter or D-C Generator Relay is a relay that forces the d-c machine field excitation to build up during the starting or which functions when the machine voltage has built up to a given value. Reserved for future application. Power Factor Relay is a relay that operates when the power factor in an a-c circuit rises above or falls below a predetermined value. Field Application Relay is a relay that automatically controls the application of the field excitation to an a-c motor at some predetermined point in the slip cycle. Short-circuiting or Grounding Device is a primary circuit switching device that functions to short-circuit or to ground a circuit in response to automatic or manual means. Rectification Failure Relay is a device that functions if one or more anodes of a power rectifier fail to fire, or to detect an arc-back, or on failure of a diode to conduct or block properly. Overvoltage Relay is a relay that functions on a given value of overvoltage. Voltage or Current Balance Relay is a relay that operates on a given difference in voltage, or current input or output, of two circuits. Reserved for future application. Time-delay Stopping or Opening Relay is a time-delay relay that serves in conjunction with the device that initiates the shutdown, stopping, or opening operation in an automatic sequence or protective relay system. Pressure Switch is a switch which operates on given values, or on a given rate of change, of pressure. Ground Protective Relay is a relay that functions on failure of the insulation of a machine, transformer, or of other apparatus to ground, or on flashover of a d-c machine to ground.
49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
A-4
NOTE: This function is assigned only to a relay that detects the flow of current from the frame of a machine or enclosing case or structure of a piece of apparatus to ground, or detects a ground on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. it is not applied to a device connected in the secondary circuit of a current transformer, or in the secondary neutral of current transformers, connected in the power circuit of a normally grounded system. 65 66 Governor is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or mechanical control equipment used for regulating the flow of water, steam, or other medium to the prime mover for such purposes as starting, holding speed or load, or stopping. Notching or Jogging Device is a device that functions to allow only a specified number of operations of a given device, or equipment, or a specified number of successive operations within a give time of each other. It is also a device that functions to energize a circuit periodically or for fractions of specified time intervals, or that is used to permit intermittent acceleration or jogging of a machine at low speeds for mechanical positioning. A-C Directional Overcurrent Relay is a relay that functions on a desired value of , a-c overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction. Blocking Relay is a relay that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of tripping on external faults in a transmission line or in other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or cooperates with other devices to block tripping or to block reclosing on an out-of-step condition or on power swings. Permissive Control Device is generally a two-position, manually operated switch that, in one position, permits the closing of a circuit breaker, or the placing of an equipment into operation, and in the other position prevents the circuit breaker or the equipment from being operated. Rheostat is variable resistance device used in an electric circuit, which is electrically operated or has other electrical accessories, such as auxiliary, position, or limit switches. Level Switch is a switch which operates on given values or on a given rate of change, of level D-C Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker that is used to close and interrupt a d-c power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. Load-resistor Contactor is a contactor that is used to shunt or insert a step of loading limiting, shifting, or indicating resistance in a power circuit, or to switch a space heater in circuit, or to switch a light or regenerative load resistor of a power rectifier or other machine in and out of circuit. Alarm Relay is a relay other than an annunciator, as covered under device function 30 that is used to operate, or to operate in connection with, a visual or audible alarm. Position Changing Mechanism is a mechanism that is used for moving a main device from one position to another in an equipment: as for example, shifting a removable circuit breaker unit to and from the connected, disconnected, and test positions. D-C Overcurrent Relay is a relay that functions when the current in a d-c circuit exceeds a given value. Pulse Transmitter is used to generate and transmit pulses over a tele metering or pilot-wire circuit to the remote indicating or receiving device. Phase-angle Measuring or Out-of-step Protective Relay is a relay that functions at a predetermined phase angle between two voltages or between two currents or between voltage and current. A-C Reclosing Relay is a relay that controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an a-c circuit interrupter. Flow Switch is a switch which operates on given values, or on a given rate of change of flow. Frequency Relay is a relay that functions on a predetermined value of frequency (either under or over or on normal system frequency) or rate of
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
A-5
change of frequency. 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 D-C Reclosing Relay is a relay that controls the automatic closing and reclosing of a d-c circuit interrupter, generally in response to load circuit conditions. Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay is a relay that operates to select automatically between certain sources or conditions in an equipment, or performs a transfer operation automatically. Operating Mechanism is the complete electrical mechanism or servomechanism, including the operating motor, solenoids, position switches, etc., for a tap changer, induction regulator, or any similar piece of apparatus which otherwise has no device function number. Carrier or Pilot-wire Receiver Relay is a relay that is operated or restrained by a signal used in connection with carrier-current or d-c pilot-wire fault directional relaying. Locking-out Relay is an electrically operated hand, or electrically, reset relay or device that functions to shut down or hold an equipment out of service, or both, upon the occurrence of abnormal conditions. Differential Protective Relay is a protective relay that functions on a percentage or phase angle or other quantitative difference of two currents or of some other electrical quantities. Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator is one used for operating auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers, etc. Line Switch is a switch used as a disconnecting, load-interrupter, or isolating switch in an a-c or d-c power circuit, when this device is electrically operated or has electrical accessories, such as an auxiliary switch, magnetic lock, etc. Regulating Device is a device that functions to regulate a quantity, or quantities, such as voltage, current, power, speed, frequency, temperature, and load, at a certain value or between certain (generally close) limits for machines, tie lines or other apparatus. Voltage Directional Relay is a relay that operates when the voltage across an open circuit breaker or contactor exceeds a given value in a given direction. Voltage and Power Directional Relay is a relay that permits or causes the connection of two circuits when the voltage difference between them exceeds a given value in a predetermined direction and causes these two circuits to be disconnected from each other when the power flowing between them exceeds a given value in the opposite direction. Field-changing Contactor is a contactor that functions to increase or decrease, in one step, the value of field excitation on a machine. Tripping or Trip-free Relay is a relay that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment, or to permit immediate tripping by other device, or to prevent immediate reclosure of a circuit interrupter if it should open automatically even though its closing circuit is maintained closed. Numbers from 95 to 99 should be assigned only for those functions in specific cases where none of the assigned standard device function numbers are applicable. Numbers, which are reserved for future application, should not be used.
93 94 95 96 97 98 99
A-6
APPENDIX B Definitions of Relay Terms

The following definitions include terminology and nomenclature in common use in the relay industry. They have been compiled using information from the IEEE and the National Association of Relay Manufacturers. In instances where different terms are used synonymously, one has been defined and others have been cross-referenced to it. When the phrase "sometimes used for" is employed, a preference is implied for the terminology following the phrase, when "same as" is used; no strong preference is inferred. Air Gap.-Sometimes used for Contact Separation or for Magnetic Air Gap. Armature Relay.-A relay operated by an electromagnet which, when energized, causes an armature to be attracted to a fixed pole (or poles). Auxiliary Relay. -A relay, which operates in response to the opening and closing of its operating circuit to assist another relay or device in the performance of a function. Back Contacts.-Sometimes used for the stationary contact of single-pole normally closed contacts. Backup Relaying. -Supplementary relaying designed to operate if a primary relay should malfunction or a circuit breaker fails to operate. Backup relaying usually disconnects more of the power system than just the part with the faulty element, as this is necessary in order to remove the abnormal condition and to minimize the effect on the remainder of the system. Contact Arrangement.-Contact arrangement refers to the combination of the different basic contact forms to make up the entire relay switching structure. Contact Gap.-Same as Contact Separation. Contact Separation.-The maximum distance between mating relay contacts when the contacts are in the open position. Contact Spring.-A current-carrying spring to which the contacts are fastened. Contacts.-Current-carrying parts of a relay which engage or disengage to make or break electrical circuits. Contactor.-Sometimes used for a relay with heavy-duty contacts. Current Relay.-A relay which is designed to operate at a particular rated coil current rather than at a given rated coil voltage. Delay Relay.-A relay that is intentionally designed for a time delay between the energizing or deenergizing instant and the time that the relay contacts open or close. Differential relay.-A relay having multiple windings which functions when the voltage, current, or power difference between the windings reaches a predetermined value. Directional Relay.-A relay that allows tripping for current flow in one direction only. Drop-out Values.-The drop-out current, voltage, or power is the maximum value for which the contacts of a previously energized relay will always assume their unenergized positions. Electric Reset.-A qualify term applied to a relay indicating that following an operation its contacts must be reset electrically to their original positions. Electromagnetic Relay.-A relay whose operation involves the use of a magnetic field which is produced by an electromagnet. Fast-operate Relay.-A high-speed relay specifically designed for short operate time but not short release time. Fast-operate, Fast-release Relay.-A high-speed relay specifically designed for both short operate time and short release time. Fast-operate, Slow-release Relay.-A relay specifically designed for short release time but not short operate time. Fast-release Relay.-A high-speed relay specifically designed for short release time but not short long release time. Fixed Contacts.-The stationary contacts of a relay which are engaged and disengaged by moving contacts to make or break circuits. Frame.-The structure on which the coil and contact assembly are mounted. Front Contacts.-Sometimes used for the stationary contact of single-pole normally open contacts. General-purpose Relay.-A readily available relay which has design, construction, operational characteristics, and ratings such that it is adaptable to a wide variety of uses. Hand-reset.-A qualifying term applied to a relay indicating that following an operation the contacts must be reset manually to their original positions.
A-7

High-speed Relay.-A relay specifically designed for short operate time, release time, or both. Hold Values.-The hold current, voltage, or power is the minimum value for which the contacts of a previously energized relay will always maintain their energized positions. Instrument Relay.-A relay, the operation of which depends upon principles employed in electrical measuring instruments such as the electrodynamometer, iron-vane and D'Arsonval. Interlock relay.-A relay composed of two or more coils with their armatures and associated contacts so arranged that the freedom of one armature to move or its coil to be energized is dependent upon the position of the armature. Normal Position. -The usual deenergized position, open or closed, of contacts due to spring tension or gravity Normal Sequence of Operation.-The sequence in which all the normally closed contacts open before closure of the normally open contacts of the assembly. Normal-speed Relay.-A relay in the design of which no attempt has been made either to increase or decrease the operate time or the release time. Normally Closed Contacts.-A combination of a stationary contact and movable contact which are engaged when the coil is unenergized. Normally Open Contacts.-A combination of a stationary contact and a movable contact which are not engaged when the coil is unenergized. Operate Time.-If a relay has only normally closed contacts, its operate time is the longest time interval given by definition (a) below. If a relay has normally open contacts (regardless of whether or not it has normally closed contacts) its operate time is the longest time interval given by definition (b). (a) Operate Time for Normally closed Contacts. -Operate time for normally closed contacts is the total elapsed time from the instant the coil is energized until the contacts have operated; i.e., the contact current is zero. (b) Operate Time for Normally Open Contacts.-Operate time for normally open contacts is the total elapsed time from the instant the coil is energized until the contacts are closed and all contact bounce has ceased. Operate Values.-Same as Pick-up Values. Operating Frequency.-The rated a-c frequency of the supply voltage at which the relay coil is designed to operated. Overload Relay.-A relay which is specifically designed to operate when its coil current reaches a predetermined value above normal. Overvoltage Relay.-A relay which is specifically designed to operate when its coil voltage reaches a predetermined value above normal. Pick-up Values.-The pick-up voltage, current, or power is the minimum value for which the contacts of a previously deenergized relay will always assume their energized position. Plunger Relay.-A relay operated by energizing an electromagnetic coil which in turn operates a movable core or plunger by solenoid action. Rated Coil Current.-The steady-state coil current at which the relay is designed to operate. Rated Coil Voltage.-The coil voltage at which the relay is designed to operate. Rated Contact Current. -The current which the contacts are designed to carry for their rated life. Relay.-A device which is operated by variation in the conditions of one electric circuit to affect the operation of other devices in the same or other electric circuits by either opening circuits or closing circuits or both. Release Factor. -The ratio, expressed in percent, of drop-out current to rated current or the analogous voltage ratio. Release Time.-If a relay has only normally open contacts, its release time is the longest time interval given by definition (a) below. If a relay has normally closed contacts (regardless of whether or not it has normally open contacts) its operate time is the longest time interval given by definition (b). (a) Release Time for Normally Open Contacts.-Release time for normally open contacts is the total elapsed time from the instant the coil current starts to drop from its rated value until the contacts have opened, i.e., the contact current is zero. (b) Release Time for Normally closed Contacts.-Release time for normally closed contacts is the total time from the instant the coil current starts to drop from its rated value until the contacts are closed and all contact bounce has ceased. Release Values.-Same as Drop-out Values. Selector Relay.-A relay capable or automatically selecting one or more circuits from a number of circuits. Slave Relay.-Sometimes used for Auxiliary Relay.
A-8

Slow-operate, Fast-release Relay.-A relay specifically designed for long operate time and short release time. Slow-operate Relay. -A slow-speed relay which has been specifically designed for long operate time but not for long release time. Slow-operate, Slow-release Relay.-A slow-speed relay specifically designed for both long operate time and long release time. Slow-release Relay.-A slow-speed relay specifically designed for long release time, but not for long operate time. Solenoid Relay.-Sometimes used for a Plunger Relay. Solid State Relays.-Relays that use various low-power components - diodes, transistors, and thyristors, and associated resistor and capacitors. These components are designed into logic units used in many ways. Stationary Contact.-A contact member which is rigidly fastened to the relay frame and which is not moved as a direct result of energizing or deenergizing the relay. Thermal Relay.-A relay which is operated by the heating effect caused by electric current flow. Time-delay Relay.-A relay in which a delayed action is purposely introduced. Trip Values.-The trip voltage, current, or power is the rated value at which a bistable polarized relay will transfer from one contact to another. Undercurrent Relay.-A relay specifically designed to function when its coil current falls below a predetermined value. Undervoltage Relay.-A relay specifically designed to function when its coil voltage falls below a predetermined value.
A-9
ANNEX B Relay Construction

An electric current through a conductor will produce a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped into a coil shape, the magnetic field produced will be oriented along the length of the coil. The greater the current, the greater the strength of the magnetic field, all other factors being equal:
Inductors react against changes in current because of the energy stored in this magnetic field. When we construct a transformer from two inductor coils around a common iron core, we use this field to transfer energy from one coil to the other. However, there are simpler and more direct uses for electromagnetic fields than the applications we've seen with inductors and transformers. The magnetic field produced by a coil of current-carrying wire can be used to exert a mechanical force on any magnetic object, just as we can use a permanent magnet to attract magnetic objects, except that this magnet (formed by the coil) can be turned on or off by switching the current on or off through the coil. If we place a magnetic object near such a coil for the purpose of making that object move when we energize the coil with electric current, we have what is called a solenoid. The movable magnetic object is called an armature, and most armatures can be moved with either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) energizing the coil. The polarity of the magnetic field is irrelevant for the purpose of attracting an iron armature. Solenoids can be used to electrically open door latches, open or shut valves, move robotic limbs, and even actuate electric switch mechanisms. However, if a solenoid is used to actuate a set of switch contacts, we have a device so useful it deserves its own name: the relay. Relays are extremely useful when we have a need to control a large amount of current and/or voltage with a small electrical signal. The relay coil, which produces the magnetic field, may only consume fractions of a watt of power, while the contacts closed or opened by that magnetic field may be able to conduct hundreds of times that amount of power to a load. In effect, a relay acts as a binary (on or off) amplifier. Just as with transistors, the relay's ability to control one electrical signal with another finds application in the construction of logic functions. This topic will be covered in greater detail in another lesson. For now, the relay's "amplifying" ability will be explored.
B-1
In the above schematic, the relay's coil is energized by the low-voltage (12 VDC) source, while the single-pole, single-throw (SPST) contact interrupts the high-voltage (480 VAC) circuit. It is quite likely that the current required to energize the relay coil will be hundreds of times less than the current rating of the contact. Typical relay coil currents are well below 1 amp, while typical contact ratings for industrial relays are at least 10 amps. One relay coil/armature assembly may be used to actuate more than one set of contacts. Those contacts may be normally-open, normally-closed, or any combination of the two. As with switches, the "normal" state of a relay's contacts is that state when the coil is deenergized, just as you would find the relay sitting on a shelf, not connected to any circuit. Relay contacts may be open-air pads of metal alloy, mercury tubes, or even magnetic reeds, just as with other types of switches. The choice of contacts in a relay depends on the same factors which dictate contact choice in other types of switches. Open-air contacts are the best for high-current applications, but their tendency to corrode and spark may cause problems in some industrial environments. Mercury and reed contacts are sparkless and won't corrode, but they tend to be limited in current-carrying capacity. Shown here are three small relays (about two inches in height, each), installed on a panel as part of an electrical control system at a municipal water treatment plant:
B-2
The relay units shown here are called "octal-base," because they plug into matching sockets, the electrical connections secured via eight metal pins on the relay bottom. The screw terminal connections you see in the photograph where wires connect to the relays are actually part of the socket assembly, into which each relay is plugged. This type of construction facilitates easy removal and replacement of the relay(s) in the event of failure. Aside from the ability to allow a relatively small electric signal to switch a relatively large electric signal, relays also offer electrical isolation between coil and contact circuits. This means that the coil circuit and contact circuit(s) are electrically insulated from one another. One circuit may be DC and the other AC (such as in the example circuit shown earlier), and/or they may be at completely different voltage levels, across the connections or from connections to ground. While relays are essentially binary devices, either being completely on or completely off, there are operating conditions where their state may be indeterminate, just as with semiconductor logic gates. In order for a relay to positively "pull in" the armature to actuate the contact(s), there must be a certain minimum amount of current through the coil. This minimum amount is called the pull-in current, and it is analogous to the minimum input voltage that a logic gate requires to guarantee a "high" state (typically 2 Volts for TTL, 3.5 Volts for CMOS). Once the armature is pulled closer to the coil's center, however, it takes less magnetic field flux (less coil current) to hold it there. Therefore, the coil current must drop below a value significantly lower than the pull-in current before the armature "drops out" to its spring-loaded position and the contacts resume their normal state. This current level is called the drop-out current, and it is analogous to the maximum input voltage that a logic gate input will allow to guarantee a "low" state (typically 0.8 Volts for TTL, 1.5 Volts for CMOS). The hysteresis, or difference between pull-in and drop-out currents, results in operation that is similar to a Schmitt trigger logic gate. Pull-in and drop-out currents (and voltages) vary widely from relay to relay, and are specified by the manufacturer.

REVIEW: A solenoid is a device that produces mechanical motion from the energization of an electromagnet coil. The movable portion of a solenoid is called an armature. A relay is a solenoid set up to actuate switch contacts when its coil is energized. Pull-in current is the minimum amount of coil current needed to actuate a solenoid or relay from its "normal" (de-energized) position. Drop-out current is the maximum coil current below which an energized relay will return to its "normal" state.
B-3

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ELECTRIC POWER AND MACHINES DEPARTMENT Faculty of Engineering Cairo University

Protection Systems and Devices (Relays)

Prepared by Prof. Hany M. Amin Elghazaly

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

The Protective Relay

Basic Requirements of Protective Relaying

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Time-current characteristics of various families of overcurrent relays

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Common Relay Terms

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 2 Types of Relays According to Theory of Operation 1. Attraction Type Relays

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

3- Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay

Plug Setting and Time Setting of Relays

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

I.D.M.T.L. relay characteristic

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 3 Types of Relays according to their function

Fig. 1: Illustration of an application of directional protection equipment.

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 4 Protection of Power System Elements

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 5 Generator Protection

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

b. Inter turn fault:

Figure (3) Connection for a delta generator

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 6 Busbar Protection

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

4. Frame leakage Earth Fault

One of the famous connections for busbars: 2 out of 3

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

CHAPTER 7 Transformer Protection

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

3. Restricted earth fault protection ( differential protection )

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year

Protection Systems & Devices (Relays) 3rd Year